Ubc - 1967 - A8 Y3

A SYNCHRONIC ANALYSIS OF TAGALOG PHONEMES
by
FE ALDAVE YAP
B.S.E., U n i v e r s i t y
of Santo Tomas, 1956
A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF

THE
REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF

MASTER OF ARTS
i n the Department of C l a s s i c s
D i v i s i o n of L i n g u i s t i c s
We accept t h i s t h e s i s as conforming
t o the
r e q u i r e d standard
THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA

A p r i l , 1967
In presenting
t h i s thesis i n p a r t i a l f u l f i l m e n t of the requirements
for an advanced degree at the U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia, I agree

that die L i b r a r y s h a l l make i t f r e e l y available f o r reference and
study-
I further agree that permission f o r extensive copying of t h i s
thesis f o r s c h o l a r l y purposes may be granted by the Head of my

Department or by h i s representatives.
I t i s understood that copying
or p u b l i c a t i o n of" t h i s thesis f o r f i n a n c i a l gain s h a l l not be allowed

without my written permission.
Department of C l a s s i c s . D i v i s i o n
The U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia
Vancouver 8 , Canada
Date
April.
196?
of L i n g u i s t i c s
ABSTRACT
The
title
"A Synchronic
A n a l y s i s of Tagalog Phonemes" as
d e f i n e d i n t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n , i s the o b j e c t of t h i s study.* I t
attempts t o g i v e a p u r e l y s y n c h r o n i c
d e s c r i p t i o n o f the phonemic
system o f the Tagalog language as spoken by the present

gator who has made h e r s e l f t h e informant
investi-
f o r this investigation.
The purpose i s t o shape t h i s m a t e r i a l i n t o the form o f a u s e f u l

i n t r o d u c t i o n and a sound o r i e n t a t i o n f o r students
of g e n e r a l
l i n g u i s t i c s , o r l i n g u i s t s i n t e r e s t e d i n the P h i l i p p i n e n a t i o n a l
language
The phonemes o f Tagalog a r e analyzed
i n terms o f the
formula:*
C
U = V
D
U n i t r e f e r s t o the phoneme.
Tagalog.1
There a r e 21 segmental phonemes i n
They a r e c l a s s i f i e d and t h e i r p a t t e r n s a r e e s t a b l i s h e d
on the b a s i s o f t h e d i s t i n c t i v e f e a t u r e s by which they stand i n

c o n t r a s t w i t h each other.
Among consonants there a r e two main
dimensions of phonemic c o n t r a s t : p o i n t o f a r t i c u l a t i o n and manner

of a r t i c u l a t i o n . ^
A f u r t h e r c o n t r a s t of v o i c e versus
e x i s t s i n t h e stop phonemes only;*
breath
The main d i s t i n c t i v e
features
of Tagalog vowels i n v o l v e two-dimensional c o n t r a s t s i n h e i g h t

and
advancement o f the tongue.1
There a r e other,
subsidiary,
f e a t u r e s l i k e l i p - r o u n d i n g , tenseness and laxness
o f the tongue,
l e n g t h , etc.'
by schematic
Such c o n t r a s t s a r e here represented
diagrams:
* P i k e , U n i t (U) = C o n t r a s t (C), V a r i a t i o n (V) and D i s t r i b u t i o n (D). T h i s i n f o r m a t i o n i n capsule was e x p l a i n e d by

Prof.' R.> Roe o f t h e S I L i n a seminar a t the U n i v e r s i t y o f the
P h i l i p p i n e s i n 196k.'
iii
(i)
(ii)
Tagalog Consonant P a t t e r n
Tagalog Vowel P a t t e r n
These phonemes have allophones which are e i t h e r i n complementary
d i s t r i b u t i o n or i n f r e e v a r i a t i o n . '
of phonemes w i t h i n
The
variations
g i v e n morphemes a r e here c o n s i d e r e d t o be
morphophonemic a l t e r n a t i o n s . '
The b a s i c s y l l a b l e s t r u c t u r e s
e.%;?, t u b i g /tutolg/ 'water'v
of Tagalog are CV and
Tagalog words r e p r e s e n t e d o r t h o -
g r a p h i c a l l y w i t h a f i n a l vowel may
end w i t h e i t h e r / ? / or /h/
which i s not r e f l e c t e d i n the w r i t i n g system.*'

contrastive
/h&tah/
distribution?
CVC,
The two are i n
Thus, b a t a /bta?/ ' c h i l d * ' vs.; b a t a
'bathrobe').N
Consonant c l u s t e r s occur I n a l l p o s i t i o n s .
Initial
clusters
iv
may be summarized
i n the f o l l o w i n g formula:
C
=
C]_C =
C =
2
Ci =
Ci =
C x =
C^ =
Consonant
the f i r s t and second C
s 1 r w y
t
i fC = s
p b k g
i f C = 1
p b t d k g
i f C 2 = r
any C except w y i f C
2
= w or y
These c l u s t e r s may be i l l u s t r a t e d i n the f o l l o w i n g
examples:
t s a / t s a h / 'tea' , k l a s e / k l a s e h / ' c l a s s , d i y a n /dyan/

1
kwento /kwentoh/
'there',
'story' , etc.*'.
1
Suprasegmentally, Tagalog has t h r e e kinds of s t r e s s :

primary /*'/. secondary / V
of p i t c h : / l / ,
and weak (unmarked); t h r e e l e v e l s
/2/ and /3/ r e a d i n g from low t o h i g h ; and two
t e r m i n a l j u n c t u r e s : " s i n g l e bar" /|/ and " r i s i n g
- 1
j u n c t u r e /J7i
f!
S t r e s s p l a y s an important r o l e i n Tagalog and i t i s a

d i s t i n c t i v e phenomenon which conveys meaning.'
l a t e d w i t h length.)
Stress i s corre-
The f o l l o w i n g p a i r s of words a r e d i s t i n -
guished only by s t r e s s or l e n g t h : baga /b:ga?/ 'lungs* and

baga /ba^gah/
/baga^h/
"ember' vs.' baga /bagS':?/ 'abscess' and baga
' i n t e r r o g a t i v e marker' .*
1
The scope o f t h i s study does not i n c l u d e a d e t a i l e d p r e s e n t a t i o n and a n a l y s i s of Tagalog suprasegmental features.'
Many
i n t e r e s t i n g problems concerning the suprasegmental phenomena

remain unsolved.^ The s o l u t i o n t o these problems i s l e f t f o r
l a t e r study;i
TABLE. OF CONTENTS
Page
L i s t o f F i g u r e s o r I l l u s t r a t i o n s .i.y.uV;y.W.i.V^.V.Uy.i.y
viii
L i s t o f Symbols and Abbreviations.^.i.';U^. ^.u i w:. .^. .i.i.^^.1J

1
l <
ix
The Tagalog I ^ g u a g e . ^ i . ^ . U U . ^
xiii
Acknowledgments ;1;y.W.V.VuWV^^
xix
Dedioatlon.'i^.^&Vi^Vito^
xxi ,
l.i
INTRODUCTION^.^.^
l;tl
Statement o f the Problem. ;t^.Î.^'^.i.';i.^y.^;u'i;^.^l.'.^
1^2
Scope and O r g a n i z a t i o n o f the
1^3
P r e v i o u s S t u d i e s Made on the S u b j e c t . ^ . ^ ^ V ^ . ^ . ^
l A
Sources o f Data and Methods of A p p r o a c h ^ . y . ^ ^ v ' ^ i U
l.<5
D e f i n i t i o n of Terms Used;t.U^^.^.Uu^ .U^;!.ul.î1.i. ^; ^^
Z.i
The Sounds of Speech s
33
Contoids aid VocoldiS^^^jJ^.^^^.^:^^J.^^^^^$^^^
ty;
R e l a t i o n s Between Phonetics and Phonemics.^.uWiuu!
5.1
The Concept o f Phoneme;1;<&H.^;U^.-^
6^
Inventory o f Tagalog Phonemes;.ii!.^.i.'.U .i.i^.l.^^^.<. i.v^
1^
7.-
Segmental Phonemes.'.N;y;'';^;>^. ^.^
15
7.1
Cons onant s J .< j J-JU3
7 JlitL
Stops^.1îy.'.y.^y.V^;W;^
15
7.U.-2
Nasals^.U.Û.y^.^J.U;^^
17
7;'1^3
Fricatives ; u $ ; U ^ ^ , V ^ ; ^ ^
18
7.1^
Laterali;yv.^;U^.i^
18
7;i^5
Flap^&i&i&W^
18
Phonetics.i^.î.î.îj.'ii'.^-.^.i^.i
10
l
J ; y .'I, .1 . y ,-f .i ; i ;t.l.i;< ^ ;>'. i;i.; ;i.1, f

;f
15
vi
7$1*$6 Send vowels ; i ; U . i W 3 3 i U V ^
19
7^2
VOTels.H.U^.^^^
21
7;i3
I n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f Semivowels^^sy.^JU^^^îU^;^?^.^
22
7'-^
DiphthongsîU'^.Î.^.V^
23
8.4
Distinctive
8.0.
Consonant P a t t e n i s ^ . ^ ; * ^
25
8iim
V o i c e versus V o l c e l e s s n e s s ' ; ^ . ^ ^
26
8iai'2
P o i n t versus Manner o f A r t i c u l a t i o n ^ . . * . ^ . ^ ^ ^ . ^ ^ ; ^
28
8*2
T a g a l o g Vowel
Patterns^.%^^.^^^;i.^^. i.i.?.i.^y i.3 f;^5.i^
30
9.
Contrast,
V a r i a t i o n and DistributionSiîi^^^.'i'.îî.i
31
9^1
Contrast
9J2
Variation
9. '2.1
A l l o p h o n i c A l t e r n a t i o n o f Consonants .U;<;i;?.UUîi; .
9^2.12
A l l p h o n i c A l t e r n a t i o n o f Vcmels^^.^^;^.wMî^^
9^22*3
A l t e r n a t i o n o f Diphthongsîi.^J;^'^.^.';)^.!.'.';^.^^^^^
101
F o r e i g n Sounds
102
10 ii
PhonotactiGs;^^.y?i.i.U*^
107
10.1
Syllable StructureSîW.^.^
107
10^2
Consonant C l u s t e r s
31
and D i s t r i b u t i o n i l . < J i ! ^ . ^ . ^ . i . ^ i 1 i l . i . ! . ! J . ^ . i ^ . y
l
91
94
ij
97
(CC) .". U^.J.U^^.U^. ^^.' ;'i!iUl.i^.^.i;i

!
10.12ill P r e v o c a l i c Consonant C l u s t e r s
109
(CC-) ^..f.li wi. iîii'i. .u

i
110
10. :2i!2 I n t e r v o c a l i c Consonant C l u s t e r s
(-CC-)iuVuV.-.'.ViU
124
10.'2.3 P r e j u n c t u r a l Consonant C l u s t e r s
(-CC) i'V.V.iii.^.iiVii
125
10^3
Vowel
11;'
Morphophonemic Mternationsi ;!.U .'U .'.i. 'iîi .^ . i?.;; .U î

!
e
l
y
i
1
;i
i!
2
l
7
128
vii
12.'
Suprasegmental Features;W5^;V.y^; ;U.>; ^.
13*
A l t e r n a t i v e Formlations;^y;U^;.-V ;y.*J.y.^. .*.y.'. . ;
142
14.1
SUMMARY CONCLUSIONS . * ; W ^ J ^ J i ^
1^9
134
BIBLIOGRAPHY;!.'!..;'..^'.'..^;'. ^.i.i;i. .:.i.y. . .';U .';i. . . ;';y.<
151
IITOEX^v.y;y.uuy;^v.y^
155
1 1
List
of Figures
or I l l u s t r a t i o n s
Fig.
1:
Map
Fig.
2:
Philippine
Fig.
3:
C r o s s S e c t i o n of Head, Showing P r i n c i p a l Speech
Fig.
4:
A Chart of Tagalog Contoids
Fig.
5:
A Chart of Vocoids
Fig.
6:
A Chart of
Fig.
7:
A T a b l e o f Phonemic
Fig.
8:
C o n s o n a n t Phonemes ( w i t h
Fig.
9:
V o w e l Phonemes a n d D i p h t h o n g s
Fig.
10:
Voiced-Voiceless
Fig.
11:
Tagalog Consonant
Pattern
Fig.
12:
The T a g a l o g V o w e l
Triangle
Fig.
13:
The V o w e l T r i a n g l e
of the P h i l i p p i n e s ,
Showing Tagalog-Speaking
Cultural-Linguistic
Groups
(HRA
Files)
Diphthongs
Symbols
Stop
Examples)
Pattern
(Expanded)
(with
Areas
Examples)
Organs
List
[
of Symbols and A b b r e v i a t i o n s
B r a c k e t s ; enclose p h o n e t i c t r a n s c r i p t i o n ( [ p ] )
Slant
l i n e s or.bars; enclose phonemic t r a n s c r i p t i o n
(/V)
// // Double s l a n t l i n e s ; e n c l o s e morphophonemic
cription
**
trans-
{// e - 1 //)
S q u i g g l e ; means " a l t e r n a t e s
( v a r i e s ) w i t h " or " i n
a l t e r n a t i o n w i t h " ( [ X ] L~l])
**
T i l or t i l d e ;
over a vowel, i n d i c a t e s
nasalization
of the vowel ( [ o ] )
^
I n p h o n e t i c t r a n s c r i p t i o n , used under i , and u t o

i n d i c a t e g l i d e v a l u e s (ai^ = /ay/)
>
Raised c a r e t ;
indicates
articulation
([o*])
Cedilla; indicates
Hyphen; i n d i c a t e s
a sound w i t h s l i g h t l y h i g h e r
p a l a t a l i z e d sound
([ts])
the p o s i t i o n of a phoneme or
a f f i x i n a word ( r - f o r i n i t i a l r ; - r - f o r i n t e r v o c a l i c r j - r f o r f i n a l r , or - i n f o r s u f f i x i n ;
-in- for i n f i x in)
*<
Acute accent; i n phonemic t r a n s c r i p t i o n , over a vowel

of a word i n d i c a t e s
*>
(/mahaiL/ 'dear')
Grave accent; i n phonemic t r a n s c r i p t i o n , over a vowel

of a word i n d i c a t e s
'
primary s t r e s s
secondary
stress
Superior v e r t i c a l t i c k ; i n phonetic
b e f o r e the s t r e s s e d
stress
(/lalakad/ ' w i l l walk )

1
transcription,
s y l l a b l e , indicates
(/sa:mah/ 'to go')
primary
I n f e r i o r v e r t i c a l t i c k ; b e f o r e the s t r e s s e d
indicates
secondary s t r e s s
([isa:'sa:mah] ' w i l l go'
Colon: i n d i c a t e s vowel l e n g t h
(['ba:ta?J
S i n g l e bar; i n d i c a t e s t e r m i n a l
R i s i n g juncture;
means "becomes
indicates
syllabi
'child')
juncture.
terminal
juncture.
means "comes from"

for
consonant
f o r consonant
for i n i t i a l
for final
clusters
clusters
clusters
f o r medial c l u s t e r s
f o r vowel
for
semivowel
Indicates
a s y l l a b i c structure
consonant-vowel-
consonant
I n s t i t u t e of N a t i o n a l
Language
Summer I n s t i t u t e of L i n g u i s t i c s
P h i l i p p i n e Center f o r Language Study
nvfrrmirc'
W A J O R
LUZON
.1
CULTURAL-LINGUISTIC
E Z 3
5^53 A P A Y A O
,
GROUPS
0.
T I H O O I A H
L3sl K A L I N O *
^__J
1 U A N A C
PHILIPPINE
B O N T O X
UTTTTi " *
u
KANKANAI
..
VZZZ]
r~i
[
ISLANDS^
CULTURAL - LINGUISTIC GROUPS
o,
I L O N O O T
Location Based On The Criterion Of Dominant

Language As Recorded In The Philippine Census: 193$
Tho Eight Major Chris/ion Groups Art Shown
In Darker Patterns;
Pagan And Uoro Groups In
Lighter' Patterns.
- Uof,
1953
P A N G A S I N A H
p:::^
3 " " <

P A
P A N O A N
' i
' '
iij T A O A LOO
E2 "<
D
ii
0,
t.'.inooRO
TAOA
'
LOO
cm '"**
y
SCALE
A A AM
\':':'r.'\.\
1[ | j R A T A N O A H ,
L
NO
N A U H A N
T A C A V O A M
212
1 ".-l
I 1 A N G O N
ly
P U L A
;>i
B U H I O
| J
[]T[Tl]
J A M A R
E S 3
5 U C B U H A N O H
îÂNItAl^/J&jji
L t K T I
( C I B U A K O )
H I L I O A T N O N
A K L A M
PALAWAN
j _
Y N O N
ISLANDS
j i i i ^
CZ3
(CUYO
B CAGAYANCILLO
IS.)
K U Y O N O N
_ j
|;;.;; |
S I L A N G A N C K - T A O B A N V W A
t;V/N:'j
T A N O D U L A N C N - T A O I A N V W A '
I'iY'.'l
B A T A K
T A O B A N U W A
|H
P A L A W A N
d j ]
L t C A
BIS AY A/I
t///j
IV
OO
A A T A G N O N
Hl
ill
H U N
HA
K E - N E Y
|
M O B O
[ T A W
MINDANAO
|
~~[
M O H O
jVy
:
9 A M A L ,
BAJ
u]
[ T A W
S U O .
ItMAt,
B A J A U J
i S1L
1 U O B U K A N O N
I U B A N U N
|v: : : }
;
U C ,
Q SOLI/
M A A A N A O ( M O A O I
[VTj
fT^ T I A U A A Y
M A O I N O A N A O
1 M 0 O I
!-- 1 D U L A N O A N ( C O T O B A T O MAftOBO)
Mlii T A O A . I t l
r--i I L A A N
t,,, j
K U L
M A
( M A N O B O
A A A N O A N I )
T A G A K A O L O
BAOOAO
t-' .'l
Killilll * T A
liy*^\ftp*ftutt|
"
.
.
. ' .'
MANdOVANOAN
f
j M A N O O O [AOUJAN O I O A B A O N
If-H^H B U K I D N O N
llllil M A N O A Y A
DR
( I J
CULTURAL?LINGUISTIC
I V A T A H
H I T O
fiS w e e
GROUPS
, *
A J S O U M A O A T
ff\ S A
(S)
I S 1 M A
0 ft A
(
^
y
O O A H O
If
"'.
f
K T O H
H A K 7 1 I C
ACUTAYNON
Clj
f . l . K I I U C
N O N
l(
(MOftOi
|L AN O R
V A K A N
| M O A O |
J A M A M AP U N ( M O N O )
':-.) lAhOIL ( MORO)
II A MA L
M A M A K U A
L,J!-"
-o
/ '
"
'
* ^'
S
' -
"
The T a g a l o g L a n g u a g e
How
many F i l i p i n o s
speak T a g a l o g ?
The i 9 6 0 c e n s u s
t h a t t h e T a g a l o g l a n g u a g e i s s p o k e n by a b o u t hy/o
2 7 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0
shows
o f more t h a n
p o p u l a t i o n of the R e p u b l i c of the P h i l i p p i n e s ,
country w i t h a t o t a l l a n d a r e a of 1 1 5 , 0 0 0
p o s e d o f more t h a n 7 , 0 0 0
square m i l e s ,
com-
i s l a n d s o f f the coast of South East
A s i a I n the Western P a c i f i c .
I t i s the language of the people
f r o m t h e c e n t r a l p a r t o f L u z o n , t h e l a r g e s t and t h e most
l y populated i s l a n d i n the Archipelago.
thick-
This includes the
city
o f M a n i l a and p r o v i n c e s o f B a t a a n , B a t a n g a s , B u l a c a n , C a v i t e ,
L a g u n a , N u e v a E c i j a , M a r i n d u q u e , M i n d o r o and R i z a l .
In addition
t o T a g a l o g , o t h e r major languages a r e spoken, namely:
Cebuano,
I l o c a n o , H i l i g a y n o n , B i k o l , Pampango, Waray and P a n g a s i n a n , i n

a d d i t i o n t o some 80 t o 1 5 0
Although a l l
family,
m i n o r l a n g u a g e s and
dialects.
these languages belong t o the Malayo-Polynesian
they are not mutually i n t e l l i g i b l e .
T a g a l o g i s s p o k e n as a f i r s t
o r n a t i v e l a n g u a g e by 2 1 $
and
as a s e c o n d l a n g u a g e by 2 3 * 3 $ o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n f r o m o t h e r p a r t s
o f t h e P h i l i p p i n e I s l a n d s , who
language.
census.
million.
5 0 $
a l s o s p e a k t h e i r own
native
The p r e s e n t y e a r i s I 9 6 7 - - s e v e n y e a r s a f t e r t h e l a t e s t
The
t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n has i n c r e a s e d t o t h i r t y - t h r e e
By now,
one c o u l d o p t i m i s t i c a l l y g u e s s t h a t more t h a n
of the F i l i p i n o s
c a t i o n , the m o b i l i t y
can speak t h e l a n g u a g e .
The
s p r e a d o f edu-
o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n and t h e d e v e l o p m e n t
number o f mass m e d i a o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n
movies, l o c a l d a i l y newspapers,
radio,
of a
television,
c o m i c s , e t c . - - have a l l
contri-
b u t e d t o t h e e n r i c h m e n t and p r o p a g a t i o n o f t h e T a g a l o g language
xiv
all
over the country.

Tagalog was made the b a s i s of the n a t i o n a l language by a
c o n s t i t u t i o n a l mandate.
The C o n s t i t u t i o n of the Commonwealth
p r o v i d e d f o r the "adoption of a common n a t i o n a l language based

on one o f the e x i s t i n g n a t i v e languages."
The need f o r l i n -
g u i s t i c study t o determine the a p p r o p r i a t e b a s i s of a n a t i o n a l

language r e s u l t e d i n the c r e a t i o n of the I n s t i t u t e of N a t i o n a l
Language i n 1936
by Commonwealth A c t 184.'
Tagalog was o f f i c i a l -
ly
chosen by the I n s t i t u t e on November 9.
of
the same y e a r , P r e s i d e n t Manuel L. Quezon p r o c l a i m e d Tagalog
as the b a s i s of the n a t i o n a l language.
1937.
On December 3 0
The t e a c h i n g of the
language i n a l l p u b l i c and p r i v a t e s c h o o l s became mandatory.

On J u l y 4,
of
1946,
i t became one of the t h r e e o f f i c i a l
languages
the P h i l i p p i n e s , the o t h e r two b e i n g Spanish and E n g l i s h .

Modern Tagalog i n c l u d e s elements from other P h i l i p p i n e
languages and has adopted loanwords

and English.'
from Malay, Chinese, Spanish
L e x i c a l items from other P h i l i p p i n e languages
l i k e Ilokano saluyot
'a k i n d of v e g e t a b l e ' , pakbet
a k i n d of
v e g e t a b l e d i s h ' , manong ' a p p e l l a t i o n g i v e n t o o l d e r b r o t h e r ' ,

manang ' a p p e l l a t i o n g i v e n t o o l d e r s i s t e r ' , and V i s a y a n bana
'husband , k a l o 'hat, cap', Inday
1
' l i t t l e g i r l ' , dodong
boy , e t c , have become a p a r t of the Tagalog vocabulary.

1
'little
5
Tagalog words l i k e utang 'debt',. abo 'ashes', walo ' e i g h t ' , anay
' t e r m i t e ' , a n t i n g - a n t i n g 'talisman' e t c . , a r e i d e n t i c a l w i t h
'other P h i l i p p i n e languages i n form and meaning.
Malay words a r e cognate w i t h Tagalog.
More than
3,000
The f o l l o w i n g examples a r e
i d e n t i c a l i n the two languages i n form and meaning: mata 'eye',
XV
dulang 'low t a b l e ' , payong 'umbrella', t&mbang 'weight',

'goat', buaya ' c r o c o d i l e ' , l a n g i t
'sky'.
of Chinese o r i g i n l i k e t s a ' t e a ' , p a n s i t
Around 1,500
kambing
words are
'a k i n d of r i c e
noodle
cooked with shrimps, m e a t - b a l l s ' , e t c . , madyong 'mahjong', s u s i

'key', bakya 'wooden shoes', l o l o
list*
shows
5.000 words
'grandfather', e t c .
borrowed from Spanish, such as maestro
'teacher', p r e s i d e n t e ' p r e s i d e n t ' , s i l y a

barbekyu
'barbecue*,
' c h a i r ' , mesa ' t a b l e ' ,
g i t a r a ' g u i t a r ' , sumbrero 'hat', e t c .
E n g l i s h has c o n t r i b u t e d approximately 1,500

most common are i s k u l
'school', t i t s e r
i n g ' , b o k s i n g 'boxing', t e n i s
few Japanese words l i k e apa
g e i s h a 'Japanese
A word-
words.
Among the
'teacher', m i t i n g 'meet-
'tennis', i s p o r t
'sport , etc.
1
' t h i n wafer', kimono 'a k i n d of b l o u s e ' ,
dancing g i r l ' , dyudq 'judo', samuray
soya 'a k i n d of soy or bean', and s u k i y a k i
'a k i n d of
'samurai',
Japanese
d i s h ' , entered Tagalog d i r e c t l y .

A number of l e x i c a l items from d i f f e r e n t languages
Tagalog through Spanish and E n g l i s h
mon',
altar
entered
' a l t a r ' , sermon 'ser-
d a t a 'data', album 'album' from L a t i n ; diploma
'diploma',
h e l i k o p t e r ' h e l i c o p t e r ' telepono 'telephone' from Greek; amen

'amen', r a b i
' r a b b i ' , satanas
'satan', Sabado 'Saturday',
Hebrew; makaroni 'macaroni', i s p a g e t i
' s p a g h e t t i ' , opera
from
'opera',
piyano 'piano', g r o t o ' g r o t t o ' from I t a l i a n ; b o d a b i l ' v a u d e v i l l e ' ,

kabaret
'cabaret', t s a l e t
'chalet', p o l t r i
'poultry', prinsipe
' p r i n c e ' , p r i n s e s a ' p r i n c e s s ' from French; hamburger 'hamburger',

semester
'semester',
seminar
'seminar' from German; k u k i s ' c o o k i e s ' ,
Spanish Loan Words i n Tagalog.'

of N a t i o n a l Language, I960.'
P u b l i c a t i o n of the I n s t i t u t e
xvi
bos
' b o s s ' , y a t e ' y a c h t , komando 'commando', f r o m D u t c h ;
kabayo
'horse', p l s o
'peso' f r o m Mexican; mokasin
'wigwam , k a u k u s
1
' m o c c a s i n ' , wigwam
' c a u c u s ' f r o m some I n d i a n l a n g u a g e s ; d i y a s ' j a z z '
bandyo ' b a n j o ' f r o m some A f r i c a n l a n g u a g e s ; i s p u t n i k
'sputnik',
s o b y e t ' s o v i e t ' , kosmonot 'cosmonaut'. bodka 'vodka' f r o m R u s s i a .

Some o f t h e w o r d s f r o m o t h e r l a n g u a g e s t h a t e n t e r e d T a g a l o g
t h r o u g h Malay a r e b a t h a l a
'god', hukom ' j u d g e ' , tumbaga
f r o m S a n s k r i t ; padyama o r p i d y a m a
sari
' s a r i ' , guro
alkohol
sala
shajmou 'shampoo',
' t e a c h e r ' , b a n d a n a 'bandana' f r o m H i n d u s t a n i ;
'alcohol', algebra 'algebra', aprikot
'candy', magasin
salawal
'pyjamas',
'copper'
'magazine',
' a p r i c o t , kendi
1
sherbet 'sherbet' from Arabic;
' t r o u s e r s ' , kalabasa. 'squash', b a s a r 'bazaar' from P e r s i a ;

'error, s i n ' , saksi
'witness' from the Indonesian l a n -
guage.
Tagalog i s s t i l l
growing.
More a n d more new l e x i c a l
f r o m d i f f e r e n t l a n g u a g e s o f t h e w o r l d h a v e come i n t o
t h r o u g h t h e mass m e d i a .
Tagalog
They h a v e become a n a t u r a l i z e d p a r t o f
the Tagalog-based n a t i o n a l
language.
I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o note that t h i s Tagalog-based

l a n g u a g e was g i v e n s e v e r a l names.
I n 1940 i t was
In 1 9 5 5
a Department
national
officially
known a s t h e " N a t i o n a l L a n g u a g e " , t h e n i t was c h a n g e d

N a t i o n a l Language".
items
to "Filipino
of Education c i r c u l a r
was i s s u e d s t a t i n g t h a t t h e t e r m " F i l i p i n o L a n g u a g e " s h a l l be

used i n a l l
c o r r e s p o n d e n c e s , as w e l l as i n a l l
c i r c u l a r s , memo-
randums, b u l l e t i n s and f o r m s , t o r e f e r t o t h i s s u b j e c t i n t h e
curricula.
"Filipino".
L a t e r t h e w o r d l a n g u a g e was d r o p p e d a n d i t became
In 1 9 5 9 ,
t h e Department
of Education decided that the
xvii
n a t i o n a l language should be known o f f i c i a l l y as " P i l i p i n o " i n

the s c h o o l s .
Tagalog?
T h i s change a t t r a c t e d p u b l i c . a t t e n t i o n .
Why P i l i p i n o ?
goes the q u e s t i o n
T h i s has been a c o n t r o v e r s i a l issue.
National
the Visayan
Islands
the D i r e c t o r of the I n s t i t u t e of
Language, the D i r e c t o r of the Bureau of P u b l i c S c h o o l s ,
the S e c r e t a r y
and
i n the p o p u l a r press.'
A c e r t a i n congressman r e p r e s e n t i n g
f i l e d a case i n court a g a i n s t
Why
of E d u c a t i o n , the S e c r e t a r y
the P r e s i d e n t
of F o r e i g n
Affairs^
of the U n i v e r s i t y of the P h i l i p p i n e s , f o r
u n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l a c t s ; s p e c i f i c a l l y , the charge was t h a t the

respondents have been t e a c h i n g
and p r o p a g a t i n g Tagalog as the
n a t i o n a l language when i t i s only the b a s i s of the n a t i o n a l

languages
The t r i a l court decided the case i n f a v o r of the
respondents.'
The complainant appealed t o the Supreme Court where
the case i s now pending f i n a l decision.'

P i l i p i n o i s the term more used i n P h i l i p p i n e schools
n a t i o n a l language.'
Tagalog i s s t i l l used i n the United
as the
States,
r e f e r r i n g t o the P h i l i p p i n e n a t i o n a l language, e s p e c i a l l y i n the

schools
t h a t o f f e r i t as a r e g u l a r course:
U n i v e r s i t y of
C a l i f o r n i a , Los Angeles, C o r n e l l U n i v e r s i t y , U n i v e r s i t y o f Hawaii,

U n i v e r s i t y of Michigan and Y a l e U n i v e r s i t y .
Filipino
students
of l i n g u i s t i c s p r e f e r Tagalog t o Tagalog-based P i l i p i n o .
Is
there r e a l l y a d i f f e r e n c e ?
1
B e g i n n i n g Tagalog:
A Course f o r Speakers of E n g l i s h *
gives
.*J.; Donald Bowen (ed.), B e g i n n i n g Tagalog: A Course f o r

Speakers of E n g l i s h (Los Angeles: U n i v e r s i t y of C a l i f o r n i a P r e s s ,
1 9 6 5 ) p;' v.
xviii
the f o l l o w i n g d i s t i n c t i o n :
For student purposes, the d i f f e r e n c e
between P i l i p i n o and Tagalog might best
be d e s c r i b e d i n terms of s t y l e and f o r m a l i t y , i n somewhat the way we can d i s t i n g u i s h
between the "For whom i s t h i s ? " type of
E n g l i s h and the "Who
i s t h i s f o r ? " type.
Tagalog, the P h i l i p p i n e "Who
i s this for?"
type, has been p u r p o s e l y chosen r a t h e r than
P i l i p i n o , s i n c e i t i s the purpose of t h i s
t e x t to prepare the student f o r an i n f o r m a l ,
i n c o n s p i c u o u s , and n a t i v e - l i k e , r a t h e r than
f o r a f o r m a l , n o t i c e a b l e , and s c h o o l - l i k e ,
c o n t r o l of the language.'
Acknowledgments
This i n v e s t i g a t o r
i s greatly
i n d e b t e d t o Dr.' Robert J . Gregg
of the D i v i s i o n of L i n g u i s t i c s i n the Department of C l a s s i c s ,

University
of B r i t i s h Columbia, f o r guidance and h e l p f u l
suggest-
i o n s and t o P r o f e s s o r Ruth McCohnell, h e r E n g l i s h p r o f e s s o r , f o r

she
had the b e n e f i t
o f c o n v e r s a t i o n w i t h h e r on matters
pertinent
to the study, and o f f e r e d h e r the c o l l e c t i o n of l i n g u i s t i c s books

available i n her office.'
She
expresses h e r a p p r e c i a t i o n
and thanks t o P r o f e s s o r Roe
of the Summer I n s t i t u t e o f L i n g u i s t i c s , Dr.' E r n e s t o Constantino

of the Department o f L i n g u i s t i c s and O r i e n t a l Languages of the
University
o f the P h i l i p p i n e s , and Dr. C e c i l i o Lopez, U.P. Pro-
f e s s o r Emeritus of L i n g u i s t i c s , f o r t h e i r modern views on l a n guage a n a l y s i s
presented i n a s e r i e s of seminars of the UP L i n -
guistic Circle.
Written or verbal
received
field
and
communication which t h i s i n v e s t i g a t o r has
from the f o l l o w i n g
persons d i s t i n g u i s h e d
i n t h e i r own
o f s p e c i a l i z a t i o n has spurred h e r on t o l i n g u i s t i c
research
studies
Dr.* Kenneth L. P i k e and Dr. R i c h a r d Pittman of
the Summer I n s t i t u t e of L i n g u i s t i c s ; Dr. J . Donald Bowen,

;
Dr.
all
C l i f f o r d P r a t o r , Dr.< Robert S t o c k w e l l and D r

of the U n i v e r s i t y
University,
Howard McKaughn of t h e Department of L i n g u i s t i c s of the
University
tute
Tommy R, Anders on,
of C a l i f o r n i a , Los Angeles; Dr; Robert Lado
of the Department of L i n g u i s t i c s of Georgetown

Dr.
of Hawaii, and Dr. Jose V i l l a Panganiban of the I n s t i -
of N a t i o n a l L a n g u a g e t o everyone of them, h e r g r a t e f u l
thanks.
XX
She wishes t o o f f e r h e r s i n c e r e thanks t o the Colombo P l a n

under the Canadian A i d S c h o l a r s h i p s and F e l l o w s h i p s and the
I n s t i t u t e of N a t i o n a l Language, f o r grants t o a c q u i r e some
breadth
of mind i n l i n g u i s t i c s ;
and t o the U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h
Columbia and the UBC I n t e r n a t i o n a l House which made themselves

a c o n g e n i a l home f o r t h i s f o r e i g n student from the P h i l i p p i n e s .
And l a s t but n o t l e a s t , t o h e r husband, E r n e s t o T. Yap, f o r
without h i s understanding
have been
completed.
and i n s p i r a t i o n , t h i s t h e s i s would not
Dedicated
to
THE INSTITUTE OP NATIONAL LANGUAGE
1
1;
INTRODUCTION.
Philippine linguistics.
T h e r e i s now a g r o w i n g i n t e r e s t i n
Tagalog, the basis
n a t i o n a l l a n g u a g e , d e s e r v e s some s e r i o u s
of the P h i l i p p i n e
study.
There i s a
c r y i n g need f o r l i n g u i s t i c a l l y - o r i e n t e d m a t e r i a l s
P h i l i p p i n e languages.
As t h e r e
on t h e
e x i s t s a t p r e s e n t no a d e q u a t e
d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e sound system o f T a g a l o g , i t i s u r g e n t
that
s o m e t h i n g be made a v a i l a b l e .
1.1
Statement of the Problem.
Synchronic Analysis
This
thesis entitled
o f T a g a l o g Phonemes" p r e s e n t s
to t r a d i t i o n a l problems i n Tagalog phonology.

s o l v e them by a p p l y i n g
linguistics.
This
"A
a new a p p r o a c h
I t attempts t o
t h e l a t e s t f i n d i n g s o f modern d e s c r i p t i v e
study represents
from the t r a d i t i o n a l phonological
a rather r a d i c a l departure
a n a l y s i s recommended by t h e
I n s t i t u t e o f N a t i o n a l Language and b e i n g
taught i n P h i l i p p i n e
schools.
1.2
the
Scope and O r g a n i z a t i o n
study l i m i t s
of the Materials.
t h e scope of t h e d i s c u s s i o n .
The n a t u r e o f
I t i s purely
d e s c r i p t i v e a n a l y s i s o f T a g a l o g p h o n e m e s s e g m e n t a l s and
segmentals.
The t e x t s t a r t s w i t h
t h e sounds o f speech:
a
supra-
phonetics,
g o e s on t o t h e s i g n i f i c a n t s o u n d s o f s p e e c h : p h o n e m i c s , a n d t h e n
t h e r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e t w o i s shown.
analyzed
Each s i g n i f i c a n t u n i t i s
i n terms o f c o n t r a s t , v a r i a t i o n and d i s t r i b u t i o n .
t a c t i c s , morphophonemics and a l t e r n a t i v e f o r m u l a t i o n s
as
separate topics.
segmental f e a t u r e s :
Phono-
are presented
The l a s t p a r t i s a d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e s u p r a stress, length,
juncture
Terms u s e d i n t h e s t u d y a r e d e f i n e d
A t a b l e o f symbols and a b b r e v i a t i o n s ,
and p i t c h .
i n the introductory
a list
of figures or
pages.
2
i l l u s t r a t i o n s , and a d i s c u s s i o n of the Tagalog
g i v e n i n the p r e l i m i n a r y pages.
also included.
Numerous cross r e f e r e n c e s are
The c o n c l u d i n g chapter g i v e s a summary of the
i n v e s t i g a t o r ' s f i n d i n g s and c o n c l u s i o n s .
the index f o l l o w
1*3
language a r e
The b i b l i o g r a p h y and
the body of the t e x t .
Previous
S t u d i e s Made on the Subject.'
been w r i t t e n on Tagalog
phonology.
Not much has
There e x i s t p a r t i a l
analyses
i n s c h o o l textbooks o f the sound system of the language, but

these l a c k s y s t e m a t i c l i n g u i s t i c o r i e n t a t i o n .
are only fragmentary analyses
from informants
there
phonology e x t r a c t e d
i n the " c l a s s i c " f a s h i o n of d e s c r i p t i v e l i n -
g u i s t i c s , such as those
Hemphill.
of Tagalog
At present
of B l o o m f i e l d , S t o c k w e l l , Pittman and
A r t i c l e s on Tagalog
phonemes w r i t t e n by C a y a r i and
Paterno, both P h i l i p p i n e s c h o l a r s , have been sources
of inform-
a t i o n of l a t e r works.
For the purpose of t h i s study,
s u l t e d the p u b l i s h e d and unpublished
t h i s i n v e s t i g a t o r has conresearches
on Tagalog
taken by the team of w r i t e r s of the U C L A - P h i l i p p i n e
under-
project,
who xtfith G a l i l e o , f e e l t h a t i f they have seen f u r t h e r than o t h e r s ,

it
i s because they have stood on the shoulders
of g i a n t s .
The
i n d i v i d u a l phonemic a n a l y s i s on P h i l i p p i n e minor languages and

d i a l e c t s undertaken by the members of the Summer I n s t i t u t e of
L i n g u i s t i c s and the p u b l i c a t i o n s of the I n s t i t u t e of N a t i o n a l
Language have been v a l u a b l e sources
of i d e a s and i n f o r m a t i o n .
Speech g i v e n on Dec.' 2 , 1 9 6 2 a t the N a t i o n a l Teachers

C o l l e g e t o the Kapisanan ng mga Propesor s a P i l i p i n o s a Dalubhasaan a t Pamantasan ( A s s o c i a t i o n of P r o f e s s o r s i n P i l i p i n o i n
C o l l e g e s and U n i v e r s i t i e s ) by Donald Bowen, C o - D i r e c t o r of the
P h i l i p p i n e Center f o r Language Study.'
3
A l l the e a r l i e r works mentioned above a r e not exhaustive but
helpful.
T h i s t h e s i s i s modestly comprehensive.
Such study i s
i n d i s p e n s a b l e as a b a s i s f o r f u r t h e r a n a l y s i s of the h i g h e r
levels
(morphology
1.4
and s y n t a x ) .
Sources of Data and Methods of Approach.
In this
study the Tagalog which i s a n a l y z e d i s the p e r s o n a l d i a l e c t of

a s i n g l e i n d i v i d u a l , speaking i n a s i n g l e s t y l e , and a t a s i n g l e
time
the i d i o l e c t
of the i n v e s t i g a t o r .
She has used h e r s e l f
as the Informant as I s the u s u a l p r a c t i c e of l i n g u i s t s
describing
t h e i r own n a t i v e speech f o r the b e n e f i t of other n a t i v e speakers

of the same language.
What i s p r e s e n t e d , then, i s a specimen of
the speech of a n a t i v e speaker from a Tagalog-speaking a r e a . ^

There i s no s p e c i f i c corpus i n t h i s study.
c i a t i o n she has taken h e r own speech.
F o r pronun-
S i n c e the o b s e r v a t i o n s on
Tagalog phonology made by s c h o l a r s a r e a l l f a m i l i a r t o t h i s

i n v e s t i g a t o r , h e r speech has been m o d i f i e d as a b a s i s f o r t r a n s c r i p t i o n i n p a r t i c u l a r s t h a t she knows t o be r e g i o n a l or a t y p i c a l ,
The method of a n a l y s i s employed
here i s s y n c h r o n i c i n
p r i n c i p l e and a p p r o p r i a t e t o the s t r u c t u r e of the sounds

language under i n v e s t i g a t i o n . '
Approaches
of the
The approach i s r e s o l u t e l y
eclectic.
and techniques o f l i n g u i s t s on both s i d e s of the
A t l a n t i c are incorporated.
Although there i s no e x c l u s i v e
adherence t o any one " s c h o o l " of l i n g u i s t i c s , the i n f l u e n c e of

American l i n g u i s t s such as B l o o m f i e l d , H a l l , H i l l , Hockett,
^This i n v e s t i g a t o r - i n f o r m a n t was born and r e a r e d i n Lubang

I s l a n d i n the p r o v i n c e of Mindoro.
She has been r e s i d i n g i n
Manila s i n c e 1952 and working as a n a t i o n a l language r e s e a r c h e r
a t the I n s t i t u t e of N a t i o n a l Language, Department of E d u c a t i o n ,
Philippines.
4
Gleason,
P i k e e t c . , i s apparent
on e v e r y page.!
This study r e v o l v e s around t h e n u c l e a r
formula:
C
U = V
D
A c c o r d i n g t o P i k e , a n y t h i n g i n t h i s w o r l d c a n "be a n a l y z e d i n
terms o f t h e above f o r m u l a .
it
contrasts with a chair;
The t a b l e , f o r i n s t a n c e , i s a u n i t ;
i t v a r i e s . w i t h other tables i n s i z e ,
shape o r c o l o r ; i t s d i s t r i b u t i o n i s t h e purpose f o r which t h e

t a b l e i s made.
I n t h e world of language,
of l i n g u i s t i c a n a l y s i s , t h e meaningful
phoneme.
i n the lower
level
u n i t o f sound i s t h e
Phonemes h a v e c o n t r a s t , v a r i a t i o n a n d d i s t r i b u t i o n a s
described i n this
study.
^ P i k e , U n i t (U) e q u a l s C o n t r a s t ( C ) , V a r i a t i o n (V) a n d
D i s t r i b u t i o n ( D ) . T h i s i n f o r m a t i o n i n c a p s u l e was e x p l a i n e d
by P r o f . R i c h a r d Roe o f t h e Summer I n s t i t u t e o f L i n g u i s t i c s i n
a seminar a t the U n i v e r s i t y of the P h i l i p p i n e s i n 1 9 6 4 . '
1
D e f i n i t i o n of Terms Used:.
Synchronic here r e f e r s to the d e s c r i p t i o n
of the phonemes
and
allophones of a g i v e n language (Tagalog) as they occur at
one
point
of time or stage of l i n g u i s t i c development, without
r e f e r e n c e to h i s t o r i c a l
Analysis
changes.
r e f e r s to the
been gathered and
study of words and
forms which have
c o l l a t e d , f o r the purpose of i s o l a t i n g and
l i s t i n g the v a r i o u s phonemes w i t h a l l t h e i r a l l o p h o n e s .
Unit;
T h i s i s a s l i c e of sound which to the
e v e r y t h i n g t h a t precedes and
the
follows
exclusion
of
i t i n the
spoken c h a i n i s
s i g n i f i e r of a c e r t a i n concept (Saussure).
In t h i s study,
u n i t r e f e r s t o the phoneme.
C o n t r a s t i s a d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n between two
which when s u b s t i t u t e d
function
f o r each other may
or meaning, i n the way
g u i s h kulay ' c o l o r
Variation,
and
gulay
produce a change i n
that Tagalog /k/
and
/g/
distin-
'vegetable'..'
d e f i n i t e sounds or groups of sounds,
s h i f t i n g r e g u l a r l y between two
does not
elements
a l s o c a l l e d a l t e r n a t i o n i s a correspondence
e x i s t i n g between two
(Saussure).
linguistic
series
of c o e x i s t i n g
Free v a r i a t i o n i s v a r i a t i o n
distinguish
Distribution:
and
forms
(alternation)
which
forms.
d e s c r i p t i v e l y , t h i s means the
occurrence of
phonemes or allophones i n terms of environment or p o s i t i o n i n

an
utterance.
6
2.
The Sounds of Speech:
Phonetics
A l l l i n g u i s t s emphasize the f a c t t h a t speech i s the primaryform of language and u n d e r l i e s a l l w r i t i n g s
The s c i e n c e of l i n -
g u i s t i c s t h a t d e a l s w i t h the m a t e r i a l s of speech i t s e l f i s known

as phonetics;i
Speech can be s t u d i e d i n p h o n e t i c s from t h r e e
p o i n t s of view.*
An a n a l y s t can study the p r o d u c t i o n of speech
sounds by the v a r i o u s organs of the v o c a l tract.*
Or he
can
d e s c r i b e the p e r c e p t i o n of sound waves by the h e a r e r ' s ears.
F i n a l l y he can study the sound waves generated by speaking and

t h e i r t r a n s m i s s i o n through the a i r . '
These are r e f e r r e d t o as
a r t i o u l a t o r y , a u d i t o r y and a c o u s t i c p h o n e t i c s , r e s p e c t i v e l y .
The p r e s e n t study i s concerned only with a r t i o u l a t o r y phone t i c s s i n c e i t d e s c r i b e s the p r i n c i p a l p a r t s of the body r e s p o n s i b l e f o r the p r o d u c t i o n and d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n of speech sounds
and the p r o c e s s e s involved;"
yi
Contoids and Vocoids
I n c l a s s i f y i n g the speech sounds of Tagalog, two main types

are t o be d i s t i n g u i s h e d :
I.
C o n t o i d . the type of sound which i n v o l v e s a
stop or a u d i b l e f r i c t i o n ^
complete
I n i t s a r t i c u l a t i o n the stream of
a i r i s o b s t r u c t e d a t one or more p o i n t s , e i t h e r by s t o p p i n g the

passage
of a i r completely f o r a f r a c t i o n of a second or by
f o r c i n g i t i n t o narrow channels p r o d u c i n g a u d i b l e f r i c t i o n s
2.i
V o c o i d . the type of sound which i n v o l v e s only resonance.
The speech organs are used t o form resonance chambers through
which the a i r c u r r e n t passes r e l a t i v e l y unimpeded and

p r o d u c i n g any a u d i b l e f r i c t i o n ;
without
There are i n t e r m e d i a r y stages between these two types of

sound.
or
Normally, the v o c o i d s serve as
s y l l a b i c nuclei;!
c e n t e r s of s y l l a b l e s
Sometimes they occur, not as s y l l a b l e -
c e n t e r s but adjacent t o other vocoids which have t h i s function;!

i n t h i s case, they are termed semivocoids.1
f u l l v o c o i d ( I . e i i , one>
A combination
of a
a c t i n g as a s y l l a b i c nucleus) p l u s a
semivocoid i s known as a
diphthongs
The s p e c i a l terms c o n t o i d and v o c o i d are newly-invented

words used by Pike** and Hockett^ f o r what are normally
"consonant
phonetics;-
called
sounds" and "vowel sounds," r e s p e c t i v e l y , i n g e n e r a l

These new
terms are used when r e f e r r i n g to sounds
on the s t r i c t l y p h o n e t i c l e v e l i n order t o keep

and "vowels"
f o r use e x c l u s i v e l y as phonemic terms w i t h r e f e r e n c e
to p a r t i c u l a r
languages.
Fig;' 4:
Labial
Stop
Nasal
"consonants"
A Chart of Tagalog
Dental
Alveolar
Velar
[ P
L't ]
Ck
[ d ]
[ e ]
[ m
Cn
Fricative
Contoids
Glottal
[ ?T,
[ 8 ]
[ h
Kenneth L;i P i k e , Phonemics: A Technique f o r Reducing

Languages To W r i t i n g (Ann Arbor: U n i v e r s i t y of Michigan P r e s s ,
1947J, PP.*; 21,

5
?8.i
Charles F.< Hockett, A Course i n Modern L i n g u i s t i c s

York: Macmillan Company, 1958), pp/"o*9, 77f
(New
Lateral
[ 1 ]
Flap
[ r
[ y
Semivowel
[ w ]
Fig'3 5'
A Chart of Tagalog Vooolds
Front
Unrounded
High
Mid
Center
Unrounded
Back
Rounded
[ i ]
[ u
CI
CU
[ e ]
Low
[ o ]
[ a 3
Fig.-i 6:
A Chart of Tagalog Diphthongs

Front
Center
Back
High
[ iw ]
[ uy
Mid
[ ey ]
[ oy
Low
[ ay ]
4.<
[ aw
R e l a t i o n s Between P h o n e t i c s and Phonemics
I n the e a r l y 1920's, l e a d i n g l i n g u i s t i c s c h o l a r s l i k e S a p i r ,
B l o o m f i e l d , Troubetzkoy, and others came t o r e a l i z e t h a t , i n the
phonology
of a language, i t i s important t o i d e n t i f y and
classi-
f y the f u n c t i o n a l u n i t s of sounds, phonemes. and t h e i r r e l a t i o n

t o one another;'
T h i s approach r e c o g n i z e s the v a l u e of p h o n e t i c s
as a technique f o r a n a l y z i n g the raw m a t e r i a l of
speech-sounds?
But, because the t o t a l number of p o s s i b l e speech-sounds
i n any
one language i s i n f i n i t e , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o I d e n t i f y the phonemes u t t e r e d by the speakers t o e s t a b l i s h meaningful c o n t r a s t s
9
w i t h i n t h e system I t s e l f
Thus, i n d e s c r i b i n g t h e p h o n o l o g i c a l aspects
o f language,
the l i n g u i s t i c a n a l y s t takes i n t o account the d i s t i n c t i o n

between the raw m a t e r i a l s o f speech and i t s o r g a n i z a t i o n i n t o
functional unitsJ
I n the study o f a r t i o u l a t o r y p h o n e t i c s , he
i s p r i m a r i l y concerned with the i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e s o - c a l l e d

"organs o f speech" which a r e used i n producing
t h e soundsi' He
d e s c r i b e s t h e a c t u a l speech-events i n terms o f t h e i r
lation;*
articu-
I n phonemics, h i s main task i s t o go beyond t h e l e v e l s
of raw m a t e r i a l s and t o i d e n t i f y the p o i n t s o f c o n t r a s t and the

r e l a t i o n s between them;i
I n t h e words of P i k e , "phonetics
ers t h e raw m a t e r i a l and phonemics cooks
gath-
The d e f i n i t i o n
i t . i " ^
of a phoneme as a f u n c t i o n a l u n i t o f speech-sounds emphasizes

the r e l a t i o n s between phonetics
and phonemics;
I n modem l i n g u i s t i c s * , d i s t i n c t i o n i s thus made between

the " e t i c " and "emic"? l e v e l s i n a n a l y z i n g the p h o n o l o g i c a l
structured
The s u f f i x e s - e t i c and -emic which a r e added t o
L a t i n r o o t phon- !sound , r e f e r t o n o n f u n c t i o n a l and f u n c t i o n a l

,
u n i t s , respectively.*
This p a i r o f formative
elements i s funda-
mental and w i d e l y used t o show the c o n t r a s t between p h o n e t i c

and phonemic l e v e l s of l i n g u i s t i c a n a l y s i s . '
Generally i n phonological t r a n s c r i p t i o n s , a phonetic
symbol i s i n d i c a t e d by square b r a c k e t s
symbol by s l a n t l i n e s /
[ ] , and a phonemic
/;' I n p h o n e t i c
t r a n s c r i p t i o n , analysts
P i k e , i2p;^ cJLfcii, p.' 57. - - ..

'Pike, Language i n R e l a t i o n t o a U n i f i e d Theory o f t h e
S t r u c t u r e o f Human Behavior ( C a l i f o r n i a : . Summer I n s t i t u t e o f
L i n g u i s t i c s , 1954-55^0), Chap;' 3, e t passim; '
1
10
use each symbol i n a one-to-one correspondence with a s p e c i f i c

speech-sound, i n a framework of reference of the possible
sounds that could be uttered by speakers.'
In phonemic tran-
s c r i p t i o n , on the other hand, they keep a one-to-one correspondence between the symbol and the phoneme, but i n the much more
r e s t r i c t e d framework of the maximal number of phonemes i n the
speech of one individual.'
Here only the r e l a t i v e l y small number
of functional units are represented.
For the purpose of accuracy i n phonological d e t a i l , phonol o g l s t s have developed systems of transcriptions:
narrow tran-
scriptions which indicate p r e c i s e l y every phonetic d e t a i l of

speech sounds, and broad transcriptions which make use of fewer
d i s t i n c t phonemic symbols.! A phonemically-based s p e l l i n g adapted to the p r a c t i c a l needs of a people or ethnic group i s c a l l e d
ethnophonemic t r a n s c r i p t i o n (Hall); !
1
5.
The Concept of Phoneme
Most l i n g u i s t s today base t h e i r phonological analyses and

derive t h e i r p r i n c i p l e s of phonology from the concept of the
phoneme.* The formative element -erne means 'functional unit'.!
5
A phoneme i s not i t s e l f a sound, but a unit which may include

one or more sounds.i
Linguists have proposed various d e f i n i t i o n s of a phoneme
depending upon the point of view taken;i
Some define a phoneme
Robert A.* H a l l J r . , Introductory L i n g u i s t i c s (New York:

Chilton Company, 1964), p.J 24.<
11
as a s i g n i f i c a n t
f e a t u r e o f sound, a r e c u r r e n t d i s t i n c t
or a p o i n t of c o n t r a s t .
unit,
Prom the p o i n t of view of p u r e l y phys-
i c a l phenomena, the s i n g l e event of speech i s a " r e a l i t y " and

it
i s never repeated the same twice i n s u c c e s s i o n s
The d i s -
c u s s i o n of the phoneme i s based on the assumption t h a t I t i s

p o s s i b l e t o d i v i d e any stream of speech I n t o d i s c r e t e segments
(phonemes).^
The segmentation o f a speech continuum i s an
" a b s t r a c t i o n " on the lower l e v e l of l i n g u i s t i c a n a l y s i s . '
12
Fig.
7:
A Table of Phonemic Symbols
Bilabial
. CONSONANTS
k
g
. . - .
m
Lateral. .
Glottal
Velar
t
d
P
b
Fricative
Dental
Alveolar
h . . :
- -
r
Semivowel
.. w
VOWELS
F r o n t .'
Unrounded
- -
y
Center
Unrounded
Back ;
"" "Rduncted -"
o
a
CROSS-SECTION OP THE HEAD SHOWING THE ORGANS MOST DIRECTLY

INVOLVED IN THE PRODUCTION OF SPEECH-SOUNDS.
t
Trachea
c
r '
14
6.
Inventory of Tagalog Phonemes
A l l standard d i a l e c t s
of Tagalog seem t o agree i n d i s t i n -
g u i s h i n g the same number of phonemes.*

phonemes are twos
segmental phonemes c o n s i s t i n g
consonants / p b t d k g ? m n n
/ w
The c l a s s e s of Tagalog
s h l r / ,
of f o u r t e e n
two semivowels
y /, and f i v e vowels / a e i o u /, and suprasegmental
f e a t u r e s of a c o n t r a s t i v e k i n d , c o n s i s t i n g
of t h r e e s t r e s s e s
/ *
3 / and two .junctures
~ /, t h r e e l e v e l s of p i t c h / 1
/ 11 /'
The i n v e n t o r y l i s t i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n the f o l l o w i n g t a b l e of
phonemic
symbols
( Fig 7 )v
Here the symbols are arranged i n
rows a c c o r d i n g t o the type or manner of a r t i c u l a t i o n and i n

columns a c c o r d i n g t o the a r t i c u l a t o r s and p o i n t or p o s i t i o n
articulation^
The a r t i c u l a t o r s are the d i f f e r e n t
of
movable
speech organs t h a t produce the v a r i o u s sounds by t h e i r motion

i n r e l a t i o n t o f i x e d p o i n t s of a r t i c u l a t i o n . !
articulators
The
principal
a r e the tongue. the lower l i p , the velum and the
s m a l l appendage
a t the end of the velum, c a l l e d the uvula.
The
main p o i n t s of a r t i c u l a t i o n are the upper l i p , the lower t e e t h

to some e x t e n t , the gum behind the upper t e e t h , c a l l e d the
alveolar
r l d g e ^ and the velum.<
The a r t i c u l a t o r s , a t c e r t a i n
p o i n t s and w i t h c e r t a i n manners of a r t i c u l a t i o n , produce the

consonant phonemes
The vowel phonemes are arranged i n rows a c c o r d i n g t o
tongue-advancement
from the f r o n t
through the center t o the
back of the mouth, l i p - r o u n d i n g from unrounded t o rounded, and
15
i n columns a c c o r d i n g t o tongue-height from h i g h , through mid
to low;'
7.
Segmental
I t was emphasized
Phonemes
e a r l i e r t h a t speech i s p r i m a r i l y a
continuum o f a r t i c u l a t i o n s produced by the v o c a l organs, and

t h a t d i v i s i o n o f t h i s continuum i n t o s u c c e s s i v e segments i s
an a r t i f i c i a l p r o c e s s , an a b s t r a c t i o n . '
L i n g u i s t s f i n d such
d i v i s i o n n e c e s s a r y and p r a c t i c a l i n the study and a n a l y s i s of

language;'
The d i s c u s s i o n was on the assumption t h a t speech
s i g n a l i s a l i n e a r sequence of d i s c r e t e segments, c a l l e d
segmental phonemes.'
Consonants
segmental o r l i n e a r phonemes.'
and vowels were r e f e r r e d t o as

Each was d e s c r i b e d and exem-
p l i f i e d i n t y p i c a l Tagalog words i n the f o l l o w i n g sections.>

7;1
Consonants
Consonants
i n v o l v e the o b s t r u c t i o n or r e s t r i c t i o n o f the
c u r r e n t o f a i r a t one o r more p o i n t s a l o n g i t s passage

from the lungs;
Here they were c o n v e n i e n t l y d i v i d e d I n t o s i x
groups a c c o r d i n g t o the manner o f a r t i c u l a t i o n ;

7.1.1
outward
Stops
I n the p r o d u c t i o n o f s t o p s , the a i r stream may be completel y stopped a t some p o i n t by c l o s i n g the passage through which i t
flows;'
The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f e a t u r e of stops i s a complete
i n g o f the outgoing stream of b r e a t h A c t u a l l y
check-
the complete
a r t i c u l a t i o n o f a s t o p , such as the c e n t r a l sound /k/ i n Tagalog

lakad
'walk ', has t h r e e phases:9

1
( l ) a p r e l i m i n a r y c l o s i n g , on?
Nelson F r a n c i s ,
The S t r u c t u r e of Amerlcan E n g l i s h
(New York: The Ronald P r e s s Company, 1958), pp.i 72-73.-
16
o n - g l i d e d u r i n g which the a r t i c u l a t o r i s brought i n t o c l o s e

c o n t a c t w i t h t h e p o i n t of a r t i c u l a t i o n ;
(2)
an i n t e r m e d i a t e
c l o s u r e , o r p e r i o d o f s i l e n c e , o r i n the case o f v o i c e d
stops,
of subdued v i b r a t i o n of the v o c a l bands d u r i n g which the c l o s e

c o n t a c t i s maintained;
and (3)
f i n a l release, or o f f - g l i d e
d u r i n g which the a r t i c u l a t o r i s separated
from the p o i n t of
articulations'
I f a stop occurs f i n a l l y i n an u t t e r a n c e , i t i s u n r e l e a s e d .
t h a t i s , the speech organs a r e simply r e t a i n e d i n the p o s i t i o n
of c l o s u r e s
An u n r e l e a s e d
stop i s marked with a d i a c r i t i c
f o l l o w i n g the a p p r o p r i a t e sound symbol, thus [ " ] . A l l s t o p s ,

v o i c e d and v o i c e l e s s , a r e u n r e l e a s e d
i n u t t e r a n c e - f i n a l and
s y l l a b l e - f i n a l p o s i t i o n w i t h i n the u t t e r a n c e when the f o l l o w i n g

s y l l a b l e s t a r t s w i t h another stop o r with a n a s a l , as i n pakpak
wing* and p a k n i t
'detached*;i
Released
stops occur elsewhere-2!
/p/ i s a v o i c e l e s s b i l a b i a l stop produced by c l o s i n g the

lips
tightlyS
/b/ i s a v o i c e d b i l a b i a l stop formed l i k e /p/ but w i t h the
a d d i t i o n of v o i c e when the a i r stream i s stopped a t the p o i n t

of a r t i c u l a t i o n s
/ t / i s a v o i c e l e s s d e n t a l stop made by h o l d i n g t h e t i p o f
the tongue f i r m l y a g a i n s t the back of the upper front t e e t h s
/ d / i s a v o i c e d d e n t a l stop a r t i c u l a t e d l i k e / t / but with
the v i b r a t i o n o f the v o c a l bands Si
d e n t a l s r a t h e r than a l v e o l a r .
Unlike English, / t , d / are
17
A/
i s a v o i c e l e s s v e l a r stop produced by pushing the back
of the tongue f i r m l y a g a i n s t the velum.'

the n e i g h b o r i n g
Under the i n f l u e n c e of
sounds, the exact p o i n t of c o n t a c t may
vary
c o n s i d e r a b l y but these v a r i a t i o n s are not c o n t r a s t i v e i n Tagalog.'

/ g / i s a v o i c e d v e l a r stop formed l i k e /k/ but with
the
a d d i t i o n of voice.-*
/ ? / i s a v o i c e l e s s g l o t t a l stop produced by t i g h t l y c l o s i n g
the g l o t t i s , thus checking
the a i r c u r r e n t coming from the lungs.'
T h i s sound i s s i g n i f i c a n t l y c o n t r a s t i v e i n Tagalog i n the same

way
as any
other consonant.'
7.1.2
The
Nasals
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f e a t u r e i n producing
o r a l c a v i t y i s completely
n a s a l s i s t h a t the
stopped a t a c e r t a i n p o i n t of a r t i c -
u l a t i o n , but s i n c e the velum i s lowered, the a i r passes f r e e l y

through the n a s a l c a v i t y and
out through the nose.?
formed i n Tagalog are the v o i c e d n a s a l s / m n IJ /.

are u n r e l e a s e d
/m/
Sounds so
A l l three
i n final positions
i s a v o i c e d b i l a b i a l n a s a l produced by t i g h t l y c l o s i n g
the l i p s w h i l e the velum i s lowered and

vibrating;
the v o c a l bands are
/n/ i s a v o i c e d d e n t a l n a s a l a r t i c u l a t e d by b r i n g i n g the
tongue t i p f i r m l y a g a i n s t the back of the upper f r o n t t e e t h
with the velum lowered."
/n/ i s a v o i c e d v e l a r n a s a l formed with the back of the
tongue a g a i n s t the velum, which i s lowered, a l l o w i n g a passage
of
a i r from the pharynx to the na&al eavity.i
18
7 s i S3
Fricatives
I n the a r t i c u l a t i o n of f r i c a t i v e s the passage of the

of b r e a t h i s c o n s t r i c t e d a t some p o i n t
stream
of a r t i c u l a t i o n so as
to
l e a v e only a narrow opening, shaped e i t h e r l i k e a groove or a

slit,
f o r the a i r c u r r e n t
t o pass through.*
sounds i n Tagalog are / s, h
Examples of
fricative
/s
/ s / i s a v o i c e l e s s a l v e o l a r f r i c a t i v e a r t i c u l a t e d by
i n g the f r o n t of the tongue a g a i n s t
the hard r i d g e behind
upper f r o n t t e e t h , l e a v i n g a s l i t - l i k e opening f o r the

a i r t o pass through.
pushthe
j e t of
/h/ i s a v o i c e l e s s g l o t t a l f r i c a t i v e formed without

obstructing
the
the g l o t t i s S
l y and
o r a l c a v i t y , and w i t h a very s l i g h t f r i c t i o n i n
Tagalog /h/ produces a s o f t h i s s i n g sound
a breathy r e l e a s e i n word f i n a l
7.1.4
positions
Lateral
In the f o r m a t i o n of the l a t e r a l i n g e n e r a l ,
c l o s e d at the m i d l i n e
tongue t i p a g a i n s t
a i r t o pass out
the mouth i s
( f r o n t to back) by the contact
the p a l a t e and
over one
of
the
t h e r e i s an opening f o r
the
or both s i d e s of the tongue.'
/ I / i n Tagalog i s a v o i c e d
alveolar lateral articulated
w i t h the tongue r e l a t i v e l y s t r a i g h t and

the back and
initial-
with the t i p i n contact
f l a t from the t i p t o
w i t h the a l v e o l a r
ridge,
p r o d u c i n g a q u a s i - v o c a l i c l a t e r a l resonances
7 SI. 5
Flap
/ r / i s a voiced
a l v e o l a r f l a p formed by the r a p i d
of the t i p of the tongue a g a i n s t
the a l v e o l a r r e g i o n s
contact
In
i n t e r v o c a l i c p o s i t i o n i t i s u s u a l l y a r t i c u l a t e d with a s i n g l e
19
tap t r i l l .
The m a j o r i t y
of Tagalog words w i t h / r / are l o a n s
from Spanish and English.'

7.1 ;<6
S emi vowels
Semivowel sounds are made, e i t h e r w i t h a r a p i d movement

of the a r t i c u l a t o r s from the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c i n i t i a l p o s i t i o n
t o the p o s i t i o n f o r the vowel t h a t f o l l o w s , or w i t h a r a p i d
movement from the p o s i t i o n of the p r e c e d i n g vowel t o a characteristic f i n a l positions
characterizes
/w/
Nonfixed p o i n t of a r t i c u l a t i o n
the semivowels /w,
y / i n general.>
i n Tagalog i s a v o i c e d l a b i o v e l a r semivowel a r t i c -
u l a t e d by rounding the l i p s w h i l e b r i n g i n g the dorsum of the

tongue toward
the velum and then moving i t r a p i d l y i n t o the
p o s i t i o n of the vowel t h a t follows;'
The amount of l i p - r o u n d i n g
and tongue-height depend upon the f o l l o w i n g vowels

/y/ i n Tagalog i s a v o i o e d a l v e o l o - p a l a t a l semivowel
produced by r a i s i n g the f r o n t of the tongue c l o s e t o the hard
p a l a t e and back p a r t of the a l v e o l a r r e g i o n , w i t h the t i p
p o i n t i n g toward the upper
teethS
20
Phoneme
Phonetic
Transcription
Conventional
Orthography
Meaning
/p/
[pa'?a:h]
paa
'feet'
/w
['ba:ta?~]
bata
A/
[ta:?oh]
tao
person*
/a/
[da'li:?-]
dali
'hurry up'
A/
[ka:?In-j
kain
'eat'
/g/
[ ga:tas]
gatas
'milk'
/?/
[?o:?oh]
oo
'yes'
/m/
[ma tashj
mata
'eyes'
/n/
['na:yon~]
nay on
'village'
A>/
[rja'yo:n~]
ngayon
'now'
A/
[sa:gln-]
saging
'banana'
A/
[ha'li:k-]
halik
'kiss'
[la:kad"]
lakad
'walk'
[*ri:toh]
rito
'here'
/V
[wi:ka?-]
wika
'language'
/y/
[ ya:ban~]
yabang
'pride'
P i g . 8:
child
Consonant Phonemes (with Examples)
21
7*2
Vowels
Vowels, B l o o m f l e l d
d e f i n e s , are m o d i f i c a t i o n s
of the
voice-sound t h a t i n v o l v e no c l o s u r e , f r i c t i o n , or contact
of the tongue or l i p s S
Speech sounds d i f f e r not only i n
1 0
q u a l i t y but a l s o i n sonority.'
As e x p l a i n e d
by B l o c h - T r a g e r
the s o n o r i t y of a sound i s determined p r i m a r i l y by the s i z e

of the resonance chamber through which the a i r stream; flowsS
Thus, a low vowel i s more p l a i n l y a u d i b l e than a h i g h vowel
u t t e r e d w i t h the same f o r c e , and any vowel i s more sonorous
than any consonants
They e x p l a i n f u r t h e r t h a t a sequence of
sounds i n a normal u t t e r a n c e
i s t h e r e f o r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by
s u c c e s s i v e peaks and v a l l e y s of s o n o r i t y .
The sounds which
c o n s t i t u t e the peaks of s o n o r i t y are c a l l e d s y l l a b i c s and an

utterance
has as many s y l l a b l e s as i t contains
The c h a r t of vocoids
( P i g s 5) l i s t s
n o r m a l l y occur i n s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e s S
s y l l a b i c sounds.
the vowel sounds t h a t
I n Tagalog, a lower
v a r i e t y of the h i g h vowels i s normally observed i n u n s t r e s s e d

syllablesS
The lower h i g h
[ i ] and [U] sometimes merge w i t h
the mid vowels i n c e r t a i n p o s i t i o n s .
Usually unstressed
/e/
and /o/ r e t a i n the q u a l i t y they have i n s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e s s

The low vowel / a / keeps constant
but i n some p o s i t i o n s i t i s
somewhat r a i s e d towards the schwa p o s i t i o n when
unstressed.!
Tagalog vowels may be c l a s s i f i e d on the b a s i s of three

intersecting criteria;
tongue-advancement,
tongue-height and
lip-roundingS
L e o n a r d B l o o m f l e l d , Language (New York: H o l t ,
and Winston, 1933)
102S
1 0
Rinehart
.
^ B e r n a r d Bloch and George L s T r a g e r , O u t l i n e of L i n g u i s t i c
A n a l y s i s (Baltimore: L i n g u i s t i c S o c i e t y of America,1942$ pS 22S
22
The vowel phonemes a r e the following:

/a/
low c e n t r a l unrounded
/e/
mid f r o n t unrounded
A/
h i g h f r o n t unrounded
/of
mid hack rounded
/u/
h i g h back rounded
7 S3
I n t e r p r e t a t i o n of Semivowels
Semivowels a r e d i s t i n g u i s h e d from vowels n o t so much by

a r t i o u l a t o r y d i f f e r e n c e s as by word p o s i t i o n and duration;!
Vowels occur i n the c e n t e r o r nucleus o f the s y l l a b l e s s
Semi-
vowels, on the o t h e r hand, a r e found i n consonantal p o s i t i o n s ,

i S e S , they a r e always found i n the same s y l l a b l e w i t h a simple
vowel, which i s the nucleus or peak of the s y l l a b l e s
Unlike
vowels, they a r e of s h o r t d u r a t i o n and they have no s i n g l e

p o s i t i o n of a r t i c u l a t i o n which g i v e s them a d e f i n i t e color.'
Tagalog semivowel sounds [ i ~ y 3 and [ u~^w
] pattern
sometimes as consonants, and sometimes as vowelss
The d e t e r -
mining c r i t e r i o n i n each case i s p a t t e r n c o n g r u i ' t y .
Since
t h e r e a r e no words i n Tagalog b e g i n n i n g o r ending w i t h a vowel,

the suspect v o c o i d s a r e i n t e r p r e t e d as consonants i n i n i t i a l
and f i n a l p o s i t i o n s . '
Nonsuspect (non-ambiguous)
sound
sequences e x e r t s t r u c t u r a l p r e s s u r e on the suspect

sound sequences;'!
Thus:
(ambiguous)
23
cv.cvc
CV.CVC
ba.lak
[ba:lak-]
plan
ya.ta?
[ia:ta?-]
'perhaps*.
wa.lis
[ua'li: s]
'broom'
?i.kaw
[?i'ka:u]
'you'
ka.may
[ka'ma'.i]
'hand'
ba.liw
[ba'li:u]
* crazy *
bu.wan
[bu'ua:n""3
'moon'
ba.yad
['ba:iad~]
' payment
bu.kid
[bu:kld ]
'farm'
On the b a s i s of the c a n o n i c a l p a t t e r n of nonsuspect s e quences GV and CVC, semivowels a r e i n t e r p r e t e d as consonants

in syllable i n i t i a l
and s y l l a b l e f i n a l p o s i t i o n , and as vowels
when they a r e immediately f o l l o w i n g the i n i t i a l

immediately p r e c e d i n g the f i n a l
consonant or
consonant.'
I n t e r v o c a l i c /w/ o r / y / (VwV or VyV) always goes w i t h the

f o l l o w i n g s y l l a b l e , i . e . , i t i s always s y l l a b l e i n i t i a l and
does n o t c o n s t i t u t e p a r t of the /Vw/ or/Vy/ d i s t r i b u t i o n
which i s here c a l l e d a diphthong.
7.4
Diphthongs
The continuous n a t u r e of speech e x p l a i n s the presence of

s w i f t t r a n s i t i o n a l sounds c a l l e d g l i d e s A
g l i d e b e f o r e another
sound i s c a l l e d o n - g l i d e . and a g l i d e coming a f t e r another sound

is
called off-glide..
As d e s c r i b e d e a r l y i n the p r e c e d i n g sec-
t i o n ( 7 . 2 ) , a s y l l a b i c , sometimes c a l l e d a n u c l e a r . i s a vowel
Note: S y l l a b l e d i v i s i o n here i s r e p r e s e n t e d by (.) and

l e n g t h by (:) .
which i s the most prominent sound i n the s y l l a b l e t o which i t

belongs.
When a vowel i s u t t e r e d alone or contiguous t o one
or more consonants, i t i s always s y l l a b i c .
A sequence of a
s y l l a b i c vowel and a semivowel i n the same s y l l a b l e i s c a l l e d

a
diPhthongjl
syllabic.'i
are
I t s second component o r o f f - g l i d e i s a non-
Diphthongs are t h e r e f o r e complex vowels and they
articulated
w i t h the tongue and jaw s t a r t i n g i n one
t i o n and then g l i d i n g upward toward the p o s i t i o n

the
semivowels / w y /.'
posi-
f o r one of
The Tagalog diphthongs are / ey, ay,
oy, uy, aw, iw /.'

Phoneme
Phonetic
Trans c r i p t i on
/a/
[?a'na:k~]
anak
''child'
/e/
['?e:wan~]
ewan
'I don't know'
/ i /
[?I'na:h]
ina
mother'
/of
['?or?oh]
oo
yes'
[?u;tos]
utos
'.'command*
/ey/
[mesjj
may
'there i s , a r e '
/ay/
['burha^J
buhay
'life'
/oy/
[?a'po:i]
apoy
'fire'
/uy/
[ka'suij
kasuy
'cashew'
/aw/
[sa'basuj
sabaw
'soup'
/iw/
Osirslu]
sisiw
'chick'
Conventional
Orthography
Meaning
Diphthong
Pig.
9'.
Vowel Phonemes and Diphthongs (with
Examples)
25
8.
I t has
utterances
D i s t i n c t i v e Features
been d i s c u s s e d
that i n l i n g u i s t i c descriptions
are represented
as sequences of d i s c r e t e segments
c a l l e d phonemes, which are f u n c t i o n a l u n i t s of speech sounds.

Consonant and
vowel phonemes, which r e s p e c t i v e l y correspond to
contoids
and
vocoids
from one
another by a r e l a t i v e l y small number of a r t i o u l a t o r y
d i f f e r e n c e s , e.g.,
on the phonetic
v o i c i n g , b i l a b i a l p o s i t i o n and
u l a t i o n i n the case of Tagalog /b/,

p o s i t i o n and
l e v e l , are d i s t i n g u i s h e d
or h i g h and
l i p - s p r e a d i n g i n the case of / i / ; -
stop
f r o n t tongue
These d i f f e r -
ences which some l i n g u i s t s term d i s t i n c t i v e f e a t u r e s .

occasionally c a l l e d phonological
are composed of d i s t i n c t i v e
8.1
Consonant
artic-
are
components. s i n c e phonemes
features.
Patterns
Tagalog phonemes were c l a s s i f i e d and
their
patterns
were e s t a b l i s h e d on the b a s i s of these f e a t u r e s by which they

stand i n c o n t r a s t w i t h each other.
i v e f e a t u r e s occur grouped together

f e a t u r e s at a time:
u l a t i o n and
Normally, these d i s t i n c t i n 'bundles' of s e v e r a l
p o i n t of a r t i c u l a t i o n , manner of
v o i c e or b r e a t h i n consonants, and
tongue-advancement, l i p - r o u n d i n g or spreading
artic-
tongue-height,
and
other
fea-
t u r e s i n the case of vowels.

The
due
d i s t i n c t i v e f e a t u r e framework ( F i g . 10 & 11)
p r i m a r i l y to J a k o b s o n
1 2
and H a l l 1
that i s
i s here u t i l i z e d
J a k o b s o n , Roman, C.< G.< M.i Fant and Morris Halle.<

P r e l i m i n a r i e s To Speech A n a l y s i s (Cambridge, 1952)
1 2
1 3
Hall,
O2.1 c i t . , pp. 84 &
93.
as
26
i t i s h e l p f u l i n understanding the f u n c t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s
the phonemes i n v o l v e d ,
phonemic a n a l y s i s ^
although i t i s not
The
of the essence
of
g r a p h i c schemes of these f e a t u r e s
are
such t h a t each sound i s s e t o f f from every other sound by

d i f f e r e n c e i n a t l e a s t one
d i s t i n c t i v e features
of
As a r e s u l t ,
the consonants are arranged i n a s e r i e s of i n t e r s e c t i n g c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s , making a s t r i k i n g , though c o n s i d e r a b l y

and
l e s s symmetrical p a t t e r n
lowing section.'
l e s s elegant
than those of vowels i n the
T h i s l a c k of o v e r l y neat p a t t e r n s i s
expected, f o r , as Edward S a p i r s a i d , "no

t i g h t system, and
we
i f too p r e t t y
p i c t u r e r e s u l t s from the phonemic a n a l y s i s

Following
to
of a
phonetically
the working p r i n c i p l e that
"skewness should be avoided i n shaping a d e s c r i p t i o n , "

problem of asymmetry was
( l a b i o v e l a r ) and
alveolar,
/y/
column, and
semivowels
and
main dimensions
p o i n t of a r t i c u l a t i o n and
manner
In a d d i t i o n , t h e r e i s a f u r t h e r c o n t r a s t
v o i c i n g i n the case of stop phonemes o n l y s

occur s i n g l y or more than one
tures
/w/
Among Tagalog consonants t h e r e are two
articulations
and
( a l v e o l o - p a l a t a l ) under b i l a b i a l
respectively.
of phonemic c o n t r a s t :
the
s o l v e d here by p l a c i n g d e n t a l
a l v e o l a r a r t i c u l a t i o n s i n one
be
language forms a water-
should be s u s p i c i o u s
asymmetrical s i t u a t i o n . * "
fol-
These
of
in
contrasts
a t a time as d i s t i n c t i v e f e a -
of p a r t i c u l a r phonemess
8sisi
V o i c e versus
Voicelessness
V o i c e . Gleason d e f i n e s , i s a r e g u l a r , p e r i o d i c v i b r a t i o n
2?
generated through the a c t i o n of the v o c a l bands.*
v o c a l bands are v i b r a t i n g , they impart musical
When the
quality
or
r e g u l a r v i b r a t i o n t o the column of a i r that passes between

them, and
the r e s u l t a n t sound i s voice.
The
vibration
be f e l t by p u t t i n g a f i n g e r on the Adam's apple.!
may
The
absence
of the v i b r a t i o n of the v o c a l bands i s r e f e r r e d t o as
breath
or v o i c e l e s s n e s s . t h a t i s , the v o c a l bands are drawn back to

let
the a i r pass f r e e l y between them.>
C o r r e l a t e d thus
the Tagalog v o i c e l e s s stops / p t k / and

t e r p a r t s / b d g /
The
t h e i r voiced
voice-voiceless distinction
which s e t s them up i n c o n t r a s t ! v e
counoccurs
p a i r s , the members of each
d i f f e r i n g only i n the presence or absence of v o i c e .

below shows two
are
dimensions of c o n t r a s t i n v o i c i n g
F i g . 10
represented
here by s l a n t i n g l i n e s drawn downward.'
b
Fig.The
10:
;d
voiced-Volceless
Stops
f a c t t h a t every phonemic system has
ward symmetry" and
the "tendency t o -
the "tendency toward economy" i s observed
i n the phonemic system of Tagalog.'
The
v o i c e l e s s - v o i ced
pat-
t e r n formed a p e r f e c t b a l a n c e , but n o t i c e the "hole i n the

pattern"
(or case vide) as l i n g u i s t s c a l l i t , c r e a t e d by
absence of a v o i c e d counterpart
/?/.<
to the v o i c e l e s s g l o t t a l
the
stop
However, w i t h the v o i c e l e s s g l o t t a l f r i c a t i v e /h/ i n the
same p o s i t i o n of a r t i c u l a t i o n with / ? / , a neat symmetry of
28
paradigm was formed (FigS
11).*
There a r e , however, Tagalog consonants which a r e normally

v o i c e d but n o t c o n t r a s t i v e t o corresponding v o i c e l e s s sounds
i n such a way as t o make pairs.'
Such sounds a r e the n a s a l s
/m n n/, the U n g u a l s or l i q u i d s / l r /and semivowels /w y / s

I n these unpaired
feature.-
consonants, v o i c e ceases t o be a d i s t i n c t i v e
I n the system as a whole, except f o r s t o p s , v o i c e i s
not a d i s t i n c t i v e feature.'
8.1 , 2
;
P o i n t versus Manner of A r t i c u l a t i o n
I t has been noted t h a t a phoneme as a l i n g u i s t i c phenomenon/ d e r i v e s i t s f u n c t i o n from b e i n g i n o p p o s i t i o n w i t h

comparable phenomena i n the sound systems
other
Thus, the Tagalog
stop phonemes /p t k/ d e r i v e t h e i r s p e c i a l f u n c t i o n from the

f a c t t h a t they show n o t only a two-way c o n t r a s t with regard t o
v o i c i n g but a l s o a three-way d i s t i n c t i o n i n p o i n t of a r t i c u l a t i o n i n d i c a t e d i n the diagram by h o r i z o n t a l l i n e s from b i l a b i a l , t o d e n t a l , and t o v e l a r p o s i t i o n s . !
The g r a p h i c
repre-
s e n t a t i o n a l s o shows a three-way p o s i t i o n a l c o n t r a s t of n a s a l s
/m n rj/ i n the same manner, a two-way c o n t r a s t of f r i c a t i v e s
/s h / and semivowels /w y/.
Phonemes / l r / a r e p a i r e d by t h e i r
l i n g u a l q u a l i t y and a r e n o t s e t o f f from any other
consonants
by p o i n t of a r t i c u l a t i o n s
Contrast
i n p o i n t of a r t i c u l a t i o n h o l d s a l s o f o r o p p o s i t i o n
i n manner of a r t i c u l a t i o n i l l u s t r a t e d by v e r t i c a l l i n e s from
stops, f r i c a t i v e s , nasals, U n g u a l s
vowels i n a f i v e - d i m e n s i o n a l
( l a t e r a l and f l a p ) t o semi-
p a t t e r n , hence the r e s u l t a n t F i g . l i s
1
*Note t h a t a v o i c e d g l o t t a l stop i s a phonetic i m p o s s i b i l i t y

whereas a v o i c e d counterpart of [ h ] e x i s t s , v i z s [ f i t ] . '
29
Fig."' 11:
Tagalog Consonant Pattern.
30
8.2
The
Tagalog Vowel P a t t e r n s
other major type of segmental phoneme i s , of course,
the vowel which corresponds t o the v o c o i d on the p h o n e t i c l e v e l . '

H i s t o r i c a l l y , Tagalog had a three-vowel
system ( F i g . 12)
lower v a r i a t i o n s or allophones o f the two h i g h vowels.
with
I n the
present study a f i v e - v o w e l system i s used w i t h the addition o f

/e/ and /o/ t o the o r i g i n a l
threes
A g r e a t number of Spanish
and E n g l i s h l o a n words w i t h / e / and /of

of the common Tagalog vocabulary ii
have l o n g been a p a r t
These two sounds occur i n
u n p r e d i c t a b l e p o s i t i o n s and they no l o n g e r a l t e r n a t e w i t h
and / u / i n educated
Fig.' 12:
speech.
tongues
The Tagalog Vowel T r i a n g l e
The main d i s t i n c t i v e
two-dimensional
f e a t u r e s o f Tagalog vowels i n v o l v e
p a t t e r n s i n h e i g h t and advancement of the
There a r e o t h e r f e a t u r e s l i k e rounding o f l i p s ,
ness and l a x n e s s of the tongue, l e n g t h , e t c !

1
trasts
/ i /
tense-
The two-way con-
i n c l u d e simply f r o n t - v e r s u s - b a c k and high-versus-mid
o p p o s i t i o n s , but do n o t operate a t the low l e v e l

i
Fig.* 13:
The_ Vowel T r i a n g l e (Expanded)
( F i g . 13).'
31
I n the l i g h t of t h i s a r t i o u l a t o r y frame of r e f e r e n c e ,
phoneme i s t h e r e f o r e the f o c a l p o i n t of c o n t r a s t s i n a n e t work of i n t e r l o c k i n g d i f f e r e n c e s i n the p h o n e t i c
m a t e r i a l of
the language;
9S
9.1
C o n t r a s t , V a r i a t i o n and D i s t r i b u t i o n
Contrast
In connection
with d i s t i n c t i v e f e a t u r e s and
acoustic
c o r r e l a t e s , ^ Jakobson, Fant and H a l l e e x p l a i n t h a t

1
there
are some p h y s i c a l p r o p e r t i e s or f e a t u r e s of sound which d i f f e r e n t i a t e one phoneme from another.
The
s o l e f u n c t i o n of
sounds of language, Hockett s a i d , i s " t o keep u t t e r a n c e s

and
t h a t the p h o n o l o g i c a l
system of any
apart."
given language i s not
so much a " s e t of sounds" as i t i s a "network of d i f f e r e n c e s

between sounds."
T h i s g i v e s the phoneme i t s i d e n t i t y S
The
essence of phoneme, t h e r e f o r e , i s d i s t i n c t i v e n e s s or c o n t r a s t s
Some l i n g u i s t s c a l l the c o n t r a s t between the presence
absence of a f e a t u r e , or between two
and
d i s t i n c t i v e features
an
oppositions
In Tagalog some p a i r s of phonemes d i f f e r only by
such o p p o s i t i o n , others by two,
and
one
others by more than twos
To make the d i f f e r e n c e s i n p a t t e r n i n g e v i d e n t , l i n e s were

drawn a l o n g each dimension of phonemic c o n t r a s t , p o i n t i n g out
the d i f f e r e n c e s In g r a p h i c r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s
11 &
13s
Jakobson, Fant, H a l l e , op.
cits
as shown i n F i g S
32
Phonemes a r e t h e r e f o r e v i e w e d i n t h i s l i g h t n o t a s s o u n d s
produced i n such-and-such
manner b u t a s e l e m e n t s w h i c h s t a n d i n
c o n t r a s t w i t h each o t h e r i n t h e p h o n o l o g i c a l
language.
W h e n e v e r two e l e m e n t s o c c u r i n t h e same e n v i r o n m e n t ;
( i n t h e same p o s i t i o n ) w i t h r e s p e c t
f u n c t i o n o r meaning,
other.
with
system of the
t o each o t h e r , w i t h d i f f e r e n t
t h e y a r e s a i d t o be i n c o n t r a s t w i t h
each
I f t h e t w o e l e m e n t s o c c u r i n s u c h a way a s t o c o n t r a s t
each o t h e r , l i n g u i s t s
say they a r e i n conterastive
distribution.
T h u s , T a g a l o g / p / a n d /b/ o c c u r i n t h e same e n v i r o n m e n t a s i n p a l a
'pa:lah] ' s h o v e l ' v s . b a l a 'ba:lah] ' b u l l e t ' , k a p a g [ k a ' p a . g ] ' i f
v s
kabag [ka'ba:g] ' f r u i t - b a t ' , a l a p
['?a:lap3
vs. alab
*?a:lab~| ' b l a z e ' .
initial,
m e d i a l and f i n a l p o s i t i o n s , i n t h a t t h e y s e r v e t o d i s t i n g u i s h
words o f d i f f e r e n t meaning.
kubkob [kUb'ko:b]
v s , i
thus c o n t r a s t i n
I n t h e p a i r kupkop [ k U p ' k o r p ] ' s h e l t e r e d ' ,
' e n c i r c l e d ' , t h e two s o u n d s a r e c l e a r l y i n
c o n t r a s t w i t h each o t h e r .
between
The t w o s o u n d s
'cut t i p of grass'
The same i s t r u e o f t h e o p p o s i t i o n
/ t / v s . / d / a n d / k / v s . / g / a s shown i n t h e p a i r s t a g a
[ta'ga:?J
' s t r i k e with a blade'
v s . d a g a [ d a g a : ? ] 'mouse' a n d
jrakas [ w a ' k a r s ] 'end' v s . wagas [ w a ' g a : s ]
'pure'.'
Each p a i r / p /
v s . / b / , / t / v s . / d / o r / k / v s . / g / h a s t h e same manner a n d p o i n t
of a r t i c u l a t i o n ;
t h e o n l y d i f f e r e n c e between
them i s t h a t / b d g /
add v o i c e t o t h e f e a t u r e s p r e s e n t i n / p t k /.
S t o p s show c o n t r a s t n o t o n l y i n v o i c e b u t a l s o i n p o i n t o f
articulation;
hence
the pairs pagal [pa'ga:l]
'tired, fatigued'
v s . t a g a l [ t a ' g a : l ] ' d u r a t i o n ' a n d b a l a [ba:lah]
'bullet'
vs.
the opposition
d a l a ['da:lah] ' f i s h i n g - n e t ' , which i l l u s t r a t e
b e t w e e n b i l a b i a l a n d d e n t a l / p / vs., / t /
and
/b/
vs. /d/,
33
respectively.'
A l l the seven stops stand i n c o n t r a s t with one
another i n the f o l l o w i n g examples: p a l a [pa:lah] 'shovel': vs.'

b a l a [ba:lah] ' b u l l e t ' vs.
t a l a ['ta:lah]
' l e a k i n g from a
c o n t a i n e r " vsS d a l a [da:lah] ' f i s h i n g n e t ' v s . k a l a [*<ka:lah]

' t o r t o i s e ' , vs.1 g a l a 'ga:lah] 'gala (uniform)'' vs." A l a [?a:lah]
' A l l a h , Mohammedan god's
Hughes c a l l s these s e r i e s o f o p p o s i t i o n s
based on the same f e a t u r e a s e r i e s o f c o r r e l a t i o n ^ and name i t

1
by the f e a t u r e i n
Various
questions
p o s s i b l e kinds
o f c o r r e l a t i o n and s e r i e s o f c o r -
r e l a t i o n s i n Tagalog were determined and c l a s s i f i e d here as

techniques o f e s t a b l i s h i n g phonemic units.'
Hence, the Tagalog
c o r r e l a t i o n o f v o i c e i n c l u d e s the f o l l o w i n g phonemes:
p
Normally, each phoneme i s a member o f s e v e r a l c o r r e l a t i o n s

as i n the case o f the v o i c e l e s s - b i l a b i a l /p/ which i s not
only
c o n t r a s t i n g with v o i c e d - b i l a b i a l stop /b/ by the f e a t u r e o f

v o i c e but a l s o (by p o s i t i o n ) with v o i c e l e s s - d e n t a l stop / t / and
v o i c e l e s s - v e l a r stop /k/,
lation.
hence a l a b i a l - d e n t a l - v e l a r c o r r e -
The f o l l o w i n g phonemes
b
a l s o show a c o r r e l a t i o n o f n a s a l i t y s
['ma:ma?3 'any
The f o l l o w i n g forms mama
man, m i s t e r ' vs.' nana ['na:na?J 'pus'
vs.' nganga
[rja:rja?] 'prepared b e t e l l e a f , n u t and l i m e , c a l l e d buyd* are
15
John Ps Hughes, The Science o f Language: An I n t r o d u c t i o n
2 L i n g u i s t i c s (New York: Random House, 4th P r i n t i n g , 1964)
ps 246s
34
c o n c l u s i v e evidences t h a t n a s a l s /m n i}/ form a c o n t r a s t
since
the environment i s m a n i f e s t l y the same and a l l occur i n i d e n t i c a l

environment.Semivowel
They a l s o show a l a b i a l - d e n t a l - v e l a r
correlation.
c o r r e l a t i o n i s shown i n the p a i r s lawa ['la:wa?j
'lake'
v s . l a y a [ ' l a : y a ? ] 'freedom', sabaw [sa'ba:u] 'soup' vs. - sabay

[ s a ' b a : i ] 'together', wari ['wa:ri?] ' i t seems
vs. y a r i
['ya:ri?]'made'
and kalawkaw [ k a ' l a s y ' k a : ^ ] ' s t i r l i q u i d w i t h the hand' v s .

kalaykay [ k a i l a : i ka:_i] 'rake'.
1
Tagalog vowels a l s o p a r t i c i p a t e i n c o r r e l a t i o n , thus:

i
These vowels i n v o l v e two dimensions of c o n t r a s t .
The three two-way
c o n t r a s t s i n v o l v e a f r o n t - v e r s u s - b a c k , high-versus-mid and
versus-rounded.*
unrounded-
With the l e v e l s of tongue-height c o n t r a s t i n g
w i t h each o t h e r , there are v a r i a t i o n s h a v i n g c o n t r a s t s of f r o n t versus-back i n the h i g h and mid l e v e l s .
These vowel comslations
are i l l u s t r a t e d i n the f o l l o w i n g examples:
/ i /
v s . /e/ as i n
iwan ['?i:wan] 'leave (someone)' v s . ewan ['?e:wan] 'ignorance or

d e n i a l of knowledge of something?,-, misa ['mi:sah] 'Mass' v s . mesa
1
['me:sah] ' t a b l e ' ; /u/ v s . /of
as i n bukal [bU'ka:l] 'water s p r i n g '
v s . b o k a l [ b o ' k a : l ] 'a member of p r o v i n c i a l governing body', uso

[?'u:soh] ' f a s h i o n , vogue' v s . oso_ [?o:soh] 'bear'; / i /
v s . /u/
as i n p i to [ ' p i : t o h ] ' w h i s t l e ' vs.*
bun',
>
puto ['pu*.toh] ' r i c e
d i l a [di:la?] 'tongue' v s . d u l a ['du:la?] 'play' and /e/ v s . /o/

as i n gera ['ge:rah] 'war' v s . gora ['go:rah]
' c a p , beses
1
['be:ses] 'number of timesVjboses ['bosses] ' v o i c e ' .
35
The process
of c l a s s i f y i n g speech sounds i n t o phonemes,
which i s normally
observed,
following c r i t e r i a :
i s simply t h a t of a p p l y i n g the
d i s t r i b u t i o n , phonetic s i m i l a r i t y
i d e n t i t y of f u n c t i o n or meaning.
a n a l y s t s use minimal p a i r s .
two
and
For t h i s purpose, l i n g u i s t i c
These r e f e r to p a i r s i n which the
sounds i n v o l v e d are the only f e a t u r e s t h a t d i f f e r e n t i a t e
the words, as i n the case of the p a i r s of words shown below.

A minimally
c o n t r a s t i n g p a i r of u t t e r a n c e s i s c o n c l u s i v e and
c o n v i n c i n g evidence
the same phoneme.
ference
( F i g . 11
to show t h a t two
sounds do not belong
Using the same a r t i c u l a t o r y frame of r e & 13)
. c o n t r a s t s i n v o i c i n g , p o i n t of a r t i c -
u l a t i o n or manner of a r t i c u l a t i o n are i l l u s t r a t e d i n the

lowing l i s t
to
of Tagalog
fol-
minimal p a i r s :
b
ampon /?ampc5n/ 'adopted
kapag / kapag/
ipon /?fpon/
v s . ambon /?ambon/ ' d r i z z l e '
i f v s . kabag /kabag/
'savings' v s . ibon / ? f b o n /
lapi /lapi?/ 'affiliate,
'fruit-bat'
'bird'
j o i n ' vs. l a b i / l a o i ? / ' l i p s '
paho /paho?/ 'a s p e c i e s of mango
v s . baho /baho?/ ' o f f e n s i v e odor
panday /panday/ 'carpenter' v s . banday /banday/ ' s t u p i d , i m b e c i l e '

panig /panig/
'side' vs. banig /banig/
'rural agricultural society'
pantay /pantay/ 'of the same h e i g h t v s . bantay /bantay/ 'guard'

panting /pantfn/
' f u r y , i r e ' vs. banting /bantfn/ 'stretched'
pantog /pantSg/ 'bladder' v s . biantog /bantSg/ 'famous, noted'
36
pangaw /parjaw/ 'clamp f o r punishment'
vs.* bangaw /banaw/ ' f o o l '
pangko /pank'6"h/ ' c a r r y a person i n the arms' v s . bangko /bank6*h/

'bank'
pasa /pasa"?/ ' b r u i s e ' vs. basa /basa*?/
:
'wet'
pasag /pasag/ ' w r i g g l i n g , spasm' vs.- basag /basag/ 'broken
(glass)
patak /pat&k/ 'drop' vsii Batak /bata"k/ 'a town i n I l o c o s r e g i o n '

pataw/ pa"taw/ 'weight f o r p r e s s i n g something' vs.' bataw /ba"taw/
'a s p e c i e s of v e g e t a b l e '
p a t i n g / p a t f n / 'shark' vs. b a t i n g / b a t f n /
;
pawa /pawa?/ ' e v e r y t h i n g , a l l '
'net-trap'
vs.' bawa /bawa?/ 'each, every'
p i k o / p f k o h / 'pick-axe' vs.' b i k o /bfkoh/ ' r i c e
cake'
p u l a /pu*la?/ 'adverse c r i t i c i s m ' vs. b u l a / b i l l a ? / ' l i e ,

:
falsehood'
p u l o /pule*?/ ' i s l a n d ' v s . b u l o /bulo*?/ ' c a l f , young of a c a r a b a o

puno
/pun6*?/
' f u l l , f i l l e d ' v s . buno /bun<5?/ ' w r e s t l i n g '
puro /ptiroh/ 'pure' vs. buro /bilroh/ 'preserved f r u i t or f i s h *

1
p u t i / p i t t i h / 'pick f r u i t from t r e e ' v s . b u t i /bu*tih/

sampa /sscmpih/
sampit /sampt/
'go up, c l i m b ' v s . samba /sambaTi/

'entangled' v s . sambit /sambft/
'goodness'
'adore'
'mention i n p a s s i n g '
s a p i t / s a p i t / ' a r r i v a l ' v s . s a b i t / s i S b i t / 'hang, hook*

t a l o p / t a l o p / 'peel o f f vs.- t a l o b / t a l o b / 'cover made of s o f t
m a t e r i a l (leaves or c l o t h ) '
t a l u k a p /talttkap/ ' e y e l i d ' vs. t a l u k a b / t a l u k a b / 'carapace of c r a b s '
;
tampal /tampal/ ' s l a p ' v s . tambal /tambal/ 'reenforcement; p a i r '

tapak /tapalc/ 'barefooted' vs.-' tabak /taba*k/ 'bolo',
t a p i n g / t a p i n / 'animal p e s t ' v s . t a b i n g / t a o i n / 'screen, c u r t a i n '
37
bukot /bukot/ 'short-necked

gunting /guntfn/
hilot /hflot/
to
Ita
v s . bukod /bukod/
'separate'
' s c i s s o r s ' v s . G u n d i n g / g u n d i n / 'a g i r l ' s
'midwife'
vs. h i l o d /hrflod/ 'scrub w i t h
remove d i r t on t h e
something
skin'
/ ? f t a h / 'Negrito' vs. Ida /?fdah/
'a g i r l ' s
name'
p a n t a y / p a n t a y / ' o f t h e same h e i g h t ' v s . p a n d a y / p a n d a y /

sabat
name'
'carpenter'
/ s a b l t t / ' o b s t r u c t i o n ' vs. sabad /sabacl/ ' i n t e r r u p t a

conversation'
taga /taga?/
' s t r i k e with a blade'
v s . d a g a / d a g a ? / 'mouse, r a t '
tala /talah/
' l e a k i n g from a container' vs. d a l a /dalah/
'fishing
net'
t a l a / tala"?/ 'notes,
r e c o r d ' v s . d a l a /dala"?/ ' p a i n f u l
experience
learned'
tali
/tali?/
'string,
t i e ' vs. d a l i / d a l i ? /
tanak /tanak/ ' o l d , antique

(of
'inch'
( p o r c e l a i n ) ' v s . danak /danak/
'flow
blood)
tawa /tawah/ ' s m i l e , l a u g h '

tila /tila?/
' s t o p p i n g , as
tinta /tint^h/
v s . dawa /dawah/ 'a k i n d o f g r a i n '

of r a i n *
vs. d i l a / d f l a ? /
'tongue'
' i n k ' v s . t i n d a / t i n d a h / 'goods f o r s a l e '
t u l a /tul?/ 'poem' v s . d u l a / d u l a " ? /
'play'
t u l a y / t u l a y / 'bridge' vs. Dulay /dulay/
'a g i r l ' s
name'
38
baka /baka^?/ 'maybe
balak / b a l a k /
v s . i baga /baga"?/ 'tumor, b o i l '
plan' vs." b a l a g / b a l a g / 'bower, arbor,
kaka /ka'kah/ 'uncle, a u n t

kala /kalah/ "tortoise*
trellis'
v s . gaga /ga"gah/ ' s t u p i d , dumb (fern.)'
vs.' g a l a / g a l a h /
kalang / k a l a n / 'wedge' v s . galang / g a l a n /

kaya /kayah/ ' a b i l i t y , c a p a c i t y
' g a l a (uriform)'
'respect'
vs.' gaya /ga"yah/ 'the same as'
kong /k<5n/ 'pronoun ko, by me p l u s l i n k e r -ng'* v s . gong /g<5n/

'gong'kulang / k u l a n /
' l a c k i n g * v s . gulang /giSlan/ 'age;
kulay / k i t l a y / ' c o l o r ' vs. gulay / g i t l a y /

;
kulo /kul6?/
maturity'
'vegetable'
' b o i l i n g ' v s . Gulo /gulo"?/ 'an i s l a n d i n Mindoro'
kuro / k i l r o ? / ' o p i n i o n ' vs. guro /gttro?/ 'teacher'

1
i l a k / ? f l a k / 'contribution f o r c h a r i t y ' vs. i l a g / ? f l a g /
'parry'
l a k a s / l a k a s / ' s t r e n g t h ' vs . l a g a s / l a g a s / ' f a l l e n , f a l l i n g

-
l i k a s /lika*s/ 'natural, n a t i v e ' vs. l i g a s / l i g a s /
'a s p e c i e s
off
of
shrub*:
likaw /lfkaw/
' c o i l , wind' v s . l i g a w /lfgaw/
'courtship'
saka /sa*kah/ ' c u l t i v a t i o n , t i l l a g e ' vs.' saga /sagah/ 'saga'

s a l o k / s a l o k / 'dipper, scooper' vs.* s a l o g / s a l o g / 'pool, puddle'
tambok /tambo'k/ 'convexity' vs.' tambog /tambog/ ' d i v e , plunge'
t a t a k /tata"k/ 'stamp mark'; vs.' t a t a g / t a t a g / ' s t a b i l i t y , s e c u r i t y ' '
t i n g k a / t i n k 5 ? / >craw or crop of f o w l s ' vs.- t i n g g a / t i i j g a ? / 'lead
1
(metal)"
39
t i t i k / t f t i k / ' l e t t e r of the alphabet' vs.' t i t i g / t i f t i g / ' s t a r e '

tut ok /ttftok/ ' t o draw near an object' vs. tutog /ttftog/ ' s n u f f
(ashes of cigar or cigarette)'
usok /?u"sok/ 'smoke' vs. usog /?u"sog/ ' f l a t u l e n c e , gas'
wakas /waka"s/ 'end' vs.* wagas /waga"s/ 'pure'
p
pakas /p&kas/ ' a kind of dried f i s h ' vs. takas /ti^kas/ 'escape'
pakaw /pSkaw/ 'hoop i n the nose of carabao' vs. takaw /ta"kaw/
!
'greediness'
pag /pag/ ' i f vs. tag /tag/ ' t a g ; a f f i x '
1
paga /paga"?/ 'swollen, inflamed' vs. taga /tag?/ ' s t r i k e with

a blade''
pala /pala?/ 'benefit, blessing' vs. t a l a /tala?/ 'bright s t a r '
palaro /palar'<5?/ 'sponsored game' vs. talaro /talar<5?/ balance,
1
scale'
palas /palas/ 'pare, c l i p ' vs. talas /talas/ 'sharpness'
1
paling / p a l i n / ' t u r n ; i n c l i n a t i o n ' vs. ' t a l i n g / t a l i n / 'mole'

-
palo /paloh/ 'mast of a ship* vs. talo /taloh/ 'defeated'

palos /pal<5s/ ' b i g e e l ' vs.' talos /talc's/ 'known, understood'
Panong /pan6*n/ ' a man's name' vs. tanong /tanon/ 'answer, reply'
1
panga /pagSh/ 'jaw' vs. tanga /tanab./ ' s t u p i d , ignorant'

Pangan /pagan/ ' a family name' vs.< tangan /tSnan/ ' h e l d '
panggap /pangap/ 'pretense': vs.' tanggap /tangap/ 'reception'
panghal /panhal/ 'uneaten food l e f t on the table' vs. tanghal
/tanhal/ 'honor, e x a l t '
40
panglaw /panlaw/ 'melancholy' v s . tanglaw /tanlaw/

paos /pa?os/
and
'raucousness
'light'
of v o i c e ' vs. taos / t a ? o s / 'through
through'
papa /papah/ 'width of c l o t h ; pope' vs. tapa /tapah/ 'jerked
heef
papak /pap^k/ ' e a t i n g only one k i n d of food without a n y t h i n g e l s e '

vs.
tapak /tapak/ 'barefooted'
p a r i / p a r i ? / ' p r i e s t ' vs. t a r i / t a r i ? /
'spur f o r f i g h t i n g
cock'
pasa /pa*sah/ 'pass over' v s . t a s a /ta'sah/ 'cup'

p a t a /pa'tah/ ' l e g of animals' v s . tapa /tapah/ 'jerked
payo /payoh/ 'advice' v s . tayo / t a y o h / 'we
beef
(incl.)'
payong /payorj/ 'umbrella' vs. tayong /t'ayon/ 'delay,
temporary
suspension of work'
p i g i l / p j f g i l / 'held, detained' vs. t i g i l
p i l a /prflah/ ' l i n e , queue' v s . t i l a
pili
/pili?/
' s e l e c t e d ' vs. t i l i
/tigil/
'stop'
/ t i l a h / 'maybe'
/till?/
'shriek'
p i t o / p f t o h / ' w h i s t l e , toy f l u t e ' vs. t i t o / t i t o h / 'uncle'

p i y a k /piyk/ ' s h r i e k of c h i c k e n ' vs. t i y a k / t i y a k / 'exact, d e f i n i t e '
pukol / p u k o l / 'throw, c a s t ' v s . t u k o l / t u k o l / 'even number'
pugon /pugon/ 'cooking stove' v s . tugon /tugon/
pugot /pugot/
'answer, r e p l y '
'behead' vs. tugot / t u g o t / 'stop, cease'
pulak / p u l a k / ' l o p , cut o f f v s . t u l a k / t u l a k / 'push,
shove'
p u l i s / p u l f s / 'policeman' v s . t u l i s / t u l i s / 'pointed'
pulong /puloi}/ 'meeting' v s . t u l o n g / t u l o n / 'help'
p u l o t / p i t l o t / 'pick up;
foundling' vs. t u l o t / t u l o t /
punay /punay/ 'a s p e c i e s of b i r d ' v s . tunay /tunay/
'permit'
'true,
real'
41
puto /ptftoh/ ' r i c e bun' vs.
tuto /tittoh/ 'perception'
p u t o l /pu*tol/ ' c u t ' vs. t u t o l / t t f t o l / ' o b j e c t i o n '

:
t a / t a h / 'you and I ( e n c l i t i c d u a l ) * v s . ka /kah/ 'you'

t a b i g / t ^ b i g / 'push w i t h the elbow' v s . k a b i g /kcfbig/
'pull'
towards o n e s e l f *
tagayan /tagayan/
'wine cup o r g l a s s ' v s . Cagayan /kagayan/
a p r o v i n c e i n Mindanao'
t a l a / t a l a h / ' l e a k i n g from
container' vs. k a l a
/kaUah/
'tortoise'
talang
/taUan/
'red c l o u d ' v s . k a l a n g / k a l a n / 'wedge'
t a l a s / t a l s / 'scraped o f f from the palm' vs. k a l a s /kala"s/

1
'untied,
loosened'
tambal /tambal/
' p a i r ' v s . kambal /kamba'l/ 'twin'
tambing /tambfn/ 'put on equal share' v s . kambing /kambfn/

tampay /tampay/ ' s e r e n i t y , calmness' v s . kampay /kampay/
of
the arm; f l a p p i n g the wings'
'goat'
'swinging'
tampo /tamp'6*h/ ' s u l k i n g ' vs. kampo /kampoh/ 'camp'

;
tanan /tanan/
'elope' v s . kanan /kanan/ ' r i g h t '
tanaw /tanaw/ ' v i s i b l e from a f a r ' v s . kanaw /kanaw/ ' s t i r and

dissolve'
t a p i s / t a p i s / ' a k i n d of apron' v s . Capiz / k a p i s / ' a c i t y i n the
Visayas'
tap on /tap.on/ 'cork' v s . kapon /kapon/ ' c a s t r a t e d *
tapos /tap<5s/ ' f i n i s h e d ' vs.- kapos
/kapSs/
'short, l a c k i n g '
42
tatlo /tatloh/
'three
vs.- k a t l o /katl<5h/ ' o n e - t h i r d '
tawa /tawah/ 'laugh, l a u g h t e r ' vs.
kawa /kawah/ 'a b i g k e t t l e ' '
tawad /tawad/ 'haggle; b a r g a i n ' v s s kawad /kawad/ 'wire'

taway /taway/ ' s t r e t c h at arm's l e n g t h ' vs.; kaway /kaway/ 'wave
the hand'
tawing /tawft}/ 'pendant; hanging and
i n t e r l i n k e d , In
series''
t a y a / t a y a h / ' c a l c u l a t i o n ' vsS

tilos /tflos/
swinging' vs.- kawing /kawrfn/
kaya /kayah/ 'competence, a H L i t y '
'point, pointedness' vs. k i l o s / k f l o s /
'action,
movement *
tinis /tfnis/
' s h r i l l n e s s of v o i c e
tono /t'ohoh/ 'tone': vs.

tuba /ttfbah/
'&
vs.
k i n i s / k f n i s / 'smoothness'
kono /kcSnoh/ 'icone*
s p e c i e s of shrub' vs. Kuba /ku*bah/ 'Cuba'
tuba /tuba*?/ ' i n t o x i c a t i n g d r i n k from palms' vs. kuba /kuba*?/

'hunchback '
1
t u l i g / t u l - f g / ''stunned, s t u p e f i e d '
vs.; k u l i g / k u l f g /
'the
young
of a p i g '
t u l o g /tul'og/
'asleep': vs.' k u l o g / k u l o g / 'thunder'
t u p i / t u p f ? / ' f o l d , pleat'- vs. kupi /kupfi?/
'a sjroall b u r i bag*
t u r o / t t f r o ? / ' i n s t r u c t i o n ' - vs. kuro /ku*ro?/ ' o p i n i o n '

t u t a /ttSta?/ fpuppy' vs.* k u t a /krtta?/ ' f o r t *
t u t o /tiStoh/ ' p e r c e p t i o n ' vs.' kuto /ktftoh/
salot /salot/
'head-louse'
'pest, epidemic' vs.; s a l o k / s S l o k / d i p p e r , scooper

k
batik
/ba"tik/
* is t a i n , s p o t ' vs. b a t i / bti / 'greeting*
batik
/ b a t f k / a k i n d of imported f a b r i c * vs.
speaking termsI
bati /batf?/
'on
1,
43
kaba /kablth/ 'beating, p a l p i t a t i o n ' vs.' aba /?abah/ oh*'

f
Cabra /kaorah/
'an i s l a n d i n Mindoro' vs.* abra /?aorah/
'gorge'
kagaw /kagaw/ ' i t c h mite' vs.". agaw /?agaw/ 'snatch''

k a h i t / k 5 h i t / 'even i f vs;< a h i t / ? & h i t /
'shave'
kalam/kalam/ ' f o r n i c a t i o n ; f e e l i n g of hunger
v s . alam /?alam/
'known*
/kantaW
kanta
kaso /ka*soh/
'song' v s . anta
/?antari/
'rancidity'
'case' vs.- aso /?asoh/ 'dog*>
kawang /kawarj/ 'not a d j u s t e d ' vs. awang /?awarj/ ' d i s t a n c e ; c r e v i c e '

1
kawit /kawit/ 'hook' vs. awit / ? a w i t / 'song, hymn'

;
kay /kay/ 'person marker ( s i n g ) * v s . ay /?ay/ 'a c o n s t r u c t i o n

marker'
tagak /taga"k/ 'a s p e c i e s of b i r d ' vs.' taga /taga"?/ ' s t r i k e w i t h
a blade'
/talSk/
talak
'chat, c h a t t e r ' vs. t a l a /tal?/

1
'notes, r e c o r d '
babaw /babaw/ 'shallowness' vs.' Dabaw /daoaw/ 'a c i t y i n lyLindanao'

baga /bagah/ 'ember' vs.? daga /diagah / 'dagger, sword'
b,aga /bagS?/
'tumor, b o i l ' vs.* daga /daga*?/ 'mouse, r a t '

1
b a i t / b a ? f t / 'prudence,
sense' vs.' d a i t /da?ift/ ' c l o s e t o g e t h e r '

1
b a l a /ba*lah/ ' b u l l e t ' v s . d a l a /d&lah/

balang
balas
/blilan/
/balSs/
'fishing-net
' l o c u s t ' vs.i dalang / d a l a n / ' i n f r e q u e n t ; slow'

' ' s o l i d i f i e d syrup' vs.- d a l a s / d a l a s / ' f a s t ; f r e q u e n t '
1
b a l i / b a U i ? / 'break, f r a c t u r e ' vs.i d a l i / d a l i ? /

bali
/balif?/
'inch''
'broken, f r a c t u r e d ' vs. d a l i / d a l f ? / 'quick; easy'

!
banak /bahak/ *a s p e c i e s of f i s h ' vs.' danak /danak/
'flow
(of b l o o d ) '
bantay /bantay/ 'guard' vs.' dantay /dantay/ ' r e s t the l e g on
something*
banyos /bany6"s/
'sponge bath' vs.' danyos
bangal / b a r j S l / * broken o f f (branches)'
/dany6s/
'damages*
vs.' dangal / d a n ^ l /
'honor'
basa /basah/ 'read' vs.' dasa/da^3%h/' ' f a m i l y , l i n e a g e '

b a t i n g / b a t f r j / ' n e t - t r a p ' vs.' d a t i n g / d a t f r j /
'arrival*
baya /baya?/ ' n e g l e c t ' v s . daya /daya?/ ' f r a u d , d e c e i t '

bilig /bilfg/
' c a t a r a c t of the eye' vs. d i l i g / d i l f g / ' s p r i n k l e '
bukal / b u k a l /
'water s p r i n g ' v s . dukal /duka*!/ 'dug out*
bugtong /bugt^rj/ ' r i d d l e * vs.' dugtong /dugtorj/ ' a d d i t i o n t o l e n g t h e n '

buhat /btfhat/ ' l i f t ,
r a i s e " v s . duhat /diShat/
b u l a /bula"?/ 'bubble, foam' vs.* d u l a /dula*?/
'blackberry'
'play'
bungo /buno"?/ ' s k u l l ' vs. dungo /dur)<5?/ ' s t u p i d *

1
buwag /buwag/ 'demolished, a b o l i s h e d ' vs. duwag /duwag/ 'coward'

J
babad /babad/ 'immerse i n l i q u i d * vs; babag /babag/

1
babad /babad/ 'thoroughly
'impact,clash'
soaked i n l i q u i d ' vs. babag /babag/

J
'quarrel'
balad /balad/
'ballad*' vs.' b a l a g / b S l a g /
'bower, arbor,
trellis'
b u l i d / b u l l a / ' f a l l e n down' v s . i b u l i g /bulrfg/ 'the young of a

fish'
daan /da?an/ 'way, road' vs." gaan /ga?an/ l i g h t n e s s ; ease*'
1
dahak /danak/ 'expectorate

big r i p '
phlegm' vs.' gahak /gabak/ 'long and

1
45
d a l a /dali??/ ' p a i n f u l experience l e a r n e d ' vs.- g a l a /gal?/
'wanderer'
dalang /d&lan/ ' i n f r e q u e n t ; slow' vs." galang / g ^ l a g /
'respect'
d a l a s / d a l a s / ' f a s t ; often'* v s . g a l a s /gala's/ 'roughness
(touch)'
d a l i t / d a l i t / 'psalm' vs. g a l i t / g a l i t / 'anger, f u r y '

1
damit /damft/ 'dress, c l o t h e s ' vs. garnit /gamft/

1
dapok
/dap5k/
'used, worn out'
'weak; f r a g i l e ' vs. gapok /gap<5k/ 'hollowed due

1
to a t t a c k of w e e v i l s , r e f e r r i n g t o wood'
diwang /dfwan/ ' c e l e b r a t e ' v s . i giwang /gifwan/ ' r o c k i n g ,
wabbling'
dulang /drtlan/ 'low d i n i n g t a b l e * vs. gulang / g i t l a n / 'age,
;
maturity'
d u l a y / d i t l a y / 'climb from branch t o branch' vs.* gulay / g i l l a y /
vegetable'
s
t a / t a h / 'an e n c l i t i c pronoun, d u a l ' v s . s a / s a h / ' i n , on, from'
taad /ta?d/
'the c u t t i n g of sugar cane' v s . saad /sa?a"d/ 'say,
answer'
taan /ta?'an/ ' r e s e r v e , r e s e r v a t i o n ' vs. saan /sa?an/ 'where'
1
tabon /tab<5n/ 'covered, e.g. , w i t h earth* vs. sabon /sab'6h/

1
'soap'
t a k a l / t a k a l / 'measured ( c a p a c i t y ) ' v s . s a k a l / s a k a l / 'choke w i t h

the
hands'
46
taklang /taklarj/
t r i p on the hock or bend of the knee' vs.-
saklang / s a k l a r j / 'pieces of bamboo p l a c e d crosswise on a

roofing'
t a k l o b /takl<5b/
'cover* vs.' saklob /sakl6*b/ 'two
equal
and
s i m i l a r t h i n g s j o i n e d t o g e t h e r , f a c i n g each o t h e r '
t a h o l / t a h o l / 'barking of dog' v s . s a h o l /sahJol/ 'wanting,
l a c k i n g *'
t a l a /t|la?/ ' b r i g h t s t a r ' v s . s a l a / s a l a ? /
'filter'
t a l a / t a l S ? / 'notes, r e c o r d ' vs.' s a l a / s a l & ? / f i l t e r e d , s i e v e d '

talab / t a l S b / ' s u s c e p t i b i l i t y to; effectiveness of,
medicine, weapons, e t c ' v s . s a l a b / s a l a b /
e.g.,
'scorched,seared'
t a l a n g / t a l a n / 'red clouds a t e a r l y morn or sunset' v s . s a l a n g

/ s a l a n / *put over the f i r e f o r cooking*
t a l a n g a / t a l a r j a ? / * q u i v e r f o r arrows'
s p e c i e s of ray*
v s . salanga / s a l a g a ? / 'a
t a l a s / t S l a s / 'sharpness'; vs.' s a l a s / s a l a s / ' l i v i n g room*

t a l i l o n g / t a l f l o n / 'a s p e c i e s of m u l l e t ' v s s s a l i l o n g /sallon/
'place i n the shade*
t a l o / t a l o h / 'beaten, d e f e a t e d ' v s . s a l o / s a l o h / 'partake,
j o i n , e.g., i n a meal'
t a l o /talo*h/ 'defeated, l o s t ' vs. s a l o /sal6h/ 'catch, e.'g.,
1
a ball'
t a l o p / t a l o p / 'peeled, skinned' v.s.
tampay /tampay/ ' s e r e n i t y , calmness*
e.g.,
s a l o p / s a l o p / *ganta'(a neasure)
v s . sampay /sampay/ 'hang,
c l o t h e s on a l i n e '
tanga /tanah./ ' s t u p i d ' v s . sanga /san/ab./ 'branch'
47
' c a r r y away' vs.
tangay /tanay/
sangay /sanay/ 'branch of an
t a n g k a l / t a n k a l / 'cage f o r c h i c k e n ' v s . sangkal
/sankSl/
office'
'harden-
i n g of a mother's b r e a s t '
tanggol /tango !/ 'defend' v s . sanggol / s a n g 6 l / 'baby, i n f a n t '
1
/sanhSd/
tanghod /tanhocL/ 'wait h o p e f u l l y ' v s . sanghod

pestilent
tapa /tapah/
'smell
odor'
'smoked f i s h '
vs.' sapa /sapah/ 'food d i s c a r d e d
a f t e r b e i n g chewed'
tapak /tapak/ ' f o o t s t e p ' vs. sapak /sapak/ 'breaking i n t o two,
1
as
the branch of a t r e e '

tapak /tapa*k/ 'barefoot* vs. sapak /sapk/ ' c l a c k i n g sound produced
1
when e a t i n g '
t a p a l / t a p a l / 'patch' v s . s a p a l / s a p a l / 'bagasse, residuum':
tapat / t a p S t / 'frank, honest;
o p p o s i t e ' vs. sapat / s a p ^ t / enough,

;
sufficient'
t a r l / t a r i ? / 'metal spur' v s . s a r i / s a r i ? / 'species; v a r i e t y '
t a s a /tasSh/
'sharpen ( p o i n t ) ' v s . sasa /sasan/
'a s p e c i e s of
palm'
t a t a / t 5 t a h / 'grandfather' v s . t a s a / t a s a h /
'cup'
taway /taway/ ' s t r i k e , e.-g.<, with a bolo at arm's l e n g t h ' vs.
saway /saway/ ' f o r b i d '

taya /tayah/
' c a l c u l a t i o n ' v s . saya /sayah/
t i g a n g /tigar}/ 'extremely
tilay /tflay/
'skirt'
dry'' vs.' sigang /siga*n/ 'stew'
' s l i g h t burn or s c a l d ' vs.' s i l a y
/siflay/
glance'
t i n i n g / t f n i r j / 'sediment' v s . s i n i n g
/sifnirj/
'art'
'short
48
t i n g a /tirjab./ 'small p a r t i c l e s of food l e f t between teeth* v s .

s i n g a /sirâb/ 'blow one's nose*
t i p ! / t f p i ? / 'press, compress' vs. s i p i / s f p i ? /

!
'copy'
t i p o n / t i p o n / 'gathered, c o l l e c t e d ' vs.- s i p o n / s i p o n /
'cold'
tubo /tifbo?/ ' p r o f i t ' vs.* subo /sifbo?/ 'take i n t o the mouth'
tukong /ttfkon/ ' - t a i l l e s s f o w l ' vs.' sukong /siJkon/ 'bundle of
rattan'
t u l o n g / t i J l o r j / 'help' vs.' sulong / s i l l o n /
'advance'
tumbong /tumborj/ 'anus' vs.- sumbong /sumbSn/ '.complaint'

tumpak /tumpa'k/ ' c o r r e c t ' vs. sumpak /sumpalc/ 'popgun made of
1
bamboo'
tundo /tund'6?/ ' p r i c k ' v s . sundo /sundo'?/
'agreement'
tunod /tunocL/ ' d a r t , arrow* v s . sunod /sunoa/ ' f o l l o w '

tunog /tun'<5g/ 'sound' v s s sunog /sunog/ 'burnt'
t u n g k i /tunk??/ ' p o i n t , e x t r e m i t y ' v s s sungki / s u n k f ? /
'irregular
growth of t e e t h '
tuso /tiJsoh/ ' a s t u t e
,;
vs.' suso /susoh/ ' b r e a s t s '
t u y a /tuyî?/ 'Irony, sarcasm' v s s suya /suya*?/ 'fed up'
h
am /?am/
'broth' v s s ham /ham/
'ham*
amak /?amak/ 'tame' v s . hamak /ha"mak/ 'oppressed'

baga /baga?/ 'lung'' vs." baga /bagah/
baga /bag?/ 'tumor, b o i l *
'ember'
vs.' baga /bagah./ 'question marker*'
49
bao /b5?oh/ 'coconut s h e l l ' v s . baho /banoh/ 'bass (tone or v o i c e ) '
baog /ba?6g/ ' s t e r i l e
(woman)'vs.' bahog
/bah6g/
'mixed ( r i c e with
something)*
b a t a /bta?/ ' c h i l d ' vs. b a t a / b ^ t a h / 'bathrobe'
;
bubo /bubo*?/ ' s p i l l , overflow' v s . bubo /bubSh/ 'to f r i g h t e n

and d r i v e away',
kata
/kat5?/
' b o i l i n g ' vs.; k a t a / k a t a n / 'you and I '
kuba /ki$ba?/ 'hunchback' v s . Kuba /kttbah/ 'Cuba'

daan /dS?an/ 'way, road' v s . dahan /dhan/ 'slowly'
daop /da?6*p/ 'needy' v s . dahop /dahop/ 'clasped t o g e t h e r , as
hands i n prayer*
hili /hfli?/
*envy* vs.' h i l i / h f l i h /
'a s p e c i e s of f i s h '
h u l a /hiSla?/ 'guess, p r e d i c t i o n * v s . h u l a /htflah/ 'hula dance'

h u l i / h t f l i ? / ' f o r g e t f u l * vs.: h u l i / h t f l i h / 'catch*
ilig /?ilfg/
'shake* vs.- h i l i g / h i l f g /
'inclined*
i l i n g /?iln/ 'shake the head' v s . h i l i n g / h i l f n /
'request,
petition'
i p o n / ? f p o n / 'savings; gathered' vs. hipon /hfpon/ 'shrimp'
1
i r a p /?frap/ 'sullen look' vs. hirap /hfrap/
'difficulty'
i t i k / ? f t i k / 'duck* vs. h i t i k / h f t i k / bent due t o weight (of f r u i t ) '

1
iwa /?fwa?/ *<stab, slash' vs.- hiwa /hfwa?/

1
'slice'
nasa /n^sa?/ 'wish, d e s i r e * vs.- nasa /na'sah/ ' i n , on'

paa /p?ah/ ' f e e t ' vs. paha /panah/ 'sash, band'
1
p a i t /pa"?it/ ' b i t t e r n e s s ; c h i s e l ' vs.' p a h i t / p & i i t /

t o the l a s t
bit'
'consumed'
pare / p a r e ? / ' p r i e s t ' v s . pare /pa"reh/ ' v o c a t i v e used i n

a d d r e s s i n g a man*
50
p i i t / p i ? f t / 'detained, j a i l e d ' vs. p i h i t / p i h f t / 'turned'

pipi
/pfpi?/
' f l a t t e n e d , pressed' vs.- p i p i /pfpih/ 'mute, dumb'
saing /saîn/ 'cook r i c e ' vs. sahing /sanin/ 'maltha*

sala /sala?/ ' t o f i l t e r ' vs. sala /salah/ ' f a u l t ; l i v i n g room'
sala /sal&?/ ' f i l t e r e d ' vs.' sala /salah/ 'woven s p l i t bamboo
used as r a i l i n g '
taas /ta?as/ 'height? vs. tahas /tanas/ ' d i r e c t , d e f i n i t e '

tamo /tam<5?/ ' a species of plant*' vs. tamo /tarnon/ ' a c q u i s i t i o n o f
tubo /ttfbo?/ 'growth; p r o f i t ' vs.' tubo /tilboh/ 'tube, pipe'tundo /tund<5?/ ' p r i c k
vs.
Tundo
/tundon/ *a d i s t r i c t i n
Manila'
ulog /?ul<5g/ 'shake' vs. hulog /hulSg/ ' f a l l e n o f f , dropped o f f

unos /?un'(5s/ ' f o g ' vs.< hunos /hun6*s/ ' t i t h e '
s
basag /basag/ 'broken (glass)'' vs. bahag /bahag/ G-string'

;
busol /busol/ 'door-knob' vs.' buhol /buh'61/ 'knot, t i e '

paso /paso?/ ' b u m ' vs. ' paho /paho?/ ' a species of mango'
5
sa /sah/'in on'' vs.' ha /hah/ ' a
Tagalog
expression (interrogation)'
sabang /saoan/ 'crossing, i n t e r s e c t i o n ' vs.! habang /ha*ban/ 'while*'

sabi /saoih/ 'say' vs. habi /haoih/ 'weave';
sagap /sagap/ 'scoop'- vs.^ hagap /hSgap/ 'thought, idea'
saging /s&gin/ 'banana'' vs. haging / hagin/ 'buzzing, h i s s i n g '
salaan /sala?ah/ ' s t r a i n e r ' vs. halaan /hala?ah/ ' a species of clam'
salabid /salabfd/ 'obstacle'' vs.' halabid /halabid/ 'entangle'
salarig /salan/ 'put over the f i r e for cooking' vs. halang /halan/
'crosspiece'
51
salang / s a l a i j /
touch l i g h t l y
s a l a s /saUas/ ' p a r l o r , h a l l *
vs.* halang / h a l a n / ' t r a v e r s e
vs. h a l a s / h a l a s / ' s c r a t c h , e.g.,

1
produced by the blades of g r a s s '

s a l a y /sa*lay/ ' b i r d ' s or r a t ' s n e s t ' v s . h a l a y / h a l a y /
s a l o / s a l o h / 'partake, j o i n ,
eJg.', i n a meal' vs. h a l o

1
'indecency'
/haloh/
'pestle'
s a l o /sal<5h/
'catch, e. g.i, a b a l l ' v s . h a l o /hal<5h/ ' h e l l o '

:
sanay /sanay/ ' p r a c t i c e , d r i l l '
v s . hanay /hahay/ 'row,
file'
sangga /sarjgab./ 'parry' vs.- hangga /hangab./ ' u n t i l '

s a p i n / s a p f n / 'underlayer' vs. h a p i n /haprfn/
1
'string'
s a p i t / s a p i t / " a r r i v e ' vs. h a p i t / h a p i t / ' p r e s s "

1
sarap / s a r a p / ' d e l i c i o u s ' vs. harap /harap/ ' f r o n t '

1
sari
/ s a r i ? / *\ariety vs. h a r i / h a r i ? / 'king'

1
sasa /sa*sa?/ ' g r a t i f y one's d e s i r e ' vs.' hasa,/hasa?/ 'whet'

s i g a /siga"?/ ' b o n f i r e " v s . h i g a /higa*?/ ' l i e down'
s i g i t / s i g i f t / ;shine through a s l i t
crack' vs. h i g i t
1
/higift/
'stretch"
silat / s i l a V
' s l i t s ' vs. h i l a t / h i l S t /
'stretched'
s i l a w / s i l a w / ' d a z z l e d ' vs. h i l a w / h i l a w / 'unripe;

singa /sirjah/
'blow one's nose' vs.. h i n g a /hlnJih/
s i p a g /sifpag/ ' d i l i g e n c e vs.' h i p a g /hfpag/
raw'
"breath"
'sister-in-law'
suwag /suwag/ "horns' v s . huwag /huwag/ 'don't*
m
baga /bag?/ * tumor, b o i l ' v s . maga /maga"?/ ' s w o l l e n "
bago /bagoh/ 'new'
vs.' Mago /magoh/ 'Magi'
52
b a l a t /bala't/ ' s k i n ' vs.< malat /mal^t/ hoarseness of v o i c e
b a l i / b a l f ? / 'broken, f r a c t u r e d ' v s . mali / m a l f ? /
'wrong, e r r o r '
bana /banah/ 'husband' vs.i mana /manah/ ' i n h e r i t a n c e '

banas /banSs/ ' s u l t r y ' v s s manas /mania's/ 'swollen;
beriberi'
banoy /banoy/ 'eagle* vsS Manoy /manoy/ ' e l d e r b r o t h e r '

baso /hasoh/ ' g l a s s ' vs.' maso /ma's oh/
'mallet'
b i l i n g / b i l f n / ' t u r n , g y r a t i o n " vs. . M i l i n g / m i l i n / 'a g i r l ' s

1
name*
buwal /buwa*l/ ' f a l l e n down': vs.' muwal /muwSl/ ' f u l l of food

(mouth)*
n
daga /dagah/ 'dagger, sword' vs. naga /n&gah/ 'a s p e c i e s of t r e e ;
:
(cap) a c i t y i n the B i c o l r e g i o n "

dahan /da*han/ " s l o w l y " vs;' nahan /naban/
1
'where'
d a l a g /dal'ag/ 'mudfish ' vs. n a l a g / n a l a g / 'a v a r i a n t of sumalag

1
parried'
danay /danay/ ' s i d e , p a r t ' vs. nanay /nanay/ 'mother'
1
dasa /da'sah/ ' f a m i l y , l i n e a g e ' vs. nasa /na'sah/ ' i n , i n t o , on*

1
d i y a n / d i y a n / * there ( n e a r ) ' v s . n i y a n / n i y a n / 'of t h a t , by t h a t '

doon /do?6n/ 'there ( f a r ) " vs.' noon /no?6*n/ 'at the time,
then'
9
baga /baga*?/ 'tumor, b o i l ' v s . banga /ban?/ " n a t i v e earthen j a r '
53
baga /baga?/ 'lung' vs.' banga /barja?/ 'a s p e c i e s o f palm*
bagay /bagay/ ' t h i n g , matter' vs.I bangay /harpy/ ' q u a r r e l '
bago /bagob/ 'a s p e c i e s of t r e e ' vs. bango /ban/6n/ 'fragrance,*..
;
aroma'
b i g a s / b i g a s / 'husked r i c e *
vs.' bingas / b i n a s / 'detached, worn
out'
galit /galit/
'anger, f u r y ' vs. n g a l i t / n & L i t / 'gnashing

1
g a l i s / g a l i f s / 'dhobie i t c h ' v s . n g a l i s / n a l f s / 'rub,
of teeth',
friction*
gamay /gamay/ 'used to; adjusted*, vs.i ngamay /tjamay/ 'numbness'

g a t a /gatS?/
'coconut milk* vs.- ngata /nata*?/
*chew, m a s t i c a t e '
G a t a l / g a t a l / "a f a m i l y name' vs. n g a t a l / n a t a l /

!
'trembling'
gawa /gawa"?/ 'work', vs." ngawa /naw?/ 'empty t a l k i n g '

gayon /gayon/ ''that way, l i k e t h a t ' vs.: ngayon /nayon/ 'now'
giti /gitf?/
'beginning t o appear ( p e r s p i r a t i o n ) ' v s . n g i t i
/nitST?/ " s m i l e "

p a g a l / p a g a l / ' t i r e d n e s s , f a t i g u e " vs. pangal /panl/ 'blunt;
{
wedge i n s e r t e d i n t h e mouth !
1
pagaw /pagaw/ 'hoarseness o f v o i c e " v s . pangaw /panaw/ 'clamp

f o r punishment;
handcuffs'
pagod /pag<5d/ " t i r e d ,
f a t i g u e d ' vs.' pangod /panoa/ 'blunt, d u l l '

1
kamaw /kamaw/ ' b i g earthen bowl') vs. kanaw /kanaw/ ' s t i r t o

!
d i s s o l v e (s omething)'
kamya /kamyab/ "a s p e c i e s of p l a n t " vs. kanya /kanyab./ ' h i s , h e r '
1
Mang /man/ 'a p a r t i c l e antiponed

nang /nan/
fwhen'
t o a man's C h r i s t i a n name" v s .
54
masa /masah/ 'dough' vs.' n a s a /n&sah/
' i n , on'-
Minong /mSfnoij/ 'a man's name' v s . ninong /nfnon/ 'godfather'

mismis /mismfs/ ' p a r t i c l e s of food l e f t a f t e r meal' vs. n i s n i s
1
/nisnfs/
'ravelled'
ngamay /nSmay/ 'numbness'- vs. nganay /nahay/ 'with pa- f i r s t born*

!
sama /samah/ 'go, accompany'- vs.' sana /sahah/ 'expression of hope'

taman /tamah/ 'patience, d i l i g e n c e ' vs.i tanan /tanah/ ' a l l ,
everybody
bamban /bambaV}/ ' i n s i d e p e l l i c l e of f r u i t ' vs." bambang /bambfirj/

' c a n a l , drainage '
b a n a l / b a n a l / 'holy, pious': vs. bangal /ban&l/ 'broken o f f (branches) 'i
1
banay /bahay/ 'slowly' v s . bangay /batjay/ 'quarrel'
bubon /bubor}/ 'small and shallow w e l l ' v s . bubong /bubon/

bumbon /bumboh/ 'heap, p i l e '
v s . bumbong /bumbon/ 'bamboo c o n t a i n e r *
buno /buno*?/ 'wrestling': v s . bungo /buno*?/

ilan /?ilah/
'roof
'skull'
'how many*, vs.' i l a n g / ? i l a i j / 'desolate p l a c e '
laman /lamah/ 'meat; content*- vs.- lamang /lamJarj/ 'advantage'

lunos / l u h o s / ' a f f l i c t i o n , g r i e f
vs.' lungos /ltfnos/ 'cape'
nawa /naw?/ 'May i t be so.' vs.i ngawa /naw'5?/ 'loud empty t a l k i n g '
punas /punas/ 'sponge bath' vs.' pungas /pu"nas/ 'getting up h a l f
awake'
puson /pus6n/ 'hypogaatrium* vs.' pusong /pus6*n/ 'impudent, shameless'
sanay /sanay/ 'used t o , experienced' vs.' sangay /san&y/ 'branch'
55
1
na /nah/ ' a l r e a d y ' v s . l a / l a h / 'musical
naman /namah/ 'a Tagalog
note
fi
e x p r e s s i o n ' v s . laman /laman/
'content'
nang /nan/ 'when' vs.' l a n g / l a n / ' v a r i a n t of lamang. only'

;
nasa /nasah/ ' i n , on, from' vs.- l a s a / l & s a h / ' t a s t e '

nayon /nayon/ ' b a r r i o ' v s . l a y o n / l a y o n / 'aim, o b j e c t '
niig
/ n i ? f g / 'tete-a-tete' vs. l i i g / l i ? f g /
'neck'
n i n o /nfnoh/ 'whose' v s . L i n o / l f n o h / 'a man's name'
c.
r
dilis /dflis/
'a s p e c i e s of anchovy' v s . r i l i s
/rflis/
'railway'
Dimas /dfmas/ 'a man's name' v s . rimas /r3*mas/ 'a s p e c i e s of t r e e '

L i d a / l f d a h / 'a g i r l ' s
name
vs. l i r a /Lfrah/ 'lyre'
padamdam /padamdam/ ' i n t e r j e c t i o n , exclamation'! v s . paramdam

/paramdam/ ' h i n t , s u g g e s t i v e e x p r e s s i o n or a c t i o n '
1
r
b a l a /blah/ ' b u l l e t ' v s . bara /barah/ 'measure equal t o 2.75 f t . '
1
56
balat /balSt/ ' s k i n ' vs.* barat /bar&t/ 'haggler
bulak /iSlak/ 'cotton' vs.' burak /b&rak/ 'mire, mud'

bulo /billoh/ ' f l o s s covering stems or f r u i t of plants' vs. buro
/buVoh/ 'preserved f i s h or f r u i t ' !
bulol /bul'5l/ "obstacle i n the throat'' vs. burol /bur 6*l/ ' h i l l '
!
kalang /kaUan/ 'wedge' vs.' karang /karan/ 'awning'

dalas /dalSs/ 'frequency vs.' daras /daras/ 'adze'i
dula /dulS?/ 'play' vs.' dura /dura"?/ ' s a l i v a , sputum'
1
dulo /dtfloh/ 'end' vs.- duro /ditroh/ ' b f f e r i n s i s t e n t l y ' :

dulog /dulog/ 'appear before a court'' vs. durog /dur<5g/
:
'pulverized'
halang /hSlarj/ 'obstacle, obstruction' vs. harang /haran/
'crosspiece'
i l i n g /?iln/ 'shake the head vs. i r i n g /?irin/ 'abuse'
1
i l o g /?log/ ' r i v e r ' vs.' i r o g /?frog/ 'beloved':

l a l a / l H a h / ' b r a i d ' vs. Lara /larah/ *a g i r l ^ s name"
l i l a /laflah/ 'of l i l a c color; earthen j a r ' vs. l i r a /lrah/ ' l y r e '
1
l i l i p / l f l i p / 'hem' vs. l i r i p / l f r i p / 'comprehend, understand'

!
l o l o /loloti/ 'grandfather': vs.: loro /loroh/ 'parrot

losa /losah/ 'porcelain plate* vss Rosa /r'5sah/ ' a g i r l ' s name'
pala /palah/ 'shovel': vs.i para /p^rah/ 'stop'
palas /palSs/ 'pared o f f , clipped*, vs.paras /para's/ 'pungent,

biting'
p i l i n g / p i l f n / 'bunch, cluster' vs. p i r i n g / p i r f n / 'blindfold/;
:
sala /salab/ ' r a i l i n g made of woven s p l i t bamboo' vs. sara /sar'ab/

1
'closed'
57
t a l a s /tal'as/ 'scrape
o f f (palm l e a v e s ) vs.' t a r a s / t a r a s / ' f o r -
wardness i n speech'
tali /tali?/
' s t r i n g , t i e ' vs.' t a r i / t a r i ? /
'metal spur of a
f i g h t i n g cock*
talik /talfk/
'dance, movement i n dancing' vs. t a r i k /tark/

1
'steepness'
t a l o / t a l o h / 'defeated*
vs. t a r o / t a r o h / ' p o r c e l a i n o r c h i n a j a r '

f
t u l o / t t f l o ? / 'drop/ vs. t u r o / t t f r o ? / ' i n s t r u c t i o n '

1
y
barong /bar6*n/ 'short f o r barong Tagalog. (a man's a t t i r e ) ' v s v
bayong /bay<5n/ 'sack made of b u r i palm l e a v e s '
k a r a /karah/ 'the head s i d e o f t h e c o i n ' v s . kaya /kayah/ 'competence, a b i l i t y *
Iran / i r a h / Iran
( P e r s i a ) v s . i y a n / i y a h / 'that'
l a r o / l a r S ? / 'play, game*' vs.' l a y o / l a y 6 ? / 'go away, depart'

l u g a r /luga*r/ ' p l a c e , s i t e * vs. lugay / l u g a y /
'hanging l o o s e
sara /sarah/
' c l o s e d ' vs.' saya /sayah/ 'ijoy,
gladness'
S a r a / s a r a h / 'a g i r l ' s name' vs. saya /sayah/ 'a n a t i v e

1
skirt '
bahaw /bahaw/ *:cold r i c e ' vs. bahay /bahay/ 'house'

:
kamaw /kamaw/ 'a b i g earthen
(hair)'
bowl* v s . kamay /kamay/ 'hand')
hiwa /hiw?/ ' s l i c e d ' v s . h i y a /hiya"?/ 'shame*
58
hiwas /hiwas/ ' o b l i q u e ' vs. h i y a s / h i y S s /
1
'jewel'
lawa /lawa?/ ' l a k e ' v s . l a y a / l a y a ? / 'freedom'

pakaw /p&kaw/ 'hoop' vs.? pakay /pdkay/ 'aim, o b j e c t '
sabaw /sabaw/ '^soup
vs. - sabay /sabay/ 'together; simultaneous'1
saklaw /saklSw/ ' w i t h i n the scope' v s . saklay / s a k l a y / 'hanging'sawa /sawab/ 'boa' vs.? saya /say&W ' j o y , gladness*!
tanaw /tanaw/
' v i s i b l e from a f a r ' v s . Tanay /tanay/ 'a town
i n Rizal.
taxia /tawah/ 'laugh, s m i l e ' vs.* t a y a / t a y a h /
'calculation'
t i w a /tfwah/ ' i n t e s t i n a l worm'! v s . t i y a / t f y a h / 'aunt'

irony'i
tuwa /tuwi?/ ' j o y , g l a d n e s s ' vs.- tuya /tuy?/ ' i n s u l t ;

wari / w a r i ? / ' i t
seems* v s . y a r i - / y a r i ? / 'make'
Double c o n t r a s t s a l s o occur i n Tagalog d i s y l l a b i c

u s u a l l y formed by r e d u p l i c a t i n g the s y l l a b l e .
t r a s t may be termed c o n t r a s t i v e d o u b l e t s .
roots,
T h i s type of con-
These are i l l u s t r a t e d
i n the f o l l o w i n g examples:
p/b
kapkap /kapkap/ ' f r i s k ' v s . kabkab /kabkab/ 'scrape o f f *
kupkop ^kupkop/ ' s h e l t e r e d ' v s . kubkob /kubkob/
'encircled'
laplap /laplap/ 'decorticated' vs. lablab /lablab/
'voracious
e a t i n g , as of a p i g '
l u p l o p / l u p l o p / ' s i t t i n g on a n e s t ' vs.' l u b l o b / l u b l o b /
pakpak /pakp&k/ 'wings' vs. bakbak /bakbk/ 'detached'
;
'wallowin
papa /papab/ 'papa, f a t h e r ' v s . baba /babab/ ' c a r r i e d on the back

papag /papag/ 'bamboo bed' v s . babag /bbag/ 'impact, c l a s h '
p a p e l / p a p L / 'paper' vs. Babel / b a b l l / 'Babel (Tower of B a b e l ) '
1
59
patpat /patp&t/ * s t i c k ' vs. batbat /batblit/ 'covered, adorned'

p i p i /pfpih/ 'mute, dumb' vs.' b i b i / b f b i h / 'young duck'
p i t p i t / p i t p f t / ' f l a t t e n by pounding' vs. b i t b i t / b i t b f t / 'carry'
pukpok /pukpSk/ 'beat, hammer' vs. bukbok /bukbSk/ 'weevil'
pudpod /pudpSd/ 'worn out' vs. budbofl. /budbSd/ 'scatter*
pulpol /pulp31/ 'blunt* vs.- bulbol /bulbSl/ ' h a i r '
pumpong /pumper)/ 'sheaf of r i c e ' vs. bumbong /bumboY}/ 'bamboo
container'
pupog /piJpog/ 'attack of a fowl' vs. bubog /btfbog/ ' c r y s t a l '
pupot /pup6*t/ 'cover the mouth with the finger tips* vs.- bubot
/bub6*t/ immature, unripe'
puspos /puspo's/ 'thoroughly' vs. busbbs /busbos/ 'operate on'
sapsap /sapsap/ ' a species of f i s h ' vs. sabsab /sabsao/ 'noisy
and voracious eating, as of a p i g '
supsop /supsop/ ' s i p , suck* vs. subsob /subsSb/ ' s t r i k e the
head against a horizontal surface'
t/d
k i t k i t / k i t k f t / 'scratched; disarranged' vs. kidkid /kidkfd/
' r o l l , reel'
patpat /patpaV ' s t i c k ' vs. padpad /padpa*d/ 'shipwrecked, d r i f t e d '
;
satsat /sats5t/ 'chat, chatter' vs. sadsad /sadsaaV 'anchored,

grounded'
sutsot /suts6*t/ ' w h i s t l e ' vs./ sudsod /suds6*d/ 'plowshare'
tastas /tastas/ 'unstitched* vs. dasdas /dasda's/ 'pared o f f
tut a /ttftah/ 'puppy' vs. duda /diSdah/ 'doubt'
60
k/g
l a k l a k / l a k l & k / 'gulp*
v s . l a g l a g / l a g l a g / " f a l l e n , dropped
l u k l o k /lukl6*k/ ' s i t (on a seat of honor)' v s . l u g l o g /lugl6*g/

'a k i n d of noodle
pakpak
/pakpak/
( p a n s i t l u g l o g ) *'
'wings' v s . pagpag /pagpag/ 'shake o f f
saksak /sakslik/ 'stab' vs. sagsag /sagsag/

1
'trot'
t a k t a k /taktalc/ ' j e r k and shake' v s . t a g t a g / t a g t a g /

tuktok /tukt6*k/ 'pate' v s . tugtog / t u g t o g /
'unfastened'
'music'
p/t
pakpak
/pakpak/
'wing' vs.' taktak
/takt5k/
j e r k and shake'
padpad /padpaa/ ' d r i v e n away by waves or wind' v s . t a d t a d / t a d t ^ d /

'chopped, minced'
pagpag /pagpag/ 'dust o f f v s . t a g t a g / t a g t a g /
'unfastened'
papag /papag/ 'bamboo bed' v s . t a t a g /ta"tag/ ' e s t a b l i s h ,
organize'
paspas /paspas/ 'dust o f f ; h u r r y ' v s . t a s t a s / t a s t a s / ' u n s t i t c h e d '

paypay /paypay/ 'fan; s h o u l d e r - b l a d e ' v s . t a y t a y / t a y t a y / 'bamboo
plank or b r i d g e '
p i k p i k / p i k p f k / 'pressed, compressed' vs.' t i k t i k / t i k t f k / 'spy'
p i p a /pfpah/
'cigarette pipe' vs. t i t a /txtah/
'aunt'
p i s p i s / p i s p f s / 'remnants on the t a b l e a f t e r meal' vs.i t i s t i s

/tistfs/
'surgical operation'
pukpok /pukptfk/
'beat, hammer' v s . tuktok / t u k t o k /
'pate; knock'
pugpog /pugpSg/ ' r o t t i n g of the end of wood' v s . tugtog / t u g t o g /

'music'
pupog /piSpog/ 'attack of a f o w l ' v s . t u t o g / t t f t o g / 'snuff
of c i g a r or c i g a r e t t e '
(ashes
61
t/k
tabtab / t a b t a o / 'hew, t r i m ' vs. kabkab /kabkao/ 'scrape o f f

1
t a d t a d /tadta"d/ 'chopped, minced' vs. kadkad /kadkd/

;
spread,
unfolded'
taltal /taltal/
' v e r b a l q u a r r e l ' vs. k a l k a l / k a l k a l /

1
'scraped;
scratched'
t a t a / t S t a h / 'grandfather' vs.: kaka /kalcah/ 'uncle, aunt'
tawtaw /tawtaw/ 'touch the t i p ( f i s h i n g r o d ) ' v s . kawkaw /kawkaw/
'dip
the hand i n t o the water and s t i r i t '
t a y t a y / t a y t a y / 'bamboo plank o r b r i d g e ' v s . kaykay /kaykay/

scratch !
1
tistls /tistfs/
' s u r g i c a l o p e r a t i o n ' v s . k i s k i s / k i s k f s / 'rub
against'
b/d
baboy /baooy/ ' p i g ' vs.' Dadoy /daôy/ 'a man's name'
bagbag /bagbag/ 'broken up ( l a n d ) ' v s . dagdag /dagdag/ ' a d d i t i o n '
basbas /basbas/ ' b l e s s i n g ; a b s o l u t i o n * v s ^ dasdas /dasdas/ 'chopped
off
busbos /busbos/ ' s u r g i c a l o p e r a t i o n ' vs.' dusdos /dusdos/ 'sarna
on the head'
butbot /butb'6"t/
the
finger
' d i g up, search' v s . dutdot /dutd6*t/

1 .
'poke with
62
d/g
daldal / d a l d a l / 'talkativeness' vs. galgal / g a l g a l / 'stupid, d u l l *
dasdas /dasd^s/ 'rasped, chopped o f f
vs.' gasgas /gasg^s/
'scratched'
dukdok /dukdSk/ 'pounded, p u l v e r i z e d ' v s . gukgok /gukg6*k/ 'grunt

of p i g s '
sadsad /sadsaa/ 'anchored, grounded
v s . sagsag /sagsag/
'trot'
b/m
babad /babaa/ 'thoroughly soaked i n l i q u i d ' v s . mamad /mamacL/
'softened
and s w o l l e n due t o exposure t o l i q u i d '
bubo /bu*boh/ 'a k i n d o f f i s h - t r a p ' vs.- mumo /mu*moh/ * p a r t i c l e s

of cooked r i c e l e f t a f t e r meal'
bubo /bilbo?/ ' c a s t , smelt' v s . mumo /mu*mo?/ 'ghost'
bubog /bubog/ ' c r y s t a l ' v s . mumog /mitmog/ ' g a r g l e '
busbos /busbos/ ' s u r g i c a l o p e r a t i o n '
vs.
musmos /musmos/ 'innocent'
d/n
damdam /damdam/ ' f e e l i n g ' v s . namnam /namnam/ ' t a s t e , savor*
dikdik /dikdfk/
*pounded, p u l v e r i z e d ' v s s n i k n i k / n i k n f k /
'a species
of f l y '
dutdot / d u t d S t / 'poke w i t h the f i n g e r ' v s . nutnot /nutnSt/ 'rub
o f f , wear away by f r i c t i o n '
g/*}
gaga /gagiab./ ' v i o l a t i o n o f c h a s t i t y ' vs. nganga /ijanab./ 'open
:
(mouth)'
g a l g a l / g a l g a l / ' s t u p i d , d u l l ' vs. n g a l n g a l
1
/nalnal/
'loudcrying'
63
gasgas /gasga's/
' s c r a t c h e d , worn out' v s . ngasngas
'loud empty t a l k i n g
/nasnas/
gatgat /gatga*t/ 'notch, dent' v s . ngatngat
/natnt/ 'gnaw'
gawgaw /gawgaw/ ' s t a r c h ' v s . ngawngaw /nawnaw/ ' u s e l e s s t a l k '

gutogot /gutg'ot/ 'entangled, d i s a r r a n g e d ' v s . ngutngot
'insistent requesting f o r
/nutnot/
something'
m/n
mama /mama?/ 'any man, m i s t e r ' v s . nana /nana?/ 'pus'
mismis /mismis/ ' p a r t i c l e s of food l e f t a f t e r the meal' v s .
n i s n i s / n i s n i s / 'raveled'
n/n
naknak
/naknak/
' s w e l l i n g , abscess' v s . ngakngak /nakn'&c/
'loud c r y i n g '
nana /nana?/ 'pus' v s . nganga /nna?/
nawnaw
/nawnaw/
'prepared buyo'
'to take r o o t , as p l a n t s ; germinate'
v s . ngawngaw
/nawnaw/ 'loud empty t a l k i n g '

n i s n i s / n i s n i s / ' r a v e l e d ' v s . ngi.sngis
/niseis/
nuynoy /nuynoy/ 'meditate' v s . nguyngoy /nuynoy/

c r y i n g over
'giggle'
'continuous
trifle'
t/s
tabtab / t a b t a V
'hewing:' 'vs. sabsab /sabsab/ 'voracious and n o i s y
e a t i n g , as of a p i g '
64
taktak /taktSk/ "jerk and shake* vs. saksak /saksiSk/ *stab*
tadtad /tadtaa/ 'chopped, minced* vs. sadsad /sadsaa/ 'anchored,
;
grounded'
tagtag /tagtag/ 'unfastened' vs.- sagsag /sagsag/ ' t r o t '
tantan /tantan/ 'cease, cessation* vs. sansan /sansan/ 'repeatedly,
incessantly'
tangtang /tanta*}/ ' p u l l and jerk' vs. sangsang /sansaij/ 'strong odor'
1
tastas /tastes/ 'unstitched' vs.> satsat /satsSt/ 'gossip'

tatag /tatag/ ' s t a b i l i t y ' vs. sasag
/sas5g/
' s p l i t bamboo'
taytay /taytay/ "bamboo plank' vs. saysay /saysay/ 'narration;

:
value'
t i b t i b / t i b t f b / "the end of sugar cane' vs. sibsib /sibsfb/ ' s e t t i n g
of the sun"
t i k t i k / t i k t f k / 'spy' vs.' s i k s i k / s i k s f k / 'crowded; insert i n t o '
t i g t i g / t i g t f g / ' j e r k i n g and shaking' vs.' s i g s i g / s i g s f g / "torch
made of s p l i t bamboo'
timtim /timtffm/ 'sufferance' vs.; simsim /simsfm/ ' t a s t e '
tingting / t i n t f n / 'midrib of palm leaves' vs.* singsing / s i n s f n /
'ring'
tuktok /tukt<5k/ 'pate; knock' vs. suksok /suksSk/ ' i n s e r t i n t o '
tungtong /tun,t<5n/ 'cover for pots' vs. sungsong /sunsSn/ ' s a i l
against the wind
tutog /tiStog/ 'snuff, e . g . , cigars' vs. susog /susog/ 'amendment'
s/h
sabsab /sabs&b/ 'voracious and noisy eating, as of a pig* vs.
habhab /habhab/ 'attack by a dog or p i g '
65
sadsad /sadsa'd/ 'anchored, grounded' vs. hadhad /hadhacl/ 'rub
1
vigorously'
sangsang
/sai^sa^/ ' s t r o n g odor' v s . hanghang /hanharj/
'peppery'
s u t s o t /sutso*t / ' w h i s t l e vs. huthot /huthe*t/ ' s i p , suck'

1
?/h
i n i n / ? l n ? f n / 'leave ( r i c e ) on t h e f i r e a f t e r i t has been
cooked'
vs.' h i n h i n / h i n h f n / 'modesty'
uirot /?ut?'3t/ 'keep or h o l d food i n the mouth without chewing
it'
vs. huthot /huth6*t/ 'sipped, sucked'

;
n/1
naknak /naknak/ ' s w e l l i n g ' vs.' l a k l a k /lakla'k/ 'gulp'
1
namnam /namnam/ ' t a s t e , savor' vs. lamlam /lamlam/

1
'flickering
light'
nawnaw /nawnaw/ 'to take r o o t , as p l a n t s ' v s . lawlaw /lawlaw/
'dangling''
nugnog /nugnog/ 'nearness' vs. l u g l o g / l u g l o g /
:
'shake'
nuynoy /nuynoy/ 'meditate' vs.' luyJLoy / l u y l o y / 'hanging
loosely'
w/y
kawkaw /kawkaw/ ' s t i r r i n g l i q u i d with the hand* v s . kaykay
/kaykay/ ' s c r a t c h i n g of c h i c k e n '
tawtaw /tawtaw/ 'touch the t i p , e.g., f i s h i n g r o d ' v s . t a y t a y
/ t a y t a y / *a bamboo plank o r b r i d g e '
wawa /wawa?/ 'mouth of a r i v e r ' v s . yaya /yaya?/
'invitation'
66
Double c o n t r a s t s a l s o occur i n Tagalog words of t h r e e or
more s y l l a b l e s , as i n the f o l l o w i n g examples:
halakhak
/halakhSk/
'outburst of l a u g h t e r ' v s . halaghag
/halaghag/
} careless'saluksok
/saluksSk/
/salugs<5g/
'anything c a r r i e d a t the w a i s t ' vs.
'downpour of p e r s p i r a t i o n '
/palakpa*k/
'go through
salugsog
'search, i n v e s t i g a t e '
pagakpak /pagakpak/ ' f l a p p i n g of wings' v s . tagaktak
palakpak
/tagakt^k/
' c l a p , applause' vs. t a l a k t a k / t a l a k t a k /
or a c r o s s '
pagatpat /pagatp^t/
'a s p e c i e s of t r e e ' v s . pagakpak /pagakpa*k/
' f l a p p i n g of wings'
t a l u k t o k /talukt<5k/ 'top, summit' vs.' saluksok
/saluksSk/
' c a r r i e d a t the w a i s t , e.g. bolo*

t a l u d t o d /taludtocL/ 'row,
f i l e ' vs.' saludsod /saluds6*d/
'uproot
grass w i t h a b l u n t instrument'
tagunton /tagunton/
' i n q u i r e i n t o , i n v e s t i g a t e ' v s . sagunson
/sagunson/ 'hem i n '

tagimtim /tagimtfm/
'go i n t o , seep' vs. sagimgim /sagimsifm/

1
'premonition';
taliktik /taliktfk/
'sonorous v o i c e ' v s . s a l i k s i k
/saliksfk/
'research'
t i b a t i b / t i b a " t i b / ' d i r t on the s k i n ' v s . s i b a s i b /sibsib/ 'rush
against
tigatig
violently'
/tigStig/
'annoyance? e x c i t e to a c t i o n ' vs.
/sigsig/ ' d i l i g e n c e '
sigasig
67
tari tari
/taritari /
?
'different
'slanderous
gossip' vs. s a r i s a r i
/sarisari?/
kinds'
palapala /palapalah/
'platform;
improvised
c a n o p y fitom b r a n c h e s '
vs. parapara /paraparah/ 'everything, a l l '

halimhim /halimhfm/ 'brood, hatch'
vs. h a l i n h i n / h a l i n h f n /
'replace, substitute*
h a l i n h i n / h a l i n h f n / ' r e p l a c e ' vs. h a l i n g h i n g / h a l i n h i n / 'neigh
of a
horse
kalawkaw /kalawkaw/ ' s t i r l i q u i d w i t h the hand' v s .

/kalaykay/
kalaykay
'rake'
b u t u h a n / b u t u h a h / ' s k i n n y , bony' v s . b o t o h a n / b o t o h a h / ' e l e c t i o n '

Double transposed
contrasts are very
with a reduplicated closed syllable.
common i n T a g a l o g w o r d s
For i n s t a n c e , /b/
contrasts
w i t h / d / i n b u d b o d / b u d b o d / ' s c a t t e r ' v s . dubdob / d u b d o b /

The
initial
terchange
and
final
forming
final positions.
'blaze'.
sounds of the r e d u p l i c a t e d s y l l a b l e i n -
a contrast i n s y l l a b l e - i n i t i a l
and
syllable-
Examples of t h i s type of c o n t r a s t s are
the
following;
bakbak / b a k b l k /
'detached' vs. kabkab /kabkao/ 'scraped
off
b a l b a l / b a l b a l / 'slang' vs. l a b l a b / l a b l a o / 'voracious

basbas /basbas/ ' b l e s s i n g ' vs. sabsab
voracious
/sabsab/
'noisy
eating'
and
eating'
kapkap /kapkap/ ' f r i s k '

kidkid /kidkid/
'roll,
v s . pakpak /pakpalt/
reel'
'wings'
v s . d i k d i k / d i k d i k / 'pounded,
pulverized'
kubkob
/kubk6b/
' e n c i r c l e ' v s . b u k b o k /bukb6*k/ ' w e e v i l '
68
kudkod /kudkSd/
scraped off* vs.< dukdok /dukdo"k/ 'pounded*
kupkop /kupkop/ isheltered* vs.' pukpok /pukpo*k/ 'beat} hammer'

kutkot /kutkoV
scrape' vs.i tuktok /tukt6k/ 'pate'
dasdas /dasds/ pared o f f vs.i sadsad /sadsaa./ 'anchored':

dibdib /dibdifb/ chest' v s . bidbid /bidbfd/ ' r o l l , r e e l '
dubdob /dubd'Sb/ blaze' v s . budbod /budb6*d/ ' s c a t t e r '
worn
dusdos /dusdos/
sarnaôn the head' v s . sudsod /sudsocl/ 'plow_ share':
g i t g i t /gitgt/ wale* vsJ t i g t i g / t i g t f g / ''jerking and shaking'
gusgos /gusgSs/
investigate untidiness' v s . sugsog /sugs'Sg 'search,
gutgot /gutg'St/ disarranged, uncombed' vs.- tugtog /tugtog/
'music'
laklak / l a k l a V
gulp' vs.i kalkal /kalkaU/ 'scrape'
ladlad /ladled/
unfurled' vs.i daldal /daldal/ 'talkativeness'
laglag /laglag/ f a l l e n ' ' vs.' galgal /galgal/ 'stupid':

lublob /lubl6"b/ wallowing* vs.' bulbol /bulb'&L/ ' h a i r '
luplop /luplop/ s i t t i n g on a nest'i vs.' pulpol /pulp&L/ 'blunt'
mismis /mismfs/ good remnants on the table' vs.' simslm /simsfm/
'taste'
namnam /namnam/
taste J savor*' vs.' manman /manmah/ 'observe,
spy on'
nisnis
/nisnis/
'raveled' vs.' s i n s i n / s i n s f n / ' c l o s e , e.g.,weave'
nutnot /nutnSt/ rub o f f vs.* tunton /tuntoh/ 'follow*

1
ngasngas /nasnas/ 'loud empty t a l k i n g ' vs.1 sangsang /sansajj/

'strong odor*!
69
ngatngat /n.atrja't/ 'gnaw' vs. tangtang /tantar}/ ' p u l l and jerk'

ngawngaw /ijawnaw/ 'loud empty talk* vs. wangwang /wanwarj/
1
'wide open*
ngisngis /ijisqfs/ 'giggle* vs. singsing / s i n s f n / ' r i n g '

1
padpad /padpaa/ 'driven by waves* vs.* dapdap /dapdap/ ' a species

of tree'
pikpik /pikpfk/ 'pressed, compressed' vs. kipkip /kipkfp/ 'carry
;
under the armpit'

puspos /puspos/ 'thoroughly'^ vs. sups op /supsop/ ' s i p , suck'
1
saksak /saks^k/ 'stab* vs.i kaskas /kaska"s/ 'scrape'

sagsag /sagsag/ ' t r o t ' vs. gasgas /gasgas/ 'scratched'
1
sapsap /sapsap/ ' a species of f i s h ' vs.' paspas /paspas/ 'dust o f f

satsat /satsa*t/ 'chat' vs. tastas /tastes/ unstitched'
1
s i k s i k / s i k s f k / 'crowded' vs.' k i s k i s / k i s k f s / 'rub against*

suksok/suks6"k/ ' i n s e r t i n t o ' vs. kuskos /kuskos/ 'husk'
sipsip / s i p s f p / ' s i p , suck' vs.) pispis /pispfs/ 'remnants on
the table after meal'
tabtab /tabtab/ 'hewing' vs. batbat /batba"t/ 'covered, adorned'
1
tagtag /tagtag/ 'unfastened ' vss gatgat /gatg&t/ 'notch'

1
t i b t i b /tibtifb/ 'the end of sugar cane' vs. b i t b i t / b i t b f t /

' carry'
tustos / tusto**/ 'support, supply> vs. sutsot /sutsoV 'whistle'

wakwak /wakw'^k/ ' b i g or long tear or rend*' vs.' kawkaw /kawkaw/
' s t i r , e.gs, l i q u i d '
yasyas /yasya*s/ 'scrape ' vss saysay /saysay/ 'narration; value'
1
70
e
iwan /?fwan/ 'to l e a v e (someone)
v s . ewan /?ewan/ 'ignorance
or d e n i a l of something'
b i l a / b f l a h / ' s p l i t bamboo used as reenforcement * v s . b e l a
/be*lah/ ' s a i l of a boat'
bilo /bfloh/ 'ball, r o l l
( f l o u r or r i c e ) ' v s . b e l o /he'loh/
b i n t a / b f n t a h / 'Moro v i n t a or canoe' v s . benta
'veil'
/bentah/'sales'
mina /mfnah/ 'mine' v s . Mena /menah/ 'a g i r l ' s name
Misa /mfsah/ 'Mass' v s . mesa /m^sah/ 'table*

sili
/sflih/
'pepper' v s . Gely / s e * l i h / 'a g i r l ' s name'
Singson /sifrjson/ 'a f a m i l y name' v s . Sengson /season/
'another
f a m i l y name'
t i l a /tjflah/
'maybe, perhaps' v s . t e l a /t'elah/ ' c l o t h ,
T i n a / t f n a h / 'a g i r l ' s name' v s . tena /tenah/
fabric
' l e t ' s go'
t i n i s / t i f n i s / ' s h r i l l n e s s of v o i c e ' v s . t e n i s / t e n i s / ' t e n n i s '

i
b i k a s / b f k a s / ' f i g u r e , p o s t u r e ' v s . bukas /biikas/ 'tomorrow'

biklat /bikl^t/
' d i s j o i n e d , spread out' v s . b u k l a t /buklt/ 'open'
b i n i / b f n i h / 'modesty' v s . buni / b u n i h /
binyag / b i n y a g /
'herpes'
'baptism/ v s . bunyag /bunyag/ 'exposed, known'
k i l a y / k f l a y / 'eyebrow' vs.' kulay /kiSlay/

k i l o A l i o * ? / 'bent,
crooked'
'color'
v s . k u l o /kul5?/ ' b o i l i n g '
k i r o t /kir6"t/ 'smart, s t i n g i n g p a i n ' v s . kurot / k u r o t / 'pinch'

d i l a / d f l a ? / 'tongue' v s . d u l a /diSla?/ 'play'
71
h i l a / h f l a h / ' p u l l ' vs.i h u l a /hu*lah/ 'hula dance'
ika
/?ik5?/
' l i m p i n g ' vs;< uka /?uka"?/ 'dug up, hollowed*
ikit /?fkit/
' t u r n ' vs.; u k i t /?u*kit/ ' c a r v i n g ; groove'
ihaw /?ifhaw/
' r o a s t ' vs. uhaw /?uhaw/ ' t h i r s t '

1
i l a n / ? i l a h / 'how many' vs.' u l a n / ? u l a h /
'rain'
i l a n g / ? i l a r j / 'wide open space, d e s o l a t e p l a c e ' vs.- u l a n g / ? u l a r j /

'lobster'
l i k o t /lik6"t/ 'mischievousness'
v s . i l u k o t /luko"t/ 'crumpled'
ligas /ligas/
'a s p e c i e s of shrub*
v s . lugas / l u g a s / ' f a l l i n g o f f
ligaw /lfgaw/
' c o u r t s h i p ' vs;' lugaw / lifgaw/ ' r i c e g r u e l '
l i h a / l f h a ? / 'a s e c t i o n of f r u i t l i k e orange* vs.' l u h a / l u h a ? /

1
'tears'
p i l a / p i l a h / 'chipped
o f f (edges or corners) vs.. p u l a
/pulah/
'red'
pilas /pilas/
' r e n t , r i p p e d ' vs. pulas / p u l a s / 'escape'

1
p i s o n / p l s 6 h / 'steam r o l l e r ' v s . puson /pusoh/
'hypogstftrium'
p i s t a / p i s t a h / ' h o l i d a y , feastday*' vs.' p u s t a /pustah/ 'bet'

p i t o / p f t o h / ' c i g a r e t t e p i p e ' vs. puto /pu"toh/ *rice bun*
1
s i k o / s i k o h / 'shove with the elbow' vs.' suko /sukoh/ 'up t o

:
the l i m i t of a distance*'
siha /sfha?/ * s l i t
of f i n g e r s * ' v s . i suha /suha?/ 'a s p e c i e s of
orange*
s i l o n g /s-flon/ 'the space below the house*: vs.* sulong /siSion/
'go ahead'
s i n o k /sino"k/ 'hiccough'
vs. sunok /sunSk/

!
'surfeit'
t i b a / t i b S ? / 'to c u t down (banana f r u i t ) *' vs.' tuba /tubS?/ 'an

i n t o x i c a t i n g d r i n k from palms'
72
tilis /tills/
'lye* vs. t u l i s / t u l f s /
'pointed'
t i n g g a /tirjg?/ 'lead (metal)' v s . tungga /tungS?/

t i p i / t i p f ? / ''well-compressed'
vs. tupi /tupf?/ 'fold,
t i b o / t f b o ? / ' p r i c k , t h o r n ' v s . tubo /tubo?/

e
'growth;
folded'
profit
b e l a /be*lah/ ' s a i l of a boat' v s . b o l a / b o l a h /

beses /be'ses/ 'number of times' v s . boses
bote
' d r i n k , gulp'
'ball'
/b<5ses/ ' v o i c e '
/bSteh/ ' b o t t l e ' v s . boto /b5toh/ 'vote'
Eden /?eden/ 'Eden, P a r a d i s e * v s . Edon _/?ed:6n/ 'a boy's name'

gera /ge*rah/ 'war' v s . gora /g6*rah/ 'cap
peste / p e s t e h / 'pest', epidemic' v s . poste /posteh/ 'post, p i l l a r '

renda /re*ndah/
' r e i n ' v s . ronda
r e s e t a /res&tah/
/r5ndah/ 'night p a t r o l '
'doctor's p r e s c r i p t i o n s ' v s . Roseta /rose'tah/
' a g i r l ' s name'
vi
bubo /bilboh/ 'a b a s k e t - l i k e c o n t r a p t i o n used f o r t r a p p i n g f i ^ s h or

shrimps' v s . bobo
/b<5boh/ ' s t u p i d , d u l l '
bukal / b u k a l / 'water s p r i n g ' v s . bokal /bokl/ 'a member of a

p r o v i n c i a l governing body'
buhol
/buhSl/ 'knot' v s . Bohol /hohSl/ 'Bohol c i t y '
buling /billin/
'smut, smudge' v s . h o l i n g / b o l i n /
butas /butas/ 'hole' v s . botas
'bowling'
/b5tas/ 'boots'
kura
/kiSrah/ ' p r i e s t , c l e r g y ' v s . Cora /k5rah/ 'a g i r l ' s name'
muna
/milnah/ 'beforehand' v s . Mona /monah/ 'a g i r l ' s name'
mura /murah/ 'cheap' v s . Mora

uso /?u*soh/
/mSrah/ 'a Moslem g i r l '
' f a s h i o n , vogue' v s . oso /7'6'soh/ 'bear'
73
The
completely minimal p a i r s of words d i s t i n g u i s h e d by / d /
v s / / r / , /!/ vs.' / e / and / u / vs.' /o/ c o n t r a s t s
(historically
a l l o p h o n i c ) a r e but few.*! However, t h e r e a r e many Tagalog words

c l o s e t o minimal c o n t r a s t s .
The f o l l o w i n g i s a sample l i s t i n g
of these near-minimal c o n t r a s t s :
d/r
daga /dagah/ 'dagger ' vs. raha /rahah/
1
'frajah'f
danyos /dahyos/ 'damaged vs.* rayos / r a y o s / 'ispoke of a wheel*

d a t a l / d a t a ! / * a r r i v a l *i vs. r a t a n / r a t a h / ' r a t t a n '
(
daya /daya?/ ' d e c e i t , f r a u d ' vs;i r a y a / r a y a h /
'linemark'
dayaml /daya*mih/ 'straw' v s J rayuma /rayu*mah/ 'rheumatism*d i d a l / d i d a l / 'thimble'' vs.' r i b a l / r i b a l /

d i p a / d i p a h / 'sideward
'rival'
e x t e n s i o n of t h e arms' vs.' r i p a /rpah/
'lottery*!
d u l o / d t i l o h / ''end', vs.* r o l y o /r6*lyoh/ ' r o l l '
dusa /diSsah/ 'sorrow, s u f f e r i n g ' * vs.i Rosa / r o s a h /
'a g i r l ' s name'
i/e
a r i n a /?ar;fnah/ ' f l o u r ' vs.' reyna /re*ynah/
'queen, muse*
a t i s / ? a ! t i s / 'a s p e c i e s of f r u i t ' s vs.* a t e /T&teh/ ' e l d e r s i s t e r '

b i k a s / b f k a s / 'posture, b u i l t ' vs.'i pekas /pgkas/ ' f r e c k l e s '
b i k t i / b i k t l h / ' k i l l by hanging' vs. berde /berdeh/
1
bihon /bfhon/
'green*:
'a k i n d of noodle' v s . beho /behoh/ ' o l d , aged*
b i l i n / b f l i n / ''order; a d v i c e b e f o r e leaving'' vs. Belen / b e l e h /

1
k i t a / k f t a h / 'earning' vsi' ketong /ke*ton/ ' l e p r o s y '

1
k l i m a /klfmah/
''climate' vs.i krema /kremah/ 'cream'
74
kundi /kundf?/ 'but, except' v s . konde /kondeh/ 'count'
g i r a y / g f r a y / 'swaying movement' v s . gera /gerah/ 'war'
h i b i / h f b i h / ' d r i e d shrimps' v s . hepe /hepeh/ ' c h i e f , boss'
hili
/hfli?/
'envy' v s . h e l e /he*leh/ ' c r a d l e songs,
lullaby'
h i n t a y / h i n t a y / 'wait' v s . Tentay / t e n t a y / 'a woman's name'

h i t o / h f t o ? / 'a k i n d of f i s h ' vs. heto /he*toh/ 'here i t i s '
1
i h i / ? f h i ? / 'urine* v s . ehe /?ebeh/
'axle'
L i n d a / l f n d a h / 'a g i r l ' s name' vs.' renda /rendah/

lintik /lintfk/
liit
/li?ft/
'lightning' vs. lente / l l n t e h /
'smallness' v s . l e e g / l e ? l g /
'rein'
'flashlight'
'neck'
n i n a /ninab./ 'of them, by them' v s . Nena /nenah/ 'a g i r l ' s name'

pikit /pfkit/
' c l o s e the eyes' v s . t i k e t / t f k e t /
'ticket'
p i h o /pfhoh/ ' c e r t a i n , sure' v s . pero /pe*roh/ 'but'

p i l a / p f l a h / ' l i n e , queue' v s . p e r a /pe*rah/ 'money'
p i l a s / p f l a s / .'tear, rend' v s . peras / p e r a s / 'pear'
p i p i / p i f p i h / 'mute and dumb' v s . Pepe / p l p e h / 'a boy's name'
p i s a /pis?/
'hatched; crushed' v s . pesa /pe"sa?/ *a k i n d of
native dish'
p i s t a /pistab./ ' f e a s t , h o l i d a y ' v s . p e s t e /pe'steh/ 'pest'
sila /silab/
'they' v s . S e l a /s&Lah/ 'a woman's name'
silo /sflo?/
' t r a p , snare' v s . S e l o /seUoh/ 'a man's name'
s i l y a / s i l y a b / ' c h a i r ' v s . s e l y o /se*lyoh/ 'stamp'

t i n d a / t i n d a b / 'goods f o r s a l e ' v s . benda /b'endah/ 'bandage'
u/o
b l u s a /bliSsah/ 'blouse' v s . bloke / b l o k e h / 'block'
bruha /bruhah/
'witch' v s . b r o t s a /br'6tsah/ ' p a i n t e r ' s brush'
75
bubo /bilbo?/ ' c a s t , smelt' vs.' bobo /boboh/ ' s t u p i d , d u l l '
bukal /buka"!/ 'water s p r i n g ' vs.' l o k a l / l o k S l /
'local*
b u l a /bvilS9/ 'bubble* v s . b o l a / b o l a h / ' b a l l * buno /bun'<5?/ ' w r e s t l i n g ' vs.i bono /b5noh/ 'bond'
b u n t a l /buntl/
' f i s t c u f f s ' vs.' mortal / m o r t a l / 'mortal'
b u t l /bu*tih/ 'goodness'
buto /butob/
vs." bote /boteh/

1
'bottle'
''bone; seed' v s . boto /bo'toh/ 'vote '

1
k u l a / k u l a b / 'bleach c l o t h e s under the sun' vs.i k o l a /k&Lah/

''glue, p a s t e '
kundi /kundif?/ 'but, except' vs.i konde /kdndeh/ "count'
kupya /kupy?/
'icircumflex accent mark' vs.) kopya /kopyah/
k u r a /kitrah/ ' p r i e s t , c l e r g y ' vs.* gora /g<5rah/ 'cap
'copy'
1,
kuro /kuro?/ ' o p i n i o n ' vs.' koro /k&roh/ "choir*

kurso /kursoh/ ' d i a r r h e a ' v s . k o t s o /kotsSh/ ' c o r k - s o l e d s l i p p e r s '
k u r t i n a /kurtifnah/ ''curtain' vs.' morpina /morpifnah/ 'morphine'
k u t a /ku*ta?/ ' f o r t ' vs.' k o t a /k&tah/
'quota'
kutson/kuts6n/ "cushion' vs. k o t s e /ko'tseh/ 'car''

1
gulpe /gulpeb/ 'blow, strike's v s ^ t o r p e /to/peh/
'stupid'
gumon /gumon/ 'addicted; r o l l i n g ' v s s goma /gomah/ 'rubber'

guro /guro?/ ' t e a c h e r " v s s gora /g6"rah/ 'cap'
l u k o t / l t f k o t / "crumple*! v s s l o k o / l o k o h / "crazy, f o o l '
lumot /ltfmot/ 'moss" vs.' lomo /lomoh/ ' l o i n '
l u o y /lu?'6y/ 'withered' vs.' l o o k /lo?6*k/ "bay"
l u r a /lura*?/ "sputum" vs. l o r o / l o r o h /
1
'parrot'
l u s a k / l t t s a k / 'mire, mud' v s . l o s a / l o s a h / " p o r c e l a i n
(plate)'
l u t o / I t f t o ? / 'cooked' vs. l o t e /l'6teh/ ' l o t '

;
muna /mtfnah/ 'beforehand' vs.' moda /m'Sdah/ ' f a s h i o n , vogue"
76
mundo /mundoh/ 'world* vs.' modo /mo'doh/ 'manners'
p u l o t /pulo*t/ 'honey'* vs.- poot /po?<5t/ 'hate'
puri
/ptfirih/
' p r a i s e , honor' vs.' t o r e /t'oreh/
puso /pftso?/ 'heart' vs. poso /posoh/

1
putal
/putctl/
/tot1/
suno /suho?/
'tower'
' a r t e s i a n well*:
'amount i n excess of round numbers' vs. t o t a l

!
'total'
' l i v e w i t h a person o r f a m i l y ' vs.- sona /sohah/
zone*
suob /su?6b/
'fumigation'
vs.' l o o b / l o ? 5 b / ' i n s i d e , i n t e r i o r '
tumba /tumbah/ ' f a l l e n down' v s . i bomba /b&mbah/

1
'bomb'
tuna /tuhah/ 'tuna f i s h ' vs. tono /tohoh/ 'tone, tune'

1
tunay /tuhay/ ' r e a l , t r u e ' vs.* Tonang /tonan/ 'a woman's name'tupa /tiSpah/ 'sheep' v s . toga /to'gah/ 'cap and gown'
upa /?u*pah/
' r e n t ' vs.' kopa /kopah/ 'wine cup'
upak /?upak/ 'sheath of banana p l a n t ' vs.' opal / ? o p a l /

upo /?u*poh/ 'gourd' vs.' opo /?6po?/
upong /?iSpon/ 'at the p o i n t o f
Cebu C i t y '
'opal'
'yes, s i r '
vs.' Opon /?'opon/ 'a town i n
77
The f o l l o w i n g sample l i s t i n g i l l u s t r a t e s t h e five-way

c o n t r a s t o f Tagalog vowels: / i /
vs.' / e / v s . / u / v s . /o/ vs.'
a t i s /?ttis/ a s p e c i e s of t r e e and i t s f r u i t *
f
ate /l&teh/
* elder sister*
atubill /?atubflih/
atole
atas
/?at6leh/
/?5tas/
'hesitance'
' f l o u r gruel*
'order, command'
b i k a s / b f k a s / 'posture,
built'
pekas /pSkas/ ' f r e c k l e s '

bukas /btfkas/
'tomorrow'
b o k a l /boka"l/ 'a member of a p r o v i n c i a l governing
body*
bakas /ba*kas/ ' f i n a n c i a l p a r t n e r s h i p i n gambling'

bikat /hfkat/ 'large scar'
beki /be*ki?/ 'mumps''
bukal /buka"!/ 'water s p r i n g *
bokal /boka*l/ 'a member of a p r o v i n c i a l governing
bakal /bak'Sl/ ' p l a n t i n g r i c e on upland'
body'
78
b i k o / b f k o h / 'a k i n d of r i c e
cake
beho /b'ehoh/ ' o l d , aged*

bubo /bilbo?/ " c a s t , smelt*
bobo /b6*boh/ ' s t u p i d , d u l l *
baho /bahoh/ 'bass (tone or v o i c e ) '
B i k o l / b f k o l / 'Bicol region*
b e k i /be*ki?/ *mumps'
bukol / b i l k o l / ' b o i l ,
swelling'
Bohol / b o h S l / 'Bohol
city'
bakol
/b5kol/
' l a r g e basket*
b i h o n /bfhon/ 'a k i n d of noodle'

beho /b'e*hoh/ ' o l d , aged*
buhol /buho*l/ 'knot'
Bohol / b o h o l / 'Bohol
city'
baho /baho?/ ' d i s a g r e e a b l e odor'

b i l a / b f l a h / ' s p l i t bamboo used as reenforcement*
b e l a /be*lah/ ' s a i l of a boat'
b u l a /btfla?/ ' l i e , f a l s e h o o d '
b o l a /b&Lah/ ' b a l l '
b a l a /b&lah/
'bullet'
b i l i h a n / b i l f h a n / 'to buy
from'
b e t o h i n / b e t o h i n / 'to v e t o '
butuhan /butuhah/
'skinny, bony'
botohan /botohah/
'election*
batuhan /batuhah/
'stony p l a c e '
79
b i l i n / b f l i n / 'order; a d v i c e b e f o r e l e a v i n g '
B e l en /bel'en/ 'a g i r l ' s name*
b u l i n g / b i S l i n / 'smut, smudge'
boling /bolin/
'bowling*
baling /balln/
'turn, i n c l i n a t i o n '
b i n o (de kina) /bfnoh/
'a k i n d o f wine'
Benus /benus/ 'Venus'

buno /bun<5?/ ' w r e s t l i n g '
bono /bonoh/ 'bond'
banyo /babyoh/ 'bathroom*
b i t i n / b f t i n / 'hang*'
B e t t y /be*tih/ *a g i r l * s name'
buti /btftih/
goodness'
bote
bottle'
/b5teh/
bati /batfh/
Bito
/bftoh/
stir,
beat'-
'a man's name*
beto /bStoh/
veto'
buto /but 6b/
bone;
boto /b'Stoh/
vote*'
bato /bat'<5h/
'stone;
seed*
kidney'
bigada /brig'aaah/ * brigade*Bretanya /bretanyah/
'Britain
1 ,
bruha /brtfhah/ 'witch'

b r o t s a /bro'tsah/ ' p a i n t e r ' s brush'
braso /br&soh/ 'arm'
80
kilo
/kfloh/
kilo'
keso
/kesoh/
cheese*
kula /kulah/
bleach*
kola /k6lah/
g l u e , paste*;
k a l a /kUlah/
tortoise'
k i l o /kilo"?/
'crooked, curved
b e l o /b&Loh/
veil''
k u l o /kul<5?/
boiling'
k o l a /k 6*1 ah/
glue, paste'
k a l o /kale*?/
pulley'
k i n d i n g / k i n d f n / ' a f f e c t e d gait''
kendi / k e h d l h / 'candy'
kundi /kundif?/ 'but, e x c e p t
1,
konde /kohdeh/ 'count''

k a n d i l a / k a n d f l a ? / 'candle'
k i s a / k f s a ? / ' c e r e a l s mixed w i t h r i c e '
kesa /ke"sah/
'than'
kura /ktfrah/ ' p r i e s t , clergy'
Cora /k'Srah/ 'a g i r l ' s name'

k a r a /karah/ 'head s i d e of the c o i n '
k i t a /ktah/ ' v i s i b l e from a d i s t a n c e '
ketong /ke"ton/ 'leprosy*'
k u t a /ktfta?/
'fort*
k o t a /ko*tah/ 'quota*
k a t a / k a t a h / 'we
(dual)
81
i h i / ? f h i ? / 'urine'
ehe
/?e*heh/ 'axle'
uha
/?uh'^?/ ' c r y of a new-born babe
oho
/?6ho?/ 'yes ( l e s s f o r m a l ) '
ahon /?ahon/ 'to l a n d , ascend'

i p a /?ipah/
'chaff
epiko / ? e p i k 6 h / ' e p i c '

upa
/?upah/ ' r e n t , pay'
kopa /kopah/ 'wine cup'

apa /?apah/ 'wafer'
ipil /?fpil/
'a s p e c i e s
of t r e e '
epiko /?epik6h/ ' e p i c '

upa
/?u*pah/ 'rent, pay'
opal / ? o p a l /
apaw /?apaw/
'opal'
'overflowing'
i s a / ? i s a h / 'one'
ESSO /?e*soh/ 'ESSO gas'
usa /?usah/ 'deer'
oso /?6soh/ 'bear'
asa /?asah/ 'hope'
giray /gfray/
'stagger,
totter'
gera /gerah/ 'war'

guro /guro?/
'teacher'
gora /gorah/ 'cap'

gara /gara?/ ' b e a u t i f u l , s p l e n d i d '
82
h i b i / b f b i h / ' d r i e d shrimps'
hepe /hepeh/ ' c h i e f , boss*
hupa /hupa"?/ 'appeasement, m i t i g a t i o n '
hopya /hopya"?/ 'a k i n d of Chinese bun'
habi /habih/
'weave*
h i l i k / h i l f k / * snore*
h e l e /he*leh/
'lullaby'
h u l i / h t f l i h / 'catch'
honda /hondah/ 'Honda b i k e '
halik /halfk/ 'kiss'
h i p o n /hfpon/ 'shrimp'
hepe /he*peh/ ' c h i e f , boss'
upong /fiSpon/ 'at the p o i n t of '
Opon /?6pon/ a town I n Cebu'i
hapon /hapon/
'afternoon'
l i b o /Ifboh/
'thousand'
leon /le?on/
'lion*
lubo
/lub5?/
'depression i n the ground'
l o b o /l'Sboh/ ' b a l l o o n '

labo /labo?/ ' i n d i s t i n c t n e s s ;
turbidity'
l i k o t / l i k ' S t / 'movement'
l e g a l / l e g a l / 'lawful, l e g a l '
l u k o t /luk<5t/ 'crumpled'
l o k o /l6"koh/ 'crazy, f o o l '
l a k o /lko?/ 'goods b e i n g s o l d around'
83
liit
/li?ft/
'smallness,
littleness*
l e e g /le?g/ 'neck'
luoy /lu?6y/
'withered'
look / l o ? o V 'bay'
l a o n /la?6n/ ' o l d '
limot /ifmot/
'forget*
lente /lenteh/
'flashlight*
lumot /liJmot/ 'moss*

lomo /lomoh/- ' l o i n '
lamo /lamoh/
'raft'
L i n a / l f n a h / *a g i r l ' s name*
Nena /nenah/ *a g i r l ' s name'
Luna / l u n a h / 'a f a m i l y name'
La Loma / l a lomah/ 'La Loma Cemetery'
l a n a / l a n a h / 'wool'
Linda /lfndah/
renda /rendah/ r e i n '

1
ronda /rohdah/ 'night p a t r o l '

lundag / l u n d a g / 'jump'
landas /landa's/ 'path, way'
l i n t i k / l i n t f k / 'lightning'
lente /lenteh/
lunti
'flashlight'
/ l u n t f ? / 'green'
lomo /lomoh/
'loin'
l a n t i k / l a n t f k / 'bend, curve'
8k
lira /ifrah/
'lyre
l e t r a /l&trah/
letter*
l u r a /lura^?/ 'sputum*
loro /loroh/
'parrot'
L a r a / l a r a h / 'a g i r l ' s name
L i s a / l f s a h / 'a g i r l ' s name'

letse
(kondensada) /le*tseh/ 'milk (condensed)'
l u s a k / l t f s a k / 'mire, mud'
l o s a /l'osah/
'porcelain
lasa /lasah/
'taste'
litid /lftid/
(plate)'
'ligament'
L e t t y /re*tih/ *a g i r l ' s name'

lunti
/ l u n t f ? / 'green'
l o t e /l6*teh/
lot'
lati
marsh'
/l&ti?/
mina /mfnah/
mine'
Mena /mehah/
a woman's name'
muna /muhah/
beforehand'
Mona /mohah/
a g i r l ' s name'
mana /mahah/
inheritance'
nina /ninah/
of them, by them'
Nena /nehah/
a g i r l ' s name'
nuno /nuho?/
forefather'
nonong /nohon/ 'a boy'

Nano /naho?/ 'a man's name'
85
n g i n g i / n f n i ? / 'the angle between f i n g e r s o r t o e s '
nene /nine?/
'little
girl'
nguso/fylso?/ 'upper l i p '

ngongo /n8nol/ 'speaking with a n a s a l twang'
nganga /n&na?/ 'prepared buyo'
p i l a / p f l a h / ' l i n e , queue'
p e r a /pe*rah/ 'money'
p u l a / p u l a h / 'red'
P o l a / p o l a h / *a town i n Mindoro'
p a l a /pSlah/ 'shovel'
pilas
/ p f l a s / ' t e a r , rend'
peras /pe*ras/ 'pear'

pulas /pulas/
'escape'
posas /posas/
'manacle, handcuff*
pasas /pasas/
'raisin*
pilok / p i l o V
'twisted f o o t '
p e l u k a /peltfkah/ 'wig*
p u l o t /pul<5t/ 'honey'
poot /po?o*t/ 'hate, h a t r e d '
p a l o t / p a l o t / 'odor of u r i n e '
p i p i / p f p i h / 'mute, dumb'
Pepe /pepeh/ 'a boy's name'
p u r i / p i i r i h / ' p r a i s e ; honor'
pobre /p6*breh/ 'poor'
pare /pareh/
' v o c a t i v e word used i n a d d r e s s i n g a man'
86
p i s a /pisa*?/ 'hatched; crushed'

pesa /pe*sa?/ 'a k i n d of n a t i v e d i s h '
pusa /ptfsa?/ ' c a t '
posas
/p6sas/
pasas /pa*sas/
'manacle, h a n d c u f f
'raisin'
p i s o / p f s o h / 'peso'
pero /pe*roh/ 'but'
puro /ptfroh/ 'pure'
Poro
(Poro P o i n t ) /poroh/ 'name of a p l a c e '
paros / p a r o s / 'a s p e c i e s of clam*

pista
/ p i s t a h / 'feast, holiday*
peste / p e s t e h / 'pest'
p u s t a / p u s t a h / 'bet'
poste /p'6"steh/ 'post'
pasta /pastah/ ' f i l l i n g
sila /silah/
(dental)'
'they'
S e l a /se*lah/ 'a woman's name*

s u l o /sulo* ?/ * t o r c h *
1
s o l o /s6*loh/ ' s o l o '

s a l a /slah/ ' s i n , f a u l t '
sili
/sflih/
'pepper'
Cely /s'e*lih/ 'a g i r l ' s name'

s u l i t / s t f l i t / 'an a c c o u n t i n g o f
Solly
/solih/
Sally
/salih/
87
silya /silyab/
'chair
s e l y o /se*lyoh/ 'stamp'
sulyap /'sulyap/ ' s i d e g l a n c e '
sodyo /socLyoh/ 'sodium'
s a l y a / s a l y a h / 'throw away'
s i n a /slnSh/
'person marker ( p i . )
senso /sensoh/
'census'
suno /suno?/
' l i v e w i t h a person or f a m i l y
sona /s6*nah/
'zone'
sana /sanah/
' e x p r e s s i o n of d e s i r e or hope
t i l o s / t f l o s / 'pointed'
telon / t e l 6 n / 'curtain, screen'
tulong / t i l l 0 1 3 /
'help, aid'*
toro /toroh/ ' b u l l '

talon /talon/
'waterfall'
T i n a / t f n a h / ''a g i r l ' s name'
tena /tenah/ ' l e t ' s go*

tuna /tunah/ 'tuna f i s h '
tono /to*noh/ 'tone, tune'
tanan /tanan/ 'elope*
t i n d a / t i n d a b / * goods f o r s a l e '
benda /bendah/ 'bandage'

punda /pundah/ ' p i l l o w c a s e '
Tondo /tondoh/
'a d i s t r i c t i n M a n i l a '
banda /bandah/ 'band, o r c h e s t r a '
88
tinis /tfnis/
' s h r i l l n e s s of v o i c e
tenis / t e n i s / 'tennis'
tunis / t u n i s /
'lard'
tono /tohoh/ 'tone,
tune'
t a n g i s / t a r j i s / 'weep'
t i r a / t f r a h / 'go ahead and
act'
t e l a / t e l a h / ' f a b r i c , cloth
turo/ turo?/
'instruction'
toro /toroh/
'bull'
t a r o / t a r o h / 'chinese j a r '
Besides
the p r e c e d i n g p a i r s of u t t e r a n c e s , there i s a number
of n a t i v e and l o a n words which have / r / , never /d/, /e/, never

/i/,
and /o/, never /u/.
The
f o l l o w i n g i s but a s h o r t sample
listing:
/d/ remains /d/, never / r / even i n i n t e r v o c a l i c p o s i t i o n
i n the f o l l o w i n g n a t i v e words:
/ d a k i f l a ? / 'great'; kadahilanan
kadakilaan
'greatness' < d a k i l a
'cause' < d a h l l /dah.il/ 'because';
kadalagahan 'unmarried woman i n g e n e r a l ' < d a l a g a /dalagah/

married woman'; kadalamhatlan 'extreme sorrow' < dalamhatl
'un/dalam-
ha*ti?/ ' a f f l i c t i o n , s o r r o w ; kadamdamin 'of the same f e e l i n g s ' <

1
damdam /damdam/ ' f e e l ' ;
kadunguan ' t i m i d i t y ' < dungo /dung''?/
' t i m i d ' ; i p a d a l a 'he s e n t " < d a l a /dalah./ ' c a r r y , b r i n g ' ; ymadadala

'can be c a r r i e d ' < d a l a /dalah./ 'carry' ; madala 'to l e a r n by
1
p l e a s a n t experience' < d a l a /dal?/ 'unpleasant

madaig to be surpassed*
feel,
t o touch'
experience
< d a i g /da?g/ "surpassed';
< dama /damiab./ ' f e e l , touch'J
madalas
un-
learned*;
madama "to
'frequent,
89
o f t e n ' < d a l a s / d a l a s / 'frequency'; madaldal
'talkative' < daldal
/ d a l d a l / ' t a l k a t i v e n e s s ' ; madilim 'dark' < d i l i m / d i l f m /
'dark-
ness'; madulas 'slippery*; < d u l a s / d u l l s / * s l i p p e r i n e s s ' ; padabugdabog 'obeying i n a r e l u c t a n t or angry manner, accompanied by
stamping
of the f e e t ' < dabog /daoog/ 'the a c t of obeying i n such
a manner', etc.*
Always /e/ never / i / s
beses /be*ses/ 'number of times' ; keso /k&soh/ 'cheese', dwende
/dwendeh/ 'dwarf' , ebanghelyo
1
/?ebanhe*lyoh/
' e p i s t l e ' , eksema
/?ekse*mah/ 'eczema', e k s t r a /?e"kstrah/ ' e x t r a ' , edad /?edact/

''age', e d i t o r
/?5ditor/ ' e d i t o r * , ehe /?eheh/ ' a x l e ' , e h e r s i s y o
/?eherssyoh/ 'exercise' , e l e k t o r
1
/?elekt6*r/ ' e l e c t o r ' , e l e k s i y o n
/?eleksy6h/ ' e l e c t i o n ' , elegante / ? e l e g a n t e h / 'elegant', e l i s e

/ ? e l i s e h / 'screw p r o p e l l e r ' , emperador
Enero /?eneroh/
/?emperad5r/ 'emperor',
'January', epiko /?e"pikoh/ ' e p i c ' , e t e r /?e*ter/
'ether' , e t i k e t a /?etiktah/label*, g e r a /g'e*rah/ 'war*, h e l e h e l e

1
/he*Lfehe*leh/ ' p r e t e n s i o n of d i s l i k e ' , nene /nene?/ ' l i t t l e
girl',
palengke /pale*nkeh/ 'market', Pebrero /pebre*roh/ 'February*,

preno /prehoh/
'brake' , puwede /pwe*deh/ ' p o s s i b l e * , r e b e l d e
/reb&Ldeh/ ' r e b e l l i o u s , remedyo /remedyoh/ 'remedy', sernestre

1
/seme*streh/
'semester*,
s e s e n t a /sese*ntah/ ''seventy*, s i y e t e
/siye*teh/ 'seven', sorbetes / s o r b i t e s / ' i c e cream', sweldo

/sweldoh/
' s a l a r y ' , t r e n / t r e n / ' t r a i n ' , t r e s e /tr'eseh/* t h i r t e e n ' ,
tsek /feek/ 'check', tseke /tse*keh/ 'cheCque', t s e s / t s e s / 'chess',

y e r o /ye"roh/ ' g a l v a n i z e d iron*', etc.-
90
Always /of
never /u/ :
bakoko /bak<5koh/ 'a s p e c i e s

b o l a /b&Lah/ ' b a l l * , boses
katoto
loko
of f i s h * , bobo /bSboh/ ' d u l l ; s t u p i d * : ,
/b6ses/ ' v o i c e * , boto /b6*toh/ 'vote',
/kat5toh/ 'companion, f r i e n d ' , kodigo /ko'digo'h/ 'code*,
/l5koh/ ' c r a z y ' , l o l a /1'Slah/
'grandmother', l o l o /16"loh/
'grandfather', l o r o / l o r o h / ' p a r r o t ' , n o t a /no'tah/ 'note', 0 Ji

/?oh/ ' i n t e r j e c t i o n OhJi', obaryo /?obaryoh/
/fobfspoh/ ' b i s h o p , oho
1
'ounce", opera
opo
'ovary', obispo
/?<5ho?/ 'yes ( l e s s f o r m a l ) ' , onsa /?'6nsah/
/?6perah/ "opersi, operasyon /?operasy6n/ 'operation*',
/?6po?/ 'yes ( f o r m a l ) ' , Opon /?6*pon/ "a town i n Cebu', o p t i k o
/?c5jfcikoh/ ' o p t i c i a n ' , orador / ? o r a d o r / ' o r a t o r " , oras / ? o r a s /

"hour, time', orasyon /?orasy 6n/ 'angelus';, o r b i t
;
oregano /?or'^ganoh/
/?6rbit/
'a s p e c i e s of herb', osana /?osanah/
oso /?osoh/ 'bear', o s p i t a l / ? o s p i t ^ l / ' h o s p i t a l ' , otso
,!
orbit,
'hosanna',
/?6tsoh/
'eight', p o l o / p ^ l o h / "polo s h i r t ' , p o l y e t o /polye*toh/ ' l e a f l e t ' ; ,

poso /posoh/
" a r t e s i a n well'?, posporo /po*sporSh/ 'match', s o l o
/ s o l o h / ' s o l o ' , soneto /sone'toh/ "sonnet*, tono /tonoh/ 'tone*,

yodo /yoaoh/ ' i o d i n e ' , yoyo
/y6yoh/ <a k i n d of t o y ' , e t c .
I t should be noted t h a t /of
occurs i n a number of n a t i v e
words as the vowel i n the l a s t two s y l l a b l e s w i t h an i n t e r v e n i n g

n o n - d i s t i n c t i v e g l o t t a l stop which prevents a h i a t u s .
Examples
are bagoong /bago?6n/ " s a l t e d and p i c k l e d f i s h ' , Bakood /bako?'6a/

'a town i n Bulacan', ginoo /gino?6b/ 'gentleman*',
l o o b /lo?6b/
' i n s i d e ' , noo /no?oh/ "forehead", oo /?6*?oh/ 'yes', noon /no?3n/

that time", doon /do?6n/ ' t h e r e ' , pook /po?6"k/ ' p l a c e ' , poot
/po?<5t/ 'hate'-, t o t o o /toto?'6b/
i n the same way,
' t r u e ' , etc.' The sound /e/ occurs
as i n l e e g /le?e*g/ 'neck's
91
9.2
V a r i a t i o n and D i s t r i b u t i o n
E a r l i e r i n the chapter mention has been made of. the c r i t e r i a

i n v o l v e d i n c l a s s i f y i n g speech sounds, namely,
s i m i l a r i t y and i d e n t i t y of f u n c t i o n .
distribution,
P o i n t s of c o n t r a s t i n the
p a t t e r n of Tagalog and the r e l a t i o n s between them have been

identified.'
The c l a s s i f l c a t o r y process a l s o i n v o l v e s
subsuming
c e r t a i n sounds under the heading of a g i v e n phoneme; such sounds

are c a l l e d " p o s i t i o n a l v a r i a n t s " of the phoneme, because they
vary a c c o r d i n g t o the p o s i t i o n i n which they occur.
For instance,
the Tagalog sound [ k ] i s one phone which i s found i n a l l
positions
except between vowels, as i n kubo [*ku:boh~| ' h u t , bundok

1
[bUn*do:k] 'mountain , bukbok [bUk'bo:k] 'weevil*; and the v o i c e 1
l e s s v e l a r f r i c a t i v e sound [ x ] i s another phone which occurs

only between vowels, as i n p a l a k a [ p a l a ' x a : ? ] ' f r o g ' , kuko
[kU'xo:h] ' f i n g e r n a i l ' , pako ['pa.xo?] ' n a i l ' . ;
These two phones
[ k ] and [ x ] f u n c t i o n i n Tagalog as one u n i t , a s i n g l e phoneme,

which i s t r a n s c r i b e d as /k/ wherever i t occurs.'
In phonemic
t r a n s c r i p t i o n , the words g i v e n above would be w r i t t e n r e s p e c t i v e l y as /ktfboh/, /bund6*k/, and /bukb<5k/, and /palaka"?/, /kukoh/
and /pa*ko?/.i
Thus, i n the cases d e s c r i b e d , the Tagalog phoneme
/k/ has two p o s i t i o n a l v a r i a n t s , [ x ] when i t occurs i n i n t e r v o c a l i c p o s i t i o n , and [ k j elsewhere;
Some l i n g u i s t s use the term "allophone" to r e f e r t o sounds

subsumed under f u n c t i o n a l u n i t s i n t h i s way.
I t i s d e r i v e d from
the p r e f i x a l i o - p l u s phone. forming the term a l l o p h o n e which

means 'sound which f u n c t i o n s as a member of a phoneme ^'-^
^Hall,
o.' c i t . , p.' 2 6
Every
92
phoneme has a t l e a s t one a l l o p h o n e and some have two or more.
The Tagalog sounds [ k ] and [ x ] under d i s c u s s i o n a r e allophones

of the phoneme which i s t r a n s c r i b e d as /k/.
I n c l a s s i f y i n g speech sounds l i n g u i s t s have e s t a b l i s h e d
the p r i n c i p l e t h a t sounds a r e grouped i n t o phonemes i n terms of
t h e i r d i s t r i b u t i o n , as w e l l as i n terms o f p h o n e t i c
or d i f f e r e n c e s .
similarities
D i s t r i b u t i o n r e f e r s t o the c o n d i t i o n under
which the two allophones occur, t h a t i s ,
the p o s i t i o n i n which
they a r e found w i t h r e s p e c t t o each other and t o other sounds.'

I t has been s a i d e a r l i e r t h a t i f two elements occur i n the same
environment,* w i t h d i f f e r e n t f u n c t i o n , they a r e s a i d t o be i n
c o n t r a s t w i t h each o t h e r .
Thus, i n Tagalog, the sounds /k/ and
/ g / occur i n the same environment, e.'g. , i n w o r d - i n i t i a l

!
t i o n , as i n / k i l l a y / ' c o l o r ' vs.' / g i t l a y / 'vegetable'.'
posi-
They a r e i n
c o n t r a s t ! v e d i s t r i b u t i o n and hence cannot belong t o the same

phoneme.
On o c c a s i o n s , however, two o r more sounds i n Tagalog occur

i n the same environment but they a r e n o t i n c o n t r a s t w i t h each
others
I n such i n s t a n c e s , the sounds a r e s a i d t o be i n non-
contrastive d i s t r i b u t i o n L i n g u i s t s
consider a noncontrastive
d i s t r i b u t i o n one of the p r e r e q u i s i t e s f o r c l a s s i f y i n g sounds as

members of the same phoneme;?
I f one sound occurs where the
other never does, and v i c e v e r s a , so t h a t they complement each

other, they a r e s a i d t o be i n complementary d i s t r i b u t i o n , as i n
*The environment o r p o s i t i o n o f an element c o n s i s t s of the
neighborhood, w i t h i n an u t t e r a n c e , of elements which have been
s e t up on the b a s i s o f the same fundamental procedures, which were
used i n s e t t i n g up the element i n q u e s t i o n ; neighborhood r e f e r s
t o the p o s i t i o n of elements b e f o r e , a f t e r , and simultaneous w i t h
the elements i n q u e s t i o n ( H a r r i s , p.- 15).<
93
the case of [ k ] and [ x ] d e s c r i b e d e a r l i e r ; -
Another example of
complementary d i s t r i b u t i o n i s t h e case of Tagalog [ i ] which

occurs only under s t r e s s as i n b i l o g [ * b i : l o g ] * c i r c l e ,
ness' and [ i ] which
1
round-
occurs i n weakly s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e s , as i n
bilog [bI'lo:g] 'circular,
round' .'
1
Often, however, Tagalog sounds occur n e i t h e r i n c o n t r a s t l v e

n o r i n complementary d i s t r i b u t i o n . !
They a l t e r n a t e f r e e l y w i t h
each o t h e r , as do the sounds [ o ] and
i n a l l p o s i t i o n s , as
i n noon [ n o '?o:n] or [no'?o:n] 'at t h a t tlime':, and buhok

[bUho:k] o r [bU'h:?:k] ' h a i r ' v
free variation
Such sounds a r e s a i d t o be i n
( f r e e a l t e r n a t i o n ) , and of n o n c o n t r a s t i v e r a t h e r
than complementary d i s t r i b u t i o n .
[ o ] and [:>] a r e s a i d t o be
f r e e v a r i a n t s s i n c e they occur i n i d e n t i c a l environment

p r o d u c i n g a d i f f e r e n c e i n meaning;!
without
I n o t h e r words, they a r e
f r e e l y s u b s t i t u t a b l e f o r each o t h e r without change i n meaning^

The c r i t e r i o n of s i m i l a r i t y a p p l i e s t o p h y s i c a l
i n phonetic features;i
resemblance
Thus Tagalog [ i ] and [ i ] have I n common
the f a c t t h a t they a r e both high-front-unrounded vowels

have i d e n t i t y
They
of f u n c t i o n i n the f a c t t h a t they both serve as
a l l o p h o n e s of the same phoneme
94
9.'2.1
A l l o p h o n i c A l t e r n a t i o n of Consonants
Some Tagalog phonemes have only one allophone and others

have two o r more.' /k/, f o r i n s t a n c e , has [ x ] as an allophone i n
i n t e r v o c a l i c position.'
[ x ] has a v e l a r a r t i c u l a t i o n and i t i s
never f r o n t e d even between f r o n t vowels.
I t i s especially far
hack between back or low vowels o r any combination
of them, as
i n l o k o L'lojxoh] 'crazy', suko ['su:xo?J 'surrender', pako

['pa:xo?3 ' n a i l ' , malakas [mala'xa:s]j 'strong', e t c .
phone [k~| occurs elsewhere,
as i n kagat
The a l l o -
[ka'ga:t] ' b i t e ' , kapkap
[kap'ka:p] ' f r i s k ' , pakpak [pak'pa:k] 'wing', e t c .

I n Tagalog, the [ ? ] allophone of the f u l l g l o t t a l stop / ? /
occurs i n i t i a l l y , m e d i a l l y and f i n a l l y , v a r y i n g i n r a p i d
speech
w i t h any p a r t i a l g l o t t a l s t r i c t u r e , as i n i r a p [ ' ? i : r a p ] ' s u l l e n

l o o k ' , i t i k [?i:tlk] 'duck', naa [pa'?a:h] ' f e e t ' , p a i t
' c h i s e l ' , baga ['ba:ga?] 'lung', maaari [ma'?a:?a:rl?]
[pa'?i:t
'possible
[ ? ] v a r i e s f r e e l y with [ 0 ] ( p o t e n t i a l g l o t t a l stop) p r e v o c a l i c a l ly.
I t does n o t c o n t r a s t with absence of i t s e l f b e f o r e vowels.'
Tagalog / s / has an [ s ] allophone o c c u r r i n g i n a l l p o s i t i o n s ,

e.g. , sasama ['sa: sa:mah] ' w i l l go', s i k s i k [ s l k ' s i s k ]
;
'full,
crowded', musmos [mUs'mo:s] 'innocent'., and a p a l a t a l i z e d * [|]

o c c u r r i n g b e f o r e /y/, a r t i c u l a t e d l i k e E n g l i s h / s / but w i t h
lip-
s p r e a d i n g , e.g., s i y a [^ya:h] 'he, she', siyam [sya:m] 'nine',

siyampo [^ya:mpoh] ''shampoo', s y u t i n g [ ' ^ y u : t l n ] 'shooting,
^ P a l a t a l i z a t i o n i s r e p r e s e n t e d here by the mark ( 3 )

the p a l a t a l i z e d consonants
under
95
grasya [ gra:|yah] 'grace .

,
T h i s allophone a l s o occurs i n
c l u s t e r w i t h / t / which i s very c l o s e t o E n g l i s h /</, esgS, t s a

[ t s a : h ] ' t e a ' , l a n t s a [lan't'â;h] 'launch', p l a n t s a [ p l a n ' t | a : h ]
' f l a t i r o n ' , t s a p e r o n ['tgasper'rosn]
[ ? I n ' t | i : k 3 'Chinese'.'
any
'chaperone', I n t s i k
There i s no v o i c e d allophone of / s / i n
positions
The / r / i n Tagalog has an allophone [ r ] which occurs i n a l l
p o s i t i o n s , as i n r l t o [ * r i : t o h ] 'here*, r i y a n [ r l ' y a : n ] ' t h e r e * ,

n a r i r i t o [ * n a : r I r I i t o : h ] * i s here', p r i t o [ p r i : t o h ] ' f r i e d ' ,
!
l u g a r [ l U ' g a : r ] ' p l a c e ' , asahar [ ? a s a * h a : r j 'orange blossoms'.The / r / i n i n t e r v o c a l i c p o s i t i o n and i n other d i s t r i b u t i o n i s

u s u a l l y a r t i c u l a t e d w i t h a s i n g l e tap t r i l l ,
with a multi-tap t r i l l
b e f o r e consonants,
freely
[R] under emphatic c o n d i t i o n s , e s p e c i a l l y
eSgs, areglado [?aRe*gla:doh] 'okayed, ap-
proved', a r t e [*?a:Rteh] ' a r t i f i c i a l way

[?o:Rder] 'order, command', siyempre
L i k e / s / , any
but i t v a r i e s
of the consonants
allophone b e f o r e a yod* elements
or manner; a r t ' , order
['syesmpReh] *of course's

may
have a p a l a t a l i z e d
The a r t i c u l a t i o n of the s a i d
consonant can be accompanied by a r a i s i n g of the tongue toward

the hard p a l a t e , as i n piyano [pya:noh] 'piano', p i y e r
' p i e r * , blyahe ['byasheh] ' t r i p , v o y a g e , blyanan
1
[pye:r]
[bya'nam]
'parent-in-law*, t i y a k [ t y a : k ] 'exact, d e f i n i t e ' , b a t y a
[ba'tya:?]
' l a r g e tub', k i y a [kya:?] ' g a i t , mannerism', d i y a s
[dya:s]
'musical j a z z ' , d l y a n i t o r [*dya:nl f.tosr] ' j a n i t o r ' ,
radyo
*Yod a c o u s t i c a l l y equals the sound of y. added t o the

consonants
96
['rasdyoh] ' r a d i o ' , Miyerkules [*<mye:rkUtle:s] ''Wednesday* ,
may a-may a [* mya:'mya: ?] ' l a t e r on', kanya [kan'ya:h] ' h i s , h e r ' ,
;
kampanya [kam'pa:nyah] 'campaign', ngiyaw [rjya.'w] 'mew

silya
[sll'ya:h]
,!
chair', sigarilyo [sIga'ri:lyoh]
of a cat'<,
'cigarette ,
1
r i y a n [ r y a : n ] 'there'', barbery a [ b a r b e r ' y a : h j 'barbershop' , etc.:

Below i s a l i s t i n g
of the consonant phonemes w i t h , under
each, the i n d i c a t i o n of the v a r i a t i o n s
( a l l o p h o n e s ) , the d i s t r i -
b u t i o n or the c o n d i t i o n s under which they occur, and examples i n

phonemic and p h o n e t i c t r a n s c r i p t i o n s
and i n c o n v e n t i o n a l orthog-
raphy with the g l o s s v

Phoneme
Variation
Distribution
Example
/P/
[P]
Everywhere
/pakpa'k/ [pak'pa:k] pakpak
/b/
[b]
Everywhere
/bakbk/ [bak'bask] bakbak 'detached'
/t/
[t]
Everywhere
/patpSt/
'wing'
[ p a t ' p a : t ] patpat 'bamboo
split'
/d/
[d]
Everywhere
/daldaU/ [ d a l ' d a r l ]
daldal
'talk-
ativeness *
A/
[k]
Everywhere
. .
except be- /manko*k/ [man'k6:k] mangkok 'bowl'
tween vowels
[x]
Between
vowels
....
/?abakah/ [?aba'xa:h] abaka ''Manila
hemp*
/g/
"
/?/
[g]
Everywhere
/gagoh/ [ga:goh] gago
"stupid'
[?.]
Everywhere
/bta?/ f~''ba: ta? J b a t a
'child'!
[0]
In free variation
with [ ? ] i n p r e - /pa?aUam/ (_pa'?a:lam]|'-w'pa'a:lam) *
vocalic position
paalam
'goodbye*'
'
*The s q u i g g l e (^) i s used here t o mean

a l t e r n a t i n g , i n a l t e r n a t i o n with".1
"alternates,
97
/m/
[m]
Everywhere
/mama?/ ['ma:ma?] mama 'any man'
/n/
[n]
Everywhere
/nSmin/ ['na:mln] namln 'our, ours'
A)/
D}]
Everywhere
/ n i s n f s / [ n l s ' n i : s ] ngisngis
/s/
[s]
Everywhere
/stfsan/ [ su:san] Susan 'a g i r l ' s name'
[|]
Before / y /
/syempreh/ [*sye:mpreh] siyempre 'of
and i n c l u s t e r
with / t /
course'
''giggle'
l;
/tsine'las/ [t|I'ne:las] t s i n e l a s
''slippers'
/h/
[h]
Everywhere
/!/
[ l ] Everywhere
/r/
[r]
Everywhere / r f t o h / [ * r i : t o h ] r i t o
[R]
In free variation
w i t h [ r ] under /prenoh/ ['pRe:noh] Prenojj 'Brakeii'.
emphatic c o n d i t i o n s
/w/
[w]
Everywhere
/y/
[y]l Everywhere
9.'2;'2
Tagalog / i /
/ h f h i p / [hi:hlp] h i h i p
'blow'
/ l a l i m / [ ' l a : l l m ] l a l i m 'depth'
'here'
/wawa?/ ['wa:wa?] wawa 'mouth of a r i v e r '
/yayah/ [*ya:yah] yaya 'nursemaid'
A l l o p h o n i c A l t e r n a t i o n of Vowels
has three a l l o p h o n e s : [ i j [ F j [ l ] s
The h i g h -
f r o n t - tense-unrounded [ i ] occurs under s t r o n g s t r e s s * except i n

a prejunctural syllable
(the l a s t s y l l a b l e , , b e f o r e a j u n c t u r e ) , e.'gs,
k l t a [ ' k i : t a h ] ' v i s i b l e from a d i s t a n c e ' , k a n i n a [ka'ni:nah] *a

w h i l e a g o , ninong
r
' t a l e n t ' , etc?:
['ni:nonJ
'godfather', t a l i n o
[ta'li:noh]
The s l i g h t l y lowered-high-front-tense-unrounded
[]*] occurs under s t r e s s i n p r e j u n c t u r a l s y l l a b l e , e.'g.i, kami

[ka'mI :h] 'we', t a b i [ t a b I : h ] ' s i d e ' , marumi
A
' d i r t y ' , s a k i t [ s a ' k I : t ] 'sickness', b i l l

A
[marU'ml^sh]
[bI'lI :h]
* T h i s i n c l u d e s primary and secondary s t r e s s .
'buy ,
r
98
uwi
[?U'wI*:?] 'go home', etc;.'
The l o w e r - h i g h - f r o n t - l a x -
unrounded [ i ] occurs under weak s t r e s s , * '
e;g.%
b a k i t [ba:klt]
'why', b l g a s [ b l ' g a : s ] ' r i c e ' , bukid [ibu:kld] 'farm , i-kaw

1
[?I'ka:w] 'you', k a l b i g a n [ k a ? I ' b i : g a n ] ' f r i e n d , e t c
Occasion-
a l l y , [ i ] and [ i ^ a l t e r n a t e f r e e l y i n c e r t a i n p o s i t i o n s .
The
t h r e e a l l o p h o n e s are i n completely n o n c o n t r a s t i v e d i s t r i b u t i o n ,
p a r t i a l l y i n complementary d i s t r i b u t i o n and p a r t i a l l y i n f r e e
variation.!
S i m i l a r l y , /u/ has t h r e e a l l o p h o n e s :
high-back-tense-rounded
[uj"[U*]"[u3.'
The
[ u ] occurs under s t r e s s , except i n p r e -
j u n c t u r a l s y l l a b l e , e.g., puso ['pu:so?] ' h e a r t ' , b u t !
['bu:tlh3
goodness', t u b l g [ t u : b l g ] 'water', upa '?u:pah] 'rent; pay',

f
suka [su:kah] 'vinegar'', e t c

tense-rounded
The s l i g h t l y
lowered-high-back-
[U*3 occurs under s t r e s s i n a p r e j u n c t u r a l
s y l l a b l e , e.g.,
sampu [sam'pU*:?] 'ten', bukod [bU'kU*:d]
'separate', bagkus [bag'kU*:s] 'on the c o n t r a r y ' , krus

'cross', e t c
The lower-high-back-lax-rounded
[krU*:s]
[u"3 occurs under
weak s t r e s s , as i n b u l a k l a k [ b U l a k ' l a : k ] 'flower', sumbrero

[sUm'bre:roh] 'hat ', buto
1
[bU'to:h] 'bone; seed', tuwa [tU'wa:?]
' j o y * , tukso [tUkso:h] 'temptation',
etc
The v a r i a n t s of /e/ are the mid-front-tense-unrounded
[e]
a l t e r n a t i n g f r e e l y w i t h the higher-mid-front-tense-unrounded
and
s l i g h t l y r a i s e d [ e * ] under any l e v e l of s t r e s s , except b e f o r e /y/

where only [ e * ] occurs.'
beses
Examples are p e r a ['pe:rah] 'money',
['be:ses] 'number of times', l e e g [ l e * ? e : g ] 'neck':, t r e n
[ t r e : n ] ' t r a i n ' , palengke
[pa'le:nkeh] 'market*, but [ e * ] i n
:*Weakly s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e s are l e f t unmarked.
99
words l i k e aywan [?e*y*wa:n] 'expression of n e g a t i o n ' , mayroon
[me*yro?o:n] 'there i s , a r e ' , kaysa [ke*y'sa:h]
'than', k a i l a n
[ k e * y l a : n ] when', i l a g a y [ ? I l a g e * : y ] 'to put'

f
,,
The f r e e v a r i a n t s of /o/ are the mid-hack-tense-rounded

[ o ] , the higher-mid-back-tense-rounded
and s l i g h t l y r a i s e d
[o*]
which occurs under s t r e s s and a l t e r n a t e s f r e e l y with [ o ] , and

the higher-low-back-tense-rounded
[o].' The v a r i a t i o n i s e n t i r e -
l y f r e e under any l e v e l of s t r e s s , as i n oras [ ' ? o : r a s ] - [ ' ? o * ; r a s ]

**C?Dâs] 'hour' , p u l o t [pUlo:t] "[pU'lo : t ] " [pU'loD-.t] 'honey',
1
noon [no':?o:n] ** [na''?o*:n] ** [no'?o*:n] 'that time', oo ['?os,?oh]

- ['?o:?o*h] - ['?o:Dh] 'yes', e t c .
I n the case of / a / , there are f r e e v a r i a t i o n s w i t h i n a
range from s l i g h t l y r a i s e d low-central-lax-unrounded [ a * ] t o
mid-central-lax-unrounded
words.'
[,?] when under weak s t r e s s i n c e r t a i n
Low-central-tense-unrounded
[ a ] occurs under s t r e s s .
T h i s a l l o p h o n e i s constant i n i t s low c e n t r a l p o s i t i o n i n most

Tagalog words.'
The f o l l o w i n g i l l u s t r a t e s the occurrence of the
v a r i a n t s of / a / :
p a a r a l a n ['pa?ara'la:n]
[ l a ' l a : k l h ] 'man', pag-asa [pag*?a:sah]

[dima:da'la:h]
'school', l a l a k i
'hope , d i n a d a l a
1
[diina:d^. la:h] ' i s being c a r r i e d ' ,

f
ipadala
[ ? i p a s d a ' l a : h ] ** [?iipa:<-Lp'la:h] 'be s e n t ' , e t c .

f
Length and n a s a l i t y e x i s t i n Tagalog vowels.

are lengthened.
S t r e s s e d vowels
N a s a l i t y i s e n t i r e l y c o n d i t i o n e d by the presence
of any one of the n a s a l s / m n n, / a f t e r a vowel.

s t r o n g e s t w i t h / n /.
Nasalization i s
Examples are ngongo ['nojrjo?] 'speaking
w i t h a n a s a l twang', nganga [nS:ng?] 'prepared b e t e l l e a f , n u t
100
a n d l i m e ' , n g a y o n [ n a ' y o : n ] 'now;

:
i n y o n g [ ? I n f y o : r j ] 'your p l u s
today', ngipin
("'nil's p i n 1
'teeth',
a t t r i b u t i v e m a r k e r 'ng*:, a n d t h e
like.'
Phoneme
A/
Variation
[ i ]
[i*]'
Distribution
Example
Under s t r e s s except
/balita?/ [ba'li:ta?]
in a prejunctural
syllable
balita
'news'
Under s t r e s s i n a
/gabfh/ [ga'bl*sh]
prejunctural syllable
gabi 'night '
1
[i]
U n d e r weak s t r e s s
/ g a b i h / [''gasblh]
)i
/e/
[e]
Everywhere except
before /y/
' yam'
pe*sa?/ [_'pe:sa?] p e s a
'a k i n d o f n a t i v e
[e*]
Before /y/ under

any l e v e l o f
stress
/eywan/
dish*!
[? *y wa:n]
,
aywan ' ' e x p r e s s i o n
of
negation
/u/
[_u]
[U*]
Under s t r e s s e x c e p t
in a prejunctural
syllable
/btfkas/ ['bu:kas] bukas

'tomorrow':
Under s t r e s s i n a
/baltft/ [bu'lU*st]
prejunctural syllable
balut
'duck's egg'
[U]
U n d e r weak s t r e s s
/ b u k a s / [ b U ' k a s s ] bukas
'open'
/o/
[o]
[o*]
Co]
Everywhere
U n d e r stress i n p r e junctural syllable,

and v a r i e s f r e e l y
with
L3
Varies f r e e l y with
[_oJ and [o*3
/no6b/ [ n o ' ? o : h ] noo

'forehead'
/ b u o ? / [ b U ' ? o * : ? ] buo
'whole'
/puso?/ ['puss^?] puso
'heart
101
/a/
[a]
Everywhere under
strong stress
/lalSkad/ [ila:'la:kad]
lalakad
[a ]
Under weak s t r e s s
v a r i e s f r e e l y with
[>] i n c e r t a i n
positions
' w i l l walk*
/kinagalitan/
[kI na:ga '11:tan]

A
w [klma:g,?'li:tan]
'was
scolded'
9.2.3
!
A l t e r n a t i o n of Diphthongs
In Tagalog c o l l o q u i a l speech /ay/ v a r i e s f r e e l y w i t h / e y /

or /e/, as i n may [ma:l] - [me:*] ** [me:h] 'there i s , a r e ' ,
k a i l an [ k a ? I ' l a : n ] ~ [kaila:n] ** ['ke: l a n ] 'when', Maynila
[ m a ^ ' n i s l a ? ] [mei'ni:la?] 'Manila', etc. I n t h e same way
1
/oy/
alternates
['ba:bui]
fc
pig',
-freely w i t h /uy/, as i n baboy ['ba:boi] *

kasuy [kasu:i] - [ka'so:*] 'cashew'.-
Diph-
thongs /ay/ and /ey/ do n o t a l t e r n a t e f r e e l y i n a l l i n s t a n c e s .

Thus f a r , no c o n t r a s t
i s found between /ay/ and /ey/, o r be-
tween /oy/ and /uy/, but s i n c e t h e r e are c o n t r a s t s

and
between / a /
/ e / o r /o/ and /u/, t h e a l t e r n a t i o n i s here t r e a t e d as
morphophonemic (See Morphophonemic A l t e r n a t i o n s ) .
102
9.2,k
F o r e i g n Sounds
V
The
f o l l o w i n g f o r e i g n sounds /
occur
i n Tagalog but only i n names and place-names .1 Below a r e examples:*

Names w i t h / f / :
Afurong, A l a f r i z , A l f a r o , A l f o n s o , A l f r e d o ,
Boniface,
Bonifacio, Brofas,
Bofill,
Ceferina, Ceferino, D e l f i n , E p i -
f a n i a , E p i f a n i o , E s t i f a n i a , E s t i f a n i o , Eufemia, F a b r i c a n t e , F a cunda, Facundo, F a j a r d o ,
Falconl, Falgui, Fallurin,
Famdico, Famaran, Fandino, F a n g o n l l , F a u s t i n o ,
Fallurina,
Fausto, Fe,
Federico, F e l i c i t a s , F e l i c i s i m a , F e l i c i s i m o , F e l i p e , F e l i s a ,
F e l i x , Felwa, F e r d i n a n d , F e r i a , Fermin, Fernandez, F e r o l i n o ,
F e r r e r , F i d e l , F i e l , F i g u r a c i o n , Filemon, F i r m a l i n o ,
F l o r , F l o r a , F l o r d e l i z a , Florenda,
F l o r i t a , F l o r o , F l o r y , Fonacier,
Fortunata,
Fortunato,
Florendo,
Flerida,
Flores, Floresca,
F o n d a v i l l a , Fordham, F o r n i e r ,
Francisca, Francisco, F r a n k l i n , Fred,
F r e d e r i c k , F r e d e r i c o , Fredo, F r i v a l d o , Fuente, Fuentes, Fuent e b e l l a , Fundador, Godofreda, Godofredo, J o s e f a , J o s e f i n a ,

J o s e p h i n e , Phocfeca, R a f a e l , R a f a e l a , R a n u l f o , R o d o l f o ,
Rufo, S o f r o n i o , T e l e s f o r o , T e o f i l o , S i n f o r o , W i l f r e d o ,
Rufino,
etci
Place-names w i t h / f / :
Cape San I l d e f o n s o , F a c t o t i a , F a i r e , D i f f u n , L a F o r tuna, L e f a Pt.', San A l f o n s o , San F e l i p e , San Fernando, Punta
*The examples a r e mostly names o f F i l i p i n o government o f f i c i a l s l i s t e d i n the 1966 O f f i c i a l Program of the P h i l i p p i n e
Independence C e l e b r a t i o n and some were taken from the d i r e c t o r y
of the F i l i p i n o A s s o c i a t i o n i n B r i t i s h Columbia, f u r n i s h e d by
the P h i l i p p i n e Consulate i n B.-'Cu' Place-names were taken from
a map o f the P h i l i p p i n e s . *
103
F l e c h a , San
F r a n c i s c o , San I l d e f o n s o , San R a f a e l ,
Names w i t h
etc
/v/:
Abueva, Adeva, Aldave, A l v a r o , A l v i o l a , A r v i o l a ,

Anonueva, A r e v a l o , A v e l i n o , Avenida, A v i l e s , A v i v a ,
Buenaventura, Buenavista,
Buenviaje,
Bienvenido,
Casanova, C l a r a v a l l , C l a -
v e r i a , Cordova, Dadivas, David, D i v i n a g r a c i a , Eva,
Elvi,
Elvis,
E l v i r a , Enverga, E v a n g e l i s t a , E v e l y n , E v i o t a , Gavino, Guevara,

J a v i e r , Joven, J o v e n c i o ,
Jover, J o v i , J o v i t a , J o v i t o , L e v e r i z a ,
L e v i , L e v i s t e , L o v i n a , Malvar, Monteverde, M i r a v a l l e s , N a v a l ,
Nieva, Nieves, O l i v a , O l i v e r , O l i v i a , P r i m i t i v a , P r i m i t i v o ,
P r o v i d e n c i o , R e v i l l a , S a l v a , Salvador,
vosa, S e v e r i n o ,
Salvacion, Salvio, S a l -
S i l v e r t r e , Stevan, Steve, T a l a v e r a , Tevera,
Tevez, Raval, V a d i v e l , Valderama, Valdez,

Valenciano,
Valenzuela,
Valdezco, V a l e n c i a ,
Valera, V a l e r i a , Valeriana, Valeriano,
V a l l e j o , Valmonte, Valmayor, Vamante, Vazquez, Vega,

Velasquez, Velayo, V e l e z , Veloso,
Velasco,
Ventura, Venancia, Venancio,
Venus, Verano, Verdolaga, Vergora, V e r u l o , Verzosa, V i c e n t e ,

Vicenta, Vicky, V i c t o r , V i c t o r i n a , V i d a l , V i t a l , Viernez,
Villacorta, Villaflor, Villafuerte, Villagracia,
Villa,
Villaluz.Villa-
cruz, V i l l a l u n a , Villamar, V i l l a m i n , Villamor, Villanueva, V i l l a pando, V i l l a r , V i l l a r a m a , V i l l a r e a l , V i l l a r o s a , V i l l a r i a n o ,
Vil-
l a s , V i l l a s a n , V i l l a s i s , V i l l e g a s , V i l l e n a , Vilumiin, Vinzons,
V i o l a , Viray, V i r g i l i o , V i r g i n i a , V i r o l a , Vivas, Vivencio,
V i v e s , Yuvienco,
Vivero,
etc
Place-names with
/v/:
A l a v a Is. , A l t a v a s , A r e v a l o , Avenida R i z a l , A v i l e s ,
!
Buevavista,
C a l v e r , Can-avid, C a v i t e , C l a v e r i a , Cervantes,
104
Cordova,
D a v i l a , D i v i l a c a n Bay, D i v i s o r i a , D i v i u s a P t . , I v i s a n ,
Las Navas, Las N i e v e s , Lavezares, Lope de Vega, Malvar, M a r i v e l e s , Navotas,
N o v e l e t a , Nueva V a l e n c i a , Nueva V i s c a y a , Pon-
t e v e d r a , Puerto R i v a s , Reva P t . , S a l v a c i o n Is. , San V i c e n t e ,

1
T a l a v e r a , V a l l a d o l i d , Vallehermosa, V a l l e y Cove, V e l t i s e z a r ,
Verde Is.,Passage, V i g a , V i g a n , V i g o , V i l l a f l o r ,
Villareal,
V i l l a s i s , V i l l a v e r t , V e l l a v i c i o s a , V i n t a r , V i r a c , Virgoneza,
V i r i a t o , V i s i t a , etc.
Names w i t h // and t h e i r c o r r e s p o n d i n g nicknames:*

Anthea ( A n t y ) , Anthony (Tony), A r t h u r
C a t h e r i n e , Cathy,
Edith
( C a t t y ) , Kathleen ( K a t t y ) , Dorothy
(Edita, Edit), Elizabeth
( T u r i n g ) , Meredith
(Turing),
(Dotty),
( B e t t y ) , E t h e l ( E t e l ) , McArthur
( D i t a ) , Thelma ( T e l , Telma),
Theodocia
(Toddy), Theodoro (Teddy), etc.'

Names w i t h / c / :
Anchesa, Acheson, Ancheta, Arteche, Cacho, Cachola,
Camacho, C h a l l y , C h a r i t o , C h a r l i e , C h a r l e s , C h a r l o t t e , Chavez,
Chayong, Cheng, Cherry, Chichay, Chiongbian, C h i t o , Choleng,
Chong, C h o l l y , Choy, Concha, C o n c h i t a , Dichoso, Echague, Echem,
Hechanova, Inchong, I t c h o n , Kimachawa, Luchek, Marcha, Pancho,
Ranchez, R i c h a r d , Sanchez, Sancho, Sy-changco, e t c
Names w i t h / j / :
J a c k , J a c k i e , J a c q u e l i n e , Jane, J a n e t , Jenny, J e n i f e r ,
Jerry, J i l l ,
J i m , Jimmy, Joan, J o , J o e , J o e l , John, Johnny,
Johnson, J o j o , J o r g e , Joseph, Josephine, Judy, J u l i e , J u l i e t , J u n ,

June, J u n i o r , e t c .
*Note the change of // t o / t / .
105
i
Names w i t h / s / :
A n a s t a c i a , Asuncion, B o n i f a c i o , Concepcion,
Consola-
c i o n , C o n s t a n c i a , C r e s c e n c i a , C r e s c e n c i o , F r a n c i a , Encarnacion,
E s t a c i o , J o v e n c i o , L u c i a , Marsha, M a r c i a l , P a c e n c i a , P a l a c i o ,
Pascacio, Pasion, P a t r i c i a , P a t r i c i o , Presentacion, Prudencia,
Prudencio, R e s u r e c c i o n , S a l v a c i o n , Shea, Sheik, S h i r l e y , S h i r l i t a , Venancia, Venancio,
Visitacion, etcs
Names w i t h / z / :
A b l a z a , A b o i t i z , A l a z a r , Almanzor, A l t a v a z , Alvanez,
A l v a r e z , A r q u i z a , Areza, Alzona, Arzadon, Asurez, Azares, Azcona,
Aznar, Azucena, B a i z a s , B a l l o z o s , B a l t a z a r , Banzon, Bauza, Beat r i z , B e n i t e z , Benzon, Bermudez, Calaboza, Ceniza, Corazon, Cortez,
Cruz, Cuizon, Daza, Daveza, Deza, D i a z , D i e z , DIzon, E l e a z a r ,
E l i z a , E l i z a l d e , E n r l q u e z , Esperanza,
zon, Gianzon,
Gonzalo,
E s t e v e z , Eva, Galvez, Gan-
Gimenez, Guanzon, Gomez, Gonzal, Gonzales, Gonzaga,
Guzman, De Guzman, De l a Cruz, Hernandez, Inez, Jimenez,
Jozon, Lapuz, L a r d i z a b a l , Lazaro, L a z a t i n , L e c a r o z , L e g a z p i ,

L i z a s o , Lopez, Lorenza, Lorenzo, Lozada, Luz, Madrazo, Maleniza,
Manuzon, Manzano, Marquez, M a r t i n e z , M a r t i z , Mendoza, Muniz,
Munoz, Muzones, N a z a r i o , Ordonez, O r t i z , Paz, P e l a e z , P e r e z ,
P i c z o n , Quezon, Quiazon,
Quibranza, Quizon, Ramirez, Requiza,
Razon, Rodriguez-, Romualdez, R u i z , S a l a z a r , Suarez, Tevez, T i c z o n ,

T i z o n , Tuazon, Tupaz, Yanzon, V a l e n z u e l a , Z a c a r i a s , Z a b a l a , Zab o l a , Z a f r a , Z a i d e , Zalamea, Z a l d i v a r , Z a l d y , Zamora, Zapata,
Z a r a , Zaragoza, Zenaida, Z i a l c i t a , Z i g a , Z o i l o , Zosa,
Zuno, Z u z u a r r e g u i , etc.
Zubiri,
106
Place-names w i t h / z / :
Azagra, A z p i t i a , Barbaza, C a p i z , Gonzales, Jimenez, L a
Paz, Lezo, Lopez Bay, Luzon, Manreza, Pan de Azucar Is.-, Pozor r u b i o , R i z a l , Sanchez E r a , San L a z a r o , Sta." Cruz, Sta.> Inez,
Tanza, Tenzas, Zambales, Zamboanga, Zamboanguita, Zaragoza,
Zarraga, Zimigul, Zitanga, e t c
These borrowed sounds, i n g e n e r a l , a r e so r e p r e s e n t e d i n
f a c t i n the p r o n u n c i a t i o n of most educated F i l i p i n o s . '
A great
m a j o r i t y of Tagalog speakers, however, e s p e c i a l l y those i n

remote towns and b a r r i o s who have n o t been s u b j e c t t o f o r e i g n
l i n g u i s t i c i n f l u e n c e s , s u b s t i t u t e the n e a r e s t n a t i v e sounds f o r
these f o r e i g n sounds.
Some i l l i t e r a t e
F i l i p i n o parents, f o r
i n s t a n c e , would name t h e i r c h i l d r e n Fe, E d i t h , David, o r R a f a e l

and c a l l them Pe o r P i I d i t . Dabid. o r P a i h g . r e s p e c t i v e l y ; o r
c a l l t h e i r home p l a c e D i b i s o r i a . Nabutas. Saragosa o r San P i l i p i
i n s t e a d o f . t h e educated p r o n u n c i a t i o n f o r D i v i s o r i a ,
Zaragoza
o r San F e l i p e , r e s p e c t i v e l y . ;
Navotas,
A l s o , i t has been observed
t h a t o l d e r Tagalog speakers, e s p e c i a l l y those with knowledge of

Spanish, i n c e r t a i n i n s t a n c e s , r e p l a c e // with / s / , and the
younger speakers r e p l a c e i t w i t h / t / i n pronouncing
words l i k e " t h r e e " which becomes / t r l / o r / s r i / . i
certain loan
Perhaps /&/ i s
r e p l a c e d w i t h / s / because the two sounds e x i s t as f r e e v a r i a n t s

of
a s i n g l e phoneme i n some d i a l e c t s of Spanish.*
107
10;3
Phonotactics
Tagalog phonemes have been i d e n t i f i e d and the d i s t r i b u t i o n

of
the i n d i v i d u a l phonemes has been d e s c r i b e d i n the p r e c e d i n g
section.*
of
The d i s c u s s i o n here d e a l s w i t h the study o f sequences
phonemes, r e f e r r e d t o as "phonotactics;'"
t a c t i c s , according to H i l l ,
The term phono-
i s the a r e a of phonemics which
covers the s t r u c t u r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f sequences.'
It is
e s s e n t i a l l y a d e s c r i p t i o n of the d i s t r i b u t i o n of phonemes, once

they have been i d e n t i f i e d ^
1
S i n c e phonemics proper makes use o f
d i s t r i b u t i o n a l c r i t e r i a i n i d e n t i f i c a t i o n , p h o n o t a c t i c s i s an
e x t e n s i o n of phonemics.
10 ;1
I n Tagalog,
The S y l l a b l e S t r u c t u r e
the number of v o c o i d sounds i n any u t t e r a n c e i s
c o r r e l a t e d w i t h the number o f s y l l a b l e s which n a t i v e

would i n s t i n c t i v e l y r e c o g n i z e i n t h a t utterance;:
in
the f o l l o w i n g words:*
speakers
For instance,
s a / s a h / ' i n , on'', sama sa.ma /samah/
go w i t h someone' , sasama sajsa.'ma /sasaniah/ ' w i l l go w i t h some1
one' , sama-sama sa.ima.isa.tma /samasSmah/ 'together'', sasama-sama

s a . s a. ma ;*s a .-ma /sa*samasa*mah/ 'pretending t o go w i t h someone ',
!
sumasama-s ama su.ma.-sa.^ma.sa.ma /sumasamasamah/ 'always going

w i t h someone':, a Tagalog
speaker
e a s i l y r e c o g n i z e s the number o f
H i l l , A r c h i b a l d ; I n t r o d u c t i o n t o L i n g u i s t i c Structures,-
(New York: H a r c o u r t , Brace and Company, 1958/, p.- 68.' He i s i n debted t o an unpublished l e c t u r e by Robert P.' S t o c k w e l l d e l i v e r e d
b e f o r e the L i n g u i s t i c I n s t i t u t e h e l d a t the Georgetown U n i v e r s i t y
I n s t i t u t e of Languages and L i n g u i s t i c s i n 1954..
1
* S y l l a b l e - d i v i s i o n i s r e p r e s e n t e d by a p e r i o d (.') on the
l i n e w i t h i n a word.i
108
syllables
i n each words
between sounds.'
The s y l l a b l e - d i v i s i o n
falls
clearly
As s a i d e a r l i e r , the sound a r t i c u l a t e d
with
the peak of s o n o r i t y of a s y l l a b l e i s known as i t s nucleus or

center's*
On the b a s i s of t h i s c o r r e l a t i o n
between the number of
f u l l v o c o i d s and t h a t of s y l l a b l e s , the s y l l a b l e i s here
defined
as a segment of speech c o n t a i n i n g a peak of s o n o r i t y w i t h

sounds grouped
certain
around i t s ' A s y l l a b l e ending with a v o c o i d w i t h
no c o n t o i d f o l l o w i n g i n the same s y l l a b l e i s r e f e r r e d t o as an
open s y l l a b l e , esgs , the f i r s t s y l l a b l e of b a t a / b S t a ? /
1
'child";
whereas t h a t which ends w i t h a c o n t o i d i n the s y l l a b l e a f t e r
v o c o i d i s c a l l e d a c l o s e d s y l l a b l e , esgs, pakpak /pakpak/ 'wings'V

Some l i n g u i s t s use the e x p r e s s i o n s " f r e e "
and "checked"
s i n c e "open" and " c l o s e d " a r e a l s o used i n d e s c r i b i n g the
syllables,
varieties
of mid-range vocoids S
The s y l l a b l e s t r u c t u r e i s here s t a t e d i n terms of the
permissible
syllables
combinations
of vowel (V) and consonant
of the Tagalog languages
(C) i n the
I t i s assumed t h a t the b a s i c
s y l l a b l e s t r u c t u r e s of Tagalog are consonant-vowel

the f i r s t s y l l a b l e of mata /matah/ 'eyes', and
(CV), e.gs,
consonant-vowel-
consonant (CVC), esgs , the f i r s t and second s y l l a b l e of mukha

1
/mukha?/ 'iface'ril
I t i s assumed here that vowels do not
with consonants to give the s y l l a b l e patterns

final
(CV);!
(V), (VC)
structure
or a
This i n v e s t i g a t o r believes that Tagalog s y l l a b l e
structure requires a f i n a l consonant i n a l l f i n a l

Ordinary w r i t i n g does not i n d i c a t e how
f i n a l / a e i o u / are pronounced.
syllables;!
Tagalog words w r i t t e n w i t h
Tagalog words s p e l l e d
with a
109
f i n a l vowel may end w i t h e i t h e r / ? / o r / h / although i t i s not

r e f l e c t e d i n the w r i t i n g systems
/ ? / and / h / a r e c o n t r a s t i v e
phonemes i n Tagalog, and s u b s t i t u t i n g one f o r the other can

change the meaning of a word.' The f o l l o w i n g
the
examples
illustrate
point:
1. as
Maganda ang batav
'The c h i l d i s b e a u t i f u l . '
/magandah ?arj btta?/

( b e a u t i f u l the c h i l d )
Lbs
Maganda ang bata.
'The bathrobe i s b e a u t i f u l s '
/magandah ?arj,' btah/

( b e a u t i f u l the bathrobe)
2. as
Kunin mo ang baga."
'Remove the lungs''
/kunin moh ?an baga?/

(get you
2sb.
the
lung)
Kunin mo ang baga.
'Get the ember.
/kunin moh ?arj bagah/

(get
you
the
ember)
I t i s t h y e f o r e necessary and h e l p f u l f o r non-native speakers

to t r a n s c r i b e
Tagalog words w r i t t e n with a f i n a l vowel as ending
i n / ? / o r /h/, f o r even i f the meaning i s not changed by a wrong

p r o n u n c i a t i o n , a f o r e i g n accent w i l l r e s u l t .
10.2
Consonant C l u s t e r s
(CC)
Tagalog phoneme sequences are here d e s c r i b e d

their clustering habits.
Sequences of two or more consonant
phonemes without the i n t e r v e n t i o n

consonant c l u s t e r s .
i n terms of
of a vowel a r e r e f e r r e d t o as
The c l u s t e r i n g h a b i t s
of Tagalog phonemes
110
are almost a l t o g e t h e r the c l u s t e r i n g of consonants alone,
Tagalog vowels do not
cluster.-
That i s , no
out an i n t e r v e n i n g consonant or semivowelJ

are no
two
vowels occur w i t h -
Historically,
consonant c l u s t e r s i n Tagalog except across
morpheme boundaries and

Considering
present
they are l i m i t e d to two
there
syllable
or
consonants only..'
loanwords as an i n t e g r a l p a r t of the language,
the
study r e v e a l s t h a t Tagalog consonant c l u s t e r s occur
freely i n a l l positions.
are r a r e
since
The
only r e s t r i c t i o n i s t h a t c l u s t e r s
finally.'
10.2.GL
Prevocalic Clusters
P r e v o c a l i c consonant c l u s t e r s (CC-)
can be summarized i n a
s e r i e s of formulas:*
Let
C
C
1.
2.
The
Consonant
lC
the f i r s t and
C"! = t
if
r
C
second C
= s
= P
if
3-
Ci = P
k.
Ci =
any C except ?
clusters described
C
g
= 1
if
if
above are i l l u s t r a t e d i n the
follow-
i n g examples:
1.
tsa /tsah/
'tea'
t s a t s a / t s ^ t s a h / 'cha-cha dance'
* T h i s i n v e s t i g a t o r i s i n d e b t e d to an unpublished l e c t u r e
g i v e n by Dr.' Ernesto C o n s t a n t i n o of the Department of L i n g u i s t i c s
and O r i e n t a l Languages, i n 1965
at the U n i v e r s i t y of the
Philippines.
Ill
t s a l e k o /tsale*koh/ 'a k i n d of garment
t s a l e t / t s a l & t / 'chalet'
tsamba / t s a m b a V
tsek / t s e k /
'good l u c k ; guess'
'check'
tseke /tse"keh/ ''cheque'

t s e s / t s e s / 'chess'
t s i n e l a s /tsine'las/
atsara /?atsarah/
butse /butse"h/
'slippers'
'pickles'
'crop'
k o t s e /ko'tseh/ 'car'
kutsero
/kutse*roh/ ' c a l a s h d r i v e r '
lantsa /lants^h/
'launch'
p l a n t s a /plantsah./
'flatiron'
m i t s a /mitsah./ 'wick'
mutsatso /mutsatsSh/ 'houseboy'

2s
p l a k a / p l S k a h / 'phonograph d i s k '
p l a k e /plake*h/ 'plaque'
p l a n e t a /plane'tah/
'planet'
piano /planoh/ ';plan'

p l a n t a /plantah./
plasa /pl5sah/
'plant^ works'
'plaza'
plasma /pl^smah/ 'plasma'

plastado
/plasta*doh/
'fallen
plastik /plastfk/ 'plastic'

Plata /plStah/
'silver'
p l a t o /pla"toh/ ' d i s h ; p l a t e '
flat'
112
plema /pieman/ 'phlegm'
p l e t e /pl&teh/
'fare*
plorera /plorerah/
pluma /plilmah/
blangket
'flowervase'
'pen'
/blanket/ 'blanket'
blangko /blarjkoh/ 'blank'

bloke /bl&ceh/
'block'
b l u s a /blu*sah/
"blouse"
klase /klaseh/
'class*
klabe /klaoeh/
' c l a v i c h o r d ; key'
k l a r o / k l l i r o h / 'white of an
egg'
klasika /klasikah/ 'classic*

klerk /klerk/ 'clerk'
k l i m a /klfmah/ ' c l i m a t e '
klinika /klfnikah/ 'clinic'
kliyente /kliy&nteh/ 'client*
k l u b / k l u b / "club''
reklamo /reklamoh/
glab /glab/
'complaint'
"glove'
globo /gl'6boh/
"globe"
g M y o l a /gladycSlah/ ' g l a d i o l a p l a n t '

glorya /gloryah/ 'glory'
3.
p r a n e l a /prane*lah/
Pranses /pranses/
'flannel'
'French'
prangko /pr^nkoh/ 'frank, s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d '
113
prasko /praskob./
'flask
premyo /premy6"h/ ' p r i z e '

preno /prenoh/ 'brake*
preskripsyon /preskripsy6n/ 'prescription'
presidente /presldenteh/ 'president'
presinto /presfntoh/ 'precinct'
preso /presoh/
'prisoner'
presyo /pre"syoh/
'price'
presyon /presyon/ 'pressure'

pribado /pribaaoh/ 'private'
p r e b l l e h i y o /prebilhiyoh/
primero
/primeroh/
'privilege'
'first'
prinsipal /prinsipal/
'principal'
p r i t a d a / p r i t a a b h / *a k i n d of d i s h '
p r o b i n s i y a /probinsyab/ 'province'
programa /progrSmah/ 'program'
propaganda /propagandah/ 'propaganda'
propesor / p r o p e s o r / ' p r o f e s s o r '
p r o p e t a /prope*tah/ 'prophet'
protesta /protlstah/
'protest'
proyekto /proye*ktoh/ ' p r o j e c t '

p r u t a s /priStas/
b r a /brah/
'fruit'
'brassiere'
bras / b r a s / 'brush'
braket /bra"ket/ 'bracket'
Bretanya /bretanyah/
'Britain'
114
b r i g a & a /brig&dah/ 'brigade'
brigadyer /brigadyer/
'brigadier'
brilyante /brilyahteh/
'diamond'
broker /broker/ 'broker'

bronse /brohseh/ 'bronze"
brongkitis /brogkftis/
'bronchitis'
brotsa /brotsah/ 'painter's
brush'
bruha /bruhah/ 'witch; u g l y woman'

kubrekama /kubrekamah/ 'bedspread'
libra /librah/
'pound'
l i b r e /llbr'eh/ 'free'
l i b r o / l l b r o h / 'book'
trak /trak/
'truck*
trabaho /trabahoh/ 'work, j o b '

t r a h e / t r a h e h / 'costume, a p p a r e l '
trahedya /trah'e*dyah/ "tragedy"
traidor /traidor/ 'traitor"
transaksiyon
/transaksiyon/
trangka / t r a n k a h / 'door
'transaction*
fastener'
trangkaso / t r a n k a s o h / ' i n f l u e n z a , f l u '

trapo / t r a p o h / 'rag'
t r a t o /tra"toh/
tren /tren/
'treatment'
'train'
trenta /trehtah/
tres / t r e s /
'thirty'
"three*
t r e s e /tre*seh/
'thirteen'
t r i p u l a n t e / t r i p u l a h t e h / 'crewman'
115
trombon /trombon/ 'trombone'
trono /tr<5noh/ 'throne'
tropeo / t r o p e o h / 'trophy'
trapik /trapik/
'traffic'
a t r a s / ? a t r 5 s / 'backward movement'
atraso /?atrasoh/
'tardiness'
k o n t r a t a /kontrdttah/ ' c o n t r a c t '

kontraktor /kontraktor/
'contractor'
l e t r a /le*trah/ ' l e t t e r ,
print'
kamisadentro /kamisade*ntroh/ 'men's s h i r t '

semestre /seme*streh/ ^semester'
dragon /dragon/
'dragon'
dram /dram/ 'drum'

drama /dr&nah/ 'drama, p l a y '
dril /dril/
'drill,
exercise '
drowing /dr'owin/ 'drawing'

kuwadra /kwaarah/ ' s t a b l e '
kuwadrado /kwadr'aaoh/ 'square*
kuwadro /kwaaroh/ ' p i c t u r e frame'
padre/pacLreh/ ' f a t h e r , p r i e s t '
kumpadre /kumpaareh/ ' r e l a t i o n between onefcs g o d f a t h e r
and p a r e n t s '
kumadre /kumaareh/ ' r e l a t i o n between one's godmother and
parents'
k r a k e r / k r S k e r / 'soda c r a c k e r s '
kredo A r e a oh/ 'credo, creed'
krema /kremah/ 'cream'
krimen /krimen/ 'crime'
116
kriminal /kriminal/
'criminal'
k r i s i s / k r f s i s/ ' c r i s i s'
kristal /kristal/
Kristo /krfston/
'crystal'
'Christ"
kritika /krftikah/
'critic'
k r o s i n g /krtSsin/ ' c r o s s i n g *
krudo /kru*doh/ 'crude
oil*
kongkreto /konkre'toh/ ' c o n c r e t e
1,
krus / k r u s / ' c r o s s '

graba /grabah/
'gravel'
grado /gr'aaoh/
'grade'
gramatika /gramttikah/ 'grammar'

gramo /gramoh/ 'gram'
granate /grana'teh/ 'garnet c o l o r '
grasya /griasyah/ 'grace*
g r a t i s / g r a t i s / 'f,ree of charge'
gripo /grfpoh/ 'faucet'
g r o t o /gr6*toh/ ' g r o t t o '
grupo /griSpoh/ 'group'
programa /programah/ 'program'
kablegrama /kablegramah/
'cablegram'
telegrama /telegramah/ 'telegram'

4.
buwal /bwal/
'fallen,
uprooted'
buwan /bwan/ 'moon; month'

buwanbuwan /bwanbwan/ 'a s p e c i e s of f i s h '
buwaya /bwayah/ ' c r o c o d i l e '
117
buwenas /bwehas/ 'good l u c k '

buwig /bwig/ 'bunch, c l u s t e r s '
buwls /bwis/ 'tax*
b u w i s i t /bwasit/
buwitre /bwftreh/
'bad l u c k *
'wlture'
b i y a /bya?/ 'a s p e c i e s of f i s h '

b i y a k /byak/ ' s p l i t '
biyahe /byaheh/ ' t r i p , voyage'
b i y a h e r o /byah&ro/ ' t r a v e l e r '
b i y a s /byas/ 'space between j o i n t s of bamboo or cane'
b i y a t i k o /bya'tikoh/
'viaticum'
b i y a y a /byaya?/ 'grace, b l e s s i n g s '

biyenan
/byendh/
'parent-in-law'
B i y e r n e s /bye*rnes/ ' F r i d a y '

biyuda /bytfdah/ 'widow'
biyulin /byulfn/ 'violin'
kubyertos
/kubylrtos/ 'table silverware'
nobyo /nooyoh/ ' b o y f r i e n d , sweetheart'

nobya /niSbyah/
'girlfriend,
sweetheart'
kuwako /kwa'koh/ 'smoking p i p e '

kuwaderno /kwadernoh/ 'notebook'
kuwadra /kwaclrah/
kuwago /kwagoh/
'stable'
'owl'
kuwan /kwan/ "a .common-,Tagalog e x p r e s s i o n when h e s i t a t i n g '

kuwarentina /kwarentfnah/
kuwaresma /kware*smah/ 'Lent
'quarantine'
season'
118
kuwarta /kwartah/ 'money*

kuwarter / k w a r t l r /
'quarter'
kuwarto /kwartoh/ 'room'

kuweba /kwe*bah/ 'cave'
kuwelyo /kwelyoh/
'collar
1 ,
kuwenta /kwentah/ 'count; computation'

k u w e n t i s t a /kwentfstah/ ' s t o r y w r i t e r or t e l l e r '
kuwento /kwentoh/ ' s t o r y '
kuwerdas /kwerda*s/
' s t r i n g of m u s i c a l instruments
kuwero /kwHroh/ 'hide, s k i n '

kuwintas /kwintas/ 'necklace'
diskuwento /diskwehtoh/
'discount'
k i y a /kya?/ ' a f f e c t e d g a i t , mannerisms'

kiyapo /kyapo?/
'a s p e c i e s of p l a n t '
Quiapo /kyapo?/ 'Quiapo d i s t r i c t i n M a n i l a '

k i y o s k o /kyoskoh/ 'lilosk'
parokya /par6*kyah/ ' p a r i s h '
duwag /dwag/
'coward'
duwende /dwendeh/ ' g o b l i n ;
dwarf
duweto /dwe*toh/ 'duet'

d i y a b l o / d y a o l o h / 'devil*, demon'
diyagnosis /dyagnosis/ 'diagnosis'
d i y a g u n a l /dyagunal/ ' d i a g o n a l '
d i y a l o g o /dyalogoh/ 'dialogue'
diyamante /dyamahteh/ 'diamond*
119
d i y a n /dyan/
'there
d i y a r y o /dyaryoh/ 'newspaper'
d i y a s /dyas/ 'musical j a z z '
d i y e s /dyes/ ' t e n '
d i y e t a /dye*tah/ ' d i e t ; d a i l y allowance'
d i y o s /dyo's/ 'god'
d i y o s a /dyosah/
'goddess'
medyas /me*dyas/ 'sock, s t o c k i n g '

kudyapi /kudyapf?/ ' g u i t a r '
komedya /kome*dyah/ 'comedy'
trahedya /trahecLyah/ 'tragedy'
tadyang /tadyarj/
'rib*
adyos /?ady6*s/ 'goodbye*

guwantes /gwahtes/ 'hand
gloves'
guwang /gwan/ 'hollow, c a v i t y '

guwapo /gwapoh/ 'good-looking (male)'
guwapa /gwapah/ ' b e a u t i f u l , p r e t t y
guwaplto /gwapftoh/
(female)'
'handsome, good-looking'
guwaratsa /gwara'tsah/ 'a k i n d of dance'

guwardiya /gwardyah/ 'guard'
g i y a /gyah/ 'guide'
Guia /gyah/ 'a g i r l ' s name'
Guiang /gyan/ a f a m i l y name'
huwag /hwag/ 'don't'
huwad /hwad/ 'fake, f o r g e d '
129
Juan /hwan/ 'Juan, John'

Huwebes /hwe*bes/ 'Thursday'
huwego /hwegoh/ 'gambling'
huwetlng /hwlstin/ 'a k i n d of Chinese game
huwes /hwes/ 'judge'

h i y a /hya?/ 'shame'
h i y a n g ,/hyan/ ' s u i t a b l e t o one's h e a l t h '
h i y a s /hyas/ 'jewelry'
hiyaw /hyaw/ 'shout, c r y '
luwa /lwa?/ 'food e j e c t e d from the mouth'
luwad /lwad/
'clay'
l u w a l / l w a l / 'out; o u t s i d e '
luwalhatl /lwalh^ti?/
'glory'
luwas /lwas / ' t r i p from town t o c i t y '

luwang /lwan/ 'width'
luwat / l w a t / 'delay'
l i y a b / l y a b / 'blaze; flame'
l i y a d / l y a d / 'bent backward w i t h the abdomen p r o t r u d i n g '
l i y a g / l y a g / 'beloved, d a r l i n g '
l i y o /lyoh/
'dizziness'
muwang /mwan/ 'sense,
knowledge'
muwebles /mwebles/ ' f u r n i t u r e '

muwelye /muweUyeh/ ' p i e r ;
axle'
muwestra /mw'estrah/ 'demonstration; sample'
121
miyembro /myembroh/ 'member
miyentras / m y l n t r a s / 'meanwhile, w h i l e '

Miyerkules /myerkule's/ 'Wednesday'
miyopiya /myopyah/ 'myopia'
maya-maya /myamy5?/ ' l a t e r on'
nuwebe /nwlbeh/ 'nine'

panuwelo /panweloh/ 'shoulder k e r c h i e f
Anonuevo /?anyonw'eVoh/ *a f a m i l y name'
n i y a /nyah/ ' h i s ,
her; by him/er'
niyebe /ny'lbeh/ 'snow';

n i y o g /nyog/ 'coconut'
Ni.eves /nyeves/ *a g i r l ' s
name'
ngawa /nwa?/ 'loud empty t a l k i n g '

ngwe /nwe?/ ' c r y of a carabao'
ngiwi /nwi?/ 'twisted
ngiyaw /nyaw/ 'mew
(lips)'
of a c a t '
puwang /pwan/ 'space, i n t e r v a l '

puwede /pw'ecleh/ ' p o s s i b l e
puwersa /pweYsah/
'force'
puwerto /pwe*rtoh/ 'port; entrance'

puwesto /pwe*stoh/ ' p o s i t i o n *
puwing /pwin/ ' f o r e i g n body i n the eye'
puwi t /pwi t /
'anus'
piyano /pyanoh/ 'piano'

p i y a n i s t a /pyanafstah/ ' p i a n i s t '
122
p i y a n s a /pyahsah/ 'surety, bond'

p i y e /pyeh/ ' f o o t (measure)'
p i y e r /pyer/ 'pier'
p i y e s a /pyesah/ 'musical
piece'
piyak /pyak/ ' s h r i e k (of c h i c k e n ) '

kopya /k'cSpyah/ ' copy'
lumpiya /lumpya'?/ 'Chinese egg
roll'
ruweda /rwe*dah/ ' r i n g , as i n a. stadium; wheel'

Rowena /rwehah/
r i y a n /ryan/
a g i r l s name'
1
'there'
rosaryo /rosaryoh/
'rosary'
suwabe /swaoeh/ 'smooth, m i l d '

suwag /swag/ 'horn'
suwail / s w a ? i l / ' r e b e l l i o u s , d i s o b e d i e n t '
suwelas /swe*las/ ' s o l e of a footwear'
suwerte / s w l r t e h /
'good l u c k '
suwi /swih/ 'shoot,
sprout'
suwitik / s w i t i k / ' t r i c k y , c r a f t y '

entreswelo /?entreswe*loh/
s i y a /syah/ 'he;
groundfloor
she'
siyam /syam/ 'nine'

s i y a p /syap/ ' c h i r p i n g of a c h i c k '
siyempre /syempreh/ 'of
s i y e t e /sye"teh/
course'
'seven'
s i y o k /syok/ 'cry o f a f r i g h t e n e d
chicken'
123
s i y o k t o n g /syoktorj/ 'a k i n d of Chinese wine*
grasya /grasyah/
'grace
d i s g r a s y a / d i s g r a s y a h / 'accident*
d i b o r s i y o /dib6*rsyoh/ ' d i v o r c e '
demokrasya /demokrasyah/
'democracy'
tuwa /twa?/ ' j o y , gladness'

tuwad /twad/ 'backward p o s i t i o n of the b u t t o c k s '
tuwalya / t w l l y a h / 'towel'
tuwi / t w i ? / 'every time'
tuwid / t w i d / ' s t r a i g h t '
katuwiran /katwfran/
'reason'
i s t a t u w a /?ista'twah/ ' s t a t u e '

t i y a /tyah/
'aunt'
t i y o / t y o h / 'uncle'
t i y a k / t y a k / ' c e r t a i n , sure'
t i y a g a /tyag'a,?/ ' d i l i g e n c e '
t i y a n / t y a n / 'stomach'
tiyani /tyahi?/
'tweezers'
tiyempo /tye"mpoh/
'time; t i m i n g '
kristiyano /kristyahoh/ 'christian'

m o l e s t i y a /molestyah/
A l l /Cw/
/Cuw/
'bother*
and /Cy/ c l u s t e r s a l t e r n a t e morphemically
and / C i y / r e s p e c t i v e l y
( c f . Morphophonemics).
;
with
124
10.2.2
Tagalog
I n t e r v o c a l i c C l u s t e r s (-CC-)
c l u s t e r s occur m e d i a l l y i n u t t e r a n c e , t h a t i s ,
across s y l l a b l e or morpheme boundaries

between words.'
whether w i t h i n words or
I n t e r v o c a l i c c l u s t e r s are medial
c l u s t e r s which
are combinations of p e r m i t t e d f i n a l s i n g l e consonant and

mitted i n i t i a l
s i n g l e consonant.'
The
per-
s i t u a t i o n can be sym-
b o l i z e d as /-VCCV-/ i n n a t i v e words such as takbo /takboh/

pakpak /pakpak/ 'wing'.'
p o s s i b l e type of medial
The l e x i c a l frequency
'run
of t h i s
consonant c l u s t e r s i s very high.'
sequence of t h r e e or f o u r consonants o c c u r r i n g m e d i a l l y always

has
an i n t e r n a l open j u n c t u r e b r e a k i n g i t i n t o f i n a l
and i n i t i a l
c l u s t e r s as /-VC
d i s p l a y ' , or /-VCC
+ CCV-/
+ CCV-/
consonant
i n loanword d i s p l e y / d i s p l a y /
i n ekstra
/Skstrah/
'extra'.
Since
they are i n t e r r u p t e d by a j u n c t u r e , these c l u s t e r s are t h e r e f o r e

not t o be c o n s i d e r e d as t h r e e or four-consonant
clusters.'
A sample l i s t i n g of c l u s t e r s o c c u r r i n g across s y l l a b l e or
morpheme boundaries
i s g i v e n below:
kumusta /kumustab/ ' g r e e t i n g '

.maganda /magandab/ 'beauti f u l '
pag-asa /pag?asah/ 'hope'
dokt or / d o k t o r /
'doctor'
sapagka't /sapagk^t/ 'because'

aakyat
ka /??akyt kah/
b a b a l i k s i y a /b&balfk/
k a i n na / k a ? i n nab/
suweldo
/sweUdoh/
'you w i l l
climb'
syah/ 'he w i l l r e t u r n '
'eat
'salary*
now'
125
mag-aral /mag?aral/ 'study'

mlnsan pa /mlnsan pah/
'once more
damdamin /damdamin/ ' f e e l i n g s '

magbasa /magbasab/ 'to read'
magsulat /magsul'fit/ 'to w r i t e '
nagtatakbo /nagtatakbob/
pantalon
aklat
/pantaloh/
/?aklaV
'ran'
'pant^'
'book'
t i k t i k / t i k t f k / 'spy',
tindahan
/tindaban/
paligsahan
'store'
/paligsaban/
'contest'
protestante /protestanteh/
'protestant'
magbisekleta /magbisekle*tah/ 'to b i k e '

tugtog /tugt'og/
'music*
dalamhati /dalamh^ti?/
* sorrow, a f f l i c t i o n '
k o n g r e s i s t a /kongresifstah/ 'congressman*
saliksik /saliksfk/
'research'
sandata /sandlttah/ 'weapon'

ngisngis /rjisnfs/ 'giggle'
representante
/representanteh/
'representative'
l u n i n g n i n g /luninrisfn/
'brilliance'
adyos po /?adyos po?/
* goodbye, s i r *
10.'2.-'3
P r e j u n c t u r a l Consonant C l u s t e r s
(-CC)
P o s t v o c a l i c , p r e j u n c t u r a l c l u s t e r s occur i n Tagalog and

are l i m i t e d to two
consonants only/-
There are words with
c l u s t e r s t h a t are i n normal, everyday use
such as teks
they
final
/teks/
126
' t e x t , kyuteks /kyiSteks/ ' n a i l p o l i s h ' , koteks / k o t e k s / ' s a n i t a r y

1
n a p k i n , kotex', k l i n i k s / k l f n i k s / ' t i s s u e paper, kleenex', baks

/baks/ *box' , aysbaks /?aysbaks/ 'icebox', taks / t a k s / ' t a x ; t a c k ' ,
tamtaks /tamta'ks/ 'thumbtack', i s p i t s / ? i s p f t s /
/plits/
'pleat', i s t l t s
/?istfts/
'speech', p l i t s
'stitch', tidbits
'tidbits', t s e s t e r f i l d / t s e s t e r f f l d / 'Chesterfield
/tidb&ts/
cigarette',
kard / k a r d / 'card', n a r s / n a r s / 'nurse', pruns /pruns/ 'prunes',

b i n s / b i n s / 'bean', pork'en b i n s /pork ?en b i n s / 'prk and beans',
etc
Names w i t h f i n a l c l u s t e r s a r e n o t uncommon i n Tagalog,
such as B e r t , Robert, Mark o r Marc, C a r l or K a r l , C l a r k , J o r g e ,

Donald, C l i f f o r d , A r n o l d , Frank, e t c
Some Tagalog speakers cannot pronounce
c e r t a i n p o s i t i o n s , as i n the case o f s
" i n a b i l i t y " t o produce i n i t i a l
m e
c e r t a i n phonemes i n
o l d e r people's supposed
and f i n a l c l u s t e r s , simply because
these c l u s t e r s were n o t o r i g i n a l l y p r e s e n t i n the sound

of
Tagalog.
system
I t has been observed t h a t o l d people have the tend-
ency t o i n s e r t an i n t r u s i v e vowel between the i n i t i a l
clusters,
p r o d u c i n g words l i k e t a r a k /tarak:/ f o r t r a k ' t r u c k ' , k a l a s i

/ k a l a s i h / f o r k l a s e ' c l a s s ' , tarabaho /tarabahoh/ f o r trabaho
'work', p a l a n t s a / p a l a n t s a h / f o r p l a n t s a ' f l a t i r o n ' ,
/pirftoh/ for prlto
' f r i e d ' , and the l i k e .
pirito
Another common ob-
s e r v a t i o n i s the i n t r o d u c i n g of the p r o t h e t i c vowel / i /
or / e /
b e f o r e loanwords b e g i n n i n g w i t h / s / p l u s consonant, as i n
Tagalog i s k u l / ? i s l n l l / , i s p o r t / ? i s p 5 r t / , istambay
/?istambay/,
i s p i t s / ? i s p i t s / from E n g l i s h s c h o o l , s p o r t , standby, speech,

respectively.'
Perhaps t h i s i s due t o the i n f l u e n c e of Spanish
127
p r o t h e t i c vowel o c c u r r i n g b e f o r e / s / f o l l o w e d by a
consonant,
as i n Tagalog eskwela /?eskwi'lah/, e s p e s y a l / ? e s p e s y a l / ,

istasyon
/?istasy6h/,
i s k a n d a l o /?iskandal'6h/ and i s k i n a
/ ? i s k i n a h / from Spanish e s c u e l a ' s c h o o l ' , e s p e c i a l

e s t a c i o n ' s t a t i o n ' , escandalo ' s c a n d a l ' , esquina
'special' ,
'street',
respectively.
10.3
Vowel
Frequency
I t has been mentioned t h a t t h e r e i s a d i r e c t , one-to-one

c o r r e l a t i o n between the number of v o c o i d sounds and the number
of s y l l a b l e s i n Tagalog (Cf. Sec. 1 0 . l ) .
There a r e as many
s y l l a b l e s as t h e r e a r e vocoids i n an utterance.'
The f o l l o w i n g
o b s e r v a t i o n s on the frequency of vowels were made on the b a s i s

of a frequency count of 592 words from the f o l l o w i n g
of modern c o l l o q u i a l Tagalog:
Ang P u l i t i k a ( P o l i t i c s ) , Ang
Pilipina
(The F i l i p i n a ) and Madaling-Araw (Dawn). ?
samplings
combined g i v e a t o t a l of 123^ s y l l a b l e s .
688
samplings
s y l l a b l e s w i t h / a / , 277 with / i / ,
The three
There a r e
153 with /o/, 58 with / u /
and 58 with /e/.

A s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s i s of the r e l a t i v e frequency of occurrence o f vowel phonemes i n the t h r e e samplings y i e l d s the f o l l o w i n g percentages
arranged i n the descending order of frequency.
17
. . . . . . . . . . .
'See Beginning Tagalog:
A Course f o r Speakers of E n g l i s h
(Berkeley and Los Angeles:
U n i v e r s i t y of C a l i f o r n i a P r e s s , I965,
pp. 208, 173 and 228, r e s p e c t i v e l y . )
128
Vowel Phonemes Frequency of Occurrence Percentage
of Occurrence
. a .
688
55 M
277
22.h% . . . .
. ,o
153
12.4$ .
M.7%
58
. . -U. .
e .
58
- -M-.i7.fo
I n the above d a t a , i t i s c l e a r l y e v i d e n t t h a t the vowel

phoneme / a / has the h i g h e s t frequency of occurrence, / i /
next, f o l l o w e d by /o/.
coming
I n the samplings used here, / u / and /e/
have equal frequency of occurrence, but i t has been observed i n

some Tagalog t e x t s t h a t /e/ i s r e l a t i v e l y l e s s frequent than
/u/: / e / has a very low frequency of occurrence e s p e c i a l l y i n
literary
Tagalog.11.
Morphophonemic
Alternations
The v a r i a n t s of phonemes or allophones have been d e s c r i b e d

i n Sec. 9.2.
Tagalog a l s o e x h i b i t s a number of a l t e r n a t i o n s of
phonemes w i t h i n morphemes.
These a l t e r n a t i o n s of phonemes w i t h i n
a g i v e n morpheme b r i d g e the gap between the morphological and

phonemic l e v e l s .
phonemics.'
L i n g u i s t s c a l l t h i s f i e l d o f a n a l y s i s morpho-
S t o c k w e l l d e f i n e s the term as the d e s c r i p t i o n of the
129
1 ft
a l t e r n a t e , phonemic shapes t h a t morphemes have i n a language.
A d e t a i l e d study of the morphophonemics of Tagalog i s beyond the l i m i t s of t h i s t h e s i s .
The aim here i s t o i l l u s t r a t e
only the most common types of morphophonemic a l t e r n a t i o n s which

are c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of the Taglog language.
reveals
Such an a n a l y s i s
the presence of important phenomena which go n e g l e c t e d
i n the t r a d i t i o n a l grammar of Tagalog simply because they a r e

masked by d e f i c i e n c i e s i n the c o n v e n t i o n a l
orthography.'
These
morphophonemic a l t e r n a t i o n s a r e common among vowels as w e l l as

consonants-.
For the Tagalog vowels, as i n d i c a t e d i n the p a t t e r n

an u n d e r l y i n g
five-vowel
(FIg.13),
system has been e s t a b l i s h e d , w i t h a
three-way c o n t r a s t i n tongue-height and a two-way c o n t r a s t i n

tongue-advancement, which i s v a l i d i n a l l p o s i t i o n s , whether the
vowels a r e s t r o n g l y s t r e s s e d or weakly stressed.'
are i n s t a n c e s
where / i /
However,
and / e / o r / u / and /o/ a l t e r n a t e with
each other i n c e r t a i n p o s i t i o n s o r c e r t a i n environments.

contrasts
Since
e x i s t between these vowels, such a l t e r n a t i o n s a r e
t r e a t e d here as morphophonemic r a t h e r than

The
there
allophonic.
f o l l o w i n g a r e examples of these morphophonemic a l t e r -
n a t i ons:
/!/ a l t e r n a t e s with / e / i n a p r e - J u n e t u r a l
as i n babae /bab?eh/
syllable,
/baba*?ih/ 'female', l a l a k i / l a l a l c i h / -
R. S t o c k w e l l , A C o n t r a s t i v e A n a l y s i s of Tagalog and E n g l i s h
(Los AngelesJ
U n i v e r s i t y of C a l i f o r n i a P r e s s , 1958, p. B-4.*
Mimeo.) Heogives e x c e l l e n t examples of morphophonemic a l t e r n a t i o n s
on p. B-35.
130
/lala*keh/ 'male , s a k i t / s a k i t / ** /sake*t/ 'sickness*; / u /
1
a l t e r n a t e s w i t h /o/ i n a p r e j u n c t u r a l s y l l a b l e , as i n b a l u t
/balrtt/ -
/bal6*t/
'duck's egg', bukod
/buk6d/
**
/buktfd/
'separate', k u l o t / k u l o ' t / / k u l t t t / ' c u r l ' ; /Cuw/ a l t e r n a t e s

w i t h /Cw/, as i n puwede /puwe*deh/ * /pwldeh/ 'can be;
p o s s i b l e ' , sweldo /swe*ldoh/ /suwe*ldoh/ ' s a l a r y ' , kuwento
/kuwehtoh/ /kwehtoh/ ' s t o r y ' ; / C i y / a l t e r n a t e s with /Cy/,
/tiySk/
as i n d i y a n V d i y a h / /dyan/ ' t h e r e ' , t i y a k
/tyak/
'sure, c e r t a i n ' , k a n i y a /kaniyan/ /kanyan/ 'his,' her'; /ay/

a l t e r n a t e s with /ey/ and /e/,* as i n mayroon /mayro?6h/
/meyr6"?n/ /meVon/
'there I s , there a r e ' , kaysa /kaysah/
/keysah/ w'/kgsah/ 'than', aywan /?aywah/ * /?eywah/ /?'e*wan/

'an e x p r e s s i o n o f n e g a t i o n ' ; / a ? i / a l t e r n a t e s with /ay/, / e y /
and /e/, as k a i l a n / k a ? i l a h / < / k a y l a h / / k e y l a h / ~ /ke*lan/
'when', k a i l a n g a n /ka?flanan/" /kaylagan/
/kllanan/
/keylagan/
'necessary'.'
A l t e r n a t i o n s of consonants (Cf. Consonant P a t t e r n s ) a r e

a l s o common i n Tagalog.
Some of these a l t e r n a t i o n s a r e
c o n d i t i o n e d a l t e r n a t i o n s as i n the case of Tagalog n a s a l s

/ m n . n / which occur i n a g r e a t many words spoken i n normal
r a p i d conversation.:
/m/
occurs b e f o r e
/p
b/
/n/
occurs b e f o r e
/d
/n/
occurs b e f o r e
/k
w/
*Note the s h i f t of s t r e s s w i t h /e/.
y/
131
T h i s phenomenon of sound change i s o f t e n r e f e r r e d t o as
a s s i m i l a t i o n , i . e s , a p h o n e t i c process whereby two phonemes
a c q u i r e common c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .
I t i s a r e g r e s s i v e or r e t r o -
g r e s s i v e a s s i m i l a t i o n i n the case quoted s i n c e the a s s i m i l a t o r y phoneme (the phoneme which produces

f o l l o w s the a s s i m i l a t e d phoneme.-
t h i s phenomenon)
The very common i n s t a n c e s
are found i n the names f o r numbers such as l a b i n s i y a m

/ l a b i n s i y a m / 'nineteen' (< l a b i
'excess, more than' + -ng
'connective marker' + siyam ' n i n e ' ) , limampu /limampu"?/

(< 11 m& ' f i v e ' + -ng + pu ' t e n ' ) , sandaan /sanda?an/
hundred
(< i s a 'one* + -ng + daan 'hundred');
/pang- m pan-
~ pam-/
'fifty'
'one
i n a f f i x pang-
' p e r t a i n i n g t o , f o r * p l u s a noun, as i n
pangkultura /pankultifrah/ ' c u l t u r a l ' , panlaro /panlaro?/ ' f o r

p l a y i n g , f o r s p o r t s ' pambansa /pambansa'?/ ' n a t i o n a l * , and i n
words f o l l o w i n g the noun marker ang
/?ambta?/
'the', as i n ang b a t a
'the c h i l d , ang puso /?ampi5so?/ 'the h e a r t ' , ang

1
t a t a y /?anttay/ 'the f a t h e r ' .

1
P r o n u n c i a t i o n s are sometimes
r e f l e c t e d i n the s p e l l i n g i f they occur w i t h i n words but not

if
they occur a c r o s s word boundaries as i l l u s t r a t e d i n the
above examples.-
I n normal
speech, a s s i m i l a t i o n s a c r o s s word
boundaries are commonly observed, but they may
or may
not take
p l a c e , depending upon f a c t o r s l i k e r a t e of speech, l e n g t h of

pauses between words, emphasis, e t c .
A l t e r n a t i o n between /d/ and / r / i s very common i n i n t e r v o c a l i c p o s i t i o n , whether w i t h i n words or a c r o s s word boundaries,
as i n marumi /marumfh/ - /madumfh/ ' d i r t y ' , apat na r a a n
/?apat na r a ? a n / - /?apat na da?an/ 'four hundred', s u s u l a t
132
d i n ako / s u s t f l a t d i n ?akd*h/ 'I w i l l w r i t e '
and ako* r i n ay
sustflat /?ak6 r i n ?ay s u s i l l a t / 'I t o o w i l l w r i t e ' .

r u l e then, / d / becomes / r / between vowels.'
however, i s n o t automatic.:
The a l t e r n a t i o n ,
I n some words, / d / remains / d / ,
never / r / even i n i n t e r v o c a l i c p o s i t i o n
of the a l t e r n a t i o n s
As a
(Cf. p. 88 ).
Some
are d i a l e c t a l a l t e r n a t i o n s
as i n the case
of / d / a l t e r n a t i n g w i t h / r / i n some words l i k e dagasav/dagasa"?/

- /ragasa"?/ 'hasty, v i o l e n t ' , rimarim / r i m a r l m / /dimarim/
'nausea, l o a t h i n g ' ,
rahuyo /rahuyo?/ - /dahuyo?/
'seduce'.
I n some d i a l e c t s of Tagalog, the use of / r / f o r / d / i s t h e

usual practice.
A l t e r n a t i o n between / r / and / l /
o r / d / and / l /
seems t o
be s t r a t i f i e d s o c i a l l y , w i t h / r / and / d / among the b e t t e r

educated speakers and / l /
among the l e s s p r i v i l e g e d .
of t h i s a l t e r n a t i o n a r e found i n some few words l i k e

/kwartab./ /kwaltab/ 'money', l u g a r / l u g a r /
and dura /dura*?/ - /lur?/
Examples
kuwarta
/lugal/
'place',
'sputum'.
Other a l t e r n a t i o n s which a r e n o r m a l l y observed among

educated speakers a r e the a l t e r n a t i o n s between / n / and /n/, as
i n k a n i n a /kanfnah/ ~ /kanfnah/
'a moment ago', d i n i g / d i n f g /
/ d i n i g / 'hear', t i n i g / t f n i g / * / t i n i g /
between / n / and / l / ,
fruit',
- /lin.aga?/
/linugaw/ ' r i c e g r u e l ' ;
and /g/, as i n bagsak /bagsak/
*Metathesis.
alternation
as i n nangka /nanka*?/ - / l a n k a ? / 'jack-
nilagaVnil^ga?/
/niltfgaw/
'voice';
' b o i l e d i n water' ,
1
nilugaw*
a l t e r n a t i o n between /k/
/baksaV
'fall;;failure'
133
lagpak /lagp'Sk/
/lakpSk/ ' f a l l ;
/ t i k d a s / 'measles';
f a i l e d ' , t i g d a s /tigda's/ *
a l t e r n a t i o n between / ? / and /h/, as i n "
bansa /bansa*?/ /bansah/
' n a t i o n * , a r i n a /?ar3*nah/ / h a r f n a h /
'flour', u l i n i g /?ulihig/
- / h u l f h i g / 'hear d i s t i n c t l y ' . '
Some a l t e r n a t i o n s a r e s t y l i s t i c a l t e r n a t i o n s .
n a t i o n between /p/ and ft/
i s a case i n p o i n t .
The a l t e r -
Some educated
speakers p r e f e r t o use the f o r e i g n sound / f / t o n a t i v e /p/ f o r

s o c i a l prestige.'
T h i s type of a l t e r n a t i o n i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n
c e r t a i n words such as p i y e s t a / p i y e s t a h /
h o l i d a y ' , p i n o /pfnoh/ > / f f n o h /
/prtftas/
etc.;
/ f i y e s t a h / 'feast,
' f i n e , r e f i n e d ' , prutas
m / f r t f t a s / ' f r u i t ' , p a l d a /pSldah/ - / f a l d a h /

1
'skirt' ,
A l t e r n a t i o n between /b/ and / v / i s a l s o observed among
educated speakers i n f l u e n c e d by Spanish orthography..

of t h i s a l t e r n a t i o n may be found i n words l i k e
/ p r o b i n s y a h / w/provinsyah/
/vyaheh/
Examples
probinsiya
' p r o v i n c e ' , biyahe /byaneh/ <
' t r i p , voyage', b i y u d a /byildah/ *. /vytJdah/ 'widow',
bakasyon /bakasyoh/
/vakasyoh/
'vacation' , e t c .
134
12.-J Suprasegmental Features
The study of p r o s o d i c f e a t u r e s i n modern l i n g u i s t i c s i s
s t i l l i n i t s i n f a n c y , or a t any r a t e e a r l y
adolescence,compared
w i t h the techniques f o r the s y s t e m a t i c study of speech sounds.

These f e a t u r e s , which i n c l u d e s t r e s s , l e n g t h , p i t c h ,
e t c . , have been v a r i o u s l y named.
juncture,
Hughes, f o r i n s t a n c e , use the
term p r o s o d i c as synonymous w i t h suprasegmental.
They are
c a l l e d suprasegmental or n o n l i n e a r because they are in-feerpreted

as an e x t r a l a y e r of s t r u c t u r e superposed on the segmental
phonemes.
Some l i n g u i s t s use the g e n e r a l term prosody f o r
suprasegmental phenomena i n general., and prosodeme f o r a suprasegmental f e a t u r e t h a t i s c o n t r a s t i v e .
There seem t o be
" s c h o o l s " of thought about the suprasegmental f e a t u r e s .
two
One
s c h o o l terms them suprasegmental f e a t u r e s r e s e r v i n g the term

phoneme f o r the l i n e a r phoneme, and the other r e f e r s t o them as
suprasegmental phonemes.'
There i s some debate about
it.
An. a n a l y s i s of Tagalog suprasegmentals was not attempted

i n t h i s study.'
countered.
There are many i n t e r e s t i n g problems t o be en-
A few samples of the k i n d s of s t r e s s problems w i t h
some i n d i c a t i o n s as t o how
they may
be s o l v e d could be
mentioned
here.
I n Tagalog, there i s a r a t h e r complex
system of w r i t t e n or
p r i n t e d a c c e n t u a t i o n recommended by the I n s t i t u t e of N a t i o n a l
Language and taught i n the s c h o o l s .
The o f f i c i a l
"Grammar of
the N a t i o n a l Language" and other books used i n P h i l i p p i n e schools

p r e s e n t a system of a c c e n t u a t i o n u s i n g three types of accent marks,
1-35
namely: the acute accent ( *< ) p l a c e d i n any p o s i t i o n above
the vowel as i n p ^ a r a l a h /pcC?aralah/ ' s c h o o l , the grave
1
accent ( ** ) r e p r e s e n t i n g a g l o t t a l stop p l a c e d over the f i n a l

vowel, as i n b a t a /b5ta?/ ' c h i l d ' , and a c i r c u m f l e x accent ( * )
i n d i c a t i n g the simultaneous presence of an acute accent and a
g l o t t a l stop w r i t t e n above the vowel i n w o r d - f i n a l p o s i t i o n ,
as i n ma-hanria. /matanda?/ ' o l d ' .
These a r e the t h r e e accent
marks found i n s c h o o l textbooks and used i n c o n v e n t i o n a l o r t h o graphy .

I n the nomenclature
o f accent phenomena, i t i s t r a d i t i o n a l
to use the same terms and d e s c r i b e them as presented above.

The term accent i s too o f t e n a source of c o n f u s i o n , s i n c e i t i s
used t o r e f e r t o w r i t t e n accent marks and as a g e n e r a l cover
term f o r i n t e n s i t y and p i t c h .
The same word i s used i n " f o r e i g n
accent" which i s the c a r r y - o v e r i n t o a second language

of a r t i c u l a t i o n from one's n a t i v e or second
of h a b i t s
language.
I n t h i s study, s t r e s s was p r e f e r r e d t o a c c e n t . t o r e f e r t o
the phonemically s i g n i f i c a n t f o r c e or loudness g i v e n a vowel
or s y l l a b l e .
The s t r e s s s i t u a t i o n i n Tagalog has been l o n g the
o b j e c t of debate among s c h o l a r s .
F o r i n d i v i d u a l words i n Tagalog,
t h i s i n v e s t i g a t o r s e t up three l e v e l s of s t r e s s : the s t r o n g e s t
s t r e s s was c a l l e d primary and i n phonemic t r a n s c r i p t i o n i t was
marked by the acute accent /*/, w r i t t e n over the vowel phoneme
forming the nucleus o f the s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e ;
the next s t r o n g e s t
was c a l l e d secondary which was marked by a grave accent /"*/; and

then the weak or zero s t r e s s which was l e f t unmarked, or may,
136
o p t i o n a l l y , be i n d i c a t e d by / ""V.
I n a Tagalog word of more than one
s y l l a b l e , at l e a s t
one
s y l l a b l e r e c e i v e s a g r e a t e r degree of s t r e s s than the other or

others.
may
The
three c l e a r l y d i f f e r e n t p h o n e t i c l e v e l s of s t r e s s
a l l be observed
six-syllable
i n a normal p r o n u n c i a t i o n of the f o l l o w i n g
sentence:
L a l a k a d na ako. /lltlltkad nah
?ak6b/ ' I ' l l go
now.'
A word of three to s i x or more u n s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e s i n uni n t e r r u p t e d sequence are r e l a t i v e l y
common, as shown i n the
d i f f e r e n t forms of the stem t u l o n g / t i l l o n /

matulungin /matulunfn/
'help.
'helpful'
. pagtutulungan /pagtutulurjan/ 'act of h e l p i n g
one
another'
makipagtulungan /makipagtulurjan/
'to
pinakamatulungin /pinakamatulurjfn/
cooperate'
'most h e l p f u l '
The u n s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e s above are pronounced w i t h more or l e s s

equal l e n g t h and
even tone.
L i k e the segmental phonemes, the s t r e s s phonemes may

e s t a b l i s h e d by s t u d y i n g t h e i r d i s t r i b u t i o n and
contrast.
l o c a t i o n of s t r e s s i n Tagalog i s not f i x e d by automatic

Its
occurrence
i s unpredictable.
be
The
rules.
I t i s p o s s i b l e to change the
meaning of a word or form by changing the p l a c e of s t r e s s .

The
f o l l o w i n g sentences
only by
c o n t a i n a p a i r of words d i f f e r e n t i a t e d
stress:
1.
Iba baga ang baga sa baga at baga?

/ ? i b a b bagab ?an- ba"gah sah baga? ?at baga*?/
(different-interrogative-the-ember-from-abscess-andparticle
lungs)
137
'Is
2.
ember d i f f e r e n t f r o m a b s c e s s
,Kakanin
and
lungs?'
n g k a s a m a n g k a s a m a ang k a k a n i n s a mesa,
/ k a k a n i n nan
kasamah nan, kasamah ? a n k a k a n f n
sah
me*sah/
(will
eat-noun
marker-companion-of-the-tenant-the
goodi es-on-table)
'The
companion of the t e n a n t w i l l
on t h e
3
eat the
goodies
table.'
B a t a n g b a t a ang
/batah nan
ginaw k a h i t walang b a t a .
ba*ta? ? a n g l n a w k a h i t TtfalaV} ba"tah/
(bear-by-child-the-cold-even-without-bathrobe)
'The
child
c o u l d s t a n d the c o l d even w i t h o u t
bathrobe'.
4.
I s a l a m a n g ang
/ ? i s a h laman, Ian.
lamang n i y a sa a k i n .
lamarj. n i y a h s a h
?kin/
(one-only-the-advantage-him-over-me)
'He
5.
has
o n l y one
L a l a k i ang
/lal^kih
In
it
advantage over
aso.
Lalaki
?an ?&soh/
/lalakfh
( m a l e - t h e - dog)
(will
'The
'The
dog
i s male.'
me.'
ang
?an
aso.
?as5h/
grow b i g - t h e - s m o k e )
smoke w i l l
grow b i g . '
t h i s , case, s t r e s s plays a l i n g u i s t i c r o l e i n Tagalog
i s a d i s t i n c t i v e phenomenon t i e d i n w i t h m e a n i n g .
There i s
a c o n s i d e r a b l e number o f s u b s t a n t i v e s w h i c h a r e d i s t i n g u i s h e d
o n l y by s t r e s s .
For
example:
a n a k / ? a h a k / ' f a m i l y , c l a n ' v s . anak / ? a n a k /

balat /balat/
' b i r t h m a r k ' v s . b a l a t /balt/
and
'child'
'skin'
138
hamon /hamon/ 'challenge* vs. hamon
1
/ham6n/
pusod /pu*sod/ 'navel' v s . pusod /pusSd/
'ham'
'chignon'
say a /sayah/ ' s k i r t ' v s . say a /sayab/ 'merriment'

A s t r e s s can change the form c l a s s of a word.
A word may
be a verb or an a d j e c t i v e , depending upon the p o s i t i o n of s t r e s s .

The
following
minimal p a i r s a r e d i f f e r e n t i a t e d only by s t r e s s
emphasis.
A.'
a h i t / ? a b i t / 'shave' v s . a h i t / ? a h f t /
kalat /kalat/
'shaved'
' s c a t t e r ' v s . k a l a t /kala't/
'scattered'
g i s i n g / g f s i n / 'wake up' vs.-- g i s i n g / g i s f r j / 'awake'

s i r a / s f r a ? / 'destroy' v s . s i r a / s i r a " ? / 'destroyed'
ubos /?u"bos/ 'consume' v s . ubos /?ub6"s/ 'consumed'
Bs
b a l i i n / b a l f ? i n / 'to break (e.g. a s t i c k ) ' v s . b a l i i n
/ b a l i ? f n / ' e a s i l y broken'
basagin / b a s a g i n /
/basagfn/
'to break ,('e.g. g l a s s ) v s . b a s a g i n
' e a s i l y broken'
b i r u i n / b i n l ? i n / 'to tease' v s . b i r u i n / b i r u ? f n /
'always b e i n g
teased'
t a l u n i n / t a l t l n i n / 'to d e f e a t ' v s . t a l u n i n
/talunfn/
.'easily d e f e a t e d '
u t a n g i n /?uta^nin/ 'to get on c r e d i t ' v s . u t a n g i n
/?utanfn/
'taken
on c r e d i t '
G.
antukin /?antukfn/
'to f e e l s l e e p y ' v s . a n t u k i n
/?antifkin/ 'habitually
sleepy'
139
h i r a m l n / h i r a m f n / 'to borrow
vs. hlramln /hlramin/
borrowed'
s i p u n l n / s i p u n l n / 'to c a t c h c o l d * v s . s i p u n l n
/ s i p u n l n / ' s u s c e p t i b l e t o cold':
t a n g g a l i n / t a r j g a l f n / 'to detach' vs.' t a n g g a l i n
/ t a f y g a l i n / 'detachable'
yamutin /yamutin/
'to annoy' v s . yamutin /yaraittin/
' e a s i l y annoyed, cranky'

A noun may become an a d j e c t i v e by changing the p o s i t i o n of
stress.
The f o l l o w i n g a r e examples:
buhay /btfhay/ ' l i f e ' , v s . buhay / b u h a y / / ' a l i v e , l i v i n g '
galit /galit/
'anger' vs. g a l i t / g a l f t /
1
'angry'
takot /tifkot/ 'fear' v s . takot /takSt/ ' a f r a i d '

gutom /gtftom/ 'hunger' v s . gutom /gutoW
'hungry'
uhaw /?ilhaw/ ' t h i r s t ' v s . uhaw /?uhaw/ ' t h i r s t y '

There i s a meaning d i f f e r e n c e between verbs t h a t have the
primary s t r e s s on the u l t i m a and the c o r r e s p o n d i n g nouns that have
the primary s t r e s s on the p e n u l t and the secondary s t r e s s immedi a t e l y p r e c e d i n g the primary.'
inumin /?inumfn/
Thus:
'to d r i n k ' v s . inumin /?inumin/
'drinks'
p a l i t a n / p a l i t a n / ' t o change' v s . p a l i t a n / p a l i t a n /
exchange*'
singilin /sinilfn/
/sinllin/
'accounts
tahanan /tahanan/
/tahanan/
'to c o l l e c t accounts' v s . s i n g i l i n
'home'
collectible'
'to l i v e i n a house' v s . tahanan
140
tanawin /tanawfn/ 'to l o o k from a f a r ' v s . tanawin

/tanawin/
s c enery
The f o l l o w i n g verbs with the s t r e s s on the p e n u l t a r e

distinguished
from t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g nouns with the s t r e s s on
the ultima.'
bihisan /bihfsan/
/bihisan/
' t o dress soneone* v s . b i h i s a n
'dressing-room*
hugasan /hugasan/ 'to wash' v s . hugasan /hugasan/

'place f o r washing'
orasan /?orasan/ ' t o time' v s . orasan /?orasah/
'timepiece,
clock'
pasukan /pasu*kan/ 'to e n t e r ' vs.' pasukan /pasukan/

'opening of c l a s s e s '
samahan /samahan/ ' t o accompany someone' v s . samahan
/samahah/ 'company,
society'
There a r e many other i n t e r e s t i n g examples of c o n t r a s t i n g

pairs.
Only f i v e samples f o r each s e t were g i v e n t o i l l u s t r a t e
the p o i n t .
list
These samples were taken from the comparatively l o n g
of minimal
for further
s t r e s s c o n t r a s t s c o l l e c t e d by t h i s i n v e s t i g a t o r
study.
Tagalog u t t e r a n c e s a r e spoken with;;three l e v e l s of p i t c h :

low /!/, mid /2/, and h i g h /3/.
Pitch / l /
i s the "normal l e v e l "
f o r s y l l a b l e s under weak s t r e s s and p i t c h /2/ f o r s y l l a b l e s

under secondary
or primary s t r e s s .
P i t c h /3/ i s f o r s y l l a b l e s
with s p e c i a l emphasis.
Normally,
used i n most contours.
P i t c h i s c o r r e l a t e d with s t r e s s .
only p i t c h /!/ and /2/ a r e

Tagalog
has a s y l l a b l e - t i m e d rhythm s i n c e the r a t e of the u t t e r a n c e of
141
a s u c c e s s i o n of s y l l a b l e s remains approximately
any
the same under
stress.
C l o s e l y a l l i e d w i t h the problems of s t r e s s are those of
junctures.
Tagalog.
/
| /.
Two
One
types of t e r m i n a l j u n c t u r e s are r e c o g n i z e d i n
may
be l a b e l l e d " l e v e l " j u n c t u r e , or " s i n g l e bar
I t occurs both i n t e r n a l l y i n u t t e r a n c e and f i n a l l y ,
has important
s y n t a c t i c functions.' The
l a b e l l e d " r i s i n g " j u n c t u r e /j
other type may
and
be
/, which marks a p i t c h r i s e .
It
occurs i n t e r n a l l y i n u t t e r a n c e and f i n a l l y i n c e r t a i n kinds of

questions.
142
13.1
A survey
A l t e r n a t i v e Formulations
of v a r i o u s works on the phonology of
Tagalog
r e v e a l s the e x i s t e n c e of more than one s o l u t i o n f o r c e r t a i n

phonemic problems.
D i f f e r e n c e s i n f o r m u l a t i o n s f o r the same
s e t of f a c t s have been found.
One
analyst, f o r instance,
s t a r t s from the same d a t a and a r r i v e s at d i f f e r e n t
conclusions
because of d i f f e r e n c e s i n premises and procedures.
This
uniqueness of phonemic s o l u t i o n s , " as i t i s c a l l e d by

i s observed
for this
i n the a l r e a d y - e x t a n t phonemic analyses
study.
"non-
linguists,
examined
The d i f f e r e n t f o r m u l a t i o n s d i s c u s s e d here are not necess a r i l y the most important,
but perhaps the most r e v e a l i n g of
the a t t i t u d e s and p h i l o s o p h y
of the a n a l y s t s .
There a r e , f o r
i n s t a n c e , d i f f e r e n c e s i n g r a p h i c s y m b o l i z a t i o n , such as
the
use of the d i g r a p h /ng/
choice
f o r the v e l a r n a s a l /n/,
or the
of the symbol / ? / , /q/ or /*/ f o r the g l o t t a l stop.'
The
19
B a l a r i l a ng Wikang Pambansa (Grammar of the N a t i o n a l Language)

and the adaptations
of i t made by v a r i o u s w r i t e r s
symbolize
the g l o t t a l stop by a grave accent /*!/ over the f i n a l vowel and

by a hyphen /-/ i n word-medial position,*!
But these are p u r e l y
graphic differences.'
Another p o i n t i s the treatment
of / t s / .
Wolfenden,
20
for
B a l a r i l a ng Wikang Pambansa. P u b l i c a t i o n s of the I n s t i t u t e

of N a t i o n a l Language"? (Manila: Bureau of P r i n t i n g , 1949)"'.
y
Elmer Wolfenden, A Re-statement of Tagalog Grammar. Publ i s h e d j o i n t l y by the Summer I n s t i t u t e of L i n g u i s t i c s and the
I n s t i t u t e of N a t i o n a l Language.' (Manila: Bureau of P r i n t i n g ,
1961)
p. 2.
143
i n s t a n c e , i n t e r p r e t s / t s / as a u n i t a r y c o n t o i d , d e s c r i b i n g
it
as an a f f r i c a t e sound w r i t t e n w i t h a d i g r a p h , not a c l u s t e r
as d e s c r i b e d i n t h i s thesis.' Lopez,
Bloomfield's
Tagalog a n a l y s i s
2 2
t a k i n g cognizance o f
t r e a t s the a f f r i c a t e combina-
t i o n / t s / as a s i n g l e sound, with the / s / always p a l a t a l i z e d

but he c o n s i d e r s t h i s sound as f o r e i g n and
p a r t .:of the sound system of Tagalog.
t h e r e f o r e not a
The i n c l u s i o n of loamrords i n t r o d u c e s a few

phonemic p a t t e r n s .
conflicting
E a r l i e r works, f o r i n s t a n c e , present a
three-vowel p a t t e r n a g a i n s t the f i v e - v o w e l p a t t e r n .
a n a l y s t s d e s c r i b e d i, and
e or u and
o as a l l o p h o n i c v a r i a n t s ,
which are what they were h i s t o r i c a l l y and

d i a l e c t s o f Tagalog.
Some
s t i l l are i n some
B l o o m f i e l d , f o r i n s t a n c e , assumes t h a t
the p a i r s are f r e e v a r i a n t s ("the

commoner than the l o w e r " ) .
h i g h e r v a r i a n t s . . . are
PIttman w r i t e s :
The l e t t e r u and o i n Tagalog, although

u s e f u l f o r m a i n t a i n i n g the d i s t i n c t i v e s p e l l i n g o f c e r t a i n borrowed words, a r e , i n f a c t ,
simply two d i f f e r e n t l e t t e r s f o r s y m b o l i z i n g
a s i n g l e phoneme. Such l e t t e r s may be c a l l e d
a l l o g r a p h s ' and, i n t h i s case, r e p r e s e n t
'allophones' or d i f f e r e n t p r o n u n c i a t i o n s o f a
s i n g l e phoneme.-.v the d i f f e r e n c e between u
and o as what i t t r u l y i s a s p e l l i n g conv e n t i o n only, and not a phonemic d i s t i n c t i o n
such as the d i f f e r e n c e between, f o r example
1
a and
21
i. 3
l 2
'" -
' '
C e c i l i o Lopez, A Manual o f the P h i l i p p i n e N a t i o n a l
Language (Manila:
22
Bureau of P r i n t i n g , 1940), p.- T%~.
Leonard B l o o m f i e l d ,
Tagalog Texts with Grammatical
A n a l y s i s (Ann Arbor: U n i v e r s i t y M i c r o f i l m Inc. , 1917), p. 134
1
, .
23
,R.' S.> Pittman, D e s c r i p t i v e L i n g u i s t i c s A p p l i e d t o

Tagalog (Manila: P u b l i c a t i o n o f the SIL and INL, Paper No.
Sept., 1956) , p. 5-6.
11,
144
Hemphill analyzes i , and e, as allophones i n f r e e v a r i a t i o n ,
g i v i n g the examples l a l a k i
or l a l a k e (man), and u and o as
allophones i n complementary d i s t r i b u t i o n , i l l u s t r a t i n g the

p o i n t i n these two sentences:
Umupo ka ( S i t down.') and Tayo'y umupo ( L e t ' s s i t down.)
[umupuka]
In
the f i r s t
[tayoyumupo]
one the sound w r i t t e n o i s pronounced much l i k e
[ u ] but i n the second,
the o of umupo stands f o r the sound [ o ] .
Wolfenden p r e s e n t s a f i v e - v o w e l p a t t e r n and notes: " I n most

cases / e / i s a f r e e a l t e r n a n t of w o r d - f i n a l / i /
but the two
c o n t r a s t i n Spanish loans . " ^

There a r e d i f f e r e n t s o l u t i o n s proposed
f o r t h i s problem of
phoneme i n t e r s e c t i o n (two phonemes s h a r i n g common allophones)

or i n t e r s e c t i o n of allophones
(the c o n f u s i o n o f allophones o f
two d i f f e r e n t but s i m i l a r phonemes).-
A n a l y s t s have d i f f i c u l t y
d e c i d i n g whether t o d e s c r i b e i , and _e, f o r example as separate

phoneme or allophones of a s i n g l e phoneme.
of / i /
[ e ] as an allophone
occurs i n f i n a l p o s i t i o n only, and [ i ] occurs i n f i n a l
p o s i t i o n i n f r e e v a r i a t i o n with [ e ] and elsewhere.
[3
allophone o f / i /
If its
i s predicted i n certain position.
occurrence i s p r e d i c t a b l e , one cannot
say i t i s a phoneme.'
What i s then the phonemic s t a t u s of [ e ] ?

The p r e s e n t i n v e s t i g a t o r would not a l l o w the v a r i a t i o n of
[ i ] and [ e ] i n a l l i n s t a n c e s .
I n a great many Tagalog words,
TR.- J.? Hemphill, "The A n a l y s i s of a Language Sounds" i n

Background Readings i n Language Teaching. PCLS Monograph S e r i e s
No.' 1 (Quezon C i t y :
The Phoenix P u b l i s h i n g House, 1962), p.33-34.
C
25
Wolfenden, l o c . c i t .
145
/ i /
under s t r o n g s t r e s s does n o t a l t e r n a t e w i t h /e/,
minimal c o n t r a s t s f o r / i /
recognized
Applying
and c l e a r
v s . / e / have been e s t a b l i s h e d and
a t l e a s t i n educated speech (see pp.70
&'f3).-
the p r i n c i p l e "once a phoneme always a phoneme," the
problem here i s s o l v e d by p o s i t i n g the keystone of the f i v e vowel system f o r Tagalog.
T h i s a n a l y s i s i s completely i n
agreement w i t h t h a t of S t o c k w e l l , ^
2
between / i /
and /e/, / u / and /o/,
t r e a t i n g the a l t e r n a t i o n
and the l i k e , as morpho-
phonemic r a t h e r than a l l o p h o n i c .
Another i n t e r e s t i n g problem i s i n the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of
the b a s i c s y l l a b l e s t r u c t u r e of Tagalog.
The t r a d i t i o n has
assumed t h a t Tagalog has f o u r b a s i c s y l l a b l e p a t t e r n s , namely:

V, VC, CV and CVC.
T h i s i m p l i e s t h a t the g l o t t a l consonant
/ ? / does n o t occur w o r d - i n i t i a l l y , and that / h / does n o t occur

w o r d - f i n a l l y , an a n a l y s i s t h a t i s r e f l e c t e d i n the w r i t i n g
system.
The
Stockwell
formulation
i s s t a t e d as folloxtfs:
The f o u r common s y l l a b l e s t r u c t u r e s i n
Tagalog a r e /V/, /CV/, /VC/, and /CVC/. These
may be represented i n the s i n g l e formula
/(C) V ( C ) / , i n d i c a t i n g t h a t n e i t h e r , e i t h e r ,
or both consonants may be p r e s e n t , and t h a t
S t o c k w e l l makes t h e f o l l o w i n g remarks: "The f a i l u r e t o

c o n s i d e r loans as an i n t e g r a l p a r t of the language i s a weakness
of other a n a l y s e s . . . When items borrowed from Spanish l e x i c o n ,
he e x p l a i n s , a r e considered (as they must be, s i n c e there i s no
s t r u c t u r a l way of d i s c r i m i n a t i n g between them and the nonborrowed items, and s i n c e the Tagalog speaker h i m s e l f cannot
t e l l one from the other u n l e s s he knows S p a n i s h ) , then the case
f o r f i v e vowels i s much more c e r t a i n . " (p.' B-2 & 3)
146
the maximum s y l l a b l e i s /CCVC/, i n which
a two-consonant c l u s t e r i n i t i a t e s the
syllable.
The f u l l e s t s y l l a b l e formula
i s then /(C) (C) V (C)/.' /V/ i n c l u d e s
diphthongs, i . e . /V/ and /S/.
To i n c l u d e
the second element of the diphthong r e q u i r e s t h a t one f u r t h e r d i g i t be added t o
the formula: /(C) (C - S) V (S) (C)/.-*'
;
T h i s a n a l y s i s does not adhere t o w r i t i n g / ? / b e f o r e a l l i n i t i a l

vowels and /h/ a f t e r f i n a l vowels.
Paterno concludes t h a t
" G l o t t a l stop / ? / occurs only i n f i n a l p o s i t i o n . . . "

C a y a r i takes / ? / as s i g n i f i c a n t a l s o i n i n i t i a l
A c t u a l l y , n a t i v e speakers
whereas
position.^
of Tagalog a u t o m a t i c a l l y p l a c e
a g l o t t a l stop b e f o r e words b e g i n n i n g w i t h a vowel i n an u t t e r ance, and a s p i r a t i o n i s always heard a f t e r a vowel i n a b s o l u t e

f i n a l position;'
E i t h e r / ? / or /h/ i s p r e s e n t i n w o r d - f i n a l
p o s i t i o n i n words w r i t t e n w i t h a f i n a l vowel.
i s i n d i r e c t l y shown i n s c h o o l textbooks.
"by /**/ or /*/ over the immediately
The
distinction
Word f i n a l / ? / i s marked
preceding s y l l a b l e
although
i n r a p i d speech i t i s only pronounced s e n t e n c e - f i n a l l y . "
/h/ i s
shown as the i n i t i a l
sound i n s u f f i x e s /-nan/ and / - h i n / a l t e r -
n a t i n g morphemically
w i t h /-an/ and / - i n /
r e s p e c t i v e l y , e.g.',
27
' S t o c k w e l l , on. c i t . . p. 34.'
28
A d e l a i d a Paterno, "Tagalog Consonant Phonemes Compared
w i t h E n g l i s h Consonant Phonemes." The MST E n g l i s h Q u a r t e r l y
1
(1957) , P.
17.'
29
'R. M.' C a y a r i , "The Phonemes of Tagalog."
J o u r n a l of Science (June, 1956), p.' 251.'
The
Philippine
Ik?
kabataan
(< ka- + bat& ' c h i l d , young
+ -an > /kabat?an/
'youth, younger g e n e r a t i o n ' ), kababaihan

woman' + -han > /kababa?fhan/
(< k a - + babae
'women i n g e n e r a l
(< has a." 'wet'' + - i n > / b a s a ? f n / 'to wet'

(< basa 'read' + - h i n > /bas&bin/
), b a s a l n
) and b a s a h i n
'to r e a d ' ) .
In this
analysis
s u f f i x e s /-an/ and / - i n / a r e d e s c r i b e d as c o n s i s t i n g of two

allomorphs each, one w i t h and one without /h/.
The p r e s e n t study assumes t h a t Tagalog has no f i n a l
All
vowels.
a b s o l u t e f i n a l vowels a r e here t r a n s c r i b e d as /Vh/ or /V?/
i n c o n t r a s t w i t h /VC/ where /C/ r e p r e s e n t s a l l other f i n a l

consonants, that i s , the bases a r e d e s c r i b e d as h a v i n g phonemic
f i n a l / h / or / ? / .
sity
of
T h i s type of a n a l y s i s e l i m i n a t e s the neces-
of i n t e r p r e t i n g /-an -han/ or / - i n - h i n / as allomorphs
the same morpheme, thus a c h i e v i n g economy and g i v i n g the
p a t t e r n symmetry and morphophonemic r e g u l a r i t y .
T h i s formula-
t i o n i s i n agreement w i t h t h a t presented i n the works of the

P h i l i p p i n e Center f o r Language Study
A Course f o r Speakers
(e.g. i n Beginning Tagalog:
of E n g l i s h ) .
E a r l i e r s t u d i e s such as those of C a y a r i , Paterno, S t o c k w e l l ,

etc.,
a s s e r t t h a t t h e r e a r e no f i n a l
c l u s t e r i n Tagalog but the
present study r e v e a l s t h a t f i n a l c l u s t e r s a l s o occur i n a number

of Tagalog words t h a t a r e of g e n e r a l , normal and everyday use
(Cf.
P r e j u n c t u r a l Consonant C l u s t e r s ) . '
T h i s study a l s o d i s a g r e e s
w i t h S t o c k w e l l ' s c o n c l u s i o n t h a t "The only important
restrictions
on the d i s t r i b u t i o n of the consonants
are that / r / i s rare
i n i t i a l l y and f i n a l l y . . . "
A long l i s t
(p. B-30).-
of Tagalog
words h a v i n g i n i t i a l and f i n a l / r / d i s p r o v e s t h a t conclusion.'
148
Another d i f f e r e n c e i s t h a t some analyses have o r i e n t e d t h e i r
c o n t r a s t on the b a s i s of the v o i c e d - v o i c e l e s s a x i s o n l y , where
as t h i s study g i v e s minimal c o n t r a s t s on the b a s i s of v o i c i n g ,
p o i n t and m a n n e r - o f - a r t i c u l a t i o n a x i s .
Other problems are concerned with s t r e s s or a c c e n t u a t i o n
i n Tagalog.-
There may
be d i f f e r e n t s o l u t i o n s t o the problem:
which i s p h o n e m i c l e n g t h or s t r e s s ?
At t h i s e a r l y stage of development of Tagalog
i t i s not easy to say t h a t one
type of l i n g u i s t i c
i s s u p e r i o r or i n f e r i o r to another.
t h a t the f o r m u l a t i o n s presented
ones.'
The
linguistics
formulation
There i s a p o s s i b i l i t y
i n t h i s t h e s i s are the wrong
other analyses might be c o r r e c t .
In the words of
Hall:
I t has been f a s h i o n a b l e to d i s t i n g u i s h ,
f a c e t i o u s l y , between two approaches to l i n g u i s t i c s , the 'God's t r u t h ' s c h o o l (which
supposedly c o n s i d e r s t h a t there i s one fundamental t r u t h to be expressed concerning every
l i n g u i s t i c system), and the 'hocus-pocus'
s c h o o l (which t r e a t s l i n g u i s t i c s as simply a
s e t of game-like manoeuvers to be c a r r i e d out
a c c o r d i n g t o the a n a l y s t ' s preconceived p r i n c i p l e s , and u s i n g the l i n g u i s t i c f a c t s only
as a s e t of d a t a to be manipulated a t w i l l ) .
In these terms, we can perhaps say t h a t 'God's
t r u t h ' i n language (as i n other matters) does
e x i s t , but t h a t i t i s not g i v e n to man to
d i s c o v e r i t and formulate i t i n any but approximate terms, which can have only r e l a t i v e v a l i d i t y ; and t h a t hocus-pocus i s b a s i c a l l y f o r e i g n to the aims of l i n g u i s t i c s or any other
s c i e n c e , except as a perhaps unavoidable p a r t
of the 'philosophy of as if_' i n h e r e n t i n a l l
s c i e n t i f i c analysis.'30
H a l l , op_.< c i t . , p.i
123.'
149
14.
SUMMARY CONCLUSIONS
Tagalog has twenty-one
s e g m e n t a l phonemes: f o u r t e e n
consonants / p t k ? b d g m n n s h l r / ,
/ w y /, a n d f i v e v o w e l s / i e a o u /.
as c o n s o n a n t s
are:
i ninitial
and f i n a l
two semivoxtfels
The s e m i v o w e l s
position.
function
The d i p h t h o n g s
/ e y a y oy uy i w aw /.
Some a n a l y s t s p r e s e n t a t h r e e - v o w e l s y s t e m o f T a g a l o g :
/ i a u /.
They d e s c r i b e [ e j a n d [ o ] a s a l l o p h o n e s o f / i / a n d
/ u / , r e s p e c t i v e l y , which they were h i s t o r i c a l l y ,

in
some d i a l e c t s
of Tagalog.
and s t i l l a r e
The p r e s e n t s t u d y r e v e a l e d t h a t
f i v e v o w e l phonemes now e x i s t i n t h e l a n g u a g e
a s e v i d e n c e d by
a c o n s i d e r a b l e number o f m i n i m a l a n d n e a r - m i n i m a l
The
contrasts.
a l t e r n a t i o n s between / i / and / e / , and / u / and / o / were h e r e
c o n s i d e r e d morphophonemic r a t h e r t h a n a l l o p h o n i c .
O t h e r morpho-
p h o n e m i c a l t e r n a t i o n s commonly o b s e r v e d i n T a g a l o g a r e :
// a y - ey e //, // a ? i - ay ey e //, // Cuw - Cvr //,
// m n n //,
// C i y Cy //, // d - r //, // d - 1 //, // r - 1 //, // n - n //, /fii ~ 1 //,

/ / * "
of
S //,//1
~ h //,//&
( / f / ) //, a n d //b
- (/v/)
these a l t e r n a t i o n s are conditioned, d i a l e c t a l
//.*
Some
or s t y l i s t i c
alternations.
The
b a s i c s y l l a b l e s t r u c t u r e i s CV a n d CVC.
syllables require a.final
consonant.
A l l final
A T a g a l o g word
ending
w i t h a v o w e l may h a v e a f i n a l / ? / o r / h / a l t h o u g h t h i s i s n o t
r e f l e c t e d i n t h e w r i t i n g system.
initially,
Consonant c l u s t e r s
occur
m e d i a l l y and f i n a l l y .
Suprasegmentally, Tagalog has t h r e e k i n d s of s t r e s s :
of
*The s o u n d s i n p a r e n t h e s e s a r e n o t a p a r t o f t h e s o u n d
Tagalog.
system
150
primary / 7 , secondary /"/ and weak (unmarked).
l e v e l s of p i t c h : / l / ,
and
two t e r m i n a l
juncture
As
/2/
and / 3 / ,
junctures:
I t has three
r e a d i n g from low t o h i g h
a s i n g l e bar / j
/ and a r i s i n g
/ \ /.
t h e r e e x i s t minimal c o n t r a s t s
based on the i n c i d e n c e
of the s t r e s s , i t may be necessary t o conclude t h a t s t r e s s i s

phonemic i n Tagalog.
There a r e a t l e a s t two c o n t r a s t i n g
of s t r e s s : primary v s . weak.
levels
An i n t e r m e d i a t e l e v e l of p h o n e t i c
loudness or secondary s t r e s s i s p r e s e n t i n Tagalog but no

contrast
i s involved.
predictable,
I t s occurrence might t u r n out t o be
and i t might be i n t e r p r e t e d as an allophone of the
primary s t r e s s , o c c u r r r i n g i n c e r t a i n positions.*
There i s a d i s t i n c t c o r r e l a t i o n between Tagalog s t r e s s and
length
of the vowel i n the s t r e s s e d
conditioned
by s t r e s s .
syllable.
Length i s
Which i s phonemic i n T a g a l o g
stress
or l e n g t h ? I f s t r e s s i s phonemic, how many s t r e s s phonemes a r e

t h e r e i n Tagalog?
Are p i t c h and j u n c t u r e
a l s o t o be considered
phonemes?
The
and
problems of s t r e s s , l e n g t h , p i t c h , rhythm,
intonation pattern
of Tagalog need f u r t h e r study.
aspects o f these f e a t u r e s
the scope o f t h i s t h e s i s .
left
f o r future
require
juncture
1
thought and r e s e a r c h
Some
beyond
The s o l u t i o n t o the problems i s
investigation.
* I n the p r e s e n t study the secondary s t r e s s i s marked i n the

t r a n s c r i p t i o n as though i t were an e s t a b l i s h e d phoneme.
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D.
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INDEX
accent, 1 0 9 , 1 3 5 , 142
concept, 10
accent mark, 1 3 4 , 135
conditioned a l t e r n a t i o n , 1 3 0 ,
149
a l i o - ( p r e f i x ) , 91
consonant, 7, 1 5 , 2 2 , 2 3 , 2 5 ,
26, 28, 94, 9 6 , 108, 1 0 9 .
110, 124, 1 2 5 , 1 2 9 . 1 3 0 ,
147, 149
allograph, 143
allomorphs, 147
allophone, i i i 9 1 . 9 4 , 9 5 , 9 6 , 9 8 ,
128, 144, 149, 150
contoid, 6 , 7
allophonic v a r i a t i o n , 14, 9 7 , 143,

149
contrast, i i , 1, 4 , 5 , 9 , 2 6 ,
31, 3 2 , 9 1 . 9 4 , 1 2 9 , 147.
148
alternation, i i i , 5 , 9 4 , 1 0 1 , 128,
129, 1 3 0 , 1 3 1 , 1 3 2 , 1 3 3 , 1^9
contrastive d i s t r i b u t i o n , 3 2 , 92
alternative formulations, 1, 142
contrastive doublets, 58
corpus, 3
alveolar, 14, 18, 2 6 , .
c o r r e l a t i o n , 3 3 , 34
Arabic, x v i
dental, 1 6 , 32
a r t i c u l a t o r y phonetics, 6
diagram, 11
assimilation, 131
d i a l e c t a l alternations, 1 3 2 , 149
automatic, 132
dphthongs, 2 3 , 24, 1 0 1 , 149
axis, 148
2 5 , 28,
b i l a b i a l , 1 6 , 2 6 , 32
d i s t i n c t i v e features, i i ,
30, 31
Bloomfield, Leonard, 2 , 2 1 , 143

bundle* of features, 25
d i s t r i b u t i o n , i i , 1, 4 , 5 , 3 1 ,
35, 91, 9 2 , 9 5 , 9 6 , 1 0 0 , 1 0 7 ,
147
Cayari, R., 2 , 146, 147
-erne ( s u f f i x ) , 10
Chinese, x i v , xv
emic, 9
closed s y l l a b l e , 6 7 , 108.
c l u s t e r , i i i , 1 0 9 , 110, 1 2 3 , 124,
125, 1 2 6 , 143, 147, 149
complementary d i s t r i b u t i o n ,
9 2 , 9 3 , 9 8 , 144
iii,
English, x i v , xv, x v i i i , 1 9 , 30
126,
environment, 3 2 , 3 4 , 9 2 , 9 3 , 129
etic, 9
156
f l a p , 18
informant, i i , 2, 3
foreign, 102, 106, 1 0 9 , 133

135
i n t e n s i t y , 135
Japanese, xv
form c l a s s , 138
juncture, i v , 1, 14, 124, 134,

141, 149, 150
free v a r i a t i o n , i i i , 93, 96,

99
l a t e r a l , 18
French, xv
L a t i n , xv
frequency, 127, 128
length, i i , i v , 1, 99, 131, 134

136, 148, 150
f r i c a t i v e s , 18, 28, 91
function, 28, 3 1 , 3 2 , 35, 9 1 ,
l e x i c a l , x i v , xv, 124
functional, 10, 25
l i n e a r , 15
German, xv
l i n g u a l , 28
g l i d e , 23
lip-rounding, 14, 30
g l o t t a l , 17, 27, 1 3 5 , 1^2, 1^5

146
loan-word, x i v , 106
"God's truth", 148

Greek, xv
H a l l , Robert AS, 10, 148
Hebrew, xv
Hemphill, RS J s , 2, 144
high vowel, 15, 22
H i l l , Archibald, 107
Hindustani, x v i
"hocus-pocus," 148
i d e n t i t y of function, 35
Lopez, C e c i l i o , 143
low vowel, 15, 22
major languages, x i i i
Malay, x i v
Malayo-Polynesian family, x i i i
Manila, x i i i , 3 , 101
Mindoro, x i i i , 3
mid vowel, 15, 21, 22
minimal p a i r , 35, 138
minor languages, x v l i i
Ilokano, x i v
morphophonemics, 1, 101, 128, 129

147, 149
Indian language, x v i
nasal, 17, 28
Indonesian language, x v i
n a s a l i t y , nasalization, 99
157
national language, i i , x i v , x v i l
Pike, Kenneth 1.1, i i , 4 , 7, 9
non-contrastive d i s t r i b u t i o n , 92
p i t c h , i v , 14, 134, 1 3 5 ,
141, 150
140,
Pittman, Richard, S;% 2 ,
143
non-uniqueness, 142
nucleus, 7, 22,; 108
p o s i t i o n a l variant, 91
open s y l l a b l e , 108
prestige, 133
organs of speech, 9, 16
orthography, 20, 24, 1 3 3 ,
135
primary stress, i v , 9 7 ,
139, 149,
P a c i f i c , western, x i i i
prosodeme, 134
p a l a t a l i z e d , p a l a t a l i z a t i o n , 94,
95, 143
prosodic features, 134
palate, 18, 19
Paterno, A.i,
2, 146, 147
pattern-congrui ty,
22
peak, 22, 108
135,
prosody, 134
rhythm, 140
rounded, 1 2 ,
14
Russian, x v i
Sanskrit, x v i
P h i l i p p i n e s , i i , x i i i , x i v , 1,
102, 147
Sapir, Edward, 26
phone, 91,
schwa, 21
phoneme, i i , 4, 8, 10, 14, 1 5 ,

20, 24, 3 2 , 3 5 , 91, 94, 9 6 ,
101, 107, 126, 127, 128, 144,
149
secondary stress, i v , 9 7 ,
139. 149
phonemic;; 10, 26, 27, 128, 129,

1 3 1 , 142, 143, 148
phonemics, 1, 8, 9, 107
phonetic, 7, 9, 3 0 , 31,' 35, 150
phonetics, 1, 6, 7, 8, 9
phonological component, 25
phonology, 142
phonotactics, 107
segmental, 1,
136, 149
14, 1 5 ,
135,
3 0 , 134,
segmentation, 11
semivowels, 1 9 ,
110, 149
sonority, 2 1 ,
2 2 , 2 3 , 2 6 , 28,
108
sound, 6 , 1 0 , 11, 2 1 , 2 2 , 2 6 , 28,

3 1 , 9 1 , 1 0 2 , 143
Spanish, x i v , xv, 19, 3 0 , 1 2 6 ,
127, 133
1 3 1 , t r a n s c r i p t i o n : phonetic, i x , 1 0 ,
2 0 , 24,; phonemic, i x ;
ethnophonemic, 1 0 ; morphophonemic, i x
speech-sound, 8 , 9 , 1 0 , 1 3 , 91
speech, 3 , 6 , 9 , 1 1 ,
146
Stockwell,
94, 101,
Robert, 2 , 145, 147
t r i l l , 195
stops, 1 5 , 1 6 , 2 ? , 28, 3 2 , 33
u n i t , i i , 5 , 8 , 9 , 1 0 , 2 5 , 91
stress, i i i , i v , 14, 97, 100,

134, 1 3 5 , 1 3 6 , 137, 1 3 8 , 139
140, 141, 148, 149, 150
unrounded, 1 2 , 14
structure of s y l l a b l e s , i i i ,
149
107
s t y l i s t i c alternations, 1 3 3 , 1^9
unstressed, 2 1 , 136
uvula, 14, 9 8 , 9 9 , 1 0 6 , 128,143
variant, 9 8 , 9 9 , 1 0 6 , 128, 143
s u f f i x , 9 , 146, 147
v a r i a t i o n , i i i , 1, 4 , 5 , 3 1 , 9 1 ,
9 6 , 1 0 0 , 144
suprasegemental, i v , 1, 14, 134
velar, 17
s y l l a b l e s , 2 1 , 23
velum, 14
syllable, 21, 22, 23, 9 8 , 107,

108, 124, 127, 1 3 5 , 1 3 6 ,
141, 146, 149
Visayan, x i v , x v i i
syllable-timed, 140
vocoid, 6 , 7 , 2 1 , 127
symbol, i x , 1, 9 , 1 0 , 1 2 , 14,
16
voice, 2 6 , 33
symmetry, 2 7 , 147
synchronic, i i , 3 , 5
system, i i , 9 , 2 7 , 2 8 , 3 0 , 3 1 ,
32, 1 0 9 , 13^, 1 4 3 , 149
vocal bands, 27
voiced, 1 6 , 1 7 , 2 7 , 28
voiceless, 1 6 , 1 7 , 18, 2 6 , 27
vowel, 7, 2 1 , 3 0 , 9 1 , 9 4 , 9 7 ,
108, 1 0 9 , 110, 127, 128, 129
1 3 5 , 146, 147, 159
Tagalog, x i i i , x i v , xv, x v i i ,
x v l i i , 1, 3 , 6 , 14, 2 7 , 3 0 ,
9 1 , 1 0 1 , 1 0 2 , 108, 124, 125
126, 1 2 7 , 128, 1 2 9 , 13^, 1 3 5 ,
1 3 6 , 1 3 7 , 146, 147, 149
weak stress, i v , 9 8 , 1 3 5 , 149
tongue, 14, 18
zero, 135
t r a d i t i o n a l , 1,
135
Wolfenden, Elmer, 142

Writing system, i i i , 109

Ubc - 1967 - A8 Y3

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A SYNCHRONIC ANALYSIS OF TAGALOG PHONEMES

of Santo Tomas, 1956

A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF

REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF

THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA

t h i s thesis i n p a r t i a l f u l f i l m e n t of the requirements

for an advanced degree at the U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia, I agree

I further agree that permission f o r extensive copying of t h i s

thesis f o r s c h o l a r l y purposes may be granted by the Head of my

I t i s understood that copying

or p u b l i c a t i o n of" t h i s thesis f o r f i n a n c i a l gain s h a l l not be allowed

system o f the Tagalog language as spoken by the present

The purpose i s t o shape t h i s m a t e r i a l i n t o the form o f a u s e f u l

There a r e 21 segmental phonemes i n

on the b a s i s o f t h e d i s t i n c t i v e f e a t u r e s by which they stand i n

Among consonants there a r e two main

dimensions of phonemic c o n t r a s t : p o i n t o f a r t i c u l a t i o n and manner

e x i s t s i n t h e stop phonemes only;*

of Tagalog vowels i n v o l v e two-dimensional c o n t r a s t s i n h e i g h t

advancement o f the tongue.1

f e a t u r e s l i k e l i p - r o u n d i n g , tenseness and laxness

Such c o n t r a s t s a r e here represented

* P i k e , U n i t (U) = C o n t r a s t (C), V a r i a t i o n (V) and D i s t r i b u t i o n (D). T h i s i n f o r m a t i o n i n capsule was e x p l a i n e d by

These phonemes have allophones which are e i t h e r i n complementary

of Tagalog are CV and

which i s not r e f l e c t e d i n the w r i t i n g system.*'

The two are i n

Thus, b a t a /bta?/ ' c h i l d * ' vs.; b a t a

These c l u s t e r s may be i l l u s t r a t e d i n the f o l l o w i n g

t s a / t s a h / 'tea' , k l a s e / k l a s e h / ' c l a s s , d i y a n /dyan/

Suprasegmentally, Tagalog has t h r e e kinds of s t r e s s :

and weak (unmarked); t h r e e l e v e l s

/2/ and /3/ r e a d i n g from low t o h i g h ; and two

t e r m i n a l j u n c t u r e s : " s i n g l e bar" /|/ and " r i s i n g

S t r e s s p l a y s an important r o l e i n Tagalog and i t i s a

guished only by s t r e s s or l e n g t h : baga /b:ga?/ 'lungs* and

"ember' vs.' baga /bagS':?/ 'abscess' and baga

The scope o f t h i s study does not i n c l u d e a d e t a i l e d p r e s e n t a t i o n and a n a l y s i s of Tagalog suprasegmental features.'

i n t e r e s t i n g problems concerning the suprasegmental phenomena

L i s t o f Symbols and Abbreviations.^.i.';U^. ^.u i w:. .^. .i.i.^^.1J

Statement o f the Problem. ;t^.^I.^'^.i.';i.^y.^;u'i;^.^l.'.^

Scope and O r g a n i z a t i o n o f the

Sources o f Data and Methods of A p p r o a c h ^ . y . ^ ^ v ' ^ i U

D e f i n i t i o n of Terms Used;t.U^^.^.Uu^ .U^;!.ul.^i1.i. ^; ^^

The Sounds of Speech s

Contoids aid VocoldiS^^^jJ^.^^^.^:^^J.^^^^^$^^^

R e l a t i o n s Between Phonetics and Phonemics.^.uWiuu!

The Concept o f Phoneme;1;<&H.^;U^.-^

Inventory o f Tagalog Phonemes;.ii!.^.i.'.U .i.i^.l.^^^.<. i.v^

Segmental Phonemes.'.N;y;'';^;>^. ^.^

Cons onant s J .< j J-JU3

J ; y .'I, .1 . y ,-f .i ; i ;t.l.i;< ^ ;>'. i;i.; ;i.1, f

7$1*$6 Send vowels ; i ; U . i W 3 3 i U V ^

Patterns^.%^^.^^^;i.^^. i.i.?.i.^y i.3 f;^5.i^

(CC) .". U^.J.U^^.U^. ^^.' ;'i!iUl.i^.^.i;i

(CC-) ^..f.li wi. i^iii'i. .u

10. :2i!2 I n t e r v o c a l i c Consonant C l u s t e r s

Morphophonemic Mternationsi ;!.U .'U .'.i. 'i^ii .^ . i?.;; .U ^i

Suprasegmental Features;W5^;V.y^; ;U.>; ^.

A l t e r n a t i v e Formlations;^y;U^;.-V ;y.*J.y.^. .*.y.'. . ;

BIBLIOGRAPHY;!.'!..;'..^'.'..^;'. ^.i.i;i. .:.i.y. . .';U .';i. . . ;';y.<

C r o s s S e c t i o n of Head, Showing P r i n c i p a l Speech

A Chart of Tagalog Contoids

A l t e r n a t i v e Formlations;^y;U^;.-V ;y.J.y.^. ..y.'. . ;