THE IMPACT OF A 12-WEEK RESISTANCE TRAINING

PROGRAM ON STRENGTH, BODY COMPOSITION, AND

SELF-CONCEPT OF HISPANIC ADOLESCENTS
AMELIA VELEZ, DEVON L. GOLEM,

AND

SHAWN M. ARENT

Rutgers University Human Performance Laboratory, Department of Exercise Science and Sport Studies,
Rutgers, the State University of New Jersey, New Brunswick, New Jersey

ABSTRACT

INTRODUCTION

Velez, A, Golem, DL, and Arent, SM. The impact of a 12-week

resistance training program on strength, body composition,
and self-concept of Hispanic adolescents. J Strength Cond
Res 24(4): 10651073, 2010Current evidence suggests that a
resistance training program may be physically and psychologically beneficial for adolescents. The purpose of this study was
to examine the effects of a structured resistance training
program on strength, body composition, and self-concept in
normal and overweight Hispanic adolescents. Male and female
participants (n = 28; 16.1 6 0.2 y; 164.5 6 1.4 cm; 63.3 6
2.5 kg; 20.0 6 1.7% body fat [BF]) were recruited from a
predominantly Hispanic high school. Prior to the 12-week
program, strength, body composition, and self-concept were
assessed. Subjects were randomly assigned to a control group
(CON; n = 15) or to a resistance training group (RT; n = 13)
that participated in supervised strength training 3 days/week.
All measures were repeated at the end of the 12-week program.
RT had significantly greater strength increases for bench press
(p , 0.001), seated row (p = 0.002), shoulder press (p ,
0.001), and squats (p = 0.002). RT had significant reductions in
%BF (p = 0.001), whereas CON had slightly increased %BF.
RT had an increase in condition/stamina competence
(p = 0.008), attractive body adequacy (p = 0.017), and global
self-worth (p = 0.013) from pretest to posttest, whereas no
change was observed for CON. In conclusion, resistance
training resulted in significant physiological and psychological
improvements in Hispanic adolescents compared to typical
school-based activities. These findings indicate that resistance
training can be incorporated into the activities of Hispanic
adolescents to promote improved health and fitness.

KEY WORDS overweight, obese, health, fitness, self-esteem

Address correspondence to Dr. Shawn M. Arent, shawn.arent@rutgers.
edu.
24(4)/10651073
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research
2010 National Strength and Conditioning Association

dolescence is a risk period for decreased exercise

and increased fat mass (22,25). It is also a time
period for acquisition of self-perception and
changes in self-esteem (25). The 20032006
National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey
(NHANES) reports that the incidence of obesity in US
adolescents had risen to 17.6% (28). It appears that certain
groups are at particular risk for becoming overweight. For
example, approximately 20% of Mexican American female
teens are at or above the 95th percentile of the 2000 body
mass index (BMI)-for-age chart compared to 14.5% of nonHispanic white female teens (28). This can be related to
factors such as socioeconomic status, familial environments,
and health insurance (23).
Numerous physiological and psychological health consequences result from an overweight or obese status including
diabetes, heart disease, and hypertension (8) and low selfesteem and depression (11,24,33). Furthermore, obesity in
adolescence predicts health consequences in adulthood
regardless of adult weight (36). It has been suggested that
one of the best solutions to childhood and adolescent obesity
is to increase physical activity (8), particularly considering
that previous investigations have revealed a decrease in
physical activity levels during that time (22,25).
Although the use of physical activity to combat obesity
is commonly associated with aerobic exercise, resistance
training has received increasing attention for its unique
positive effects on obesity and health. Resistance training
promotes greater increases in lean body mass and greater
decreases in fat mass than conventional aerobic programs (7)
and is more effective than aerobic activity for increasing
muscle mass and muscle endurance (34). In adults, resistance training has been shown to affect self-esteem in ways
that are substantially different than aerobic exercise (29,32).
This may be because resistance training allows one to see
benefits such as changes in body composition and strength
increases (29) more clearly and rapidly than with aerobic
training alone.
Resistance training in youth has become professionally
accepted as illustrated by association position papers (1,2,19)
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and review articles (9,18,27,36). It is generally agreed upon that
resistance training is not only safe for youth, but that it is
recommended to elicit health and fitness benefits when
performed properly under appropriate supervision. These
benefits include improved body composition, lower fat mass,
greater lean body mass, increased strength and muscle
endurance, increased bone mineral density, and improved
blood lipid profile (9,18,35). Additionally, studies have linked
resistance training to psychological benefits, including improved self-concept in preadolescents (4,16) and adults (21).
The current literature, however, has a strong focus on adults,
children, and preadolescents as opposed to adolescents.
Furthermore, the available literature evaluating resistance
training often includes it within a multidisciplinary approach
or among other exercise techniques, thus making it difficult to
isolate the benefits of the resistance training itself. Also, the
effects of resistance training on self-concept and self-esteem are
in need of expansion because these outcomes rarely are evaluated in most of the youth resistance training studies reviewed.
Self-concept is a domain of overall global self-esteem and is
defined as a group of perceptions that an individual has of
themselves regarding particular characteristics (i.e., physical,
cognitive, etc.) (31). Self-concept has been touted to be the
driving force behind motivation for behavior changes,
including changes in physical activity (20,31). Physical selfconcept in particular holds considerable importance during
adolescence because the physical changes during that phase
promote a heightened awareness of self-consciousness (15).
Additionally, physical and mental health outcomes have
been related to self-concept during adolescence (3,15,33).
Overweight and obesity have been found to be inversely
related to self-concept in adolescent females (33), whereas
physical fitness and physical activity are positively associated
with physical self-concept (15). The existing adolescentbased self-concept literature focuses primarily on females and
contains limited information on the effects of exercise on
minority populations or the efficacy of resistance training
in particular.
The purpose of the current study was to assess the effects of
a resistance training program on the muscular strength, body
composition, and self-concept of normal Hispanic adolescents and those who are overweight/obese. It is hypothesized
that a resistance training program will improve physiological
and psychological outcomes, as compared to a no-treatment
control group. We hypothesized that 12 weeks of resistance
training would increase muscular strength and lean body
mass, decrease body fat percentage, and improve self-concept
in Hispanic adolescents.

METHODS
Experimental Approach to the Problem

Both male and female subjects (n = 28) were recruited from

a predominantly Hispanic high school and were matched on
percent body fat (%BF) and randomly assigned to either
a resistance training (RT) group or control (CON) group.

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Prior to initiation of intervention, total body strength was

assessed using the 10 repetition maximum (10RM) tests for
bench press, seated row, shoulder press, and squats. This
measure was chosen for its safety and validity and because, as
compared to 1RM testing, the 10RM test is a more valid
measure of strength when participants are not accustomed to
a great deal of regular exercise (6). Body composition was
assessed using air displacement plethysmography and selfconcept was assessed using the Children and Youth Physical
Self-Perception Profile (CY-PSPP) survey (39). During the
12-week intervention period, the RT group participated in
a guided resistance training program 3 days per week for
a minimum of 30 sessions, while the CON group continued
with the typical school-based physical activity program and
physical education. Strength, body composition, and selfconcept testing were reevaluated on completion of the
12-week intervention in both groups and compared.
Subjects

Initially, 31 students were recruited from a predominantly

Hispanic high school in the central New Jersey area.
However, as a result of 1 dropout and the dismissal of 2
participants because of noncompliance, the final sample size
consisted of 28 male and female students between the ages
of 14 and 18 years (16.14 6 0.19 yrs; 164.54 6 1.44 cm;
63.32 6 2.48 kg; 19.98 6 1.66 %BF). A particular focus was
on the recruitment of Hispanic youth because of this populations greater propensity for obesity (23) and their underrepresentation in resistance training research.
Subjects were recruited from physical education classes and
were randomly assigned to either the RT (n = 13; males = 8,
females = 5) or CON group (n = 15; males = 8, females = 7).
The RT group followed a structured resistance training
program, whereas the CON group was limited to their
regularly scheduled physical education and health class.
Following baseline testing, subjects were matched on BF%
before being randomly assigned to the RT and CON groups.
Subjects were categorized as either normal weight
(between the 40th and 84th percentile of the average weight
for height), overweight (at or above the 85th percentile of
the average weight for height), or obese (above the 95th
percentile of the average weight for height). Individuals were
not eligible for inclusion if they had known health problems
(i.e., bone, joint, musculoskeletal, or cardiovascular problems)
that would severely limit involvement in the resistance
training sessions. At the time of recruitment, subjects could
not be participating in any structured resistance or aerobic
training programs that might confound the results of the
present study. In an effort to isolate the effects of the present
studys training program, subjects agreed to continue eating
their typical diet.
Permission from the Institutional Review Board was
obtained prior to the commencement of research. Additionally, an informed consent form was given to participants
parents, and an assent form was given to each participant.

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TABLE 1. Mean 6 SD for strength, body composition, and body mass index.*
RT (n = 13)
Pre
Bench press (kg)
Seated row (kg)
Shoulder press (kg)
Squats (kg)
%BF
LBM (kg)
FM (kg)
BMI

42.0
61.5
38.0
105.0
20.8
53.1
14.8
24.6

6 19.2
6 21.9
6 21.3
6 33.5
6 10.2
6 10.9
6 9.9
6 4.7

CON (n = 15)
Post

49.5 6
71.0 6
49.3 6
152.1 6
18.9 6
55.2 6
13.8 6
24.9 6

Pre
19.8
24.7
24.7
52.8
10.7
11.5
10.3
4.9

30.9
46.0
24.5
87.1
19.2
48.0
11.4
22.1

Post

6 10.6
6 15.8
6 12.0
6 30.0
6 7.6
6 9.0
6 4.8
6 2.8

31.4
48.2
24.4
102.3
20.5
47.7
12.0
22.0

6 10.9
6 17.2
6 12.9
6 39.5
6 7.4
6 8.8
6 5.0
6 2.4

*%BF = percent body fat; LBM = lean body mass; FM = fat mass; BMI = body mass index.

Each adolescent was informed of the expectations for

participation in the study (i.e., attend all sessions and report
any injuries) and their rights of nonparticipation.
Procedures

The subjects underwent baseline assessment of strength, body

composition, and self-concept prior to being randomly
assigned to the RT group or the CON group. The strength
tests entailed 10RM for bench press, hammer strength seated
row, shoulder press, and hammer strength squats at the high
school weight room. The tests were completed in the order
listed here. Anthropometric measurements including weight,
height, BF%, lean body mass (LBM), fat mass (FM), and BMI
were obtained in the Rutgers University Human Performance

Laboratory on a separate day. The CY-PSPP was administered to the subjects to assess self-concept on the same day
that body composition was assessed. After the baseline
data were obtained, the subjects assigned to the RT group
underwent the 12-week resistance training program, which
consisted of 3540-minute sessions, 3 nonconsecutive days
per week, in lieu of physical education class. RT workouts
were divided into upper body and lower body days. Because
of several school-related schedule conflicts, subjects were
required to complete 30 of the 36 sessions possible to be
included in final analyses. For each session, the researchers
met the subjects at the high school weight room and led the
subjects through each planned workout in a 1:3 or 1:4 trainer
to subject ratio. The subjects in the CON group underwent
12 weeks of the typical physical
education/health class. Activities
included such things as soccer,
volleyball,
basketball,
floor
hockey, and other various individual and team sport games
performed each day of the week.
Total activity time per day was
similar for the RT and CON
participants. All subjects were
instructed to maintain their usual
outside activity levels and diets.
On completion of the 12-week
intervention, strength, body composition, and self-concept were
reassessed.

Figure 1. Change in bench press weight from preintervention to postintervention in resistance training (RT)
versus control (CON). Data (mean 6 SE) are expressed as kilograms. The RT group had a significantly greater
increase in strength on bench press compared to CON. p , 0.001 difference in change between conditions;
***p , 0.001 difference within condition from baseline.

Muscular Strength. To determine

muscular strength in various
muscle groups, the 10RM was
conducted by increasing the
amount of weight until the participant could complete only
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for full recovery (5). Weight was
added in 1.02.5-kg (17) increments until 10 repetitions were
met with momentary failure.
Body Composition. BF% was calculated using body volume measurements. Body volume was
measured via air displacement
plethysmography using the BOD
POD (Life Measurement, Inc.,
Concord, CA, USA), as described
in previous literature (14,26). Using the BOD POD, the error of
body volume reading is roughly
0.02%, which allows for calculation of percent body fat with only
Figure 2. Change in seated row weight from preintervention to postintervention in resistance training (RT)
0.01% error (14,38). In addition to
versus control (CON). Data (mean 6 SE) are expressed as kilograms. The RT group had a significantly greater
increase in strength on seated row compared to CON. p , 0.01 difference in change between conditions;
%BF, LBM and FM were also
***p , 0.01 difference within condition from baseline.
calculated. Height and weight
were recorded in conjunction
with body composition assess10 repetitions with proper form (5). The specific 10RM for
ment to calculate BMI. These measurements were obtained
the exercises was determined as described by Baechle,
in the Rutgers University Human Performance Laboratory.
Earle, and Wathen (6). The 10RM test was administered
Self-Concept. The CY-PSPP (39) was used to assess the parfor bench press, hammer strength seated row, shoulder
ticipants self-concept. This test assesses 6 different dimenpress, and hammer strength squats to get a general sense and
sions of self-concept: sport/athletic competence (s/acomp),
fair interpretation of total body strength (17). Participants
condition/stamina competence (c/scomp), attractive body
10RM was established in 34 attempts. Each of the exercises
adequacy (aba), strength competence (stcomp), physical
was demonstrated and explained by a researcher before
self-worth (psw), and global self-worth (gsw) (39). Previous
the participants completed their attempts. In between sets,
investigations have validated the use of the CY-PSPP as
participants were allowed to rest for approximately 3 minutes
a reliable assessment tool of physical
self-perception and self-concept in
youth (3,37).

Figure 3. Change in shoulder press weight from preintervention to postintervention in resistance training
(RT) versus control (CON). Data (mean 6 SE) are expressed as kilograms. The RT group had a significant
increase in strength on shoulder press compared to CON, which had a slight decrease in strength. p ,
0.001 difference in change between conditions; ***p , 0.001 difference within condition from baseline.

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Resistance Training Program. Subjects

were exposed to a familiarization
session that included instruction on
warming up, equipment use, exercise
performance, and rating of perceived
exertion (RPE; 10). All resistance
training sessions took place in the high
school weight room. Each session
began with a 5-minute systemic
warm-up to increase body temperature
and reduce the chance of injury. A 1:4
or 1:3 ratio of researchers to participants was always maintained for
thorough supervision and guidance
throughout all resistance training sessions. Workouts were divided into
upper body and lower body days.
The participants performed 23 sets
of 1015 repetitions on a subset of

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Figure 4. Change in squat weight from preintervention to postintervention in resistance training (RT)
versus control (CON). Data (mean 6 SE) are expressed as kilograms. The RT group had a significantly
greater increase in strength on squats compared to CON. p , 0.01 difference in change between
conditions; *p , 0.05 difference within condition from baseline; ***p , 0.001 difference within condition
from baseline.

upper body exercises including bench press, seated row,

shoulder press, lat pulldowns, flies, bicep curls, and tricep
pushdowns or lower body exercises including squats,
Romanian dead lift, leg extensions, leg curls, lunges, and calf
raises. Between each of the sets they were allowed to rest for
6090 seconds (5) permitting an adequate amount of time for
recovery. These exercises were done at a moderate intensity,
defined as approximately 80% of the adolescents 10RM
determined earlier (5). RPE (10) was used to assess the

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participants perception of the intensity of the workout and was administered after each exercise was
completed. The RPE scale consists
of ratings from 620, where 6 is very,
very light work and 20 is maximal
exertion. Each score was taken to
ensure that the subjects were working
at a moderate to moderate-high intensity level based on their personal
feelings of exertion. Use of the RPE
also served as an indicator of when to
progressively increase weight to maintain a moderate to moderate-high
intensity. Also, if the subjects were
able to complete 15 repetitions, the
load was increased by ;5% by the
researchers.
Statistical Analyses

Because of dropouts that affected the

equivalence achieved for body composition and weight through the
matching technique used, change scores were calculated to
account for baseline values. Using these change scores,
separate multivariate analyses of variance (MANOVAs) were
conducted for strength, body composition, and self-concept
variables. Significant multivariate effects were followed by
univariate analyses. Separate ANOVAs were used to examine
changes in total physical self-perception and BMI. T-tests
were also used to examine changes from baseline within each
group.
Effect sizes (ES) were calculated to
compare magnitude of changes in the
RT and CON groups using Hedgess
g formula for ES computation. This ES
computation was used for all variables.
Gains ES were also calculated for
changes from baseline for each group.
Group data are expressed as mean 6
SD and statistical significance was set
at the p # 0.05 level. Analyses were
conducted using SPSS 16.0 statistical
program.

RESULTS
Strength

Figure 5. Change in percent body fat from preintervention to postintervention in resistance training (RT)
versus control (CON). Data (mean 6 SE) are expressed as a percentage. The RT group had a significant
decrease, whereas CON had a significant increase in body fat percentage. p = 0.001 difference in
change between conditions; *p , 0.05 difference within condition from baseline.

Pretest and posttest means and standard

deviations for each groups strength
variables are presented in Table 1. There
was a significant multivariate effect for
strength (p , 0.001). Univariate analyses indicated that the RT group had
significantly greater changes in strength on
bench press (BP) (p , 0.001, ES = 1.83);
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Table 1. Results demonstrated a significant multivariate effect for body composition (p , 0.001). Univariate followups revealed that the experimental
group had significantly greater changes
in %BF (p = 0.001, ES = 1.50), LBM (p =
0.003, ES = 1.26), and FM (p = 0.045,
ES = 20.79) compared to the control
group (Figs. 5 and 6). A significant
decrease from baseline was observed
with the RT group for %BF (21.85 6
2.50%, p = 0.021; ES = -0.18) as was
a significant increase in LBM (0.95 6
0.63 kg, p , 0.001, ES = 0.19). The CON
group had a significant increase from
baseline for %BF (1.29 6 1.68%, p =
0.01, ES = 0.16).
Figure 6. Change in lean body mass from preintervention to postintervention in resistance training (RT)
versus control (CON). Data (mean 6 SE) are expressed as kilograms. The RT group had a significant
increase, whereas the CON group had a slight decrease in lean body mass. p , 0.01 difference in
change between conditions; ***p , 0.001 difference within condition from baseline.

seated row (SR) (p = 0.007, ES = 1.10); shoulder press (SP)

(p , 0.001, ES = 1.80); and squats (SQ) (p = 0.002, ES = 1.29)
than the control group (Figs. 14). The RT group had
significant changes from baseline in BP (7.52 6 5.0 kg, p ,
0.001, ES = 0.39), SR (9.44 6 8.64 kg, p = 0.002, ES = 0.43),
SP (11.36 6 8.2 kg, p , 0.001, ES = 0.53), and SQ (47.12 6
27.36 kg, p , 0.001, ES = 1.40). Also, the CON group had
a significant change from baseline in SQ (15.15 6 22.24 kg,
p = 0.019, ES = 0.50).
Body Composition

Pretest and posttest means and standard deviations for

each groups body composition variables are presented in

Body Mass Index

Pretest and posttest means and standard

deviations for each group for BMI are
presented in Table 1. ANOVA revealed
no difference between groups (p = 0.241).

Self-Concept

Pretest and posttest means and standard deviations for each

groups total self-perception and the subscales are presented
in Table 2. A significant difference was seen between RT and
CON for change in total physical self-perception (TPSP)
(p = 0.002, ES = 1.37), with RT having a significant increase.
There was a significant multivariate effect for changes in
the 6 self-perception subscales over the 12-week program
(p = 0.028). Univariate follow-ups indicated that the experimental condition had significantly greater changes in selfperception on c/scomp (p = 0.008, ES = 1.13), aba (p = 0.017,
ES = 1.00), and gsw (p = 0.013, ES = 1.04). Differences
in stcomp changes among groups approached significance

TABLE 2. Mean 6 SD for total physical self-perception and self-concept subscales.*

RT (n = 13)
Pre
Total PSP
s/acomp
c/scomp
aba
stcomp
psw
gsw

95.7 6
2.8 6
2.7 6
2.3 6
2.5 6
2.7 6
2.9 6

CON (n = 15)
Post

15.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.5
0.7
0.6

105.4
2.9
3.0
2.7
2.9
2.9
3.3

6 13.5
6 0.5
6 0.6
6 0.3
6 0.4
6 0.4
6 0.5

Pre

Post

109.2 6 17.0
3.1 6 0.7
3.4 6 0.5
2.7 6 0.6
2.7 6 0.6
2.8 6 0.8
3.3 6 0.5

105.3 6 17.4
2.9 6 0.6
3.3 6 0.5
2.6 6 0.7
2.8 6 0.6
2.7 6 0.7
3.2 6 0.7

*PSP, physical self-perception; s/acomp, sport/athletic competence; c/scomp, condition/stamina competence; aba, attractive body
adequacy; stcomp, strength competence; psw, physical self-worth; gsw, global self-worth.

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(p = 0.106, ES = 0.65). Significant changes from baseline
were observed with the RT group in c/scomp (0.26 6 0.38,
p = 0.038, ES = 0.44), aba (0.44 6 0.59, p = 0.026, ES = 0.71),
and stcomp (0.42 6 0.47, p = 0.011, ES = 0.86). Change from
baseline in gsw of the RT group approached significance
(0.39 6 0.69, p = 0.075, ES = 0.67).

DISCUSSION
The major findings from this study indicate that, compared to
a typical school-based physical activity program, a 12-week
structured resistance training program resulted in significant
increases in strength, significant improvements in body
composition, and significant improvements in self-concept
among Hispanic adolescents. These findings may hold
practical significance for those designing and implementing
physical activity programs that target adolescents, particularly of Hispanic ethnicity.
The RT group experienced significant increases in strength
measures including improvements in bench press, seated row,
shoulder press, and squats. As predicted, the RT group had
significant positive changes in body composition with
decreases in body fat percentage, decreases in fat mass, and
increases in lean body mass, as compared to the control
group. Moreover, the present study demonstrated the ability
of a resistance training program to increase lean body mass in
a relatively short amount of time. The strength and body
composition findings are similar to previous research that
found that resistance training can increase strength in
children (17) and that multidisciplinary programs that
incorporated resistance training can reduce body fat and
fat mass in children and adolescents who are obese (13,34).
Although there was no change for the control group,
participants in the RTgroup experienced a significant increase
in their total physical self-concept. In particular, the RTgroup
experienced significantly greater increases in their condition/stamina competence, attractive body adequacy, and
global self-worth, which corresponded to the positive
physical changes produced. These self-concept findings are
similar to those found in preadolescents and adults examined
in past studies (4,21,29).
The results indicate that neither group had significant
changes in BMI. However, although not significant, the data
show an increase in BMI for the RT group. This is contrary to
past literature, which has shown significant decreases in BMI
in older women who are obese (21) and in children who are
obese following multidisciplinary programs that included
resistance training (32). However, this discrepancy may be
explained by the inclusion of normal-weight participants
and/or the significant increase in lean body mass. A
significant increase in lean body mass may lead to increased
weight despite decreased fat mass, resulting in an increased
BMI. Using this measure as the sole body change outcome is
problematic. The present study provides further evidence
that BMI should not be used as the single outcome measure,
particularly for resistance training programs, because it may

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not accurately portray health status. Body composition

measures for more precise and accurate outcome measures
are recommended.
The present study was distinct from past research because it
combined 2 underrepresented populations: Hispanics and
adolescents. It also examined these populations with respect
to the effects of a resistance training program, a topic that has
not received much attention among studies of these
populations. However, Shaibi et al. (30) evaluated the effects
of resistance training for Latino adolescent males. The study
revealed increased strength, decreased body fat percentage,
and increased insulin sensitivity with resistance training; selfconcept was not evaluated. In conjunction with the present
study, it appears that resistance training in Hispanic
adolescents, a group particularly susceptible to becoming
overweight or obese, holds tremendous promise as a treatment for the improvement of physiological and psychological outcomes.
It should also be noted that most of our participants had not
previously participated in any type of structured resistance
training, yet were able to learn and benefit from the program.
This suggests that resistance training programs can be
effectively taught to adolescents without any prior experience
with resistance training. Further, the present study suggests
that a structured resistance training program can be effective
for the Hispanic population, which holds importance because
this group has an increased susceptibility to obesity (23).
This study included both normal-weight and overweight
individuals and demonstrated the benefits of resistance
training for both groups. The results reveal that it is not
necessary for an individual to be overweight to see changes in
strength, body composition, or self-concept. Some of the
magnitude of our findings may be a result of the fact that we
studied a fairly sedentary population for which any increase in
exercise, especially for the overweight, would significantly
affect our variables of interest. Of particular note is that the
low attrition rates of the RT group of this study suggest an
increased motivation to participate in this type of exercise.
The excellent compliance may be secondary to increased selfconcept and self-esteem related to increased physical fitness
(15) resulting from resistance training. In keeping consistent
with Csikszentmihalyis theory (12) that boredom or being
overwhelmed are the 2 main factors for noncompliance with
exercise programs, the structure of the resistance training
program was designed to ensure that the participants would
be adequately challenged to maintain motivation. The low
level of dropouts suggests that the level of difficulty and the
structure of the program were generally liked and wellreceived by the adolescents. The procedures used in the
present study could be applied to other programs to increase
exercise adherence, particularly among adolescent participants.
It is important to recognize the difficulty in recruiting
a large number of overweight and obese participants for this
study, which limited our ability to assess the effects of the
program specifically on this subgroup. Overweight or obese
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potential subjects may have felt that the program was too
hard for them to complete, that it would require too much
energy, or simply that they did not need an exercise program
to help them. Additionally, they may have felt
uncomfortable exercising in front of their peers. The
volunteer basis of recruitment may also be considered as
a limiting factor in this study because the participants may
have had previous interest in exercise, health, and fitness. It is
possible that more motivated individuals may work harder
during an exercise program and thus experience more
benefits. Therefore, we can only make tentative conclusions
about the benefits of the program for all Hispanic adolescents.
Future researchers may consider extending the length of
the program to see if benefits would be greater following
a longer treatment period. Follow-up studies and posttests
a few months to a year after the end of the program could be
used to evaluate adherence to resistance training by the
participants and how long the effects last. Future researchers
might also investigate the effects of resistance training by
gender, age group, weight group, or varying ethnicities.
The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of
a structured resistance training program in normal-weight
and overweight/obese Hispanic adolescents on strength,
body composition, and self-concept. As hypothesized, the
resistance training/experimental group showed significant
improvements in all of these variables as compared to the
control group. This study illustrates how a 12-week structured
resistance training program can have a significant effect on
strength, body composition, and self-concept. Further, by
examining an underresearched population, our research
suggests that resistance training programs are beneficial for
subgroups that may not necessarily be targeted for inclusion
in such programs. Not only were our results significant for
Hispanic adolescents, we also found that they were beneficial
for overweight, normal-weight, sedentary, and previously
active youth. The strength of these findings suggests that
resistance training programs could be an extremely powerful
tool in the battle against obesity. It can further teach
adolescents to be active at a younger age to keep them active
throughout their lives, an important factor in building a future
healthy lifestyle.

The ultimate goal of this study is to help construct a program

for schools or communities to follow, thus helping to combat
the obesity epidemic and improve the lifestyles and physical
activity levels of adolescents. The results demonstrate that
within a relatively short time frame, changes in strength, body
fat percentage, and self-concept can be attained in this
population. In the future, this type of program can be used in
many different settings, including adolescent weight loss
programs, physical education classes, or community programs. The results suggest that a resistance training program
required by the school during regularly scheduled physical
education classes could make an important impact on
the

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We would like to extend our gratitude to the subjects that
participated in this study along with Perth Amboy High
School, Gregg Ficarra, and Perth Amboy HS Physical
Education staff. We would also like to thank Taylor Doyle,
Meryl Epstein, Daniel Freidenreich, Lauren Katcher, Joseph
Pellegrino, Brian Tarus, Betsy Tobolski, and Caitlin Wantuch
for their assistance with recruitment and data collection.
Special thanks to Cynthia Jaouhari for her help in manuscript
preparation. The funding for this study was provided by
LifeFitness Academy and the Youth Sports Research Council.
All researchers involved impartially collected, analyzed,
and interpreted the data from this study and have no financial
interests concerning the outcome of this investigation.
The results from this study do not represent support by the
authors and their institutions concerning the intervention
investigated.

REFERENCES

PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS

1072

students. Making the program universal could reduce

embarrassment for overweight or obese participants who
may feel too self-conscious to seek out such a program.
The resistance training program used in this study can be
directly incorporated into school-based activity programs for
adolescents. The training sessions lasted 3540 minutes,
which is similar to a typical class period; participants were
split into small groups of 34, and the training was effective
despite some inconsistency with school scheduling conflicts
(i.e., half days, holiday vacations, or parent/teacher conferences). The results of this study may have been enhanced if
the duration of the sessions was extended, greater individual
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fairly idealistic, the reality is that this would likely not be
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students to self-monitor and perform the workouts as small
subgroups. The presence of the lifelike structure of the
resistance training program in this study amplifies the
significance of the findings and allows for direct practical use.

TM

Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research

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