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Practitioner Research
Practitioner research is research conducted by practitioners (usually teachers)
in their own classrooms either acting independently or in collaboration with
others. Practitioner research, then, is directed at enabling teachers to become
'expert knowers about their own students and classrooms'. In this way it aims
to make a direct connection between research and practice. To this end, the
research topics are not derived from theory but from teachers' desire to
experiment with some innovation in their classroom, to seek a solution to some
problem they have identified with their teaching or their students, or simply to
develop a fuller understanding of some aspect of life in their classrooms. lt
follows that it should be evaluated not in terms of whether it contributes to our
general understanding of some issue of theoretical significance but in terms of
the contribution it can make to teachers' practice of teaching and, through the
reflection that it can promote, to teacher development.
Arguably, then, the value of practitioner research lies more in the process of
conducting it than in the product of the research. Practitioner research is not
likely to be published in the same academic journals as formal research.
A key point that emerges in discussions of practitioner research conducted by
practitioners is the need for a model (in a way, a theory) for how to conduct it.
Action Research
Action research is a form of self-reflective enquiry undertaken by practitioners
in their own contexts of action. It is intended to lead to improvement in the
practice of some professional activity -in our case, in language teaching. It can
be undertaken by individual teachers or collaboratively involving a team of
teachers.
The model for conducting action research for teachers emphasizes a number of
features: (1) it is context-specific, (2) it is practical, (3) it is systematic, (4) it is
reflective, and (5) it is cyclical. The model proposes a number of iterative
phases:
1. Identifying an issue or problem relevant to a specific instructional context
(the initial idea).
2. Obtaining information relevant to the problem/issue (fact finding).
3. Working out a possible solution to this problem and devising ways of trying
this out (the action plan).
4. Trying out the solution in the specific instructional context (implementation).
5. Collecting data to investigate whether the solution is effective (monitoring).
6. If necessary, revising the action plan and proceeding through steps (4) and
(5) again or alternatively identifying a new issue thrown up by the initial study.
Such a procedure is context -specific in that the problems are identified by
teachers and are located in their own teaching. It is practical in that it is
4. Work to bring people together. The need for social harmony requires that
exploratory research be directed at achieving collegiality.
5. Work also for mutual development. Participants in the research should work
for each other's development.
6. Integrate the work for understanding into classroom practice. Allwright
argues that 'practitioner research must not become parasitic upon the life it is
trying to understand' (p. 129). This implies that any investigative tool used
should be part of the instructional activities that are a natural part of a lesson.
7. Make the work a continuous enterprise. Exploratory research needs to be
seen as 'a continuous, indefinitely sustainable enterprise' (p. 130). A corollary
of this is that teachers should avoid time-limited funding as this will
compromise the whole enterprise.
Exploratory practice, then, aims to make the time that teachers and learners
spend together 'pleasant and productive' and, in so doing, create the
conditions for pedagogic change.
For Allwright, teacher research needs to be feasible: he argues that if teachers
see classroom research as too demanding, they will not engage in it. It is for
this reason that exploratory practice needs to integrate enquiry into classroom
practice. He sees the role of academic researchers as 'consultants' rather than
'directors'; they should advise on the conduct of investigations but not attempt
to control them. Above, all exploratory research needs to be a collegial
enterprise; the investigations should involve learners as well as teachers and
should focus on 'puzzles' rather than on 'problems'.
There are a number of differences between action research and exploratory
research. One is the starting point -a 'problem' or, perhaps, a 'task' in the case
of action research and a 'puzzle' in the case of exploratory research. Another
difference lies in the methodology for the two approaches. Action research
employs similar methods of data collection to those found in formal research
and involves going beyond the materials used for teaching; exploratory
research embeds data collection into the actual practice of teaching. What they
have in common is an emphasis on the continuous nature of the enquiry. Action
research is 'cyclical' (although to what extent this is actual\y achieved by many
teachers is doubtful); exploratory research is a long-term enterprise and,
because it is part of teaching is potentially more sustainable.
Practitioner research: concluding comments
Practitioner research is research carried out by teachers working in their own
classrooms with a view to improving practice (in the case of action research) or
understanding the 'life of the classroom' (in the case of exploratory research).
Where such research is published, it typically takes the form of narrative
accounts. Both Penner's action research study and Bloom's exploratory
research study were presented as 'stories' about these two teachers'
Theoretical underpinnings
The relationship between variables can be of two kinds, leading to two different
types of confirmatory research -experimental and correlational. Experimental
research assumes a causal relationship between variables -that is variable A
(called the independent variable) causes some change in variable B (called the
dependent variable). In the case of language teaching research, this typically
involves investigating whether some aspect of instruction (e.g. corrective
feedback) results in some change in the students (e.g. a gain in grammatical
accuracy). Correlational research assumes a link between two variables but
without claiming that the link is causal.
In the context of the L2 classroom, the relationship between two variables is
very Iikely to be influenced by other variables, known as moderating variables.
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Design
Data collection
Data analysis
Given that the data in confirmatory research are numerical, the methods used
to analyze them are statistical.
There are two basic kinds of statistics; descriptive statistics and inferential
statistics. Both are important as the results obtained from inferential statistics
cannot be properly understood without reference to descriptive statistics.
Descriptive statistics provide information about the measures obtained for
whole groups, although in some studies the scores obtained by individual
participants are also included. Group statistics include means (i.e. the scores
obtained by the individual participants divided by the number of participants)
and various measures of dispersion (e.g. standard deviation and range), which
provide information about the extent to which the scores of the individual
participants cluster around the mean.
Inferential statistics are of two major kinds. One kind provides a measure of the
extent to which the group scores are different. This kind is used in experimental
studies.
The second kind of inferential statistics provides a measure of the degree of
relatedness between two variables and thus is used in correlational studies. A
popular statistic of this kind is the Pearson Product Moment Correlation. This
provides a score (r). A perfect correlation (never achieved in the kinds of
research we will be considering) occurs when r = 1.0. There are also other
Theoretical underpinnings
Design
Data collection
Interactional research calls for data relating to the interactions that take place
in the classroom. Such data can be collected in two principal ways: using an
interactional analysis scheme to record the different interactional behaviors
that occur or recording the interactions that take place and then preparing
transcripts of these for analysis. Long (1980) distinguished three different types
of interaction analysis systems: in a category system each event is coded each
time it occurs, in a sign system each event is recorded only once within a fixed
time span, while in a rating scale an estimate of how frequently a specific type
of event occurred is made after the period of observation.
One of the best-known interactional analysis systems is the Communicative
Orientation of Language Teaching (COLT).
Interaction analysis systems have gradually lost popularity as audio-and video
recording of classrooms has become easier. Interactional analysis systems
provide quantitative data (i.e. the frequency of different behaviors). Audio-and
video-recording afford both qualitative data (in the form of transcribed
extracts) and quantitative data (when the data have been coded in accordance
with a coding system).
Ethnographic research also employs classroom observation using interactional
analysis systems or recordings but is likely to supplement these with field notes
which can provide detailed contextual information not otherwise available.
Ethnographic research also collects other kinds of data; participant self-reports
(e.g. by means of informal and formal interviews or diaries) and documentary
information. One type of self-report that is becoming increasingly popular is
'stimulated recall'. The researcher plays back an extract from the recording and
then asks the participant in the extract (the teacher or a learner) to recall the
thoughts they had at the time.
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Analysis
ACTIVITY: Student Seminar on Ellis (2012) Ch.2, Methods for researching the
second language classroom, pp. 21-49.
INSTRUCTIONS: Based on your reading evidence submitted, work in pairs or trios to prepare the
answer to the topic question you will be randomly assigned. You will have 15 minutes to get prepared for
participation in the Seminar. Also a moderator will be chosen to lead the discussion during the Seminar.
A) What are the main characteristics of formal L2 classroom research? Please, provide examples.
B) What are the main characteristics of practitioner research? Please, illustrate with examples.
C) What are the main research traditions in second language classrooms? Please, describe each of
them.
D) Concluding remarks on Ellis Chapter.
NB. Each team will have 10-15 minutes to present A, B, C, or D