BERNOULLI EQUATION

A statement of the conservation of energy in a form useful for solving

problems involving fluids. For a non-viscous, incompressible fluid in steady
flow, the sum of pressure, potential and kinetic energies per unit volume is
constant at any point
A special form of the Eulers equation derived along a fluid flow streamline is
often called the Bernoulli Equation

For steady state incompressible flow the Euler equation becomes (1). If we
integrate (1) along the streamline it becomes (2). (2) can further be modified
to (3) by dividing by gravity.

Head of Flow
Equation (3) is often referred to the head because all elements has the unit
of length.
Dynamic Pressure
(2) and (3) are two forms of the Bernoulli Equation for steady state
incompressible flow. If we assume that the gravitational body force is
negligible, (3) can be written as (4). Both elements in the equation have the
unit of pressure and it's common to refer the flow velocity component as
the dynamic pressure of the fluid flow (5).
Since energy is conserved along the streamline, (4) can be expressed as (6).
Using the equation we see that increasing the velocity of the flow will reduce
the pressure, decreasing the velocity will increase the pressure.
This phenomena can be observed in a venturi meter where the pressure is
reduced in the constriction area and regained after. It can also be observed
in a pitot tube where the stagnation pressure is measured. The stagnation
pressure is where the velocity component is zero.
Example - Bernoulli Equation and Flow from a Tank through a small
Orifice
Liquid flows from a tank through a orifice close to the bottom. The Bernoulli
equation can be adapted to a streamline from the surface (1) to the orifice
(2) as (e1):

Since (1) and (2)'s heights from a common reference is related as (e2), and
the equation of continuity can be expressed as (e3), it's possible to transform
(e1) to (e4).
Vented tank
A special case of interest for equation (e4) is when the orifice area is much
lesser than the surface area and when the pressure inside and outside the
tank is the same - when the tank has an open surface or "vented" to the
atmosphere. At this situation the (e4) can be transformed to (e5).
"The velocity out from the tank is equal to speed of a freely body falling the
distance h." - also known as Torricelli's Theorem.
Example - outlet velocity from a vented tank
The outlet velocity of a tank with height 10 m can be calculated as
V2 = (2 (9.81 m/s2) (10 m))1/2
= 14 m/s
Pressurized Tank
If the tanks is pressurized so that product of gravity and height (g h) is much
lesser than the pressure difference divided by the density, (e4) can be
transformed to (e6).
The velocity out from the tank depends mostly on the pressure difference.
Example - outlet velocity from a pressurized tank

The outlet velocity of a pressurized tank where

p1 = 0.2 MN/m2
p2 = 0.1 MN/m2
A2/A1 = 0.01
h = 10 m
can be calculated as
V2 = ( (2/(1-(0.01)2) ((0.2 106 N/m2) - (0.1 106 N/m2))/(1000 kg/m3) + (9.81
m/s2)(10 m)))1/2
= 19.9 m/s
Coefficient of Discharge - Friction Coefficient
Due to friction the real velocity will be somewhat lower than this theoretic
example. If we introduce a friction coefficient c (coefficient of discharge),
(e5) can be expressed as (e5b).
The coefficient of discharge can be determined experimentally. For a sharp
edged opening it may be as low as 0.6. For smooth orifices it may bee
between 0.95 and 1.
FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
The 1st Law of Thermodynamics tells us that energy is neither created nor
destroyed, thus the energy of the universe is aconstant. However, energy
can certainly be transferred from one part of the universe to another. To
work out thermodynamic problems we will need to isolate a certain portion of
the universe, the system, from the remainder of the universe, the
surroundings.
The energy transfer between different systems can be expressed as:
E1 = E2
(1)
where
E1 = initial energy
E2 = final energy
The internal energy encompasses:

The kinetic energy associated with the motions of the atoms

The potential energy stored in the chemical bonds of the molecules

The gravitational energy of the system

The first law is the starting point for the science of thermodynamics and for
engineering analysis.
Based on the types of exchange that can take place we will define three
types of systems:

isolated systems: no exchange of matter or energy

closed systems: no exchange of matter but some exchange of energy

open systems: exchange of both matter and energy

The first law makes use of the key concepts of internal energy, heat,
and system work. It is used extensively in the discussion of heat engines.
Internal Energy - Internal energy is defined as the energy associated
with the random, disordered motion of molecules. It is separated in
scale from the macroscopic ordered energy associated with moving
objects; it refers to the invisible microscopic energy on the atomic and
molecular scale. For example, a room temperature glass of water
sitting on a table has no apparent energy, either potential or kinetic .
But on the microscopic scale it is a seething mass of high speed
molecules. If the water were tossed across the room, this microscopic
energy would not necessarily be changed when we superimpose an
ordered large scale motion on the water as a whole.
Heat - Heat may be defined as energy in transit from a high
temperature object to a lower temperature object. An object does not
possess "heat"; the appropriate term for the microscopic energy in an
object is internal energy. The internal energy may be increased by
transferring energy to the object from a higher temperature (hotter)
object - this is called heating.
Work - When work is done by a thermodynamic system, it is usually a
gas that is doing the work. The work done by a gas at constant
pressure is W = p dV, where W id
work, p is pressure and dV is change in volume.
For non-constant pressure, the work can be visualized as the area
under the pressure-volume curve which represents the process taking
place.
Heat Engines -Refrigerators, Heat pumps, Carnot cycle, Otto cycle
The change in internal energy of a system is equal to the head added to the
system minus the work done by the system:
dE = Q - W
(2)
where
dE = change in internal energy
Q = heat added to the system
W = work done by the system
1st law does not provide the information of direction of processes and does
not determine the final equilibrium state. Intuitively, we know that energy
flows from high temperature to low temperature. Thus, the 2nd law is needed
to determine the direction of processes.
Enthalpy is the "thermodynamic potential" useful in the chemical
thermodynamics of reactions and non-cyclic processes. Enthalpy is defined
by
H = U + PV
(3)
where
H = enthalpy

U = internal energy
P = pressure
V = volume
Enthalpy is then a precisely measurable state variable, since it is defined in
terms of three other precisely definable state variables.
Entropy is used to define the unavailable energy in a system. Entropy
defines the relative ability of one system to act to an other. As things moves
toward a lower energy level, where one is less able to act upon the
surroundings, the entropy is said to increase. Entropy is connected to
the Second Law of Thermodynamics.
For the universe as a whole the entropy is increasing.

Second Law of Thermodynamics.

There are two classical statements of the second law of thermodynamics:
Kelvin & Plank
"No (heat) engine whose working fluid undergoes a cycle can absorb
heat from a single reservoir, deliver an equivalent amount of work,
and deliver no other effect"
Clauses
"No machine whose working fluid undergoes a cycle can absorb heat
from one system, reject heat to another system and produce no other
effect"
Both statements of the second law place constraints on the first law by
identifying that energy goes downhill.
The second law is concerned with entropy (S). Entropy is produced by all
processes and associated with the entropy production is the loss of ability to
do work. The second law says that the entropy of the universe increases. An
increase in overall disorder is therefore spontaneous. If the volume and
energy of a system are constant, then every change to the system increases
the entropy. If volume or energy change, then the entropy of the system
actually decrease. However, the entropy of the universe does not decrease.
For energy to be available there must be a region with high energy level and
a region with low energy level. Useful work must be derived from the energy
that would flows from the high level to the low level.

100% of the energy cannot be transformed to work

Entropy can be produced but never destroyed

Efficiency of a heat machine
The efficiency of a heat machine working between two energy levels is
defined in terms of absolute temperature:
= ( Th - Tc ) / Th = 1 - Tc / Th(1)
where
= efficiency

Th = temperature high level (K)

Tc = temperature low level (K)
As a consequence, to attain maximum efficiency the Tc would have to be as
cold as possible. For 100% efficiency the Tcwould have to equal 0 K. This is
practically impossible, so the efficiency is always less than 1 (less than
100%).
Change in entropy > 0 Change in entropy = 0 Change in entropy < 0
irreversible process
reversible process
impossible process
Entropy is used to define the unavailable energy in a system. Entropy defines
the relative ability of one system to act on an other. As things move toward a
lower energy level, where one is less able to act upon the surroundings, the
entropy is said to increase.

For the universe as a whole the entropy is increasing!

Entropy definition
Entropy is defined as :
S = H / T (2)
where
S = entrophy (kJ/kg K)
H = enthalpy (kJ/kg)
T = absolute temperature (K)
A change in the entropy of a system is caused by a change in its heat
content, where the change of entropy is equal to the heat change divided by
the average absolute temperature (Ta):
dS = dH / Ta (3)
The sum of (H / T) values for each step in the Carnot cycle equals 0. This only
happens because for every positive H there is a countering negative H,
overall.
Carnot Heat Cycle
In a heat engine, a gas is reversibly heated and then cooled. A model
of the cycle is as follows: State 1 --(isothermal expansion) --> State 2
--(adiabatic expansion) --> State 3 --(isothermal compression) -->
State 4 --(adiabatic compression) --> State 1
State 1 to State 2: Isothermal Expansion
Isothermal expansion occurs at a high temperature Th, dT =
0 and dE1 = 0. Since dE = H + w, w1= - H1. For ideal gases, dE is
dependent on temperature only.
State 2 to State 3: Adiabatic Expansion
The gas is cooled from the high temperature, Th, to the low
temperature, Tc. dE2 = w2 and H2 = 0(adiabatic).

State 3 to State 4: Isothermal Compression

This is the reverse of the process between states 1 and 2. The gas is
compressed at Tc. dT = 0and dE3 = 0. w3 = - H3
State 4 to State 1: Adiabatic Compression
This is the reverse of the process between states 2 and 3. dE4 =
w4 and H4 = 0 (adiabatic).
The processes in the Carnot cycle can be graphed as the pressure vs.
the volume. The area enclosed in the curve is then the work for the
Carnot cycle because w = - integral (P dV). Since this is a
cycle, dE overall equals 0. Therefore,
-w = H = H1 + H2 + H3 + H4
If you decrease Tc, then the quantity -w gets larger in magnitude.
if -w > 0 then H > 0 and the system, the heat engine, does work on
the surroundings.
The laws of thermodynamics were determined empirically (by experiment).
They are generalizations of repeated scientific experiments. The second law
is a generalization of experiments dealing with entropy--it is that the dS of
the system plus the dS of the surroundings is equal to or greater then 0.

Entropy is not conserved like energy!

Example - Entropy Heating Water
A process raises 1 kg of water from 0 to 100oC (273 to 373 K) under
atmospheric conditions.
Specific enthalpy at 0oC (hf) = 0 kJ/kg (from steam tables) (Specific - per unit
mass)
Specific enthalpy of water at 100oC (hf) = 419 kJ/kg (from steam tables)
Change in specific entropy:
dS = dH / Ta
= ((419 kJ/kg) - (0 kJ/kg)) / ((273 K + 373 K)/2)
= 1.297 kJ/kgK
Example - Entropy Evaporation Water to Steam
A process changes 1 kg of water at 100oC (373 K) to saturated steam
at 100oC (373 K) under atmospheric conditions.
Specific enthalpy of steam at 100oC (373 K) before evaporating = 0
kJ/kg (from steam tables)
Specific enthalpy of steam at 100oC (373 K) after evaporating = 2 258
kJ/kg (from steam tables)
Change in specific entropy:
dS = dH / Ta
= (2 258 - 0) / ((373 + 373)/2)

= 6.054 kJ/kgK
The total change in specific entropy from water at 0oC to saturated steam at
100oC is the sum of the change in specific entropy for the water, plus the
change of specific entropy for the steam.
Example - Entropy Superheated Steam
A process superheats 1 kg of saturated steam at atmospheric pressure to
150oC (423 K).
Specific total enthalpy of steam at 100oC (373 K) = 2 675 kJ/kg (from steam
tables)
Specific total enthalpy of superheated steam at 150oC (373 K) = 2 777
kJ/kg (from steam tables)
Change in specific entropy:
dS = dH / Ta
= ((2777 kJ/kg) - (2675 kJ/kg)) / ((423 K + 373 K)/2)
= 0.256 kJ/kgK