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hat is logic ? In general , the goal of study of Logic is to construct good or sound arguments ,
and to recognise bad or unsound arguments . Thus , Logic is the science of reasoning .
The first great treatises on logic were written by the Greek philosopher Aristotle. They were a
collection of rules for deductive reasoning that were intended to serve as a basis for the study
of every branch of knowledge. In the 17 century , the German philosopher and mathematician
Gottfried Leibniz conceived the idea of using symbols to mechanize the process of deductive reasoning in
much the same way that algebraic notation had mechanized the process of reasoning about numbers and their
relationships. The first one to employ mathematical methods in the study of Logic was English mathematician
George Boole (1815-1864) , who founded the modern subject of symbolic logic . With research continuing to
the present day , symbolic logic has provided , among other things , the theoretical basis for many areas of
computer science such as digital logic circuit design , relational database theory , and artificial intelligent.
A proposition is a sentence that can be assigned a truth value : true or false , but not both .
Example : (1) 1 + 1 = 2
(2) 12 may be written as the sum of two prime numbers .
(3) All prime numbers are odd numbers .
(4) The sum of x and y is greater than 0 .
(5) For any natural numbers x and y , the sum of x and y is greater than 0.
Of these the first three are propositions . (1) , (2) , (5) are true and (3) is false .
There is no ambiguity regarding these sentences . Therefore they are statements . (4) is not a
statement since we cannot determine whether it is true or false , unless we know what x and y are .
For example , it is false where x =1 , y = -3 and true when x =1 and y = 0 .
While dealing with statements , we usually denote them by small letters p,q,r,. For examples , we
denote the statements 8 is less than 6 by p. This is written as p : 8 is less than 6 .
Example 1 : Check whether the following sentences are statements .
(i) Open the door .
(vi) All roses are white .
(ii) is a rational number .
(viii) He is a mathematician .
(ix ) x + 7 = 23
Truth value The truth or falsity of a statement is called its truth value .
Commands , questions and exclamations are not statements .A sentence which is both true and false simultaneously is not a
statement , rather , it is a paradox .
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~p
Symbol
Compound statement
AND
Conjunction
Conditional statement
OR
IF .. THEN
IF AND ONLY IF
Disjunction
Biconditional statement
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(A) Conjunction
If two statements are combined by using the connecting word and then the resulting statement is called
conjunction . The conjunctions of statements p and q is denoted by p q .
In truth table
q
pq
p
For example , let p : It is cold .
1
1
1
q : It is raining .
then p q : It is cold and raining .
0
0
1
Example : Let p: 2 divides 4
1
0
0
q : 8 + 2 = 12
0
then p q :
pq=
(B) Disjunction
If two statements are combined by using the connecting word or , then the resulting statement is called
a disjunction . The disjunction of two statements p and q is denoted by p q .
In truth table :
pq
(C) Implications
If then , only if and if and only if are known as implications . If p and q are two statements forming
the implication if p then q , then we denote this implication by p q . The symbol stands for
implies .
For example , let p : 2 + 5 = 7 and q : 9 is an integer , then their conditional statement p q denotes the
statement : If 2 + 5 = 7 , then 9 is an integer.
q
pq
p
If Antecedent then Consequent
Premises
Conclusion
1
1
1
Hypothesis
(b) p: 3 divides 15
q : 5-1 = 4
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(D) Equivalence
The equivalence of two statements p and q is p if and only if q and is written as p q . p q is true
only when either both p and q are true or false . p q is also known as
biconditional or double implication statement .
q
pq
p
p is equivalent to q
p implies and is implied by q
p holds if q and conversely
p is a necessary and sufficient condition for q
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Remarks :
To compute the truth values for a statement form , first evaluate the expression within the innermost
parentheses , then evaluate the expressions within the next innermost set of parentheses , and so forth until you
have the truth values for the complete expression .
Example 7 : Construct a truth table of the following compound statements .
(a) ( p q ) ( p )
(b) ( p ~ q ) ( p q )
(c) (~ p q ) p
(d) ( p q ) ~ r
Logically Equivalences
Compound propositions that have the same truth values in all possible cases are called logically equivalent.
The logical equivalence of statement forms P and Q is denoted by writing P Q.
Definition :
Tautology
: A compound proposition that is always true , no matter what the truth values of the
propositional variables that occur in it , is called a tautology .
~p
p ~p (Tautology)
1
p ~p (contradiction)
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ans : tautology
2) ~ [( p q ) ( p q )] ans : contradiction
Example 10: Let p , q , r are three propositions . Use truth table to prove that ~ ( p (q ~ r )) p (~ q r )
Example 11: Show that the conditional statements [~ p ( p q )] q is tautology by using truth tables.
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Argument
An argument in propositional logic is a sequence of propositions . All but the final proposition in the argument
are called premises and the final proposition is called the conclusion .
From the propositions P 1 , P 2 , . , P n , leads to the conclusion Q , this can be summarised as
P 1 , P 2 , P 3 , , P n ; Q
If the propositions P 1 , P 2 , P 3 ,, P n are all true , and the conclusion are also true , then the argument is valid .
From the definition of a valid argument form we see that the argument form with premises
Example 13: Test the validity of : Only if the quadrilateral is a parallelogram the opposite are equal .
The opposite sides are not equal .
Therefore , the quadrilateral is not a parallelogram . ans: invalid
Example 14: Test the validity of the following argument form : p q, p ~ q, p r ; r invalid
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Review Question :
1. If p q ( pq ) ^ ( qp) , find the truth table of pq .
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6. Given that p , q and r are three propositions . By using a truth table , prove that
( p r ) ( q r ) (( p q ) r ) .
[2009 AM Que 4(b) ]
7. Let p,q and r be three propositions , and the compound proposition p q is defined as p q= ~ ( p q ) .
(i) Construct a truth table of p q
(ii) Use the truth table in (i) , construct a truth table to determine whether the propositions
( p q ) r and the proposition r ( p q ) are equivalent .
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