Analyse and discuss the potential danger presented by loose objects in a vehicle.

To analyse the dangers of loose objects in a vehicle, the first law of motion must be
used. [1] The first law of motion states that an object at rest will remain at rest, and an
object in motion will remain in motion, at a constant velocity unless or until outside
forces act upon it.
For example, in a car moving forward at a fixed rate of 100 km/h, everything in the
cardriver, passengers, objects on the seats or in the trunkis also moving forward at
the same rate. If that car then runs into a brick wall, its motion will be stopped, and
quite abruptly. But though its motion has stopped, in the split seconds after the crash
it is still responding to inertia: rather than bouncing off the brick wall, it will continue
ploughing into it. [2]
But what happens to the loose objects inside the car? If there is an unsecured object
inside the vehicle, its inertia will cause it forward motion to continue. [2] The faster the
vehicle was moving before the collision, the faster the forward motion of the object
when the vehicle stops. Unsecured objects inside the vehicle could strike the
occupants and cause injury. [1] If the loose objects are in fact the occupants not
wearing the seatbelts, severe consequences may result. They may move forward to
hit the front dashboard or the windscreen, or may even be thrown out of the vehicle
if the collision is severe. [1]
Loose objects in a moving vehicle are responsible for an estimated 13,000 injuries a
year. In a recent American study conducted on the dangers of loose objects it was
discovered that, At 55 miles per hour, a 20-pound object hits with 1,000 pounds of
force so powerful that a suitcase can literally cut through the arm of a crash test
dummy. [3] In an another study, if the brakes are applied suddenly while traveling at
50kmh, groceries in the back seat will hit people with the same force as if they had
fallen from a two-storey building. [4] A one-litre bottle of water could hit with a weight
of 20 kilograms. When a car decelerates violently, the force of inertia can mean a
loose object packs 20 times the punch it would normally. [4]
This is the reason why seatbelts are so important, so that the person does not become
a loose object himself. This is due to the Newtons Third Law of Motion, which states
that, every action has an equal and opposite reaction. This means that if a person
hits the dashboard or windscreen, the force the person puts on the dashboard or
windscreen will also be put on the person at the point of contact. Seatbelts have been
shown to be effective as across Australia it has dropped from 3798 deaths in 1970 to
1509 deaths in 2009. [5]

Evaluate the effectiveness of some safety features such as seatbelt harness worn by
racing car drivers and the lap/sash belt worn by drivers in ordinary cars as well as
airbags, crumple zones and bumpers on vehicles.
Seatbelts
In a high-speed head-on car collision, each car comes to a stop rapidly. An occupant
not wearing a seatbelt continues at the original speed of the car (as described by
Newtons First Law of Motion) until acted on by a non-zero net force. [6] An unrestrained
occupant therefore moves at high speed until:
colliding with part of the interior of the car, stopping even more rapidly than
the car itself, usually over a distance of only several centimetres
crashing through the stationary or almost stationary windscreen into the other
car or onto the road
Sash Belt (3 Point Seatbelt)
An occupant properly restrained with a seatbelt stops with the car. In a typical
suburban crash, the deceleration takes place over a distance of about 50 cm. The
rate of change of the momentum of a restrained occupant is much less than that of
an unrestrained occupant. [1] Therefore, the net force on a restrained occupant is less.
As well as increasing the time interval over which its wearer comes to a stop, a properly
fitted seatbelt spreads the force over a larger area of the body. [1]
Modern seatbelts allow free movement of the occupants when the car is travelling
smoothly, and restrain the occupants to the seat only in the event of collision or
sudden braking. [6] This is due to the fact that 3 point seatbelts are inertia-reel. One
end of the seatbelt is attached to a wheel that can be locked by a swinging
pendulum. When the car is travelling smoothly, the wheel is free to rotate and the
seatbelt can be pulled in and out freely. During sudden braking or collision, the
pendulum swings under the influence of its own inertia and locks the wheel so that it
cannot rotate. [1]
4, 5, 6-Point Seatbelt/Harness
4,5,6 point seatbelts are used in race cars and more effective than 3 point seatbelts
in terms of safety. The main difference between this seatbelt and the 3 point seatbelt
is that this seatbelt is not inertia-reel. This means that the occupants is always firmly
pressed against the seat and will not be able to move at all. They are designed to
hold the driver tightly in the seat so that the body slows down with the car.
2 Point Seatbelt/Lap Belt
These seatbelts are generally found on older cars and are extremely ineffective
compared to 3,4,5,6 Point seatbelts. This is due to the fact that the lap belt goes
around the waist only, which allows the torso and head to move forward during a
collision or sudden braking due to inertia.
Airbags
Airbags are designed to increase the time interval during which the occupants
momentum decreases in a collision, reducing the net force on the occupant. [1]
Airbags inflate when the crash sensors in the car detect a large deceleration. When
the sensors are activated, an electric current is used to ignite the chemical compound
sodium azide (NaN3), which is stored in a metal container at the opening of the
airbag. The sodium azide burns rapidly, producing other sodium compounds and
nitrogen gas. The nitrogen gas inflates the airbag to a volume of about 45 litres in only

30 milliseconds. When the occupants body makes contact with the airbag, nitrogen
gas escapes through vents in the bag. The goal of an airbag is to slow the passenger's
forward motion as evenly as possible in a fraction of a second. The passenger inside
the vehicle undergoes the same motion as the vehicle. When the vehicle stops, the
passenger continues to be in motion. This is due to Newtons First Law, when an object
is at motion continues to be at motion and when at rest continues to be at rest, unless
acted by an unbalanced force. The airbag protects the passenger from moving and
tries to make their motion to zero. This stops the passenger from hitting on surfaces and
from being thrown out of the vehicle.
Crumple Zones
Cars are designed to crumple at the front and rear. This provision increases the time
interval during which the momentum of the car changes in a collision, further
protecting its occupants from death or serious injury. [1] Even though the front and rear
of the car crumple, the passenger compartment is surrounded by a rigid frame. The
engine is also surrounded by rigid structures that prevent it from being pushed into the
passenger compartment. The crumple zones are designed to compress and absorb
the impact of collision, allowing the vehicle to change its motion over a longer period
of time and over a longer distance. [1]
Impulse is the change in momentum: I=p, also given as I=Ft. For any given change
in velocity of a vehicle or the occupants of a vehicle in a collision, a force F must act
for time t. The longer the force can act, the smaller it must be. The graph below shows
the average force that acts of a 60kg occupant stopping from 60 km/h.

In conclusion, the introduction of seatbelts, airbags and crumple zones has had a very
significant effect on the safety of pedestrians and vehicle occupants. Seatbelts
restrain passengers to the seat to prevent them continuing forward into the
dashboard or the windscreen. Airbags and crumple zones help decrease the forces
on vehicles occupants, reducing injuries and deaths in collisions. [1]
Bumpers
A bumper is a shield made of steel, aluminium, rubber, or plastic that is mounted on
the front and rear of a passenger car. When a low speed collision occurs, the bumper
system absorbs the shock to prevent or reduce damage to the car. Bumpers also have
two other safety functions: minimizing height mismatches between vehicles,
and protecting pedestrians from injury. The bumper offers protection through
dissipating kinetic energy generate in a collision. Modern bumpers are designed to
crumple progressively to absorb the energy, much like the way a crumple zone works.
Modern bumpers are also made from flexible materials designed to lessen injury to
pedestrians struck by cars. This is done through firstly lowering the bumper and also

used softer materials such as foams and crushable plastics. Softer materials also assist
the bumper to crumple progressively, unlike older bumpers made from steel that does
not absorb the energy of a collision at all.
Bumpers also solve the problem of height mismatches in a collision, which means that
the smaller car will not slide under the larger car. Although this may not fully protect
during such collision, their height from the road can also trigger other safety features.
For example, crumple zones are completely ineffective if they are physically
bypassed. The same with airbags, as airbags do not trigger until contact with an
obstruction. So it is important that the front bumpers are the first parts of a vehicle to
make contact in the event of a frontal collision, to leave sufficient time to inflate the
protective cushions.

Explain the energy transfers and transformation in collisions leading to irreversible

distortion of the vehicle(s).
A collision is defined as a mechanical interaction between two or more objects that
results in an exchange of energy. A collision could be direct, involving physical
contact, or indirect, in which case the interaction is via the action of fields, such as
magnetic or gravitational fields. The different ways in which energy is exchanged or
transferred allows collision to be classified as elastic or inelastic. [1]
Elastic collision as defined as collisions that conserve the total
kinetic energy of the system. In other words, the total kinetic energy
of the objects involved in the collision is the same after the collision
as it was before. [1] Whereas an inelastic collision does not conserve
the total kinetic energy of a system. The kinetic energy of the
system is lost and is converted into other forms of energy, such as
heat, sound and potential energy. [1] Most collision are inelastic, for
example a car crash.

When a vehicle collides with a stationary object or another vehicle, some of its kinetic
energy is transferred to the object or vehicle. Some of the kinetic energy is still
possessed by the vehicle if it does not stop. The remaining kinetic energy is
transformed into other forms of energy. [6] These forms include:
Potential energy of deformation: Potential energy of
deformation is the energy stored in an object as a result
of changing its shape. [6]
Sound energy: Sound energy is transmitted through the
air as a result of vibrating particles. When a vehicle
collides with an object or another vehicle, some of its
kinetic energy is transferred to the surrounding air,
causing it to vibrate rapidly. [6]
Thermal energy: Thermal energy is energy that a substance possesses as a result
of the random motion of the particles within the substance. The vehicles
panels, tyres and other parts get very hot during the collision as kinetic energy
is transferred to the particles within them. The other object or vehicle, and even
the immediate surrounding road and air, are also heated. [6]
The law of conservation of energy states that energy cannot be created or destroyed.
The cars kinetic energy is never really lost or destroyed. It is all transferred to other
objects or transformed into other forms. The more inelastic a collision, the more kinetic
energy is converted and therefore the more damage will be done as a result.

[1]

Assess the benefits of at least five technologies for avoiding or reducing the effects of
collisions in racing car crashed and normal car crashes on the roads.
Seatbelt Pre-Tensioners (normal car) [1]
Seatbelt pre-tensioners are explosive devices linked to the vehicles air bag sensors,
which tighten the seatbelt when a collision is sensed. Seatbelt material is designed to
stretch by a small amount, but in normal use, the belts loosen as the occupant moves
so that when a collision occurs there is too much slack, allowing movement of several
centimetres. This decreases the effectiveness of the seat belt. Therefore pre-tensioners
are required to pull the belt tight before the occupant has a chance to move towards
hard object within the vehicle.
ABS (Race car and normal car) [1]
Anti-lock braking systems (ABS) use a sensor on each
wheel with inputs from the vehicles accelerometers to
detect when a wheel stops rotating when the vehicle is
still moving. The computer then releases the pressure on
the brakes to that wheel until it rotates again. During a
sudden application of the brakes, the locking of the
wheels will cause the tyres to skid. Once a tyre begins
skidding or sliding over the road, the friction between it
and the road is reduced. The vehicle cannot be steered
and the stopping distance is increased significantly. ABS
technology allows the car to be steered while ensuring the shortest possible stopping
distance by preventing the locking of the wheels.
EBD (Race car and normal car) [1]
Electronic brake distribution (EBD) is linked to the vehicles ABS. In the event of an
emergency stop, it automatically distributes braking force to all tyres to the maximum

until the ABS cuts in. In many vehicles the rear wheels will begin to skid earlier as they
have less weight on them when braking occurs. Extra braking force can be applied
to the front tyres before they will skid. The overall effect is to reduce the stopping
distance required.
ESC (Race car and normal car) [1]
This system is linked to a vehicles ABS. Electronic stability control (ESC) reduces the
chance of skidding or losing control of a car as a result of over-steering. When sensors
in the vehicle detect any loss of control, the system activates, using computer
controlled technology to apply individual brakes to the relevant wheels help stabilise
the car and bring it back on track, without fishtailing all over the road.
Cruise control with radar (Normal Car) [1]
When the vehicles cruise control is activated a radar constantly measures the
distance to the vehicle ahead. Should this distance fall below a safe margin, or should
it start to decrease quickly, the radar will cause the vehicles brakes to be activated,
even before the driver is aware of any danger. At highway speeds, this can help avoid
rear-end collisions, the most frequent type of collisions on freeways.
AED (Normal Car) [7]
Auto Emergency Braking (AEB) works to prevent a crash or reduce the impact speed
in an accident. The system can activate both with and without driver
intervention. Using data collected from forward-looking radars, sensors, lasers,
cameras or video systems, AEB can create an accurate real-time image of the road
ahead. If a driver does not respond to a hazard, the system will provide an audible or
visual warning to the driver, and can apply brake pressure automatically, with
maximum brake power implemented when the driver does engage the brakes. If the
system determines that the drivers steering and braking response is not adequate to
avoid impact, autonomous emergency braking with maximum pressure will be
automatically applied to help minimise the impact.
Roll Cage (Race Car)
A roll cage is a safety feature installed in a vehicle used in environments where there
is a high danger of rolling, such as race car. The idea behind a roll cage is that if the
vehicle rolls, it will protect the occupants. While parts of the vehicle may be damaged
or crushed, the cage prevents intrusion into the passenger compartment, creating a
safe pocket.
Assess the reason for the introduction of low speed zones in built-up area.
Special low speed zones around schools operate in the mornings and afternoons to
reduce the chances of a child being hurt or killed. School children frequently run out
onto the road without looking. The reduction in a vehicles speed from 60km/h to
40km/h greatly reduces the chance of a child being hit by a vehicle. It also
significantly decreases the severity of injury in the event of an accident. [1]

Given that a vehicles stopping distance is

proportional to its kinetic energy, and the
kinetic energy is square of the vehicles
speed, reducing speed to 40km/h has many
benefits for a small increase in travel time. This
graph shows how stopping distance varies
with speed for a typical modern vehicle on a
dry road. [1] The reaction distance is the
distance travelled before the braking force
begins to slow the vehicle. This image shows
that if a child jumps onto a road 30m ahead
of a car, they will avoid being hit if the car is moving at 40 km/h. If the car is travelling
at 60 km/h, the child will be hit while the car is still moving at about 50 km/h. For speeds
over 60 km/h, the child will be hit before the brakes begin slowing down the car.
Also, a car travelling at a lower speed will have a lower momentum, as p is directly
proportional to v in the formula p=mv. Therefore if a car hit a person, the lower speed
will mean that less force will be transferred onto the person by the car which could
lower the injuries sustained by the person. Impulse, or the change in momentum, will
also be lowered as the initial momentum will be a smaller value. There will also be less
kinetic energy if the car is travelling at lower speeds as kinetic energy is also directly
proportional to velocity.
Bibliography
- Wu, X., & Farr, R. (2009). Physics in Focus: Preliminary Course. North Ryde, N.S.W.:
McGraw-Hill.

[1]

- Laws of Motion - Real-life applications. (n.d.). Retrieved August 1, 2015, from

http://www.scienceclarified.com/everyday/Real-Life-Chemistry-Vol-3-Physics-Vol1/Laws-of-Motion-Real-life-applications.html

[2]

- In Your Car: Avoiding Unknown Dangers. (n.d.). Retrieved August 1, 2015, from
http://www.cultureofsafety.com/2013/04/in-your-car-avoiding-unknown-dangers/

[3]

- The Perils of Messy Cars. (n.d.). Retrieved August

https://canadasafetycouncil.org/traffic-safety/perils-messy-cars

[4]

In
Car
Safety.
(n.d.).
Retrieved
August
http://www.mynrma.com.au/media/iN_CAR_SAFETY_1.pdf

[5]

[6]

1,

1,

2015,

2015,

from

from

- Lofts, G. (2009). Jacaranda Physics 1 (3rd ed.). Milton, Qld.: John Wiley and Sons.

- Death-defying designs for car safety. (2015, June 18). Retrieved August 1, 2015,
from http://www.nova.org.au/technology-future/death-defying-designs-car-safety

[7]