Pre Mauryan Period

The 6th century BC, there existed 16 large states in India which are known as 16 Mahajanpadas.
They are Kasi, Kosala, Anga, Magadha, Vajji or Vriji, Malla, Chedi or Cheti, Vamsa or Vatsa,
Kuru, Panchala, Machcha or Matsya, Surasena, Assaka or Ashmaka , Avanti, Gandhara &
Kamboja. The names of at least 9 among them are given in the Vedic Literature. Panini in the
4th century BC mentions as many as 22 different Janpadas, but also mentions 3 most important
viz. Magadha, Kosala and Vatsa. Following is the Brief Description of the 16 Mahajanpadas:
Kasi Its Capital was Banaras Kasi was located on the confluence of Ganga and Gomti rivers and
somewhere around today's Varanasi. Kosala Its capital was Shravasti Kosala was located in the
Eastern Uttar Pradesh. It covers today's districts Faizabad, Gonda, Bhahraich etc. and was
bordered by River Gomti on the west, River Sadaniva in the east, Nepal hills in the north and
River Syandika in the South. Anga Its Capital was Champa It covered the modern districts of
Munger and Bhagalpur in Bihar It was later annexed to Magadha by Bimbisar. Magadh was on
its west and Raja Mahal hills on the west. Magadha Its capital of Girivraja or Rajgriha It covered
the modern districts of Patna, Gaya, Shahabad of Bihar. It was bordered by River Son non North
and Ganga on South. Vajji or Vriji Its capital was Vaishali It was located on the north of River
Ganga in Bihar. The seat of 8 smaller clans / kingdoms called "Athakula" out of which
Lichhavais, Janatriks, Videhas were very important. It was separated from Kosala from river
Gandak. Malla Its Capital was Kushinagar, Pawa It covered the modern districts of Deoria, Basti,
Gorakhpur in Eastern Uttar Pradesh. Chedi or Cheti It was located in the Bundelkhand division
of Madhya Pradesh regions to the south of river Yamuna and along river Betwa or Vetravati. Its
capital was Suktimati or Sotthivati located somewhere near Banda in Uttar Pradesh. Vatsa Its
capital was Kausambi It covered the modern districts of Allahabad and Mirzapur in Uttar
Pradesh. Kuru Its Capital was Indraprastha / Hastinapur / Isukara It covered the modern Haryana
& Delhi-Meerut-Ghaziabad region. Its eastern border was River Yamuna. Panchala Its Capital
was its capital were Ahichhtra (Western Panchal) and Kampilya (eastern Panchala). It covered
modern day Rohilkhand division & Upper Gangetic Plains of today's Uttar Pradesh &
Uttarakhand. Matsya Its Capital was Viratnagar It was located in the Alwar, Bharatpur, Jaipur
districts of Rajasthan. Surasena Its Capital was Mathura It was located on the junction of
Uttarpatha and Dakshinpatha around Mathura of Today. Assaka Its capital was Potali, Potana or
Podana Located on the banks of the Godavari River. Its capital was Potali, Potana or Podana,
1

which now lies in the Nandura Tehsil, Buldana district in the Indian state of Maharashtra and it
was the only Mahajanapada situated to the south of the Vindhya Range, and was in
Dakshinapatha Avanti Its capital was Ujjain & Mahismati Located on present day Malwa region.
It was divided into two parts by the Vindhyas, the northern part had its capital at Ujjayini and the
southern part had its centre at Mahishmati. Gandhara Its capital was Taxila: Covered the regions
between Kabul and Rawalipindi in North Western Provinces, Peshawar, the Potohar plateau and
on the Kabul River. Kamboja Its capital Rajpur It was located around Punchh area of Kashmir.

The late Vedic era ends where epic era starts. Most of the historical information about that period
we get from Puranas, epics such as Mahabharta and Ramayana. However, the information is
delusive, exaggerated and fragmented so, not much reliable info is available. We came to know
about some Mahajanpadas in Vedas. For example, the earliest reference to the Magadha people
occurs in the Atharva-Veda where they are found listed along with the Angas, Gandharis, and
Mujavats. We have many sources to know about various Janpadas, Kings, Dynasties, Events that
happened near the rise of Buddhism and Jainism. However, the information from 1500 BC to 67th century BC is so much confusing that none of the scholars has been able write clearly about
the history of those times. Rise of Janpadas: We start our study from 1500 BC. We know that in
contrast with urban culture of the Indus Valley Civilization, the society in Vedic period was rural,
where smallest political unit was a Vis. However, some later Vedic texts detail about the
Janpadas such as Kuru, Panchala, Matysa, Kunti, Kikata, Jayminia, Kashi, Magadha, Anga,
Kamboja etc. The first question arises is, why and how the Janpadas developed. In Early Vedic
era, there was no taxing, No standing armies and no importance to territorial powers. The rise of
Janpadas is mainly attributed to the establishment of settled agriculture communities. The
development of an agriculture based economy led to increase in crops and cattle wealth coupled
with use of iron in technology. The society was now totally divided into 4 varnas. Based upon
occupation, new labour class and landed classes also emerged. The landed class was known as
Gahapatis. The trade flourished and the towns which were either located on trade routes such as
Mathura or located near the banks of rivers such as Magadha and other Mahajanpadas. This
transition also saw an emergence of taxing, standing army, territorial powers etc.

Nanda Dynasty
Mahapadmananda was the first ruler of the Nanda Dynasty. There are several theories about the
birth of Mahapadmananda. The Purana theory say that Mahapadmananda was son of
Nandivardhana & a Shudra Woman. Another theory says that there was a good-looking barber,
who won the heart of a queen who subsequently killed the king. Mahapadmananda was a son of
this barber. Whatever may be correct but this was the line which started the trend of lowborn (as
of contemporary conditions) rule started in Magadha. Meaning of Mahapadmananda
Mahapadmananda had a large army and that is why he is called Ugrasena. His army might have
been so large that it could be arranged in a Lotus shape : Padmavyuh He might have been so
wealthy that his wealth was in Padama, a unit of counting equivalent to a million multiplied by a
billion. Mahapadmananda subdued all the major powers such as Ikasvakus, Kurus, Panchals,
Kasis, Surasens, Maithilas, kalingas, Asmakas etc. and that is why Puranas mention is name :
Sarvakhstrantaka. (destroyer of all Kshtras) equivalent to Parshurama. The Nandas were the
first Non Kshatriya rulers in the history of India. They were also the first Empire Builders in the
recorded history of India. Estimates say that the army of Nandas was consisting of 200,000
infantry, 20,000 (or 80,000) cavalry, 2,000 (or 8,000) war chariots and 3,000 (or 6,000) war
elephants. Nanda ruled almost all parts of India for 100 years. The last ruler was Dhana Nanda
who was over thrown by Chandra Gupta Maurya thus founding Mauryan Empire in 321 BC.
Invasion of Alexander: Alexander, the great invaded India in 326 BC during the rule of
Dhanananda. Dhanananda is mentioned as Xandrames or Aggrammes or Ganderites in the Greek
historical texts. These texts mention that crossing the Beas was the last outpost of Alexander's
army which was insisted by Alexander to cross Ganga as well. But by hearing that Dhanananda
was waiting for them with 200, 000 army they were frightened and revoltedand thus Alexander's
army turned back. Alexander began his homeward journey in 325 BC and in 324 BC he died in
Persia
Introduction:
The Mauryan Empire was the first major empire in the history of India, ruled by Maurya dynasty
from 321 BC to 185 BCE.

At that time, Magadh was ruled by the Nanda dynasty. Chanakya, also known as Kautilya was a
pious, learned and determined brahman, who didnt have a pleasant appearance but had an
intelligent brain. He managed to terminate the existing King Dhana Nand and his eight sons and
made Chandragupt the King of Magadh . Chandragupta founded the Mauryan Empire by
overthrowing the Nanda dynasty with the help of Chanakya who was an important minister in
the court of the Nanda rulers. Chanakya was ill treated by the Nanda king and he vowed to
destroy their kingdom. He met the young Chandragupta in the Vindhya forest. Chanakya was
well versed in politics and the affairs of the state. He groomed Chandragupta and helped him
raise and organize an army. Thus, with the help of Chanakya, Chandragupta overthrew the last
Nanda ruler and became the king and Chanakya became the chief minister in his court.
Important rulers of this dynasty were Chandragupta Maurya, Bindusara, and King Ashoka. This
empire reached its peak under King Ashoka. However, this mighty empire crumbled rapidly,
under its own weight, soon after the death of Ashoka.
Origin:
Maurya Empire was originated from the kingdom of Magadha in the Indo-Gangetic plains which
is currently a part of modern Bihar, eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bengal (eastern side). It was ruled
through the capital Patliputra (modern Patna).
Chandragupta Maurya was the founder of the dynasty (322 BC) who had overthrown the Nanda
Dynasty and rapidly expanded his power westwards across central and western India by taking
advantage of the disruptions of local powers in the wake of the withdrawal westward by
Alexander the Greats Greek and Persian armies. By 320 BC the empire had fully occupied
Northwestern India, defeating and conquering the satraps left by Alexander.
It was one of the largest empires to rule the Indian subcontinent, stretched to the north along the
natural boundaries of the Himalayas, and to the east stretching into what is now Assam. To the
west, it reached beyond modern Pakistan, annexing Balochistan and much of what is now
Afghanistan, including the modern Herat and Kandahar provinces.
Maurya Dynasty:
4

Chandragupt Maurya was the first king and founder of the Maurya dynasty. His mothers name
was Mur, so he was called Maurya in Sanskrit which means the son of Mur, and thus, his dynasty
was called Maurya dynasty.
Some bramhanical texts, like the Puranas consider him from a lower (Shudra) caste, there are
the Buddhist and Jain texts which speak of him as a member of the Kshatriya (warrior)
Moriya clan related to the Shakyas.
Another story known about Chandragupta was the son of king Mahanandin and Mura, and whose
second wife Sunanda was the mother of the Nandas. Apparently with the help of a barber,
Mahapadmananda the founder of Nanda dynasty,she murdered her husband and Chandraguptas
brothers and installed Mahapadmananda as the king. Mura escaped with her young son, who
grew up and swore revenge.
Also another source calls Chandraguptas father a commander to Mahapadmanandas forces,
whom Mahapadmananda had murdered by deceit.
Some texts have called Chandragupta a grandson of a headman of a village of peacock tanners,
while some (Vishnu purana and the play Mudrarakshasa) refer to him as the illegitimate son
of the woman named Mora and a Nanda prince (incidently the puranas also refer to the Nandas
as offsprings of low birth).
However the most popular version holding fort is that, Chandragupta belonged to a kshatriya
(warrior) clan called Moriya, originally ruling, Pipallivana(Uttar Pradesh), a forest kingdom.
Chanakya
Vishnugupta, Kautilya are other names of Chanakya. He was born around 350 BC and is known
for his being the chief architect of Mauryan empire and writing the pioneering work in the
Economics and Political Science that is Arthashastra. He is known as Indian Machiavelli in the
western world, which is wrong in the sense that Chanakya worked two millenniums earlier than
Machiavelli. Chanka was his father's name and Kotil was his Gotra explaining his two names.
5

Chanakya was identified with Vishnugupta in a verse in his Arthashastra and also in Panchatantra
of Gupta age by Vishnu Sharma. Mudrarakshasha of Vishakhadatta mentions that he was Dravid.
Pali texts say that he was a Brahmin from Taxila. It is said that Chanakya mixed poison to the
food eaten by Chandragupta Maurya, now king, in order to make him immune. Unaware,
Chandragupta feeds some of his food to his queen, who is in her ninth month of pregnancy. In
order to save the heir to the throne, Chnakya cut the queen open and extracts the fetus, who is
named Bindusara because he was touched by a drop (bindu) of blood having poison.
Arthashastra: Kautilya's Arthashastra was one of the great political books of the ancient world.
Literature:
Most of our knowledge about the Mauryan period in general and the rule of Chandragupta in
particular is obtained from two important literary sources: the Arthashastra, written by Chanakya,
and Indica, written by the ancient Greek writer Megasthenes (who was an ambassador of
Seleucus Nikator and had come to the court of Chandragupta).
Chandragupta's minister Kautilya Chanakya wrote the Arthashastra, one of the greatest treatises
on economics, politics, foreign affairs, administration, military arts, war, and religion ever
produced in the India. Archaeologically, the period of Mauryan rule in South Asia falls into the
era of Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW). The Arthashastra and the Edicts of Ashoka are
primary sources of written records of the Mauryan times. The Mauryan Empire is considered one
of the most significant periods in Indian history. The Lion Capital of Asoka at Sarnath, is the
emblem of India.
The Arthashastra talks about the principles of governance and lays down rules of administration.
It also discusses in detail the role of the king, his duties, rate of taxation, use of espionage, and
laws for governing the society. The Indica of Megasthenes, on the other hand, gives a vivid
description of the Mauryan society under the rule of Chandragupta. Megasthenes described the
glory of the Mauryan capital of Pataliputra. He also talked of the lifestyle in the cities and
villages and the prosperity of the Mauryan cities.

Administration:
Chandragupta had united the whole of northern India under one rule. Mauryan Empire was the
first large, powerful, centralized state in India. The Arthashastra laid the foundation of the
centralized administration of Mauryan governance. The empire was divided into administrative
districts or zones, each of which had a hierarchy of officials. The top most officers from these
districts or zones directly reported to the Mauryan ruler. These officials were responsible for
collecting taxes, maintaining the army, completing irrigational projects, and maintaining law and
order.
During Chandragupta reign, the state regulated trade, levied taxes, and standardized weights and
measures. Trade and commerce also flourished during this time. The state was responsible for
providing irrigational facilities, succor, sanitation, and famine relief to its masses. Megasthenes,
in his writings, has praised the efficient Mauryan administration.
Before the Kalinga war, the Mauryan administration under Ashoka was not different from that of
his predecessors. Ashoka, like previous Mauryan kings, was at the head of the centralized
administrative system. He was helped by a council of ministers that was in charge of different
ministries like taxation, army, agriculture, justice, etc. The empire was divided into
administrative zones, each one having its hierarchy of officials. The top most officers at the zonal
level had to keep in touch with the king. These officers took care of all aspects of administration
(social welfare, economy, law and order, military) in the different zones. The official ladder went
down to the village level.
Religion:
Emperor Chandragupta Maurya became the first major Indian monarch to initiate a religious
transformation at the highest level when he embraced Jainism, a religious movement resented by
orthodox Hindu priests that usually attended the imperial court. At an older age, Chandragupta
renounced his throne and material possessions to join a wandering group of Jain monks.
However his successor, Emperor Bindusara preserved Hindu traditions and distanced himself
from Jain and Buddhist movements.

But when Ashoka embraced Buddhism following the Kalinga War, he renounced expansionism
and aggression, and the harsher injunctions of the Arthashastra on the employ of force, intensive
policing and ruthless measures for tax collection and against rebels. Ashoka sent a mission led by
his son and daughter to Sri Lanka, whose king Tissa was so charmed with Buddhist ideals that he
adopted it himself and made it the state religion. Ashoka sent many Buddhist missions to West
Asia, Greece and South East Asia, and commissioned the construction of monasteries, schools
and publication of Buddhist literature across the empire. He is believed to have built as many as
84,000 stupas across India, and increased the popularity of Buddhism inAfghanistan. Ashoka
helped convene the Third Buddhist Council near his capital, that undertook much work of reform
and expansion of the Buddhist religion.
While himself a Buddhist, Ashoka retained the membership of Hindu priests and ministers in his
court, and maintained religious freedom and tolerance, although the Buddhist faith grew in
popularity with his patronage. Indian society began embracing the philosophy of ahimsa, and
given the prosperity and law enforcement, crime and internal conflicts reduced dramatically.
Also greatly discouraged was the caste system and orthodox discrimination, as Hinduism began
inculcating the ideals and values of Jain and Buddhist teachings. Social freedom began
expanding in an age of peace and prosperity.
Economy:
Mauryans implemented a common economic system and enhanced trade and commerce, with
increased agricultural productivity under the able guidance of Chanakya. Hundreds of earlier
kingdoms, many small armies, powerful regional chieftains, and internecine warfare, gave way
to this disciplined central authority. Like in Arthashastra (by Kautilya)said, the king was the
supreme head of the state. His duty was mainly ensuring the welfare and happiness of his
subjects. He was to work almost 18-19 hours a day and was to be at the service of his people,
courtiers, and officers any time of the hour. The country prospered during Mauryan rule.
The Council of ministers consisted of 3-12 members, each being the head of a department. Then
there was the State council which could have 12,16 or 20 members. Besides, there was the
bureaucracy consisting of the Sannidhata (treasury head), Samaharta (chief revenue collector),
8

Purohita (head priest),Senapati(commander of the army), Pratihara (chief of the palace

guards),Antarvamisika (head of the harem guards),Durgapala(governor of the fort),
Antahala (governor of the frontier),Paur(governor of the capital),Nyayadhisha (chief
justice),Prasasta (police chief). Then there were the Tirthas, Amatyas i.e officers in charge of
accounts (controlled by the chief ministerMahaamatya) of the: treasury, records, mines, mints,
commerce, excise agriculture, toll, public utility, armory etc.
The governors or viceroys of provinces were called Mahamatras and if the designation was
held by a prince then he was called Kumara mahamatra. Assisting them were the Yutas (tax
collectors), Rajukas(revenue collectors),Sthanikas andGopas(district officers). Then there
was the local village head called Gramika under whom the village assembly operated.
The civil courts were called Dharmasthiya and criminal courts were called Kantakshodhana.
An international network of trade expanded during Ashoka's reign under the Indo-Greek
friendship treaty. Like the Khyber pass, on the boundary of Pakistan and Afghanistan became
important port of trade and intercourse with the outside world. Greek states and Hellenic
kingdoms in West Asia became important trade partners of India. Trade also extended through
the Malay peninsula into Southeast Asia. India's exports included silk goods and textiles, spices
and exotic foods. The Empire was enriched further with an exchange of scientific knowledge and
technology with Europe and West Asia. Ashoka also sponsored the construction of thousands of
roads, waterways, canals, hospitals, rest-houses and other public works. The easing of many
overly-rigorous administrative practices, including those regarding taxation and crop collection,
helped increase productivity and economic activity across the Empire. In many ways, the
economic situation in the Maurya Empire is comparable to the Roman Empire several centuries
later, which both had extensive trade connections and both had organizations similar to
corporations.
Architectures:
Fourteen Rock Edicts found at eight different places which are. Shahbazgarhi (seventh edict
engraved on a bowl ,Peshawar, Pakistan presently displayed in the Prince of Wales museum,
Mumbai),Manshera (Hazara),Kalsi (Dehradun, Uttarakhand),Girnar (Junagadh,
Gujrat),Sopara(Thana, Maharashtra), Dhauli and Jaugada(Orissa) and erragudi(Kurnool, Andhra
9

Pradesh). Minor Rock Edicts found at thirteen different places which are. Roopnath(Jabalpur,
Madhya Pradesh), Bairat(Jaipur, Rajasthan), Sasaram(Shahbad district, Bihar), Maski (Raichur,
Karnataka), Gavimath and Palkigundu(Mysore, Karnataka), Gujarra(Datia district , Madhya
Pradesh), Ahraura (Mirzapur, Uttar Pradesh), Rajulamandagiri (Kurnool, Andhra Pradesh),
Yerragudi and three neighbouring places in Chitaldurga district, Mysore. Seven Pillar Edicts
found on a single pillar (Topra, presently displayed in Delhi).Rest were found in northern Bihar.
The remaining inscriptions were engraved on rocks, pillars and cave walls.
The most important of these being the engravings on a pillar found at Rumindei (Nepal) which
mentions Ashokas visit to the birthplace of Gautam Buddha at Lumbini. Two short inscriptions
written in Aramaic have also been found at Taxilla and Jalalabad(Afghanistan). A bilingual
inscription written in Greek and Aramaic has been found on a rock at Shar-i-Kuna(Kandahar,
Afghanistan). Four edicts (one in Kharoshti script derived from Aramaic, used in Iran and others
in perhaps, Prakrit, rest found in the country being in Brahmi) have been found in Shalatak and
Qargha (Afghanistan).
The thirteenth rock edict gives a vivid account of Ashokas conquest of Kalinga (260 BC), after a
prolonged war, in which 1,50,000 persons were captured, 1,00,000 killed and many times that
number perished. Ashoka was said to have been filled with great remorse and guilt after
witnessing the misery and bloodshed his war cost.
Decline:
The reign of Ashoka was followed for 50 years by a succession of weaker kings. Brhadrata, the
last ruler of the Mauryan dynasty, ruled territories that had shrunk considerably from the time of
emperor Ashoka, but he was still upholding the Buddhist faith. He was assassinated in 185 BCE
during a military parade by the commander-in-chief of his guard, the Brahmin general
Pusyamitra Sunga, who then took over the empire.
Maurya Kings:
Chandragupt Maurya (322-298 BC)
Chandragupt Maurya ruled for 34 years. It is generally thought that Chandragupta married
10

Seleucus's daughter, or a Greek Macedonian princess, a gift from Seleucus to formalize an

alliance. In a return gesture, Chandragupta sent 500 war-elephants, a military asset which would
play a decisive role at the Battle of Ipsus in 302 BC. In addition to this treaty, Seleucus
dispatched an ambassador, Megasthenes, to Chandragupta, and later Deimakos to his son
Bindusara, at the Mauryan court at Pataliputra (modern Patna in Bihar state). Later Ptolemy II
Philadelphus, the ruler of Ptolemaic Egypt and contemporary of Ashoka the Great, is also
recorded by Pliny the Elder as having sent an ambassador named Dionysius to the Mauryan
court.
Mainstream scholarship asserts that Chandragupta received vast territory west of the Indus,
including the Hindu Kush, modern day Afghanistan, and the Balochistan province of Pakistan.
Archaeologically, concrete indications of Mauryan rule, such as the inscriptions of the Edicts of
Ashoka, are known as far as Kandhahar in southern Afghanistan. The invasion of the
northwestern part of India by Alexander in 326 BC and the subsequent establishment of the rule
of Seleucus Nikator (one of Alexander's general) was a thorn in the eyes of Chandragupta. He
first stabilized his power in Magadh and then began his campaign against Seleucus.
After a prolonged struggle, Chandragupta was able to defeat Seleucus in 305 BC and extended
his territories extended from present day Afghanistan-Pakistan to the southern Indian state of
Karnataka and right upto the east till Bengal and Assam. According to the peace treaty with
Seleucus, Chandragupta also got Kabul, Gandhara, and parts of Persia and married his daughter.
In this way, Chandragupta became the undisputed ruler of Northern India. His fame was so
widespread that rulers from far off kingdoms send their envoys to his court. Chandragupta also
conquered parts of Central India and united the whole of northern India under Mauryan rule.
After ruling for about 25 years, he became a Jain ascetic and left his throne to his son Bindusara
(296 BC-273 BC).
Chandragupta then, retired to the forests of Shravana Belgola (near Mysore city, Karnataka state)
along with his religious guru Bhadrabahu and several followers, where he renounced his life
after a fast unto death as per Jain traditions.

11

Bindusar (296 BC-273 BC)

Son of Chandragupta Maurya ruled 28 years. He inherited a vast empire that spanned parts of
modern-day Afghanistan in the northwest, to parts of Bengal in the east. It also spread through
large parts of central India.
Bindusara extended the Mauryan Empire southwards in the Indian peninsula as far as Mysore.
He defeated and annexed 16 small kingdoms, thus extending his empire from sea to sea. The
only regions that were left out on the Indian subcontinent were that of Kalinga (Orissa) and the
kingdoms to the extreme south of the Indian peninsula. As these southern kingdoms were
friendly, Bindusara did not annex them, but the Kingdom of Kalinga was a problem for the
Mauryan Empire.
The administration under Bindusara functioned smoothly. During his reign, Mauryan Empire had
good relation with Greeks, Syrians, and Egyptians.

Ashokvardhan / Ashoka (273 BC-232 BC)

Bindusara was succeeded by his son Ashoka, the most famous of the Mauryan Kings. He ruled
for 36 years. The Mauryan Empire reached its peak under the rule of Ashoka. He undertook
military campaign against Kalinga and, after defeating it in a bloody war, extended it.
However, the sight of the large-scale carnage moved Ashoka, and he embraced Buddhism. The
main reasons for invading Kalinga were both political and economic. Since the time of Ashoka's
father, King Bindusara, the Mauryan Empire based inMagadha was following a policy of
territorial expansion. That was considered a great setback for the traditional policy of territorial
expansion of the Magadhan emperors and was considered to be a loss of political prestige for the
Mauryas merely imperative to reduce Kalinga to complete subjection. To this task Ashoka must
have set himself as soon as he felt he was securely established on the throne.The war began in
the 8th year of Ashoka's reign, probably in 261 BC. Ashoka's grandfather Chandragupta had
previously attempted to conquer Kalinga, but had been repulsed. After a bloody battle for the
throne after Bindusara's death, Ashoka tried to annex Kalinga. Ashoka was successful only after
a savage war, whose consequences changed Ashoka's views on war and led him to pledge never
12

to wage a war of conquest. It is said that in the aftermath of the Battle of Kalinga the Daya
River running next to the battle field turned red with the blood of the slain; more than 150,000
Kalinga warriors and about 100,000 of Ashoka's own warriors were among those slain.The war
of Kalinga was the turning point in the life of Ashoka to the extent that he shunned all forms of
violence and became a strict vegetarian.
Ashoka believed in high ideals, which, according to him, could lead people to be virtuous, and
peace loving. This he called Dhamma (which is a Prakrit form of the Sanskrit word Dharma). His
rock edicts and pillar inscriptions propagated the true essence of Dhamma. Ashoka asked the
different religious groups (Brahmins, Buddhist and Jain) to live in peace. His lofty ideals also
included shunning violence and war, stopping animal sacrifice, respect for elders, respect of
slaves by their masters, vegetarianism, etc. Above all, Ashoka wanted peace in his empire.
Ashoka sent edicts to different parts of the empire, where they engraved on rocks or pillars, for
the common people to see and read them which were in different scripts. The language was
generally Prakrit, as it was spoken by the common people, where as Sanskrit was spoken by
educated upper caste people. Also they used Greek and Aramaic language for the inscription.
Ashoka sent his son Mahendra to Sri Lanka to preach Buddhism there. He propagated Buddhism
to Chola and Pandya kingdoms, which were at the extreme southern part of the Indian peninsula
then Buddhist missions to Burma and other Southeast Asian countries too.
The war with Kalinga transformed Ashoka both on a personal as well as public level. He made a
number of changes in the administration. Ashoka introduced a new cadre of officials, by the
name of Dhamma Mahamatta, who was sent across the empire to spread the message of Ashoka's
Dhamma (dharma).
For the rest of his life, Ashoka preached the principles of Buddhism not only in his vast empire,
but also sent missions abroad. Ashoka built a number of rock edicts and pillars to spread the
gospel of Buddhism.
The great Mauryan Empire did not last long after the death of Ashoka and ended in 185 BC.
Weak kings on one hand and the unmanageability of a vast empire on the other caused the rapid
13

decline of the Mauryas. A number of small kingdoms emerged from the edifice of the Mauryan
Empire.
Modern Indias national emblem is a gift from Ashokas heritage.
Ashoka visited the various places considered holy by the Buddhists. He is said to have begun the
propogation of the Buddhist doctrines through his specially appointed officers called
Dharmamahamatras. Ashokas dhamma (in Prakrit) or dharma (in Sanskrit) is still considered
reflecting his character and philosophy.

Dasaratha Maurya (232 - 224 BCE)

Dasaratha Maurya was the Emperor of the Mauryan dynasty from 232 BCE to 224 BCE.
According to the Matsya Purana, he succeeded his grandfather Ashoka the Great. He succeeded
Ashoka after his uncle Kunala became blind, which made him unfit to rule.
Daaratha was only about twenty years old, when he ascended to the throne with the help of
ministers. According to the Puranas, he reigned for eight years.
Daaratha dedicated three caves in the Nagarjuni Hills to the Ajivikas. Three inscriptions ordered
by Devanampiya Daaratha state that the caves were dedicated immediately on his succession.
Dasaratha's son did not succeed him, instead Kunala's son Samprati did.

Samprati (224 - 215 BCE)

He was the son of Ashoka's blind son, Kunala. He succeeded his cousin, Dasharatha as emperor
of the Mauryan Empire and ruled almost the entire present-day Indian subcontinent. Kunala was
the son of Ashoka's first queen, Padmavati (who was Jain), but was blinded in a conspiracy to
remove his claim to the throne. Thus Kunal was replaced by Dasharatha as the heir to the throne.
Ashoka had many wives: his premier wife was Jain and the others were Buddhist. Kunala lived
in Ujjain with his "Dhai Maa". Samprati was brought up there. Years after being denied the
throne, Kunala and Samprati approached Ashok's court in an attempt to claim the throne. Ashoka
could not deliver the throne to his blind son, but was impressed by Samprati's skills as a warrior
14

and administrator and declared Samprati the successor to Dasharatha. After Dasharatha's death,
Samprati inherited the throne of the Mauryan empire.
According to the Puranas, Samprati reigned for nine years The Jaina text, Pariis t aparvan
mentions that he ruled both from Pataliputra and Ujjain, but unfortunately, we have no
inscriptional or other evidences to support these accounts. According to the Jaina tradition he
ruled for 53 years. Samprati was influenced by the teachings of a Jain monk, Suhastin. He also
sent Jain scholars abroad to spread Jainist teachings. But research is needed to learn where those
scholars went and their influence. Until now, this has not been accomplished. According to the
Puranas, he was succeeded by liuka, who according to the Yuga Purana was a cruel, wicked
and unrighteous ruler.
Emperor Samprati is poorly highlighted in history. He is regarded as the "Jain Ashoka" for his
patronage and efforts to spreading Jainism in east India. Samprati, according to Jain historians, is
considered more powerful and famous than Ashoka himself. The historical authenticity of
Samprati is proved because Samprati Vihr, after the name of Samprati, existed at Vadamnu in
the Krishna Valley during the second century CE. Under the influence of Suhastin (the disciple
of Acharya Sthulibhadra, the leading saint of the Jain community under Mahagiri, Samprati was
again converted to Jainism, the Mauryas' ancestral religion. He spread Jainism by every means,
working hard for Jainism as scriptures. He had decided to rinse his mouth in the morning, only
after hearing that another new temple had been built. Besides, he got all the old and existing
temples repaired and set up in all of them holy statues made of gold, stone, silver, brass and of a
mixture of fine metals and performed their Anjankala ceremony: i.e., declared them fit for
worship. It is said that Samprati built thousands of Jain Temples in India, many of which are still
in use, such as the Jain temples at Viramgam and Palitana (Gujarat), Agar Malwa (Ujjain).
Within three and a half years, he got one hundred and twenty-five thousand new temples built,
thirty-six thousand repaired, twelve and a half million murtis, holy statues, consecrated and
ninety-five thousand metal murtis prepared. Samprati is said to have erected Jain temples
throughout his empire. He founded Jain monasteries even in non-Aryan territory, and almost all
ancient Jain temples or monuments of unknown origin are popularly attributed to him. It may be
noted that all the Jain monuments of Rajasthan and Gujarat, with unknown builders are also
15

attributed to Emperor Samprati.

According to Jaina tradition, King Samprati had no children. He considered it the consequence of
earlier Karma and observed the religious customs more scrupulously

Salisuka ( 215 - 202 BCE)

Salisuka Maurya was a ruler of the Indian Mauryan dynasty. He was the successor of Samprati
Maurya. The Yuga Purana section of the Gargi Samhita mentions him as wicked, quarrelsome,
unrighteous ruler, who cruelly oppressed his subjects. According to the Puranas he was
succeeded by Devavarman.

Devavarman (202 - 195 BCE)

Devavarman Maurya was a king of the Mauryan empire. He was the successor of Salisuka
Maurya.

Satadhanvan (195 - 187 BCE)

king of the Mauryan empire, ruled from 195-187 BCE. He was the successor of Devavarman
Maurya.
Brihadratha (187 - 185 BCE)
He was the last ruler of the Mauryan dynasty. He was killed by his senapati (commander-inchief), Pusyamitra Sunga.
According to the Puranas, Brihadratha succeeded atadhanvan and he ruled for seven years.
Mauryan territories, centered on the capital of Pataliputra, had shrunk considerably from the time
of the great Emperor Ashoka when Brihadratha came to the throne. In 180 BCE, northwestern
India (parts of modern day Afghanistan and Pakistan) were attacked by the Greco-Bactrian king
Demetrius. He established his rule in the Kabul Valley and parts of the Punjab in modern-day
16

Pakistan. The Yuga Purana section of the Gargi Samhita says that the Yavana (Greco-Bactrian)
army led by King Dhamamita (Demetrius) invaded the Mauryan territories during Brihadratha's
reign and after occupying Panchala region and the cities of Saketa and Mathura, they finally
captured Pataliputra. But soon they had to leave to Bactria to fight a fierce battle (probably
between Eucratides and Demetrius).
He was killed in 180 BCE and power usurped by his commander-in-chief, the Brahmin general
Pusyamitra Sunga, who then took over the throne and established the Sunga dynasty. Banabhatta
in his Harshacharita says, Pushyamitra, while parading the entire Mauryan army before
Brihadratha on the pretext of showing him the strength of the army, crushed his master,
Brihadratha Maurya, because he was too weak to keep his promise (probably to repulse the
Yavanas)
The Decline of Mauryan Empire
1. The Partition of the Mauryan Empire:
An immediate cause for the decline was the partition of the Mauryan Empire into two halves, as
discussed earlier. "Had the partition not taken place, the Greek invasions of the north-west could
have been held back for a while. The partition of the empire disrupted the various services as
well."
2. Weak later-Mauryan Rulers:
The succession of weak Mauryan rulers after Asoka completely disrupted the Mauryan
administration. The weakness of these rulers can be imagined from the fact that as many as six
rulers could rule only 52 years over the eastern part of the empire and finally the last Mauryan
King was assassinated by his own commander-in-Chief Pusyamitra Sunga. These weak laterMauryan rulers could also not continue the traditional policies of the Mauryas.
3. Asoka's Responsibility for the Decline:
Many scholars have accused Asoka as being directly responsible for the decline of the Mauryan
Empire. H.C. Raychaudhuri maintains that Asoka's pacifist policies were responsible for
17

undermining the strength of the empire. He says: "From the time of Bimbisara to Kalinga war the
history of India was the story of the expansion of Magadha from a tiny state in South Bihar to a
gigantic empire extending from the foot of the Hindukush to the borders of the Tamil country.
After the Kalinga war ensued a period of stagnation at the end of which the process is reversed.
The empire gradually dwindled down in extent till it sank to the position from which Bimbisara
and his successors had raised it."
However, Raychaudhuri's view does not seem to be tenable, because Asoka did not turn
complete pacifist after the Kalinga war in view of the fact that he neither demobilize the
Mauryan army nor abolished capital punishment. Asoka only gave up the imperialist policy and
preached non-violence after the Kalinga war. Such practical pacifism could not have been
responsible for the decline of the Mauryan Empire.
Harprasad Sastri holds the view that the decline of the Mauryan empire was a result of the
Brahmanical revolt on account of ban on animal sacrifics and undermining the prestige of the
Brahmanas by "exposing them as false gods".
But Sastri's views are merely hypothetical because first, Brahmanism itself stresses non-violence
and secondly, Asoka only banned the unnecessary slaughter of certain animals and on certain
auspicious days. Then again Asoka's frequent requests in his Edicts for due respect to Brahmanas
and Sramanas hardly points to his being anti-Brah- manical in outlook.
4. Pressure on Mauryan Economy:
D.D. Kosambi has expressed the opinion that there was considerable pressure on Mauryan
economy under the later Mauryas. This view is based on the increase of taxes and debasement of
later- Mauryan punch- marked coins. But contrary to the above, the foreign accounts and the
material remains of the period give a picture of an expanding economy.
5. Highly Centralized Administration:
Prof. Romila Thapar is of the view: "The machinery of the Mauryan administrative system was
so centralized that an able ruler could use it both to his own advantage and that of his people, to
18

the same degree it could become harmful to both under a weak ruler who would lose its central
control and allow forces of decay to disintegrate and wreck it."
The weakening of the central control under the later Mauryas led automatically to a weakening
of the administration. The division of the Mauryan Empire after the death of Asoka must have
given further blow to the centralized Mauryan administration under the weak later-Mauryan
rulers, leading to the decline and disintegration of the Mauryan Empire.
Other factors of importance contributing to the decline of the Mauryan empire have been
described as Brahmanical revolt against the pro- Buddhist policies of Asoka and his successors,
oppressive provincial governments and people's revolt against Mauryan oppression, lack of
representative institutions and national unity in causes-Asoka's weak successors and division of
the Mauryan empire after Asoka's death-the other causes described above have weaknesses in
their arguments and, therefore, cannot be called as positively responsible for the decline of the
Mauryan empire.
Sunga Dynasty
The Sunga rule, extending a little over a century, is in interlude in the history of India. There is
nothing extraordinary about the political events associated with the Sungas. The significance
of their history, on the other hand, primarily consists in the place they occupy in the social and
cultural history of India.
The founder of the dynasty, Pushyamitra Sunga, overthrew the Mauryas; either in 187 B.C. or
184 B.C. After him there were nine other rulers. Among them, Agnimitra, Vasumitra, Bhagvata
and Devabhumi were the prominent ones. The names of the first two were associated with
some events in political history, whereas the latter two were known for their long rule, they
being 32 and 10 years respectively.
There is some controversy about the identity of Pushyamitra Sunga. It was stated in a Sutra
that he belonged to a family of teachers. Patanjali claims that he was a brahminor the
Bhardwaja gotra. Ivyavadana stated that the Sungas were related to the Mauryas. A
Malavikagnimitram refers to them as brahmins belonging to Kashyap gotra.
19

After the overthrow of Brihadrata, Pushyamitra Sunga waged a few wars to consolidate his
position. Evidence shows that Pushyamitra Sunga defeated the Yavanas. This is confirmed by
Patanjali's Mahabashva. And the claim made in the Hathigumpha inscription that Kharavela of
Kalinga defeated Pushyamitra Sunga cannot be sustained because Kharavela ruled in the
second half of the first century B.C. Later, Vasumitra, the grandson of Pushyamitra Sunga,
defeated the Yavanas. This is confirmed by the Malavikaganimtiram and gargi Samhita. Both
Agnimmitra and Veerasena fought against Vidarbha rule of the Sungas ended C. 75 B.C.
Some scholars regard that the establishment of Sunga dynasty ws symbolic of the brahminical
reaction to the Mauryan bias towards Buddhism. Pushyamitra Sunga performed the vedic
sacrifices of asvamedha, and the others like aginstoma, Rajasuya and vajpeiya. But some facts
of his region clearly show that he did not persecute Buddhists. The claim of Divyavandana,
that Pushyamitra Sunga destroyed 84,000 Buddhist stupas and slaughtered srameans, has no
corroborative evidence. Interestingly, the sculptured stone gateway and the massive stone
railing aroused Sanchi stupa were executed during the time of Pushyamitra Sunga. Also the
Bharhut stupa and the sculpture relating to Jataka stories around it came into existence during
the same period. One of the donors of Bharhut stupa was Champadevi wife of the Idisha King,
who was a worshipper of Vishnu. This fact bears testimony to the high degree of tolerance
prevailing during the period. (And some minor works of Sunga art are to be found at Mathura,
Kausambi and Sarnath).
It at all there was anyting like persecution of Buddhists during the days of Pushyamitra Sunga,
it could be in the context of Menander's invasion. May be, the Buddhists of India welcomed
the invasion of Menander' and this might have resulted in Pushyamitra Sunga wrath falling on
the Buddhists. Or, may be withdrawal of royal patronage with the coming of the Sungas
apparently enraged the Buddhists and thus the Buddhists writers present an exaggerated
account of their troubles.
The importance of the Sungas, therefore, was primarily in the context of cultural and social
development. In the social field, the emergence of Hinduism had a wide impact. The Sungas
attempted to revive the caste system with the social supremacy of the brahmins. This is more
than evident in the work of Manu (Manusmriti) wherein he reassures the position of the
20

brahmins in the fourfold society. Even then, the most significant development of the Sunga era
was marked by various adjustment and adaptations leading to the emergence of mixed castes
and the assimilation of the foreigners in India society. Thus we notice that Brahminism
gradually transformed itself in a direction towards Hinduism.
In the field of literature Sanskrit gradually gained ascendancy and became the language of the
court. Patanjali was patronized by Pushyamitra Sunga and he was the second great
grammarian of Sanskrit. Patanjali refers to a Sanskrit poet, Varauchi, who wrote in the Kavya
style and which was later perfected by Kalidasa. Some Buddhist works of this age were
written in Sanskrit.
In the field of art, there was immediate reaction against the Buddhist era of the Mauryas.
Nevertheless, there were certain differences. The Sunga art reflects more of the mind, culture,
tradition and ideology than what the Mauryan art did. During the Sunga period, stone replaced
wood in the railings and the gateways of the Buddhist stupas as noticed at Bharhut and Sanchi.
Bharhut stupa is replete with sculptures - apart from floral designs, animal, figures, Yakshas
and human figures. Even the stone railing around the Sanchi Stupa is in rich belief work. This
age definitely witnessed the increasing use of symbols and human figures in architecture.
Besides, the Sungas art is a manifestation of popular artistic genious - the artistic activity was
because of the initiative of individuals, corporation or villages. A part of the gateway of Sanchi
was constructed by the artisans of Vidisha. Even temple building began in this period. A
Vishnu temple was build near Vidisha. There was an increase in the construction of rock-cut
temple as noticed in the Chaitya Hall. In the temples and household worship we find the idols
of Shiva and Vishnu.
All told the importance of the sunga dynasty lies in the restoration of Real politik while
abandoning the asokan approach. In the cultural field the beginnings as well as
accomplishments in sculpture and architecture are of tremendous significance. In the field of
religion too they not only revived the earlier tradition but also gave an impetus to new
approaches combative towards the heterodox sects the cult of katakana the god of war the
resurgence of Bhagvata cult and the supremacy of Vasudeva in the Hindu pantheon.

21

KUSHANS
In the post-Mauryan era, central Asia and north-western India witnessed hectic and shifting
political scenes. The Great Yuehi-chi driven out of fertile lend in Western china migrated towards
the Aral Sea. There they encountered the Sakas near Syr Darya river and evicted them. The Great
Yuehi-Chi tribes settled in the valley of Oxus and with the occupation of the Bactrian lands the
great hordes were divided into five principalities. A century later the Kushan section or sect of
Yuehi-Chi attained predominance over the otheres. Their leader was Kadphises. Thus began the
history of Kushans.
The unique geographical position of the Kushans empire made it a colossus astride on the
spine of Asia uniting the Greco-Roman civilization in the west the Chinese civilization in the
east and Indian civilisation in the south-east.
The leader of the Kushans was kadphises and his rule probably began in 40 A.D. He attacked
the regions south of Hindu Kush, conquered Kabul and annexed Gandhara including the
kingdom of Taxila. Kadphises died in 77 A.D. or 78 A.D. By then the Kushans had supplanted
the princes belonging to the Indo-Greek saka and Indo-Parthian communities along the
frontiers of India. The successor of kadphises was Vima-Kadphses. He conquered large parts
of norther India. His coins show that his authority extended as far as Banaras and as well as
the Indus basin. In all likelihood his power extended as far as Narbada and the Saka satraps in
Malwa and Western India acknowledged his sovereignty.
By that time the Chinese reasserted their authority in the north and this led to a collusion with
the Kushans. The Chinese general pan-chao conquered Chinese Turkistan and established the
Chinese authority in parthia that is on the territory south of the Caspian sea.
These advances frightened the Kushans. In 87 AD Kadphises II, claimed the hand of a Chiese
princes, an acknowledgement of his equality with the son of Heaven. The proposal was
rejected and Kadphises, dispatched a large army, But the army was decimated because of the
difficult terrain. And it was easily defeated by the Chinese. The Kushan ruler was compelled to
pay tribute the China and the Chinese records so that the Kushans continued to send missions
to Cnina till the close of the century. Rossibly the reign of Kadphises II ended C. 110 A.D.
22

The next ruler, Kanishka probably belonged to the little Yuehi-chi section of the horde. His
capital was Purushapura and here he erected a large number of Buddhist buildings. In his early
years he annexed Kashmir and consolidated his rule in the Indus and the Gangetic basin. His
army crossed the Pamirs and inflicted a defeat on the Chinese. The chief of Khotan, Yarkand
and the Ksshgar were made to pay tribute. Tradition states that while Kanishka was on his
return from the Chinese Turkistan, he was sothered to death by his officers who had got weary
of his campaigns. Most of his time was spent on waging wars.
A large number of inscriptions were incised during the times of Kanishka and his successor.
According to evidence, Kanishka became an active partron of the Buddhist Church during the
later part of his reign. Althouth the Buddhist records gloat over this fact and regard him as the
second Asoka, his coins prove that he honoured a medley of gods - zoroastrain, Greek,
Mitraic, and Indian. The prominent Indian duty on the coins was Shiva. The peculiar assembly
of deities by the Kushans offers a great deal of speculation. May be Kansihka follwed a loose
from of Zorostrianism and freely venerated the deities of other greeds.
Also, Kanishka covened a council of Buddhist theologians to settle disputes relating to
Buddhist faith and practices. The conclusions of this council were engraved on copper sheets
and preserved in the stupa of the capital. The delgates to the council primarily belonged to the
Hinayana sect.
The Buddhism of this period was definitely a lax one. The Mahayana sect was popular. But
early Buddhism was an India product and was based on the Indian ideas of rebirth,
transmigration of souls and the blessedness of escape from the pains of being. This Buddhism
was supported by a practical system of ethics inculcating a stoic devotion to duty for its own
sake. Such a teaching needed fundamental changes to attract the sturdy mountaineer, the
nomad horseman and the Helloe rized Alexandrian. The veneration for a dead teacher passed
into a worship of living seviour.
Soon the Kushan power declined. Within the Kingdom, harm was done to the Kushan Empire
by the Nagas and Yaudheyas. A Naga ruler probably performed ten ashvamedha sacrifices.

23

Apart from these two communities, a few other tribes also, like the Malavas and the Kunindas,
probably regained their importance at the expense of the Kushan empire.
Apart from the weaknesses to the successors of Kanishka, developments in the Persia
influenced the history of North western India. The Parthians were overthrown byArdashir in
226 A.D. who established theSassanian dynasty. His successors annxed Peshawar and Taxila
during the middle of the 3rd century. And Kushan kings in the north-west became the vassals
of the Sasssanians. The successors of Kanishka, as established today, are the following :
Vashiska (102-106), Hyvishka (106-138), and Vasudeva (c. 152-176). The history after this
period is extremely vague. Over the ruins of the empire, in Central Asia and the west, rose the
Sassanian empire of Persia and in India. The Gupta empire.
Speaking in general about the achievement of the Kushans, the first is the economic
prosperity. As the Kushan empire was situated in a crucial geographical region. There was
brisk trade. Moreover, the very area covered by the Kushan empire helped the flow of trade
between the east and the west. Some trade routes which came into existence in this period
continued to serve the future also. Gold coins of great complexity were issued by the Kushans.
These coins speak of the prosperity of the people. The coins of Kanishka usually show the
figure of Kanishka standing and sacrificing at altar, and on the obverse, deities belonging to
various religions. The coins of the Kushans also show that the Kushans were in contact with
the Romans - the weight of the Kushan coins has certain similarities with the Roman coins.
According to the author of the Periplus god and silver species were imported at Barygaza
(Broach).
As regards art and literature, we have to state that their greatest contribution was the Gandhara
art. It was in this period that the stone images of the Buddha and the Bodhisattavas were
craved out. The chief of quality of this art is the blending of Buddhist subjects with Greek
forms. Images of the Buddha appear in the likeness of Apollo, and theYakshakubera is posed
in the fasino of Zeus. The imprint of this school of art is still to be found in Mathura and
Amarvati. Indeed, the carving of images and the building of temples was not neglected in
earlier days, but under the Kushans they attained a refinement. The Chaitya built at Peshawar
24

was as high as four storeys. Fa-Hien, passing through Gandhara, during the fifth century,
praised the images of the Buddha, Bodhisattavas and numerous other deities. The early rulers
fostered the Hellenistic art of Gandhara and also the Bhikshu Bela, and from this place artistic
products were sent to Sarasvati and Sarnath. Kanishka was a great builder - tower at Peshawar,
a new city in Taxila, a town in Kashmir and fine buildings and sculptures at Mathura. It was at
the last place a portrait stature of Kanishka has been found but its head is not there. Further,
the die-engravers employed by the Kushans were far from negligible. A special note is to be
taken of coinage. The Kushan coins became the prototypes for many varieities of coins of
Yadheyas, the imperial Guptas, some kings of Nepa and several Kings of Chedi. Eminent
Buddhist writers - Nagajuna, Asvaghosha and Vasumitra were the names associated with
Kanishka. The first was a poet, musician, scholar and a zealous Buddhist monk. Charaka was
the court physician of Kanishka.
The next thing to be noted about the Kushana is their religion. In all likelihood, missionaries
propagated Buddhism in central Asia and China in this period. Possibly, it was during the time
of Kanishka that Mahayana Buddhism was sanctified. The fourth Buddhist council that was
summoned by Kanishka canonized the doctrines of Hinayana and Mahayana. The
deliberations of the conference were engraved on sheets of copper and were sealed and
deposited in a stupa, but they have not been found so far. But to regard Kanishka as the
founder patron of the Mahayana sect, which came into existence under the Kushans, is a
disputable point. Even though many scholars regard Kanishka as the second Asoka some
writers do not agree with this view. In addition to these things, we must mention that the
Kushana kings patronized all kinds of religions, including Hinduism. Kanishka was definitely
and eclectic monarch as he honored a medley of gods belonging to the Greek, Zoroastrian and
Hindu faiths. Not only Buddhism flourished under the Kushanas but there were definitely
stirrings of Hinduism. Many brahminical sects started merging. Along with religion, Sanskrit
language received an impetus. In a way the Kushan age constituted the prelude to the Gupta
age.
In this ammner, the services rendered by the Kushanas are commendable. A mere evaluation of
the personality of Kanishka alone would not help us to estimate the importance of the
Kushanas as the empire lasted for three centuries. To a certain extent, the prosperious time of
25

peace during the Gupta period was directly due to the Kushans undertaking the unconscious
role of the shield and buckler of Indian civiliszation and culture. The Kushan state was a
buffer between the Aryan civilization and the nomadic hordes in central Asia who from time to
time, had overrun the civilized worlds with the sweep of avalanches. It was also responsible
for the exchange of ideas and goods between different civilization because of the peculiar
geographical position occupied by the Kushanas a clearing house for the ideas and goods of
different civilization.
Satavahana Dynasty
Satavahana followed the Mauryas in Deccan of India. Satavahana dynasty ruled from Pune in
Maharastra to Coastal Andhra Pradesh in the second century BC onwards. This dynasty was built
up on the ruins of the Maurya Empire and around 1st century AD, they were the most prominent
in the Modern Andhra Pradesh Region. They have been mentioned as Stavhanas, Stakarns,
Andhras and Andhrabhrityas in the Puranas and Coins. Most of the information about the
Satavahana kings is interwoven with myths and the information has been collected by a large
number of coins minted in Lead, Silver and an alloy of copper. The origin of Satavahanas is a
mystery but they are considered to be Brahmins and most kings use the names of their mothers
with their names. The coins issued by Satavahanas had Bilingual legends. The name of the Kings
was mentioned in Prakrit as well as some south Indian Language. Satavahana Kings promoted
Buddhism. Nagarjunkonda and Amaravati l became important Buddhist centers during the
Satavahana Era.
Simuka Simuka was the founder of the Satavahana Dynasty and he is believed to have destroyed
the Shunga Power. He did so with the aid of the Rathikas and Bhojakas. He reigned for around
23 years and was beheaded by his brother Kanha, who succeeded him. Kanha: Kanha was the
second ruler of the Satavahana Dynasty. He extended the empire to further south. He was
succeeded by Simuka's son Satkarni-I. Satkarni-I Satkarni-I or Sri Satkarni was son of Simuka
and was a great ruler among the Early Satavahanas. Naganika was the name of his queen and he
has been described as the Lord of Dakshinpatha. Kanha extended the empire to further south,
Malwa and Narmada valley. He performed Ashvamedha Yajna and Rajsuya Yajna. Satkarni II
Satkarni II was the longest ruling king of the Satavahana Dynasty and date of his accession is
considered to be 166 BC. He has been mentioned in the Hathigumpha inscription of the kharvela,
26

in which he is depicted as enemy of Kharvela. In this inscription, it is mentioned that Kharvela

disregarded Satkarni and dispatched to the western regions an army of strong cavalry. Satkarni II
was succeeded by Lamobodara followed by Apilaka and some other rulers like Hala. Hala: Hala
was one more great king of the Satavahanas who was 17th King of the Satavahana line. He had
compiled the "Gatha saptasati" or Gaha Sattasai which mainly a text on love theme. Gatha
saptasati is in Prakrat. He is also mentioned in another text Lilavati. These rulers were small
rulers only and are considered to be under the suzerainty of Kanvas. The expansion of the
Satavahanas was checked just after Satkarni II. The Shakas pushed them southwards and the
western Deccan was occupied by the Shaka King Nahapana. Gautamiputra Satkarni (Reign 78102 AD) The lost power of Satavahana was revived by Gautamiputra Satkarni who is described
as the Destroyer of the Shaka, Pahalava and Yavana Power. Gautamiputra Satkarni is known to
have made a total and sharp recovery of the Satvahans. His achievements have been mentioned
in the Nasik Inscription, by his mother Gautami. His empire extended from Eastern Malwa,
Western Malwa, Narmada Valley, Vidarbha, Western Rajputana, Saurastra and even Kalinga.
Nasik Prasasti describes Gautamiputra as the ruler of the Aparanta, Anupa, Saurashtra, Kukura,
Akara, and Avanti. In south his reign was up to Kanchi in South. He assumed the title of raja-raja
and Maharaja. After Gautamiputra Satkarni, the Puranic inscription name other Satavahanas such
as Pulumayi, Sri Satkarni, Siva Sri, Sivaskanda Satkarni , Madhariptra Sakasena, Sri Yajna
Satkarni. One more important is Vasithiputra Pulumayi-II. Pulumayi-II Pulumayi-II is known as
Vasithiputta or Vashishthi Putra Satkarni. He was son of Gautamiputra Satkarni and was an
efficient king like his father. He extended the power of Satvahanas to further south and it was
now extended up to Bellary district of Modern Karnataka. The Girnar Inscription of Rudradaman
mentions that Rudradaman defeated the Dakshinapathpati Satkarni twice, but did not kill him
because of the close family relationship. This has been corroborated as "that Pulumayi-II was
married to daughter of Rudradaman. (However, there is confusion in this) Pulumayi-II has been
described in largest number of inscription and this proves that he had a vast empire. In the
evening of Pulumayi-II 's life, the Shakas revived under Chastana. The last Satavahana Ruler was
Pulumayi-IV. Not many details have been found about him except that he built a tank in Vepura.
The Legacy of Satavahana Kings Satavahanas are considered to be the flag bearers of Aryanism
to Deccan. They were the first Native Indians who had issued the coins with portraits of their
kings. All the coins of Satavahanas used Prakrit dialect and also on backside the southern
27

language (Telugu or Kannada). Prakrat seems to be the official language of Satavahanas. The
Satavahanas worshipped the Hindu Deities such as Rama, Krishna, Vasudeva etc. but they also
patronized the Buddhism. The Nagarjunkonda and Amaravati became the important centers of
Buddhism during the reign of Satavahanas and their successors. Saatavahana Built many Chaitya
and Viharas. Most of them were rock cut from the solid rock in North Western Deccan and
Maharashtra. The Karle Chaitya of 1st century BC is one of the most important Chaitya. The
Viharas of the 1 century AD at Nasik bear the inscription of the Gautami Putra Satkarni and
Nahapana. The Amaravati Stupa was built in the reign of Satavahanas. Satavahanas:
Administration, Economy and Life Satavahanas administration was simple and inspired by the
Mauryas. The King was the protector of the religion and had divine attributes. He possessed the
qualities of ancient Gods. The Kingdom was divided into the Janpadas and subdivided into
Aharas. The ruler of each Ahara was an Amatya. Ahara was divided into Grama which was under
the headmen called Gamika. Two feudatories viz. Mahasenapati and Mahataravalara were
created in the Satavahana Dynasty. King was called Rajan or Raja and he had the right to mint
the coins. A Senapati was appointed as the provincial governor. Gandhika have been mentioned
as the traders of perfume and they were prosperous. Gautamiputra Satkarni is claimed to have reestablished the four fold Varna System and this The most important features of the state
formation under Satavahanas were: It was a result of a continuous process. It was influenced by
Mauryan Administration It was influenced by North India Uddiyan was an important wool
making center. Gaulmikas were administrators of the rural areas under the Satavahanas.
Important Points: Satavahanas ruled in Modern Andhra Pradesh , but most of the inscriptions of
Satavahanas have been found in Maharashtra. Nanaghat Inscription of Naganika (wife of
Satkarni-I) has been found near Pune (District). The Two cave inscriptions found at Nasik are of
Gautamiputra Satkarni. At Nasik, Inscription of Pulumayi II has been found. The Karle cave
inscription is of Vashishtiputra Pulumayi II. The office of the Amatya appears or the first time in
the Satavahana inscriptions.

The classical age of the Guptas (AD 320-550)

The age of the Guptas, or the Classical Age, refers to the period when most of northern India was
reunited under the Gupta empire. All kingdoms large and small fell under the sway of the
Guptas. Their introduced beautiful gold coins, became associated with beauty, art, Hindu deities
28

(like Durga, Shiva, etc), and Sanskrit literature of that period. Religious toleration and freedom
of worship speaks volumes about their approach to governing the many peoples who came under
their authority. Kamasutra was created during this period. The great Kalidas(literature) and
Aryabhatta(astronomy) lived in this era. The great writings of Kalidasa include Ritusamhara and
Meghauta in Sanskrit literature at its highest quality. It has been described as a Golden Age for
its relative peace, law and order, and extensive achievements during this period. This is generally
known as Hindu culture with all its variety, contradiction and synthesis.

Aryabhata, also Aryabhatta (476-550?), Hindu astronomer and mathematician, born

in Ptaliputra (modern Patna, India). He was known to the Arabs as Arjehir, and his writings
had considerable influence on Arabic science. Aryabhata held that the earth rotates on its
axis, and he gave the correct explanation of eclipses of the sun and the moon. In mathematics
he solved the quadratic equation, although many of his geometric formulas were incorrect.
His only extant work is the Aryabhatiya, a series of astronomical and mathematical rules and
propositions, written in Sanskrit verse.
Art and architecture (fourth-seventh centuries AD)
The enormous wealth of imperial territory under the Guptas had led to cultural achievements in
the arts and architecture. According to historians, in architecture, sculpture, and painting and in
other branches of art, the Gupta era is one of the most creative periods of Indian History. During
this period, 'Sarnath' became known as a school par excellence in the Buddhist art. Some of the
most beautiful images of Buddha are products of this school. The sculpture of Buddha giving his
first sermon in the Deer Park is one of the best from Sarnath. Besides this, the Buddhist pantheon
includes Indra, Surya, Yakshas, Yakshis, Dwarapalas, and also Mithun couples, winged horses
and mythical animals in Hinayana stupas and viharas as at Sanchi, Bharhut, Bodhgaya, Bhaja,
Karle Bedse, Pitalkhoda, Bodhisatva and others. In Mahayana, monuments such as those at
Ajanta, Ellora, Aurangabad, Karle, Bedsa, Pitalkhoda and Kanheri are known to be amongst the
very best historical monuments.

29

It was a period when Hinduism was the official religion of the empire. Consequently the era was
also inspired by innumerable images of popular Hindu gods and goddesses, and those, including
Lord Shiva, Lord Vishnu, Lord Krishna, Surya and Durga, were worshiped in this period.
A colossal image of Lord Vishnu in the Udaigiri caves in Madhya Pradesh house, and other
statues of this period found in various temples and museums, are indicative of various
dimensions of early Hindu art, sculpture which has been created with great skill.
Temple architecture went through great changes under the Guptas, losing the old square sanctum
and emerging with pillared porches. Earlier temples of the period had a flat slab roof, often
monolithic, but later temples in brick and stone developed a shikhara. This evolution was gradual
and easily traceable through the development of the plan and the ornamentation of the pillars,
couples, goblins, flying angles, door frames, and also though dominant elements which again
included goblins, couples, and flying angles, plus door keepers and a figure relief in the centre of
the lintel which was emblematic of a deity consecrated in the temple. Free standing sculptural
temples was a major factor in design.
Permanent materials like brick and stones were used for the first time where previously only
bamboo and wood had been used. Then structural temples took the place of cave temples for the
convenience of idol worship. Most of the towns and cities of the period were adorned with
temples which reached great heights, according to Hiuen Tsang. Temple architecture came in a
variety of forms, just like its expression in different forms and shapes, and an artistic standard
was generated which became the general rule of temple construction in the modern age. Dr S K
Saraswati states that Gupta temples can be divided into five different types: square with a flat
roof and a 'mandapam'; square with a flat roof and 'parikrama' space around the sanctum
sanctorum of the main temple with its gods; square with a low shikara dome; a rectangular
temple with a vaulted roof curved at the centre; and a circular temple with projected corners.
Excellent carving and panels on the walls was the specialisation of these forms of architecture.
Besides, the extinct remained about Gupta architectures are Siva temple at Nachana, the Parvati
Temple at Ajaya Garh in Uttar Pradesh, the Vishnu Temple in Central Province, and the
Ekkalinga Siva Temple at Satana.
30

Sculptures of deities, their consorts, celestial beings, couples, directional deities, composite
animals and decorative motifs formed the mass of images and these were carved on the walls of
the temples and other interior areas. Deities carved in the sanctum were made according to
religious canon and were installed by performing a special consecration ceremony. The artists
visualised their own ideas in their sculptures, such as youthful bodies, benign expressions, and
ideal proportions. They showed various subjects through their sculptures in temples to mirror
everyday life, such as military processions, royal court scenes, musicians, dancers, acrobats, and
amorous as well as religious scenes. And also some non-religious figures like apsara or
devanganas (celestial woman) and vyalas (composite animals).
The caves during the Guptas era denote the Buddhist and Hindu sects in their architectural
pattern. The best examples of Gupta dynasty architecture are Parvati temple (Nachana),
Bhitarangaon temple, Vishnu temple (Tigawa), Shiva temple (Bhumara), and Dasavatara temple
(Deogarh), plus caves at Chaitanya, Vihara, Bagh, Ajanta, and Ellora, and cave architecture at
Khandagiri, Udaygiri and Undavalli. Cave paintings denote the Buddhist outline which was very
popular during the Gupta era. These were continued for almost a century, and recorded the
culmination of earlier tendencies and styles as they transformed into the new style and
techniques in architecture. A famous rock-cut monastery in Ajanta consists of several Chaitya
halls and numerous residential Viharas. Both its facades and interiors contain elegant relief
sculptures. The wall interiors are covered with painted murals that feature superb figures drawn
with a graceful winding line. A close inspection will reveal only a little difference in the images
of major Indian religions like Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism. It can be seen in large stone
figures, stone and terracotta reliefs and also large and small bronze statuettes made in the refined
artistic style of the Guptas. There are many significant Buddha art objects which were crafted
during the seventh century at the time of the Pala (or Pallava) and Sena dynasties. The Guptas
were mainly known for different images in bronze and hard black stone, especially from Nalanda
and other places which showed extra attention towards ornamentation and fabrication, indicating
the development of the Gupta dynasty itself.
Gupta architecture added some special features to carving such as spacious porches joined onto
31

large halls, or a whole temple complex surrounded by a spacious courtyard, and one of the
important features was the writing of texts around temple buildings.
Gupta architecture is revealed mainly through caves and temples. The first one is 'Mirpur Khas
stupa', built in the fourth century AD.having two Buddhist stupas which represent the stupa
architecture Their arches, and curve, denotes that arch-making was known to the Indians before
the Muslims arrived. The second stupa is the 'Dhameka Stupa'. It is built with bricks which
represents the idiom of Gupta architecture.
Sculpture played a very important part in Gupta architecture. It was a mirror of the prosperity
which had a great influence on the foreign Gandhara school. It achieved unprecedented
excellence under the Guptas. It was originally developed in Mathura, and carried on to perfection
at Sarnath. These two places were important for the development of sculptural architecture.
Bharat and Sanchi are the best examples of sculptural architecture. Artists of the Gupta dynasty
imagine gods and goddesses in human form, and made carvings of human figures or religious
images in the spiritual meaning and revealing their physical grace. The Bodhisattva images are
one example of artistry from the Mathura school of art which are now paid a remarkable amount
of attention by history lovers. Some of the more outstanding varieties of sculptural images
include the mudras (signals of palms and fingers denoted different ideas) and the bhangas (the
postures of the asanas). As per historians these mudras and asana were originally initiated by the
Guptas.
Painting was the most popular form of artistic expression amongst the rich and poor of the Gupta
period. The royal families had their 'Pratima grihas' and 'chitrashalas' or picture galleries. And
common people used to paint on scrolls of linen. Ajanta, Badami and Bagh are some examples of
the cave paintings which were created during the period. The cave paintings are mainly based on
Jataka stories and the life of Buddha. Bodhisattva-Padmapani of Ajanta is one popular example
of a Gupta painting. It represents Bodhisatva standing in the 'Trivanga' style, with a jewelled
crown on his head, holding a lotus in his right hand with a glow on his face.
Gupta coins were different in the sense that they were made up from silver and gold. The
32

coins marked a high watermark in Indian currency. Some coins were developed by
Chandragupta II, they were based on spirituality like he preside image of goddess Lakshmi,
seated on Lotus, Or in other kind like horsemen, lion, peacock type coins which marked the
artistic elegance of the Guptas Dynasty.
The Gupta period is known for its use and promotion of Sanskrit literature, inscriptions,
sophisticated metal coins, monuments, astronomical observations, and advanced mathematics
which made use of decimal notation and the numeral zero. All this served to make the empire
one of the most enlightened places in the world at this time. Many great Mahayana masters lived
and also wrote about this time while various Buddhist establishments such as Nalanda attracted
many pilgrim-monks from China and other places. Six hundred years previously, the Mauryan
emperor, Ashoka (269-232 BC), had succeeded in making Buddhism the religion for the majority
of people in northern India. When he achieved this neither Brahmanical Hinduism or Jainism
died out, thanks to Ashoka's religious toleration. After Ashoka all the rulers that followed also
showed religious toleration, which only added to the prosperity of the territories they ruled. The
Guptas though showed a preference to their family deity, Vishnu, and pursued a policy of the
perfect freedom of worship.

The rule of the Gupta emperors led to unprecedented achievements in the fields of science,
mathematics, art, astronomy, literature, religion and philosophy. Gupta emperors built several
temples which are remembered for their superb architecture. From Nagara-style temples to rockcut caves; a variety of religious monuments were constructed during their rule. The Gupta
emperors truly proved themselves to be prolific builders. Whether it was trade, medicine,
astronomy, metaphysics, martial arts or sculpture, the Gupta emperors employed every possible
strategy to make their subjects happy and prosperous.
Susruta resided at the court of the Gupta kings at Pataliputra during the 'Golden Age' of
Hindu culture. He wrote medical texts about surgery and he advocated the sterilization of
wounds. Susruta is the author of the Susrutasamhita, the work known after his name, and one
of the most brilliant gems in Indian medical literature, and thus he is recognised as the father
of Indian surgery.
33

Gupta military
Strong military power played a key role in the success of the Gupta empire. The great powers or
efficient martial system was achieved by Gupta from Chinese and Western observers and not just
from Hindus. A contemporary Indian document, the Siva-Dhanur-veda, which is regarded as a
military classic of the time, offers some insight into the military system of the Guptas.
It seems the Guptas were heavily dependent on infantry archers, and their bows. It proved to be
the dominant weapon of their army. The Hindu version of the longbow was composed of metal,
or more typically bamboo, and fired a long bamboo cane arrow with a metal head. It was not like
the composite bow of western and Central Asian military forces, because bows of this design
would be less prone to warping in the damp and moist conditions often prevalent in the region.
Between the other options for weapons the Indian longbow was considered to be a powerful
weapon capable of great range and penetration and was an effective tool for killing horse archers.
Other weapons were also used as effective weapons such as iron shafts against armoured
elephants, fire arrows against a bowmen's arsenal, etc. Steel weapons seem to have been highly
prominent in the Middle Kingdoms era in India. One of these was the steel bow. This was
capable of long range firing and could penetrate exceptionally thick armour due to its high
tensile strength. These were actually less common weapons than might be thought, though. One
of the most commonly used weapons was of a bamboo design and could be found in the hands of
noblemen rather than in the ranks. The military was very organised. The ranks were arranged in a
way that offered the best levels of protection to the ordinary soldiers. Archers were frequently
protected by infantry equipped with shields, javelins, and swords, etc. Other than these, the
Gupta armies used siege craft, including catapults and other sophisticated war machines.
Samudragupta and Chandragupta II would very likely have understood the need for combined
armed tactics and proper logistical organisation. Their success was from the concerted use of
elephants, armoured cavalry and foot archers in tandem. They also maintained a navy to control
regional waters during war time. They showed more interests towards using horse archers,
despite the fact that these warriors were the main component in the ranks of their Scythian,
Parthian and Hepthalite (White Hun) enemies.
Historians believe that the collapse of Gupta empire during the war with the White Huns was due
34

to internal dissolution which weaken their ability to resist foreign invasion.

Sources of information about the Gupta empire
Literature (and see Inscriptions, below)
The 'Puranas', the name of an ancient Indian genre of Hindu or Jain literature. They are primarily
post-Vedic texts containing a narrative of the history of the Universe, from creating to
destruction, genealogies of the kings, heroes and demigods, and descriptions of Hindu
cosmology, philosophy and geology.
The play, 'Kaumudi Mahotsava', a drama composed by the female writer, Vijjaka, which refers to
King Chandrasena who is called Karaskara. King Chandrasena is identified with Chandragupta I
of the Gupta dynasty by Dr Jayswal and Chandra of the Mehurali Iron pillar inscriptions by
others.
The play, 'Devi-Chandraguptam', a drama composed by Vishakadaatta which refers to King
Chandragupta II who is very often referred to as Vikramaditya or Chandragupta.
'Harshacharita', a Sanskrit word which means 'The Deeds of Harsa', is the biography of Indian
emperor Harsha as written by Banbhatta, who is also known as Bana, a Sanskrit writer of seventh
century India. He was the 'Asthana Kavi' or court poet of King Harsha. It was his first
composition and can be treated as one of the very first historical poetic works in the Sanskrit
language. Harsha Charit ranks as the first historical biography in Sanskrit and as such it is
written in a florid and fanciful style.

The Mahayana Buddhist Chronicle

The Mahayanists wrote their own Buddhist doxographies in the early fifth century. The earliest
Mahayana chronicles, the Manjusriparpyccha was translated into Chinese by Sanghabhara, who
travelled to India between AD 506 and 520.
'Arya-Manjushri Mul kalpa', dealing with imperial dynasties and Indian history from 700 BC to
AD 750. The history was a Buddhist Mahayana work by a Tibetan scholar, and was composed
35

sometime in the eighth century AD.

Records of the travels of two Chinese pilgrims, Fa-Hien and Hiuen-Tsang, who visited India in
the fifth and seventh century AD respectively. Chinese Buddhist pilgrim Hiuen-Tsang left behind
an account about India and Bengal. He is also known as Xuanzang, or Hsuan-tsang, and was
born in Henan Province in China in AD 603. From Xingdu throughout China until he reached
Changan, then under the rule of Tang emperor Taizong he travelled in search of the sacred books
of Buddhism and eventually came to India.He knew about Fa-Hien's visit to India. He was also
concerned about the incomplete and misinterpreted nature of the Buddhist scripture that Fa-Hien
had brought back to China. Starting from China in AD 629, he passed through Central Asia via
the northern trade route which went through Kuch (Gujarat) and then reached northern India,
where he arrived at the city of Kanauj. There he was guest of Harshavardhana, the great Indian
emperor. He visited the sacred Buddhist sites in Magadha and spent a great deal of time studying
at the great Nalanda monastery.
The pilgrim next travelled to parts of western, northern and south-eastern Bengal, and then to
southern and western India. He returned to China, again by way of Central Asia, though this time
by the southern route via Khotan. Hiuen-Tsang recorded the details of all the countries he visited.
He also included information on countries he had heard reports of; for example, he has recorded
some stories about Sri Lanka when he was in southern India, though he had not visited the
island.
Across India most people had become vegetarians, except for fish which was widely consumed
in Bengal and places to its south. And unlike parts of the Roman empire, a traveller in India had
little reason to fear robbery. Hiuen-Tsang travelled about in India for eleven years and recorded
that he was never molested or robbed.
His records of visits to the places in Bengal - 'Raktamritikka' near 'Karnasuvarna', 'Pundranagar'
and its surrounding area, 'Samatata' and 'Tamaralipti'. All these records were helpful for
uncovering the political, social, and archaeological history of Bengal. Besides this he covered the
'Gauda' tribal kingdom under Shashanka of seventh century Bengal.
36

Inscription
Inscriptions are an important and reliable source of history for the Guptas. They are incised on
stone, as well as on metal, the latter consisting of copper plates or the Meherauli Iron Pillar
inscription. The Allahabad inscription of Samudragupta or the Mandasor Pillar inscription of
Yashodharman are examples of some of the chronicles of contemporary events. Besides this
there are many donative inscriptions to provide records of religious endowments or secular
donations.
The coins show the progressive evolution of indigenous Indian coinage and of its emancipation
from the prevailing foreign and Kushan models.
Another source is monuments, which are a source of artistic and religious history, and provide
information of different schools of art, with examples including Mathura, Varanasi and Nalanda.
Temples are another example of inscriptions of religious history such as those of Vishnu, Shiva,
and Durga (Hindu gods), Buddha (Bodhisattva), and Jain Tirthankaras. Udaygir temple (at
Gwalior) and Pathari are the most famous examples of these inscriptions.
Origin of Guptas:
Political imbalance demoshed Kushan Empire and the emergence of the gupta
dynasty in India. Gupta dynasty ruled India between 3rd century and 6th century
C.E. The Gupta period is often described as a period of Hindu renaissance. It
supported art, music, architecture, sculpture and paintings.
SriGupta (240-280 AD) was ruling a small Hindu kingdom called Magadha from
Vaishya community near Ganga river, a prayag based feudatory of Kushanas. He
and his son Ghatotkach (ruled probably from AD 280-319) was having hold over
Patliputra and nearby areas. They were may be holding some of the parts of
northern or central Bengal too. It is understood that Sri Gupta could be the first
king of the Guptas. He In contrast to his successor, he is also referred to in
inscriptions as Maharaja but, the Poona copper inscription of Prabhavati Gupta
describes Sri Gupta as the Adhiraja, no much records are available.
At the beginning of the 5th century the Guptas established and ruled a few small
37

Hindu kingdoms in Magadha and around modern-day Bihar.

Ghatotkacha (280 319 AD) became the successor of Sri Gupta. The two records
of Prabhavati Gupta (daughter of Chandragupta II) indicates Ghatotkacha as the
Gupta king. But neither much evidence is available to clearly prove Ghatotkacha as
the first king of Guptas.
Chandragupta I (320-335) Chandragupta was born in 305 AD. When he was in his
teens, he married a Lichchhavi (present-day Nepal) princess named Kumaradevi.
Through this matrimonial alliance, he gained enormous power and used it to his
great advantage. . The Gupta emperors, from the very beginning, were renowned
for their military skills, chivalry, diplomacy and astuteness.
Chandragupta I is truly recognised as the consolidator of the Gupta Empire. He
launched a series of military expansions, pushing the kingdom's boundaries
westward. By 320 A.D He extended his territory to Magadha, Prayaga (present-day
Allahabad in north central India.)and Saketa. He proclaimed himself as a
Maharajadhiraya (King of Kings). Many historians consider 320 A.D. was the
beginning of the Gupta dynasty.
Samudragupta (335-380) He was the son of Chandragupta I and Mahadevi
Kumaradevi, grandson of Ghatotkacha. Chandra Gupta lay dying, and he told his
son, Samudragupta, to rule the whole world. Samudra Gupta's forty-five years of
rule would be described as one vast military campaign. He fought with
overwhelming nine kings near Ganges plain and incorporating their subjects and
lands into the Gupta Empire. He defeated Bengal, Nepal and Assam and expanded
his empire westward, conquering Malava and Ujjayini. . He raided Pallava and
humbled eleven kings in southern India. . He made a vassal of the king of Lanka,
and he compelled five kings on the outskirts of his empire to pay him tribute. The
powerful kingdom of Vatakata in central India. He gained the name Indian
Nepoleon due to his conquests in many directions and various kinds.

Samudragupta performed Horse sacrifice when he completed the conquests. Also

38

introduced different coins representing Asvamedha Yagna were distributed to

Brahmins. Eight different types of coins have found like archer, battle axe, tiger
slayer, kacha, Ashwamedha, lyrist etc.

Ramgupta (375-???) Things are available to prove that he was son of

Samudragupta, although any inscription or coins are not available for that. Some
historical dramas like Devichandraguptam material like Natyadarpan,and a
historical drama Devichandraguptm which described Rama Gupta as son and
successor of Samudragupta. It is said in the drama that Rama Gupta sustains a
humiliating defeat at the hands of sakas and agrees to surrender his queen to the
Sakas which provokes his brother Chandragupta II. He disguise of queen
Dhruvadevi, enters enemies camp and kill the Saka king to restore the gupta
empire, and queen. This incident raises Chandragupta in the eyes of people and
Dhruvadevo. The conduct of Rama Gupta gets betrayed by the brother and Rama
Gupta kills him and sits on the throne. He then marries to the widow of his brother.
Chandragupta II/ Vikramaditya (380-413) Samudra Gupta died (around 380)
and was succeeded by his son Chandragupta II or Vikramaditya. He was one of the
most distinguished ruler of Gupta Empire.
Addressed as `Maharaja` the Gupta emperors were gallant and possessed a cultural
bent of mind. This was one of the reasons why several litterateurs received royal
patronage. Whilst he fought with unfathomable courage to extend his empire, he
was an ardent admirer of various cultures. He extended Gupta rule to India's west
coast, where new ports were helping India's trade with countries farther west. While
Rome was being overrun and the western half of the Roman Empire was
disintegrating.
Kumaragupta I/ Mahendraditya (415-455) Chandra Gupta II died in 415 and the
Gupta kingdom succeeded by his son (some people say Skanda gupta succeeded
his father in 455), Kumara Gupta, who maintained India's peace and prosperity. He
maintained Gupta Empire remained undiminished during his forty year reign. Then
India suffered more invasions due to Roman Empire around this time.
39

Skandagupta/ Vikramaditya (455-467) He was son of Kumargupta I. Skanda

Gupta the crown prince was able to drive the invaders (Hephthalites) back, into the
Sassanian Empire, where they were to defeat the Sassanid army and kill the
Sassanid king, Firuz.
He was popular amongpeople especially women and children praised him. Then the
Hephthalites returned, and he spent much of his reign of twenty-five years
combating them, which drained his treasury and weakened his empire. Skanda
Gupta died (467), and after a century and a half the cycle of rise and disintegration
of empire turned again to disintegration. Contributing to this was dissention within
the royal family. Benefiting from this dissention, governors of provinces and feudal
chieftains revolted against Gupta rule. For awhile the Gupta Empire had two
centers: at Valabhi on the western coast and at Pataliputra toward the east. Seeing
weakness, the Hephthalites invaded India again -- in greater number. Just before the
year 500, the Hephthalites took control of the Punjab. After 515, they absorbed the
Kashmir, and they advanced into the Ganges Valley, the heart of India, raping,
burning, massacring, blotting out entire cities and reducing fine buildings to rubble.
Provinces and feudal territories declared their independence, and the whole of north
India became divided among numerous independent kingdoms. And with this
fragmentation India was again torn by numerous small wars between local rulers.
Purugupta (467-473 AD) Gupta empire began to decline after death of
Skandagupta. His brother appears to have been the immediate successor to
Skandagupta. Purugupta was son of Kumaragupta I by his queen Ananthadevi. He
ascended the throne at his oldage. He ruled just for 6 years.
Narsimhagupta Baladitya (467-473) He was son of Purugupta by the queen Shri
Vinayadevi.
Kumargupta II (473-476 AD) The successor after Narsimha Baladatitya was his
son Kumaragupta II (Kramaditya). The rule seems to have ended about the year
476-477 AD. It is understood that Kumaragupta II, Narsimha Baladitya and
Purugupta altogether could rule only for about ten years.
Buddhagupta (477-495 AD) A large number of inscription refer that Buddhagupta
could manage to keep the empire intact. He ruled for about 20 years. Buddhagupta
was succeeded by Tathagata Gupta. Some people even believe that Krishna Gupta
and Harsha Gupta succeeded Budhagupta in ruling the empire and then
40

Budhagupta and Harshagupta succeeded Jivitagupta I.

Kumargupta III (????) There was Kumargupta III wh succeeded Jivitagupta I. He
faced many difficulties by Mukharis, Gowdas in West Bengal, then from Andhra king.
They tried to threat him and somehow he he claimed victories over them.
The next successor of gupta dynasty are Damodarguptas, Mahasenagupta,
Madhavagupta and Devagupta II had threat by the enemies. It is believe that
Adityasena, Devagupta III and the lat king Jivagupta III were the names of last
guptas. And it was Gowdas who destroyed the fame of Fuptas.
Bhanugupta (c.499-543) As per the inscription Bhanugupta was merely a Raja
(Not a Maharaja). He therefore stand in the history of guptas as a governor of Malwa
under emperor Narsimha Gupta. Hunas attack fell upon Malwas and Bhanugupta
lost the battle. Hunas then moved further towards Magadha. As the date of
inscription it was during AD 510 after the Toraman ruled over Malwa.
Vainyagupta (fl. 508) In Comilla eastern Bengal, Gunaigarh copper plate
inscription has found therecords of vainyagupta. It has recorded that Vainya Gupta
granted some lands in a village for maintaining Buddha vihar.
Three Archer gold coins have been discovered and it would be belongs to
Vainyagupta. He was associated with eastern Bengal, so believable that he belongs
to the direct line of imperial guptas. Still have conflicts over these two. The copper
inscription, Gunaigarh found is soldered royal seal mentioning the name of
Maharaja Sri Vainya Guptah.
Vishnugupta (c. 540-550) was one of the lesser known kings of the Gupta
Dynasty.He is generally considered to be the last recognized king of theGupta
Empire. His reign lasted 10 years, from 540 to 550

The Decline of the Gupta Empire started during the period of Skandaguptas rule. Though
41

Skandagupta had some great military success against the Pushyamitra and the Huns, the heavy
pressure and constant war had deeply pressed the resources of the Empire. The picture of this
financial drain can be testified from the debased coinage and lack of variety of coins during
Skandaguptas reign. The Gupta Empire was no longer in its past glory. The Gupta Kingdom was
declining with the passage of time it became weak and inefficient. After the death of
Skandagupta, Purugupta reigned for a shorter period, but during this period the decline of the
empire became further steady. Buddha Gupta, the last great independent empire of the dynasty
arrested the declining process of Gupta Empire for some time, but for Western India he had no
commendable influence whatsoever. During this period the feudatories of the Bundelkhand
region assumed semi-independent status. The Vakataka invasion of Malwa reduced his authority
in that region also. When Buddha Gupta died the fall of the Gupta empire was further eminent
and within next three generations it succumbed totally.
The most important cause of the downfall of the Gupta Empire was the dissention within
the royal family. Possibly after the death of Kumar Gupta I, his sons fought among themselves
for the throne. His second son Skandagupta ascended the throne by defeating his two other
brothers, Purugupta and Ghatotkachagupta II. We find another war of succession when after the
death of Puru Gupta, the empire was virtually partitioned among Bhanugupta in the west,
Narsimhagupta in the centre and Vinyagupta in Bengal in the east. Of course our knowledge
about these wars of succession and its real extent are still miger for paucity of adequate
informations. Yet this is true that these wars of successions had tremendously weakened the hold
of the central authority over the various provinces and the feudatories.
The second fundamental cause of the fall of the Gupta Empire was the invasions of the
Vakatakas of Deccan. Samudraguptas victorious march into Deccan East left the Vakataka
power of Western Deccan unscathed. The Vakatakas were the western neighbor of the Guptas
and they could easily put the empire in trouble by dint of their geographical position. In order to
avert of any possible clash with the Vakatakas Chandragupta II made a matrimonial alliance with
them by giving marriage of her daughter Prabhavati Gupta with the Vakataka king Rudrasena II.
But Chandragupta IIs successors maintained no peaceful relation with the Vakataka rulers. That
was why during Budhaguptas rule the Vakataka king Narendrasena invaded Malwa, Kosala and
Mekala. His invasion considerably weakened the authority of the Gupta Kingdom over the vast
42

tract of Central India and Bundelkhand. In later years Vakataka king Harishena further conquered
Malwa and Gujrat from the Imperial Guptas.
Similar blow was hurled over the Gupta Empire by the Huns invasion which heavily disturbed
its stability. During the rule of Skandagupta in the 5th century A.D., the Huns invaded the NorthWestern gate of India, but they were beaten back. But in Sixth Century, they successfully
occupied Punjab, Gandhara, Gujarat and Malwa. Yasodharman of Mandasore first defeated the
Hun chief Mihirakula. Narsimhagupta also crushed the Hun power totally. Though some
historians tried to establish that the Hun invasion was the root cause of the downfall of the
Guptas, Dr. R.C. Mazumdar denied accepting the idea as because the Huns were altogether
defeated by the Guptas. Yet it cannot be denied that these Huns had greatly weakened the
authority of the Guptas over the regions where they attacked. Their repeated attack must have
taxed the royal treasury too.
As the central authority became weaker day by day and as that renewed foreign invasions which
taxed on the royal treasury and military might of the Gupta Empire, the feudatories
and hereditary governors took the opportunity to declare local independence. This is
evident when Yasodharman made a sweepingconquest over the Northern India. This was indeed
a death blow over the Gupta Empire. The power and prestige of the Guptas were shattered. Soon
Isanavarman of the Maukharis of U.P. revolted followed by the Maitrakas of Vallahi in Saurastra.
They all became independent rulers. There were independent chiefs in Southern, Western and
Eastern Bengal. The later Guptas rose to power in Magadha only.
Dynastic dissensions and weak rulers:
There is evidence to show that following the death of Kumaragupta and Skandagupta, there
were civil wars and struggles for the throne. For instance, we have the successors of
Buddhagupta, highlighting the rule of more than just one king. Those were Vinayagupta in
Bengal and Bhanugupta in Iran.
Absence of law of primogeniture along with strong centralized authority in ancient and
medieval periods led to chaos. Thus we see that the resources of the empire were frittered
away in petty squabbles and wars for the throne.
43

Besides circumstances weakening the Gupta monarchy, the very personalities of the later
Gupta Kings contributed to the ultimate fall of this dynasty. They were not only men of weak
character but also some of them followed pacifies that affected other spheres of
administration, particularly that of military efficiency.
The later Guptas embraced Buddhism while their predecessors were staunch Hindus. The
change of religion had reflection over their political and military activities. It is true due to nonviolent pacific influence of the Buddhism the late Guptas did not care to follow a strong and
vigorous military and foreign policy. The lack of militant spirit of the later Guptas simply paved
the ground for the unscrupulous enemies and powerful feudatories to hit hard the dying Gupta
Empire. The Gupta Kingdom was on the declining trend.
Narsimhagupta and his successors ruled in diminished glory in Magadha, Northern Bengal and
part of Kalinga. We are not yet very sure exactly when and how the Gupta empire breathed its
last. However, the Maukharis ultimately overthrew the Gupta rule from Magadha,
sometimes in or about 554 A.D.

44