Marine and Petroleum Geology 26 (2009) 573579

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Marine and Petroleum Geology

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/marpetgeo

Integrating structural geology and petroleum systems modeling A pilot

project from Bolivias fold and thrust belt
Friedemann Baur a, *, Matias Di Benedetto b, Thomas Fuchs a, Carolyn Lampe c, Simone Sciamanna d
a

IES, Integrated Exploration Systems, Ritterstr. 23, 52072 Aachen, Germany

RepsolYPF, Esmeralda 255, Buenos Aires C1035ABE, Argentina
c
Franz-Kreuter-Str. 4, 50823 Koeln, Germany
d
RepsoYPF, E&P, Praia do Botafogo, 300, 22250-040 Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
b

a r t i c l e i n f o

a b s t r a c t

Article history:
Received 7 September 2007
Received in revised form
27 March 2008
Accepted 2 January 2009
Available online 15 January 2009

For the rst time, a new approach to petroleum systems analysis is presented which allows full integration of tectonic and palinspastic restoration with three-dimensional (3D), PVT-controlled, multicomponent, three-phase petroleum migration analysis through time. A systematic modeling study has
been applied to a study area dominated by fold and thrust belts located in the Sub Andean orogeny near
Tarija, Bolivia. The project has been performed with a special focus on the simulation technique and on
the correct distribution of temperature, source-rock maturity and pressure development through time
with reference to its input data. This is the rst pilot project presenting a 3D numerical model in
a compressional structural regime to which the basin modeling approach has been applied to explain the
observed distribution of temperature, pressure, maturity and petroleum accumulations in general.
2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords:
Bolivia
Sub Andean
Fold and thrust belt
Petroleum systems modeling
Structural geology
TecLink
Basin modeling

1. Introduction
Nowadays it is becoming increasingly difcult to make new
discoveries and to predict the location of accumulations, their
volumes and their composition due to the fact that many of the
worlds new interesting exploration areas are characterized by
structurally complex geologic settings. Therefore, there is a distinct
need to link structural modeling techniques with the petroleum
systems analysis approach to assess complex scenarios and to
quantify and improve petroleum charge risk. While this link is
already proved useful and has been successfully tested and applied
in 2D (Lampe et al., 2006; Sciamanna et al., 2005), this paper
presents the rst application of such a link in full 3D. The study has
been performed using the PetroMod 3D PetroFlow package,
including the TecLink 3D tool developed by IES (Integrated Exploration Systems GmbH). PetroMod TecLink 3D enables the
complete range of petroleum generation and migration methods,
using the hybrid migration simulator (Hantschel et al., 2005), to be
applied in complex tectonic environments such as those affected by

* Corresponding author. Tel.: 49 241 5158610; fax: 49 241 515860.

E-mail addresses: f.baur@ies.de, baur@lek.rwth-aachen.de (F. Baur).
0264-8172/$ see front matter 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2009.01.004

salt- and shale-diapirism, as well as in extensional and especially in

complex compressional tectonic environments such as thrust belts.
The approach was applied to a 45  25 km area in the Sub
Andean fold and thrust belt located 120 km northeast of Tarija,
southern Bolivia, in order to provide an integrated exploration
study for a more focused oil and gas exploration.
The pilot project is based on interpretation of seismic data,
structural restoration and petroleum systems modeling. The latter
includes the so-called TecLink 3D approach, which is a new, unique
and innovative technique, avoiding the issue of multiple z-values
for an individual layer in the case of thrusted strata, which poses
problems during numerical simulation. It should be noted that the
focus of the project was on development and validation of the new
modeling technique, rather than providing new insights about the
regional geology of the study area.
2. TecLink 3D method
2.1. Event and Paleo Stepping
The traditional approach in basin modeling uses the present-day
geometry as an input parameter to calculate the initial depositional

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F. Baur et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 26 (2009) 573579

thickness of a layer backwards by applying a decompaction rule

(Eq. (1)). To solve the decompaction equation for the rst time, the
present-day porosities are estimated by the program using a fast 1D
steady-state approach for the present-day geometry only. These
estimated present-day porosities together with the initial porosities
and the present-day thickness yield the depositional thickness. The
initial porosities are taken from a PetroMod internal database
where all lithology-dependent parameters are stored.

dPD =dini 1  Fini =1  FPD

(1)

with d thickness, F porosity, ini initial, and PD present-day.

After removing and decompacting the entire stack of sediments,
which is called backstripping, sequential, deterministic, forwardmodeling is applied to simulate step-by-step from the oldest event
up to present-day geometry. Temperature and pressure development is taken into account to consider the behavior of compaction
in more detail (Welte et al., 1997).
For each time-step, which is determined within the input of the
numerical model as depositional or erosion age, the following substeps are performed.
First, the newly deposited sediments are added with their initial
porosity.
Next, the pressure equation (Eq. (2) for 1D case) is solved using
a numerical nite-element solver.

v=vzkvu=vvz  Cvu=vt C vpl  ph =vt

(2)

with u overpressure (pore pressure minus hydrostatic pressure),

pl lithostatic pressure, ph hydrostatic pressure, k permeability
of the layer matrix, v uid viscosity (uid property), z depth,
C compressibility (here equal to l  Fmin where l is Athys factor
and Fmin is the minimum porosity).
In order to solve this equation one needs to know the change in
lithostatic potential, which is the difference between lithostatic and
hydrostatic pressure. To calculate the lithostatic pressure, the respective densities of water and rock as well as the porosities are needed. The
porosity is also needed to calculate the permeability, which is assumed
to be a function of lithology and porosity. For the new sediments the
initial porosity is used, and for the already deposited ones the calculated porosities from the previous time-step are used.
Once the overpressure is known, the maximum effective stress
(s pl  ph  u) can be calculated. This can then be used to apply
a compaction model (Eq. (3)) which yields the new porosities based
on the overpressure or maximum effective stress.
An equation similar to Athys law but more complex and
expressed in terms of overpressure rather than effective stress is
used in the software (Eq. (3) shows Athys law changed to overpressure conditions).

F Fini exp  lpl  ph  umax

(3)

where (pl  ph  u)max is the maximum value attained by the

effective stress. Thus, we have for the compressibility C lF. For
other abbreviations see above.
The solution of Eq. (3) provides the new porosities. From the
new porosities all other related parameters are known, such as
permeability.
The simple relation between porosity and thickness (Eq. (1))
gives the new thickness during the forward simulation. Temperatures and all other quantities are calculated afterwards. These
calculation steps are repeated up to present-day.
If the simulated present-day geometry differs from the given
input geometry one can perform additional runs. In these runs the
calculated present-day porosities are used in the decompaction
equation to determine initial depositional thicknesses, instead of

using the multi-1D calculated porosities; the more runs performed,

the better the agreement between simulated and given input
geometry.
The time framework which controls the calculation steps is
given by the depositional and erosion ages of the strata. These ages
are dened as Event Steps and are the basis for a past to present
forward-modeling simulation (Hantschel and Broichhausen, 2002).
Therefore, the Event Stepping approach calculates compaction
based on initial conditions such as initial porosity, permeability,
uid viscosity and compressibility as well as additional information
such as present-day thickness and ages. This approach (Fig. 1) is
suitable for geologic settings dominated by normal deposition and
erosion and in extensional basins (Broichhausen, 2004).
In the case of complex paleo-thickness-variations such as, e.g.
massive vertical structural movements like salt- and mud-diapirism and other complex extensional structures, there is a certain
need for kinematic, palinspastic and structural restorations, taking
these movements of masses into account. The intermediate
reconstructed paleo-geometries act in this situation as a guideline
for the regular forward simulation and can directly be integrated
into the modeling process as so-called paleo-models. For paleomodels the thicknesses are already predened (snapshots in time),
and solving compaction and its related calculation for thickness
prediction is therefore no longer necessary. Instead of building one
model with present-day geometry one builds several models with
xed geometries and assigns ages to each model.
Instead of applying the Event Stepping method all the way from
the oldest to the present-day geometry, the simulation optimizes
only up to the rst (i.e. oldest) paleo-model (optimizing in that case
means an iterative improvement to match the predened input
thickness, thus the thickness of the oldest paleo-model). With the
denition of the rst paleo-model the forward-modeling approach
changes from the Event Stepping mode to the so-called Paleo
Stepping approach (Fig. 1). From that point, the simulator uses
each given paleo-model and calculates temperature and pressure
considering its duration and shape (see also Section 2.3), beginning
with the oldest geometry and simulating forward in time (Hantschel and Kauerauf, 2009). The resolution of the model with respect
to time is now determined by the number of paleo-models and is
no longer controlled by depositional ages. Of course it is possible to
have deposition of additional layers at the top of the strata during
Paleo Stepping but this new geometry has to be provided as an
additional paleo-model.
To include transient effects for maturity, temperature or pressure, the calculated values from the previous paleo-model are
considered and transferred to the next paleo-model. This is done
for each parameter taking into account both vertical and lateral
inuences for the changing geometries through time. This procedure of applying rst the Event Stepping approach at depositional
times and using the Paleo Stepping approach, which means
switching from one paleo-model to the next, during movements of
masses, describes the simplest scenario of a TecLink model (Hantschel and Kauerauf, 2009). More complex is the situation in cases of
not only vertical but also relative contrary lateral movements of
masses, e.g. during thrusting and compression. In such a situation
of lateral displacement of rock masses thrust faults are indispensable and the problem of multiple z-values for the same layer occurs.
In this situation the block-concept has to be introduced to avoid
the vertical repetition of a layer.
2.2. The block concept
Models which undergo signicant shortening (thrust) due to
compressional tectonics need to be subdivided in a way that
multiple depth-values are eliminated. This can be realized by

F. Baur et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 26 (2009) 573579

575

Fig. 1. Schematic diagram depicting the handling of compaction and subsequent pressure calculation for two different approaches. (1) Event Stepping: during normal deposition all
geologic events are dened by depositional (or erosional) ages. Compaction through time is calculated in steps using a deterministic forward-modeling approach which is then
compared to the initial model input data. In case of a mismatch, an iterative improvement of the match between the input thicknesses and the nal model thicknesses is performed.
Pressure is calculated as a function of load, converted into stress, and a compaction model provides porosity and thickness. (2) Paleo Stepping: during compression all geologic ages
are dened through paleo-models, i.e. predened geometries that change through time. Pressure, stress and porosity are dened as described for the Event Stepping approach
except that porosity is not used for thickness calculation.

subdividing the model into individual thrust-blocks (also called

fault blocks). Each fault block corresponds to an individual thrust
sheet representing a geometrical unit without vertically repetitive
strata. While each fault block represents an individual sub-model on
the input side, all blocks are combined into a single integrated model
during the simulation. The thermal and pressure regime as well as
migration are calculated for the entire model including its mutual
and overlapping effects at the block-boundaries. Hence, blocks
retain their structural integrity during the models tectonic evolution but are connected with respect to all geophysical and
geochemical parameters. Information about the age, shape, location
and hierarchy of all blocks throughout both space and time needs to
be determined within the input in the form of the geometry itself
and some extra information. This extra information has to be
introduced to handle the generic exchange of information among
the paleo-models during Paleo Stepping. This can be realized by
determining three additional kinds of data/information to allow
a correct assembly of the paleo-models at a certain age and position.
The extra information is (1) the age assignment for the paleo-models
to put them into the correct chronological order, (2) the block order
assignment to stack the blocks within each paleo-model on top of
each other and (3) the so-called parentchild-block concept, which
controls the afliation and derivation of each block in the case of
block splitting. This information is fundamental for allowing
a correct exchange of data between the corresponding blocks for all
parameters which are calculated for the numerical model.
2.3. Special pressure handling
Pressure and porosity in TecLink models are calculated within
the Paleo Stepping approach via predened paleo-models and their

subsequent change in overburden which is inherent to their given

geometry (Fig. 1). Thus, it is desirable that the changes in layer
thickness (overburden) between individual paleo-models are
accounted for during their palinspastic reconstruction. While
switching from one paleo-model to the next, the change in overburden can be calculated from the actual and previous paleo-model
by adding up the weight of the overburden column heights and
taking into account the lateral movement. For the lateral movement
the cell values are transformed accordingly by taking into account
the lateral length changes of each layer. With the rst paleo-model
a pressure regime is already available derived from the traditional
calculated Event Stepping approach. Additionally, the porosities
and permeabilities and all other parameters are available as well.
For the second paleo-model (second eldest) the change in overburden represents the change in lithostatic and hydrostatic pressure and the porosities are taken from the previous paleo-model
and used by the simulator to solve Eq. (2). Overpressure is used
once again to calculate effective stress (s pl  ph  u), which is
then used to obtain the new porosities. This workow is known
from the traditional Event Stepping approach.
The only difference to Event Stepping is that in the Paleo Stepping approach porosity is not directly related to thickness via
compaction, which means compaction and porosity decrease are
decoupled (Hantschel and Kauerauf, 2009). Instead, the porosity is
directly connected to the effective stress, whereas the thickness is
used as it is predened.
In the case of an incorrect structural reconstruction, where
a layer is buried continuously but the thickness does not decrease
accordingly, compaction can be compensated and controlled by
changing the amount of rock matrix material to end up with the
correct porosity at a certain/given thickness.

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F. Baur et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 26 (2009) 573579

3. TecLink 3D application

3.3. Input data

3.1. The study area

Three major source rocks are considered in the model. They

were deposited under restricted anoxic, marine conditions and
have been dened to be the Silurian Kirusillas Formation, the Early
Devonian Icla and the Middle Devonian Los Monos Formation with
initial TOC (Total Organic Carbon) contents of 2 wt.% and HI
(Hydrogen Index) values ranging between 400 and 630 mg HC/g
TOC (Illich et al., 1981). All intervals are type II to type III, mixed oiland gas-prone source rocks (Dunn et al., 1995). A generic type II
kinetic model, which ts to all source rocks, has been assigned for
conversion of kerogen into petroleum to keep the model as simple
as possible (Vandenbroucke et al., 1999).
The Los Monos Formation also acts as a regional seal due to its
low permeability and is responsible for maintaining the observed
overpressure. The main reservoirs are the fractured Early Devonian
quartzites of Huamampampa and the Late Devonian Iquiri Formation. The Santa Rosa, Ichoa and Machareti Formations are also
assumed to be potential reservoirs. Thrust faults are used as blockboundaries to which properties can be assigned. Due to the fact that
some of the faults, which cut the reservoir, do not outcrop at the
surface, the assignment of fault properties has been decoupled
from the existence of a block boundary. It is possible to assign
properties to selected parts of the existing block-boundaries. The
current pilot project, however, was simulated without extra properties, thus the behavior of the faults is controlled by the neighboring lithologies.

The 1125-m2 study area is located 120 km northeast of Tarija,

Bolivia and lies amidst the Sierras Subandinas within the Sub
Andean Zone at the eastern margin of the Andean orogeny. A
sedimentary sequence of up to 8 km in thickness has been
deposited from Early Ordovician to Late Pliocene, featuring an
active foreland basin stage from Early Miocene on (Cornelius
et al., 2005). The area is characterized by northnortheast
trending narrow anticlines and thin-skin tectonic deformation,
which has been active since the Late Miocene (67 Ma) and has
generated a hinterland duplex geometry cut by out-of-sequence
thrusting during the very last deformation stage (Sempere et al.,
1990; Baby et al., 1992). The relative timing used for the palinspastic reconstructions has been established based on growing
strata, paleo-magnetic data and isotopic data of volcanic ashes
(Echavarria et al., 2003). A simplied sequence stratigraphy has
been used not only for the structural reconstruction but also for
the numerical basin model, which comprises 20 layers. The Sub
Andean fold and thrust belt is controlled by two major incompetent layers, the Silurian Kirusillas and the shallower upper
Devonian Los Monos Formation. Both layers cause detachment
levels (Sempere, 1995; Echavarria et al., 2003; Moretti et al.,
2006) and are realized in the model. At the same time these
shale-dominated detachment levels act as source rocks together
with a third, lower Devonian, source rock. All source rocks consist
of siliciclastic detritus and have been deposited in a semirestricted anoxic, marine, extensional basin (Lindquist, 1998). The
source rocks are preserved throughout the area with thicknesses
ranging from hundreds to thousands of meters, and have
a maximum cumulative thickness of around 2 km (Lindquist,
1998; Moretti et al., 1996, 1995).
Silurian and younger reservoir rocks are widely distributed
within the Sub Andean orogeny. They are characterized by fair to
very good porosity at shallower depth due to high quartz content
and a slow rate of dissolution at low temperature. They have good
permeabilities at greater depths as a result of geomechanical
failure, i.e. fracturing (Jordan and Alonso, 1987; Moretti et al., 2000;
Labaume and Moretti, 2001b; Florez-Nino et al., 2005). Regional
and locally distributed seals were deposited during the entire
Paleozoic throughout the study area and often alternate with the
sandstone reservoirs (Jordan and Alonso, 1987).
3.2. Geometry
Seven 2D sections as well as two local 3D seismic surveys from
production areas have been interpreted and combined to a 21/2D
structural model which acts as the basis for a 3D palinspastic
reconstruction. The structural reconstruction, which ended up with
14 restored paleo-models, ranging in time between 6.7 and 1 Ma
(Fig. 2), have been performed using 3D Move, developed by
Midland Valley Exploration Ltd. The present-day input model for
the structural restoration also acts as the present-day geometry for
the basin model in PetroMod. This present-day geometry consists
of 10 blocks, with a total of 84 blocks for the entire model including
all paleo-models. Each paleo-model comprises 20 different stratigraphic layers, each consisting of one facies representing one
specic lithology. This is in fact a simplication but this study was
designed to test and apply the TecLink approach to a compression
controlled 3D data set, rather than focusing on geological detail.
Each block comprises both source and reservoir rocks. The initial
grid distance is set to 200 m but the simulation has been performed
on a sampled grid.

3.4. Boundary conditions

A constant heat ow of 42 mW/m2 through time with a higher
heat ow of 47 mW/m2 for the Holocene has been assumed to t
the calibration data. This coincides with values from published
literature (Husson and Moretti, 2002).
The paleo-water-depth is dened as zero for the periods of
deposition between 490 and 6.7 Ma. Uplift and thrusting lifted the
model above sea level starting at 6.7 Ma, to give a nal average
elevation of w1000 m at present-day. In addition to the presentday surface two paleo-surfaces have been implemented into the
model. The remaining paleo-models have at but inclined simple
paleo-surfaces. The sediment water interface temperature is
determined considering the global temperature distribution
through time as well as the virtual geomagnetic polar wandering
path for the corresponding continent. The obtained surface
temperature through time is corrected for the paleo-water-depth
based on a standard temperature depth prole (Wygrala, 1989)
which is extrapolated for elevations above sea level.
4. Results
Vitrinite reectance is one of the primary calibration parameters
for the thermal evolution of sedimentary deposits to reconstruct
their burial history and maturity. The EASY%Ro algorithm of
Sweeney and Burnham (1990), has been used to calculate and
calibrate vitrinite reectance.
The models maturity has been calibrated comparing all
measured vitrinite reectance data from wells with calculated
trends (Fig. 3). The transient effect of vitrinite reectance (Fig. 3)
can be seen clearly in the very left block of the upper left model
cube representing the present-day situation. This block was uplifted just 2 million years ago, thus the maturity offset is caused by
the thrusting of highly mature over less mature material along the
thrust fault.
The included 1D extraction (Fig. 3) along one well shows a calibrated maturity prole vs. depth. The prole shows a sudden

F. Baur et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 26 (2009) 573579

577

Fig. 2. Three of 14 paleo-models are shown. The progressing deformation becomes evident from left to right. Left: beginning of compressional deformation (6.5 Ma); centre:
intermediate timestep (5.5 Ma); right: the present-day situation. The upper set of images shows the palinspastic reconstruction of individual horizons used as input data for the
numerical model; the lower images show the actual petroleum system model with all properties, such as lithology and petrophysical properties and boundary conditions. The grey
shades depict individual stratigraphic layers.

decrease in maturity at the top of each block, which marks the

transition from the thrusting hanging-wall block to the lying
footwall block. At transitions where no obvious difference in
maturity occurs, it can be debated whether the displacement was
not strong enough or has been obscured during the geological past
(e.g., at the boundary between Block II and III in Fig. 3).
For porosity, a retrograde distribution of values within all
thrusted blocks, stacked on top of each other, can be observed
(Fig. 4). Within each individual block porosity decreases from top to

bottom due to mechanical compaction. The porosity has been

calibrated for all wells based on log-derived porosity data. After
a successful t between measured and simulated data for porosity
the pressure has been calibrated while changing the default
permeabilityporosity relationships for some individual lithologies, each corresponding to one facies or one layer, respectively.
Overpressure simulation and prediction is still one of the most
challenging tasks in petroleum systems modeling. The application
of the new technique (described in 2.1 and 2.3) that converts the

Fig. 3. Development of vitrinite reectance through time of the model-cubes: at 6.5 Ma, 5.2 Ma, 2 Ma and at present-day situation. Maturity iso-lines are cutting across the tilted
strata for younger ages. Note the maturity offset on the left side of the present-day cube, which is caused by the thrusting of highly mature over less mature material along a thrust
fault. 1D extraction of a calibration well, (the extraction goes beyond its original depth). The extraction shows measured vitrinite reectance data (stars) and the calculated maturity
trend (solid line) after Sweeney and Burnham (1990).

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F. Baur et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 26 (2009) 573579

Fig. 4. Porosity (left) and pressure (right) in two wells. The displacement of blocks becomes evident in the vertical porosity distribution. Two sets of pressure calibration data are
shown: mud-weight (dots) and RFT (diamonds). The calculated pore pressure (solid line) matches the in situ measurements of RFT very well.

change of overburden or load into pressure and porosity and

subsequently into effective stress for each single cell allows
tracking the pressure and all related parameters through all paleogeometries, of the model (Fig. 4). The pressure has been calibrated
to all available repeat formation tester (RFT) data to explain the
model and to provide a good base for pressure gradient driven
Darcy migration analysis.
Maturity, source-rock transformation ratio and generated
volumes of petroleum are inuenced not only by the basal heatow, but also to a great extend by the relative position of the source
rocks within the individual blocks and the entire model. Since the
blocks move both vertically and laterally through time, the source
rocks shift position and move successively in and out the petroleum
window. The thrusting of the blocks causes tilting of the strata
which causes the individual parts of source rocks to become mature
at different times and in different positions. Therefore, it is virtually
impossible to dene a single critical moment (Magoon and Dow,
1994) for the study area. Whereas most of the Silurian source rock
had its critical moment in the Permian, parts of the lower Devonian
source rock reached the required transformation ratio of 50%
within the Cenozoic. Some parts of the upper Devonian source-rock
appear to have potential for generating wet gas and methane at
present-day (Fig. 5).
As stated above, the present model does not comprise any extra
fault-property assignment, thus the behavior of the block-boundaries is controlled by the facies, respectively, by the lithologies,
which are neighboring each other at the block-boundaries. While
doing so the faults are often controlled by shaly lithologies of layers,
which heave along the thrust faults (block-boundaries) and make
the faults less permeable or closed.
The modeled hydrocarbon distribution within the study area
matches the known distribution of accumulations very well. The
occurrence of shows is in different blocks and at different stratigraphic levels. More calibration with respect to composition, phase

behavior and HC quality (GOR and API gravity) needs to be done in

the future.
5. Discussion and summary
The geometry and its development through time is the dominant factor in the study, controlling not only typical parameters
such as temperature and maturity but also pressure build-up due to
the compartmentalizing effects of sealing faults and layers. While
some secondary migration methods, such as Darcy migration, are
not overly sensitive to details of geometry, others, such as owpath
migration, are very sensitive. The impact of the given geometry on
owpath migration is quite effective because in a reservoir layer
without a signicant pressure gradient the controlling migration

Fig. 5. These are cell extractions taken from source-rock cells located at the top of
different anticlines in different blocks (thrust sheets) of different locations and of
different depths (not from well positions). The critical moment (CM) is indicated by an
arrow for two source rocks (SR): Silurian dotted line, Lower Devonian dashed line
and Upper Devonian solid line. The Upper Devonian SR has not reached its CM yet,
whereas the Silurian had its CM already in the Permian. The gure shows clearly that
petroleum has been continuously generated over a long period of time. Parts of the
source rocks, depending on their relative position within the fault and thrust belts, are
only just at the beginning of the petroleum window and show ongoing transformation,
and have still a large potential for HC generation.

F. Baur et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 26 (2009) 573579

factor is buoyancy, which forces the uids to follow along the

geometry of the overlying seal.
Although simplications have been applied both to the structural reconstruction and the basin model, the geometry has been
treated as carefully as possible to keep such articial effects at
a minimum. Due to the fact that the TecLink approach uses
reconstructed geometries as a basic input parameter for the
numerical basin model, the basin model quality very much
depends on the reconstructed input geometries.
The assumption of having predominantly closed faults
controlled by impermeable lithologies ts the observations of
Moretti et al. (2002). They attributed the low permeabilities of the
faults as being due to diagenesis and cementation processes, as
described in Labaume and Moretti (2001a,b) and Labaume et al.
(2001). In the current study, however, the shaly lithologies neighboring these faults are responsible for their low permeabilities, and
this seems to provide reasonable fault behavior.
Although the use of only one lithology per stratigraphic layer is
a simplication, it was possible to calibrate all pressure data for all
wells. Due to the fact that the entire pressure calculation is mainly
based on vertical effective stress, the fracturing level for the Huamampampa could not be reached during the rst simulation runs.
Therefore high permeability values were assigned to a relatively
poor porosity to emulate the fracturing effect. This leads to the
general problem of all basin modeling software that no stresstensors are taken into account for the pressure analysis. Up to now
there was no need to do this because basins dominated by extensional processes are almost exclusively controlled by vertical
effective stress. To imitate the compressional regime during faulting and thrusting it is possible to assign certain pressure boundary
conditions, which have been tested before in 2D TecLink models
but not yet for a 3D TecLink model. Ongoing research and
improvement aims to integrate a full stress-tensor calculation
within the pressure solution, which will be of great benet for
compressionally dominated numerical basin models.
In general it can be said that the new technique works and
produces reasonable results. Calculated results coincide with the
measured calibration parameters such as temperature, maturity,
permeability, porosity and pressure. The model, which covers parts
of the Sub Andean fold and thrust belt, stands for a successful
application of a novel simulation technique, which enables a full
pressure, temperature and maturity solution in 4D (space and time)
for compressional geological settings. A further application to other
study areas where structural modeling has been already performed
is needed to test different geological settings and to improve the
novel approach of 3D TecLink.
Acknowledgements
The authors thank Repsol-YPF (Buenos Aires), PAE (Pan American Energy L.L.C.) and BG (British Gas) for their kind permission to
publish the project data. This paper beneted from the thorough
reviews by Isabelle Moretti and Harry Doust.
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