Chapter 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

This chapter presents the relevant literature and studies local or foreign
taken from some books, journals, published thesis and dissertation and from
the internet.
Related Literature
A. Local Literature
Gods wonderful creation called nature is given to man with a package
for health, healing and happiness. Nature is the solution to many of mans
illness through the lushly growing plants in the environment. 1
According to Tan, there are more than 1,500 species different kinds of
plants, considered as functional foods because of its macronutrients and
micronutrients. The nutrients serve as antioxidants or act as phytochemicals
not for plants but to protect a person from sickness and reduce its chance of
having a chronic disease. These plants which are also known as food
medicine are Persea americana (avocado), Premna odorata (alagaw),
Momordica charantia (ampalaya), Foeniculum vulgare (anis), Anonas
reticulate (anonas), Asparagus officianalis (asparagus), Annona squamosa
Linn. (atis), Bixa orellana (atsuete), Ocimum basiculum (balanoy), Averrhoa
carambola Linn. (balimbing), Dolichos lablab (bataw), Allium sativum
(bawang), Psidium guajava Linn. (bayabas), Antidesma bunius (bignay),
J.C. Kurian,
Amazing Healing Plants, Volume 1, (Manila:
Philippine Publishing House , 2010), page
1

16

Bidens pilosa Linn. (burburtak), Daucut carlota Linn. (carrot), Citrus nobilis
Lour (dalanghita), Citrus aurantifolia (dayap), Curcuma longa Linn.,(dulaw),
Syzygium cumini Linn. (duhat), Colocasia esculenta Linn.(gabi), Punica
granatum (granada), Anona muricata (guyabano), Theobroma cacao (kakaw),
Cucurbita maxima (kalabasa), Citrus microcarpa (kalamansi), Lycopersicon
lycopersicum Linn. (kamatis), Pithecolobium dulce Roxb. Benth,(kamatsile),
Averrhoa bilimbim Linn. (kamias), Ipomoea batatas Linn., (kamote), Manihot
esculenta (kamoteng-kahoy), Ipomoea aquatica (kangkong), Coffea Arabica
Linn. (kape), Annacardium occidentale (kasuy), Chrysophyllum cainito
(kaymito), Apium graveolens Linn.(kintsay), Amaranthus viridus Linn. (colitis),
Sesamum orrientale Linn. (linga), Zingiber officianale (luya), Zea mays (mais),
Moringa oliefera Linn. (malunggay), Mangifera indica Linn.,(mangga),
Garcinia mangostana Linn. (mangostan), Arachis hypogaca Linn., (mani),
Cucumis melo Linn. (melon), Cocos nucifera Linn. (niyog), Quisqualis indica
Linn. (niyog-niyogan), Morinda citrofolia Linn. (noni), Citrullus lanatus vulgaris
Schrad (pakwan), Carica papaya Linn., (papaya), Canarium ovatum (pili),
and Anonas comosus (pinya).
Most of these plants contain at least two or more of the following
phytochemicals namely; flavonoids, tannins, alkaloids, glucosides, and
saponin. It was also mentioned that some part/s of these plants have
antibacterial activity against gram-positive bacteria. 2
Jaime Z. Galvez Tan, et. al., Medicinal Fruits and Vegetables,
(Philippines: The National Shelf, 2008) pp. 1-157.
2

17

There are also thirteen medicinal plants listed as common and widely
used plants to treat the different illnesses of most Filipinos. The Philippine
Traditional and Alternative Health Care (PTAHC) of Department of Health
provided it in cooperation with the University of the Philippines. The plants in
the list are Cassia alata (Akapulko/Ringworm Bush), Allium sativum (garlic),
Psidium guajava (Guava), Vitex negundo (Lagundi), Quisqualis indica L.
(Niyog-niyogan), Blumea balsamifera (Sambong), Ehretia microphylla Lam.
(Wild Tea), Anona squamosa (Sweet sop or Atis), Hibiscus rosa-sinensis Linn.
(Gumamela), Zingeber officinale (Ginger), Aloe barbadensis miller liquid (Aloe
vera), Cocos nucifera (Coconut), and Oreganum vulgare (Oregano).3
Cassia alata (Akapulko/Ringworm Bush) is for the treatment of scabies,
and skin fungal infection and Allium sativum (garlic) is used to lower
cholesterol in the blood and serves as antibacterial, antihelminthic,
antimycotic, antiviral, antispasmodic, diaphoretic, expectorant, and fibrinolytic.
Psidium guajava (Guava) using its decoction is used as wound disinfectant
and mouthwash, while its bark decoction is good for chronic diarrhea; and
Vitex negundo (Lagundi) which is used for the relief and treatment of cough,
asthma, dyspepsia, worms, rheumatism, and boils. The list also mentioned
Quisqualis indica L. (Niyog-niyogan), which is believed to eliminate intestinal
worms, treats skin diseases and fever using its leaves; and Blumea
balsamifera (Sambong) is used for the treatment of kidney disorders, colds,
Allan C. Salaldica, A Primer on Medicinal Livestock Healthcare,
(Philippines: Northern Marianas College, 2011), pp. 19-46
3

18

fever, rheumatism, hypertension, and removal of kidney stones. Ehretia

microphylla Lam. (Wild Tea) was also part of the list together with Anona
squamosa (Sweet sop or Atis), Hibiscus rosa-sinensis Linn.(Gumamela),
Zingeber officinale (Ginger), Aloe barbadensis miller liquid (Aloe vera), Cocos
nucifera (Coconut), and

Oreganum vulgare (Oregano). Wild tea is a

medicinal herb for diarrhea, dysentery, gastroenteritis and other stomach

problems. While the leaf decoction of Atis is used for rheumatic baths to
alleviate pain and its unripe fruit juice is good for infected insect bites.
Gumamela on the other hand is used for boils, cancerous swellings and
mumps using the flower buds while its roots is used for coughs and the
decoction of 15 to 30 grams dried gumamela plant is good for mumps and
urinary tract infection.4
The Philippines being one with the most diverse flora in the world have
identified one thousand five hundred plants with medicinal value. A Philippine
pharmacopeia was released in 2004. It contains a list of thirty priority plants
alcoholic extracts backed up by tests or studies for validation purposes. The
plants included are Dita bark, sinta herb, kintsay leaf, sampaguita flower, Ipilipil seeds, makahiya herb, apatot fruit, malunggay bark, ikmo leaf, paminta,
oregano leaf, mayana leaf, granada rind, romero leaf, akasya leaf, duhat bark,
sampalok pulp, makabuhay stem, ginger, banaba, lagundi, yerma Buena,
sambong, ulasimang bato, tsaang gubat, bayabas, niyug-niyogan, ampalaya,

Ibid
19

akapulko and bawang. The last ten plants in the list are the plants approved
by the Department of Health 5
At present, another ten medicinal plants are being studied and
validated. These are Balanoi or Ocimum basilicum L., Oregano or Coleus
amboinicus, Banaba (Lagerstroemia speciosa L.),
oleifera), Makabuhay (Tinospora

Malunggay (Moringa

rumphi), Balbas pusa (Orthosiphon

aristatus), Luyang dulaw (Cucurma longa L.), Saluyot (Cochorus capsularis

L.), Tanglad (Andropogon citrates), and Takip-kuhol (Centenella asiatica L.). 6
Utilization of Balanoi is good for dizziness and cough using the crush
leaves or decoction of eight tablespoons of fresh leaves in two glasses of
water respectively. The tea from Banaba tea leaves is taken as a general
tonic. While the leaves of oregano were squezzed and one teaspoon is taken
every hour for adults cough or asthma and/or bronchitis or for the same
respiratory problem, for children with ages 3 and above. One to two cups of
cooked Malunggay leaves, taken at supper time is good for the treatment of
constipation; while crushed leaves can be applied directly to wounds.
Makabuhay on the other hand can be made into an anti-rheumatic ointment
by cooking one half cup of cleaned and chopped stem in a glass of coconut
oil for five minutes then,

add half glass of grated white candle wax. The

Monica Feria, Ten Medicinal Plants, Philippine Council for

Health Research and Development, www.pchrd.dost.gov.ph, Accessed
Date: August 25,2012.
5

Ibid
20

same procedure is followed in making Ginger rhizome ointment which is used

for swelling. Ginger can also be used as antiseptic for wounds by applying
directly the juice extracted from fresh rhizome. Another medicinal use of
ginger is for gas pain which is done by drinking the one half decoction
produced from boiling a thumbsized rhizome in a glass of water.

For

mosquito repellant, Tanglad should be planted around the house to repel

mosquitoes. To drive away other insects, an infusion from four ounces of
Tanglad boiled in a pint of boiling water can be used. For gout, Balbas pusa
can be used but its preparation and dosage is not yet established. Saluyot
and Takip-kuhol are two of the other medicinal plants in which the
preparations and dosages are still under study. 7
The proper dissemination of the medicinal value, proper preparation
and dosage of plants is highly important. The reason for this is that some
species of plants have harmful and toxic effects. In this regard, a compilation
of twelve (12) useful plant species with toxic substance was published. The
plants mentioned were Adelfa, Atis, Baraibai, Ligtang, Kuasia, Molave,
Paraiso, Putat, Saging-saging, Tubang-bakod, Tuba, and Tubli. The leaves of
Adelfa, Atis, Paraiso, and Tuba were confirmed to contain toxic substances.
While the bark of Adelfa, Kuasia, Molave, Paraiso, Putat, and Saging-saging
have poisonous substance. The plants with toxic compound in the seeds are
Atis, Baraibai, Ligtang, Putat, Tubang-bakod, and Tuba. For the plants with

Ibid
21

poisonous roots; Adelfa, and Tubli. While the flowers and fruits of Paraiso are
considered poisonous because of its alkaloid.8
One of the plant secondary metabolites is alkaloid. It has bitter taste
and exhibits physiological effects valuable in the field of medicine. These
secondary metabolites in plants or popularly called phytochemicals also
include

saponins,

glycosides,

tannins,

flavonoids,

terpenoids,

and

anthraquinones. The one responsible for the dramatic effects on cardiac

muscles and skeleton is the physiological effect of steroids. While the basis
for natural perfumes, spices and food flavorings are the terpenoids. For dyes,
cathartics and purgatives, anthraquinones are utilized. While flavonoids have
antiviral, antifungal, anti-inflammatory and cytotoxic activities. Saponins on
the other hand are inhibitors of sperms and mollusk activities. Another
phytochemical substance is tannin which is known for it astringent action. 9
According to Rummel, the same plant at different places, even at the
same altitude, humidity and rainfall may have different concentrations of the
active substance. This means that, the same plant at the same place may
have different levels of alkaloids in different years thus resulting in different
intensities of biological effects.10
Wilma C. Dichoso, Useful Plant Species with Toxic Substances,
(Philippines: RISE-UPLB, 2000), pages 1-14.
8

Beatrice Q. Guevarra et. al., A Guidebook to Plant Screening:

Phytochemical and Biological, (UST,RCNS, 2004) pp.26 58.
9

Dietmar J. Rummel, Useful Plants of the Philippines, A Scientific

Guide
to
Modern
Botanical
Medicine,
Phtopharmacology/
Phytotheraphy/ Economic Botany, Volume I,(Philippines: C and E
10

22

This is the reason why the use of medicinal plants in the Philippines
was regulated by the Bureau of Food and Drugs (BFAD). This is done by
establishing a number of requirements for standardization of plants to be used
as medicines. It inludes macroscopic and microscopic examination,
physicochemical testing and biological testing. 11

B. Foreign Literature
Phytochemicals are naturally occurring, biologically active chemical
compounds in plants which serve as protective and disease-preventing
particularly for some forms of cancer and heart diseases. 12 The most
important action of these chemicals with respect to human beings is
somewhat similar in that they function as antioxidants which means that it
reacts with free oxygen molecules or free radicals in our bodies which must
be removed since it can damage the cells of our bodies. 13 There is some
evidence that certain phytochemicals may help prevent the formation of
carcinogen or substance that cause cancer, blocks the action of carcinogens
on their target organs or tissues, or act on cells to suppress cancer
development.14
Publishing, Inc, 2005), page 445
11

Ibid, p. 442

Nyam New Admin, Phytochemicals, The Caribbean food and

Nutrition Institute, ISSN 0255-8203, 2005 Accessed date 8/10/12
12

13

Ibid

14

American Cancer Society,

http://www.cancer.org/Treatment/Treatmentsand
23

Plant phytochemicals include carotenoids, alkaloids, phytosterols,

saponins,

glucosinolates,

flavonoids,

protease-inhibitors,

terpenes,

phytoestrogens, sulfides, phytic acid, esteroid and essential oil. 15

Some phytochemicals are consume by man as plant products,
particularly spices and extracts of various plant parts used extensively as
natural antimicrobials and antioxidants. It has also shown greater potential in
treating human diseases like cancer, coronary heart disease, diabetes and
infectious diseases.

Nowadays, a number of studies on plants allegedly

claim the beneficial effects of eating plants on health due to its

phytochemicals.

Several researches done even attested the importance of

consuming plants as food and medicine not only to every individual but also to
the community as a whole. 16
According to Mandal, berries phytochemicals activate the brains natural
housekeeper mechanisms that are normally performed by cells called
micgrolia. It removes and recycles biochemical debris that otherwise would
interfere with brain function.

Strong scientific evidence exists that eating

blueberries, blackberries, strawberries, and other berry fruits has beneficial

effects on the brain and may help prevent age-related memory loss and

SideEffects/ComplementaryandAlternativeMedicine/HerbsVitaminsand
Minerals/ phytochemicals Accessed date: July 9, 2012
George F.O.A, Ephraim, R.N; Obasa, S.O et.al, Antimicrobial
Properties of Some Plant Extracts on Organism Associated with Food
Spoilage, p. 8, Accessed date 7/15/2012
16
Marcia Zimmerman, Phytonutrients & Nutraceuticals: An
Overview, http://www. realtime.net/anr /phytonu.html Accessed Date:
15

August 9, 2012

24

changes.17 It contains high level of antioxidants, compounds that protect cells

from damage by harmful free radicals.18

Related Studies
A. Local Study
Palawan forests have different kinds of forest tress which includes
ebony, camagong, teak, cedar, dungon,banaba, guijo, molave and many
others which are considered very valuable.19
A pictograph made by Miguel also showed several trees and other
kinds of plants in Puerto Princesa Underground River which are used by the
Tagbanua as medicine. It revealed 31 plants species identified by the
medicinemen of the Tagbanua. These are Kala-kalabasa, Milletia longipes
(Gubay),

Pogostermon

reticulata

(Lampunaya),

Coleus

aromaticus

(Oregano), Mussaenda philippica (Agboi), Mallotus philippensis (Bulalantinglalaki o Maragsa-anen), Leucosyke sp (Kadas-kadas), Ficus ulmifolia (Papa-

Science Daily, Eating Berries Benefits the Brain, posted March

7, 2012, h American Cancer Society,
http://www.cancer.org/Treatment/Treatmentsand SideEffects
/Complementary andAlternativeMedicine/HerbsVitaminsand Minerals/
phytochemicals Accessed Date: July 9, 2012
17

18

Ibid

Walfrido R. Ponce De Leon, Palawan: Land of Promise,

(Philippines:Palawan Provincial Capitol, 2001) p. 4
19

25

en),Blumea balsamifera (Sambong), Garcinia lateriflora (Kandis), Phaenthus

sp (Kalubigan)., Melastoma malathrium L.(Amomosing), Kayea sp. (Sagpo),
Alstonia

scholaris

(Kamanlit/Dita),

Bauhinia

semibida

var

perkinsae

(Tipakla/Pitakla), Ficus sp.(Ulam), Mimosa pudica (Kanumay), Phaenthus sp.

(Sya-sya), Psychotria sp.(Kilyat), Begonia sp. (Gimbaloy), Archidendron sp.
(Bunsikag),
(Amorsiko)

Canarium
or

Cinnamommum

asperum

Nauclea

(Saheng),

orientalis

sp.(Panulak

na

Chrysopogon

(Bangkal),
babae),

Derris

Nephelium

sp.

aciculatus
(Sungkar),

ramboutan-ake

(Balisangkad), Urena lobata (Galupang lalaki or Dalupang), Yucca sp.

(Aksibar), Stachytarpheta jamaicensis (Kambing-kambingan) and Lantana
camara (Muyo-muyo/Moyo-moyo).20
Muyo-muyo is a weed with berry-like fruits prominent in rangeland and
grassland areas. It is scientifically known Lantana camara. It has troterpenoid
or

pentacyclic

triterpenes

called

lantadenes

which

are

hepatogenic

photosensitizers that can be found in its leaves and in unripe and ripe fruits.
The plant when eaten by grazing animals will experience liver dysfunction,
jaundice, constipation, bile accumulation, gall bladder enlargement, renal
damage, gastroenteritis and loss of appetite. 21 But these flavonoids might also

Antonieta Miguel, Inventory and Documentation of the

Medicinal Plants Used by the Tagbanua of Sugod 1, Barangay
Cabayugan, Puerto Princesa City, (Palawan Ethno-environmental
Research Center Research, Holy Trinity University, Puerto Princesa City,
2012), p. 62.
21
Wellington Z. Rosacia, et. al., Lantana and Hagonoy,
DENR,Quezon City: Research Information Series on Ecosystems, Vol.
16, No.2, 1997, pp.1-7.
20

26

be responsible for the therapeutic property of Lantana camara as medicine for

asthma.
Plants were also used by the Tagbanua in Aborlan in healing and hilot
practices. The study revealed that different plants were utilized for epilepsy,
snake and insect bites, food poisoning, stomachache, diarrhea, kulebra,
allergy, fever, colds, giving birth, bone fractures, paralysis, and relapse. The
plants species used were rice, betel nut, balo-balongay vine, coconut,
lumpaki, kamulang, olagak, sibukaw, sepa, lubigan, bukangkang, panpan,
balingsangkad, ulam, cashew, dulaw, siling labuyo, wild patola, banana,
ganda, orchid, imaraan, balete, kataka-taka, cogon, macasla, tawa-tawa,
noni, kawayan, calamamsi, and sampaloc. The Tagbanua albularios made
use of different plant parts including roots, leaves or bark of two to seven plant
species to treat an ailment.22
A study on medicinal plants used by selected and prominent medicine
men of Brookes Point revealed the use of the following medicinal plants to
treat the common illnesses: Lagerstroemia speciosa (Banaba), Psidium
guajava (Bayabas), Imperata cylindrical (Kogon), Anacardium occidentale
(Kasuy), Vitex negundo (Lagundi), Zea mays (Mais), Peperomia pellucida
(Pansit-pansitan), Blumea balsamifera (Sambong), Chrysopyllum cainito Linn.
(Star apple), Musa acuminate (Banana), Corypha elata Roxb. (Buri), Mimosa
Leonita D. Dela Rosa, The Healing and Hilot Practices of the
Tagbanuas in Aborlan, Palawan and Their Implications for The
Educational Guidance of the Young Generations, (Masters Thesis,
Holy Trinity College, Puerto Princesa City, April 2007), pp. 72-74.
22

27

pudica (Makahiya) and Andropogon citrates (Tanglad), Moringa oleifera Lam.

(Malunggay), Premna odorata Blanco (Alagaw), Pandanus sp. (Pandan
tsina), Jatropha curcas Linn. (Tuba-tuba) and Cocos nucifera (Buko or Niyog).
The common illnesses of patients or clients in Brookes Point, Palawan
that were treated by the medidincemen/women were anemia (with flu, cough,
fever and pasma), cough, diarrhea, fever, flu, hypertension, kidney problem,
relapse, sprain, stomach-ache, and Urinary Tract Infection (UTI). While the
parts used to treat the common illnesses were the following: leaves,
combination of bark, roots and young stem, combination of roots, leaves, bark
and flowers, combination of roots and leaves, bark, thorns fruit juice and
hairs. Also, the most oftenly used preparation of medicinal plants was
decoction, followed by heating the plant part/s before applying it to the
affected area of the patient. Squeezing the fresh leaves to collect and drink
the juice was also used. While the other preparations include pound the plant
to release its aroma and drink the juice of the fruit as needed.
B. Foreign Study
Living plants are

solar-powered

biochemical

23

and

biosynthetic

laboratory which manufactures both primary and secondary metabolites from

air, water, minerals and sunlight Khanam said. The secondary metabolites
such as alkaloids, glycosides, flavonoids, volatile oils, and others are
biosynthetically derived from primary metabolites which represent chemical
Muhajirin B. Sali, Inventory and Documentation of the
Medicinal
Plants
Utilized
by
the
Selected
Indigenous
Medicinemen/Women of Brookes Point, Palawan, (Masters Thesis,
Holy Trinity University, Puerto Princesa City, April 2012), pp. 89-98.
23

28

adaptations to environmental stresses or serve as defensive, offensive

chemicals against microorganism, insects and higher herbivore predators. 24
These metabolites some time considered a waste in secretory products of
plant metabolism and are of pharmaceutical importance.25
According to Kennedy and Wightman, secondary metabolites can be
unique to specific species or genera and do not display any role plants
primary metabolic requirements but rather they increase their over all ability to
survival and overcome local challenges by allowing them to interact with their
environment.
Pascoline, et al, claimed that medicinal plants are of great importance
to the health of individuals and communities. The presence of secondary
compounds validates the used of plants as herbal drugs. 26 The medicinal
properties of several herbal plants have been documented in the ancient
Indian literature and the preparations have been found to be effective in
treatment of diseases.27

Dr. Salma Khanam, Pharmacognosy, General Study of

Formation of Secondary Metabloites, pp. 2
24

25

26

Ibid

Jeruto Pascoline, et al, Phytochemical Constituents of Some

Medicinal Plants used by the Nandis of South Nandi District Kenya,
Journal ofAnimal and Plant Sciences, 2011, Volume 9, Issue 3:12011210
S. Shyamal Gowri and K. Vasantha, Phytochemical Screening
and Antimicrobial Activity of Syzygium cumini (L.) (Myrtaceae) Leaves
Extracts; International Journal of PharmaTech Research Coden (USA)
Vol.2, No.2, pp. 1569
27

29

Medicinal plants represent rich sources of antimicrobial agents. 28

Antibacterial constituents of medicinal plants and their use for the treatment of
microbial infections are possible alternative to synthetic drugs to which many
infectious microorganisms have become resistant seem to very much
promising.29 Traditional healers claim that their medicine is cheaper and more
effective and impart least side effects as compared to synthetic medicine. 30
Synthesis
The review of related literature and studies revealed the widely use of
plants in treating the ailments of the people. Also mentioned are the presence
of phytochemicals in plants, which are considered responsible for the
medicinal property of the plants. It also showed that plants, is one of the
important connections of man to his environment. Also, the information
gathered revealed that there is a need to identify and scientifically validate the
therapeutic ability of plants and it must be given priority in any localities not
only for cultural preservation and health purposes but also for its other
economic importance and to prevent the extinction of the very useful plants.

28

M.R. Ahsan, M.R., et al., In Vitro Antibacterial Screening and Toxicity Study
of Some Different Medicinal Plants, World Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 5(5); pp
617- 621

M.A. Bari, et al., 2010, Antibacterial and Antifungal Activity of

Solanum Torvum (Solanaceae), International Journal of Agriculture and
Biology, pp. 386-390
29

John J. Ragas, et al., Screening of Antimicrobial Activity of Ten

Medicinal Plants used in Colombian Folkloric Medicine: A Possible
Alternative in Treatment of Nonsocomial Infections, February 17,
2006, pp.
30

30

The plants belonging to berry family is one of the plant species in

Narra, Palawan that needs to be studied. If wild berries which can be found in
other countries have phytochemicals and bioactive abilities then, the species
here might also contain these phytochemicals.

31