Why Paint?

Paint is a surface coating, which decorates and protects the surface

on which it is applied.
No paint is good if applied improperly. This is borne out by the fact that paint
in the real sense is not a finished product. The consumer requirement is
deemed to have been met only when the liquid paint is applied on a surface
and the film is formed, i.e. the paint dries. The aforesaid factors influence the
realization of the consumers requirement.
In architectural finishes, the decorative angle occupies a prominent position
but the protective properties also play their role silently. In case of paints for
heavy-duty applications like, at chemical refineries, marine environment,
fertilizer plants etc., protective aspect is more important.
The success or failure of any coating is influenced by the following factors.

Substrate Condition
Surface Preparation and method of application
Environmental conditions at which the paint is applied and expected
to withstand during service.

The quality of paint used.

There are four prominent types of surfaces, which are painted regularly, for
protection as well as for beautification. These are:

Metal (Ferrous & Non-Ferrous)

Concrete / Masonry
Plastics
Wood

There is a need of specific coating to the each surface mentioned above. This
book elaborates the paint, the need of painting, surface preparation, and
various properties of paints. It also comprises various application methods
adopted to apply paint along with the defects observed during and after
painting.

 What is paint?
Paint can be defined as a fluid material which, when spread over surface in
the form of a thin layer, will form a solid, adherent and cohesive film.
Some paints are also available in the form of powder. They are either
converted to fluid form by addition of suitable thinner prior to its application
(e.g. Dry distemper, Cement Paints, Powder Coatings etc.) or applied directly.
The fluid or liquid paint consists of four major ingredients.

P A IN T
P ig m en ts

R esin

T h in n er o r S o lv en t

A d d itiv es

Pigment, binder or film former or resin or vehicle and solvent or thinner and
the relative properties of these ingredients can be varied to produce films
with any desired physical and application characteristics.
Properties of Pigments :

Colour
Opacity
Tinting Strength
Light Fastness
Resistance to Heat
Resistance to Chemicals
Corrosion Inhibition
Barrier Effect

e.g. TiO2, Carbon black, chrome pigments, metallic pigments, oxide

pigments, barites, calcite, china clay etc.

Properties of Resins :

Film Formation
Adhesion with Substrate
Corrosion resistance
Chemical resistance
Water resistance
Gloss

e.g. Epoxy, Polyurethane, Chlorinated Rubber, Nitro Cellulose, Acrylics,

Alkyds etc.
Properties of Solvents :

Flow
Applicability
Resistivity
Drying

e.g. Xylene, M.T., Butanol, Toluene, Acetates etc.

Properties of Additives :

Drying
Gloss
Anti Settling
Anti Skinning
Anti Floatation
De-Foamers etc.

e.g. Driers, anti-settling, anti-skinning, de-foaming etc.

Properties of Paints :

Wet Paint Properties

o Fineness of grind
o Viscosity
o Weight per liter
o Percentage solid contents
o Percentage volume solids
o Medium separation
o Settling
3

o Drying properties
o Covering capacity
o Thinner intake
o Flash point
o Shelf life
Dry Film Properties
o Hiding
o Gloss
o Scratch hardness
o Flexibility & adhesion
o Impact resistance
o Salt spray
o Chemical resistance
o Water immersion

Testing of paints :
Property

Testing Instrument
Wet Paint Properties
Fineness of grind
Hegman Guage
Viscosity / Consistency
FC B4 / Stormer
Weight per liter
Weight per liter cup
Percentage solid contents
Oven & balance
Percentage volume solids
Oven & balance
Thinner intake
Measuring cylinder
Drying
Drying time recorder
Covering capacity
Morris Chart & Kryptometer
Flash point
Ables cup
Shelf life
Incubator
Dry Film Properties
Film thickness
DFT Meter
Hiding
Morris chart
Gloss
Glossometer
Hardness
Pencil & Scratch hardness tester
Impact resistance
Impact tester
Abrasion resistance
Taber abraser
Flexibility
Mandrel
Adhesion
Tape test
Resistance to chemicals / corrosion / Immersion or spot test, Salt Spray /
environment
Humidity cabinet & Weatherometer
4

 S U R FA C E P R E PA R AT I O N
Introduction
Surface preparation is a backbone of any given coating system. Most of the
paint performances are affected by contaminants like loose mill scales, rust, oil,
grease, dust, dirt etc. It is very essential to remove these contaminants before
paint application.

Common Methods of Surface Preparation

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Abrasive Blast Cleaning

Manual & Power tool Cleaning
Water Jet Cleaning
Wet Abrasive Blast Cleaning
Chemical / Solvent cleaning

There are various grades & standards of surface preparation. These standards are
self-sufficient and give better idea of the degree of surface cleaning.
Selection of surface preparation method depends and varies as per the substrate
condition, nature of substrate and performance requirement of the coating systems.
Based on this, surface preparation methods can be divided into two categories.
1. Primary Surface Preparation: - Surface preparation prior to painting of new metal
or concrete, which includes removal of rust, oil, grease, dust, foreign matters, dirt
etc before application.
2.Secondary Surface Preparation: - Surface preparation prior to maintenance
coatings sort of jobs, which includes removal of rust, Zn corrosion products, loosely
bonded old coating, scuffing of old intact coating, removal of oil, grease, dust, dirt,
foreign matters.

1. Abrasive Blast Cleaning

Abrasive blast cleaning is a best method to prepare surface, and to achieve longer
protection. Appropriate blasting method in combination with proper coating system
can give enhanced protection of any given surface.
In this process, abrasives like sand, steel shots, grits or slag are directed to the
surface with a very high pressure, thus, removal of rust, mill scales, loosening the
bondage of previous coating takes place. Thus creating an anchorage or profile for
the paint to adhere to.

There are number of institutions which have documented blast cleaning methods
and are best guide to the surface preparation. These are summarized as follows:
SSPC

Swedish
Standards

BS

NACE

ISO

White Metal
(SSPCSP5)

Sa 3

1st Quality

NACE 1

Sa 3

Near White
Metal
(SSPCSP10)

Sa 2

2nd Quality

NACE 2

Sa 2

Commercial
Blasting
(SSPC-SP6)

Sa 2

3rd Quality

NACE 3

Sa 2

Sa 1

NACE 4

Sa 1

Brush
off
Blasting
(SSPC-SP7)

Description
Removal
of
total
rust,
mill
scales,
foreign
matters,
dust, dirt etc.
to
have
original
metallic
sheen.
Removal
of
rust,
mill
scales,
foreign
matters,
dust,
dirt,
grease
etc.
5% of total
area can be
left over with
old
coating,
rust/mill
scales in pits.
More practical
method.
Removal
of
mill
scales,
rust,
oil,
grease, dust,
foreign
matter
etc.
Tightly
adhering old
coating
can
be left over.
Light blasting
to
create
profile.

2. Hand & Power Tool Cleaning

When blasting is not practical, hand and power tool cleaning is employed.
Sometimes, in routine and localised jobs, hand and power tool cleaning is preferred
over blasting, because of easy access to crevices, joints, angles, restricted areas
etc. Following methods and tools are used to clean the surface with this procedure.

Wire brushing: - Wire brushing is a conventional method not suitable for the
removal of mill scale, but suitable for the preparation of weld seams. The main
disadvantage is that the treated surfaces are often not completely freed from
the corrosion products.

Chipping: - Chipping is usually done in combination with wire brushing. It is

suitable for local repairs with conventional or some specific paint systems. It
is not generally recommended for preparation of surfaces to be coated with
epoxy or chlorinated rubber paints. It is very useful in removing thick rust
scale which economizes in later blasting operations.

Impact cleaning tools

Rotary cleaning tools

Rotary impact cleaning tools

There are two standards for hand & power tool cleaning, which are documented by
Swedish Standards & SSPC. Both standards give exact idea of the degree of surface
preparation by Hand tool or Power tool.

Cleaning Method

Swedish Standard

SSPC

Hand Tool

St 2

SSPC - SP2

Power Tool

St 3

SSPC - SP3

3. Water Jet Cleaning

Water jetting uses water of sufficient purity and quality at high or ultra high
pressure to prepare a surface for re-coating. It can be used to clean steel, nonferrous metals and other hard surfaces. It generally removes loose paint, chemical
contaminants, loose rust and scale, grease and other materials not tightly bonded
to the surface.

Four types of surface preparation using water are given below.

Low pressure water cleaning: - Cleaning performed at pressures less than

5000 psi

High pressure water cleaning: - Cleaning performed at pressures from 5000 to

10000 psi

High pressure water jetting: - Cleaning performed at pressures from 10000 to

25000 psi

Ultra high pressure water jetting: - Cleaning performed at pressures above

25000 psi and above

Water jet cleaning is very effective for cleaning irregularly shaped surfaces such as
valves, flanges and gratings. Where abrasive blasting is not feasible, water jet
cleaning can be an effective alternative. Water jetting will not produce an etch or
profile of the magnitude produced by abrasive blasting, rather, it exposes the
original abrasive blasted surface profile if surface was blast cleaned during previous
painting.
Water jet cleaning can be destructive to non-metallic surfaces. Soft wood,
insulation, electric installations and instrumentation must be protected from direct
and indirect water jet. Generally, municipal water satisfies the purpose. Seawater or
hard bore well water is not to be used, as it leave salt on the surface after cleaning.
Water used in water jetting must be clean and free of erosive salts or other
contaminants that damage pump valves or leave deposits on the surface being
cleaned.

4. Wet Abrasive Blast Cleaning

Wet abrasive blasting may be performed with low or high pressure fresh water to
which a relative small amount of abrasives is introduced, and in some cases
inhibitors are added to prevent flash rusting (however, as a general rule, it is
recommended not to use inhibitors when cleaning areas are to be immersed during
service). This reduces the amount of airborne dust and sand. It is necessary to
rinse the surface after blasting to remove sand and debris.

5. Chemical / Solvent Cleaning

This process involves cleaning of surface with the help of paint strippers, solvents,
acids etc. This method, although very effective to remove oil, grease, old coating, is
not good at removing mill scales, rust and corrosion products. This process is
implemented mainly in OEM industries.

Surface Profile
Besides degree of cleaning, surface profile is an important aspect in surface
preparation. The dry film thickness of coating should be at least three times the
surface profile to give long lasting protection.

Surface
Preparation
Substrates

for

Non-Ferrous

Metal

Surface should be dry and clean. Any visible oil/grease should be removed by
thinner / solvent wiping. Cleaned surface should be abraded or sweep blasted using
low pressure and non-metallic abrasives, then primed with a coat of GP Prime 401
etch primer.

Galvanized Steel
Degreasing is to be carried out to remove any oil/grease. Any white zinc corrosion
products should be removed by high-pressure fresh water washing or fresh water
washing with scrubbing. Even if sweep blasting is done, water - washing is
recommended to ensure removal of soluble zinc salts.

Concrete and Masonry Surfaces

New concrete or masonry:

Must be allowed to cure at least 30 days before coating. The moisture
content of the concrete/masonry should be less than 6%. In case of large
areas and for severe exposure conditions, the surface has to be prepared by
light blasting. In less critical areas where blasting is not practical, wire
brushing has to be adopted to remove laitance, followed by treating with
dilute HCl (10%).

Old concrete surface :

The surface has to be prepared by light blasting preferably. In case, blasting
is not practical, etch the surface to get a good surface profile with dilute HCl
(10%) etching followed by thorough rinsing with fresh water to remove all
the free acid. Remove the surface contaminants like grease, oil etc. by
solvent wiping or by 10% caustic solution. Any soluble salt is required to be
removed by water washing.
Remove acid and contaminants by liberal wash with water. Ensure that acid
solution does not remain on the surface and joints. Allow the surface to dry
thoroughly before applying GP Prime 100/200. Any cracks should be cut out
and filled with suitable filler prior to painting.

 PA I N T A P P L I C AT I O N
Proper application is a critical part of the paint system. The choice of the application
method is dependent on various factors such as type of coating, performance,
handling ease, speed, size and shape of substrate, location, final appearance and
economy.
The proper use of the application tool or equipment used to apply the paint or
coating can have a definite effect on the time required, the appearance of the
finished job and the performance of the applied product.
The following methods of application are normally employed for high performance
coatings:

1. Brush Application
Brushing is the most common method for applying coatings. While brushing is a
somewhat slow procedure many small jobs do not warrant the use of any other
application method. Brushing is especially useful for touch up work, spot priming,
stripe coat or work in confined areas, where spraying is impossible. Less paint is
wasted when applied by brush than by other methods. Use cross application to
minimize brush marks and generally do not apply DFT greater than 100 in single
coat to avoid sagging.
Either natural or synthetic bristle brushes are suitable for use with solvent based
coatings. Synthetic bristle brushes are preferred with water based coatings
because natural bristles tend to swell in water.

2. Roller Application
Rollers are efficient tools for applying industrial coatings and are suited for broad
flat surfaces. The general rule for selecting a roller cover is the smoother the
surface the shorter the nap. Solvent thinned coatings should be applied with either
lambs wool or synthetic covers and water-reduced coatings should be applied with
synthetic covers. When using rollers to apply coating systems such as epoxies,
polyurethanes which contains strong solvents, be sure that the roller cover selected
is constructed with glues which are resistant to these strong solvents.

10

3. Spray Application
The easiest and most rapid method for the application of protective coatings to
large areas is spraying. Spray application is preferred where a smooth uniform finish
is desired and speed of production is important.
Conventional air atomization is used when quality of finish is of utmost importance
or where great versatility is desired. Airless spray is best for large-scale
operations not requiring very fine finish.
Both conventional and airless spray may be modified for increased performance or
for specialized applications. One such modification includes adding heaters to fluid
lines. The use of heated paint permits atomization at lower pressures, decreases or
eliminates the need for thinning, cuts down on over spray rebound and provides a
heavier film build with minimum waste of paint and solvents. The only drawback
associated with hot spraying is that the pot life of catalyzed products sprayed by
heated method is generally reduced.

Air Spray Application:

A conventional air spray gun is a precision tool, which uses compressed air to
atomize sprayable materials. Air and paint enter the gun through separate passage
and are mixed and ejected at the air nozzle to provide a controlled spray pattern.
The amount of paint leaving the gun is controlled by the pressure on the fluid
container, the viscosity of the paint, the size of the fluid orifice, and by the fluid
needle adjustment.

Suggestions for effective air sp ray painting:

Use the lowest possible air and fluid pressure when operating a spray gun.
Use the proper fan width for the job.
Spray from the proper distance (15 - 25 cm)
Hold the gun perpendicular to the work throughout the spray stroke.
Move the spray gun parallel to the work surface throughout the spray stroke.
Move the spray gun at a speed, which assures that a full wet coat is applied to
the surface.

Airless Spray Application:

Airless spray is a method of application, which does not directly use compressed air
to atomize the coating sprayed. Hydraulic pressure is used to atomize the fluid by
pumping it at high pressures through a small precision orifice in a spray nozzle. As
the fluid is released at these high pressures, it is separated into small droplets
resulting in a finely atomized spray.

11

Airless spray painting is cleaner and faster than conventional spraying methods.
One advantage of airless spraying is that the over spray fog or rebound associated
with conventional spray is greatly reduced. This makes use of equipment possible in
places and applications where material formerly had to be brushed.
Another significant advantage of airless spray is the ability to apply heavy coating
thickness more quickly than by any other method. Most coating materials may be
sprayed in their unthinned state that also helps contribute towards the formulation
of high build coatings and greatly reduces thinner use.

Suggestions for effective airless spray:

The technique employed for airless spraying is similar to the technique practiced in
air spraying.

The ideal spraying pressure for any given tip is achieved by gradually
increasing the pressure until the spray pattern appears uniform across its fan
width and the atomized coating particles are of acceptable size.

If the coating is coarsely atomized, the pressure may be increased slightly, a

smaller orifice tip used or the coating thinned.

Avoid using excessively high airless spray pressures, which may cause
effervescence or other finish defects.

Holding gun perpendicular and move it parallel to the surface at all times in
order to obtain a uniform coating of material.

Arcing, heeling and toeing should be avoided at all times.

The proper working distance with airless spray is approximately 25 - 30 cm.

When using wide-angle spray tips, the gun must be moved closer to the work.
Excessive spray distance increases paint fog and paint consumption.

The lifetime of any protective system is determined by the dry film

thickness of the paint system. Particular attention should be given to the
thoroughness with which the coating is worked into crevices, weld and
rough surfaces. Special attention should be given to sharp edges to ensure
that they are covered with an adequate coating thickness, if required use an
additional touch up coat / stripe coat at these areas to attain a minimum
system thickness.

12

 PAINT CALCULATIONS

1. Estimating Practical Coverage

To calculate practical coverage capacity at the recommended dry film thickness, the
following variables must be known:
a.

% Volume Solids

b.

Actual dry film thickness (DFT)

c.

% Loss Factor

The material loss factor depends upon a number of factors, viz :

I.

Application method, where conventional spray application gives maximum

losses.

II.

Geometry and shape of the substrate like irregular and complex shapes of
surface.

III.

Nature & texture of the substrate like porous and absorbent surfaces.

IV.

Skill of operator

V.

Working condition like wind flow, temperature etc.

VI.

Physical losses such as left over in drums, unused portion after completion of
pot life, cleaning losses etc.

Once these variables are known, use the following formula to make the calculation:

%Volume Solids x 10
100 - % Loss Factor
x

Actual DFT
100

p.c.c.

Where, p.c.c. = Practical Covering Capacity

13

2. Estimating Cost of paints per Sq. M.

To calculate the material cost per Sq. M., the following variables must be known:
a.

Price per liter of paint

b.

% Volume solids

c.

Dry film thickness (DFT)

d.

% Loss factor (or practical covering capacity)

Once these variables are known, use the following formula :

100
Price per Ltr

T. C. C 100 % Loss Factor

Material Cost per Sq. M

Where, T.C.C. = Theoretical Covering Capacity in m 2/Ltr.

% Volume Solids x 10

DFT

T. C. C in Sq. M./ Ltr

3. Estimating Quantity of Paint required for a job

To calculate the quantity of paint required for a given job, the following parameters
must be known:
a.

Area of the job in Sq. M.

b.

% Volume Solids

c.

Dry film thickness (DFT)

d.

% Loss factor,

Once these parameters are known, then use the following formula:

100
Area

T
.
C
.
C
100

%
Loss
Factor

Quantity of Paint in Ltrs.

14

 PAINT DEFECTS
Sr
.
No
1.

Coating
Defect

Paint
detachment /
delamination

Possible Causes

Intercoat contamination
Over coating intervals
too long
Too thick coat
Detachment from base
itself

Correct spray techniques /

factors

Allow the surface to cool

down

Poor application, i.e.

higher, too wide spray
fan, excessive pressure
Excessive
application
temperature
High wind velocity

Provide wind shield, stop

painting

Low dry film thickness

Lower viscosity
Wrong
selection
of
undercoat
Settled pigment may
not
have
been
thoroughly mixed

Apply additional coats to

build DFT
Increase
application
viscosity
Select
appropriate
undercoat

Stir sufficiently and agitate

paint before use.

Uncured/wet undercoat

Undercoat sensitive

Allow proper curing of each

coat
Use tie coat
Select proper system

Contamination
like
moisture,
grease,
overspray
of
other
paints etc.

2.

Dry Spray /
Cob webbing

3.

Poor Opacity

4.

5.

Lifting

Cissing

Cures

15

Check compatibility of paint

Follow over coating interval
as specified
Check DFT
Stop water seepage and fill
up
the
cracks,
check
surface for contaminations

Clean
surface
prior
to
painting
Sand the affected area and
repaint

6.

Pinholes

Poor
application
technique holding spray
gun too close, high air
pressure
Improper
surface
condition
Substrate
contamination like, oil,
water, dirt etc.

Correct
factors

fill up the imperfection

Clean the surface of all
contaminants
prior
to
painting
Fill the pinholes with more
material
by
brush
/
additional thin coat of
paint.

spray

techniques

7.

Poor Drying /
Soft Paint

Adverse
condition

painting

Ensure good ventilation and

apply
at
suitable
temperature and humidity.

8.

Blistering
Solvent
Popping

Excessive film thickness

Entrapment of solvent
or air beneath the paint
film.

Apply at recommended DFT

Allow the film to cure
sufficiently.

9.

Orange Peeling

Very fast evaporation of

solvents
High spraying viscosity
Too high DFT

Follow the correct spraying

technique
Reduce spray viscosity
Apply at recommended DFT

10.

Mud Cracking

High film build

Over atomization
High
temperature
condition

Apply at recommended DFT

Proper equipment set up
Slow evaporating thinner or
reschedule
wash
to
favourable
temperature
conditions.

11.

Poor Gloss

Sinkage
into
porous
substrate
or
insufficiently
dried
undercoat
Low dry film thickness
Selection
of
wrong
thinner

Use appropriate undercoat

or filler

Apply higher DFT

Use recommended thinner

16

 SAFETY INFORMATION
The majority of paints, coatings and thinners do not present special hazards in
storage or use provided that good standards of industrial hygiene are maintained.
However, it must be remembered that these materials can introduce two potential
hazards - health and fire.

1. Health Hazards:
Paints, coatings and thinners are mixtures of various chemicals, some of which are
potentially hazardous if their use is not strictly controlled in accordance with good
standards of industrial hygiene and safe working practice.
The following is a guide to the potential hazards and recommended safe practices.

Ingestion:
The ingestion of paint should be avoided. Food and drink should not be brought
back into, stored, prepared or consumed in areas where paints are stored, handled
or used. Smoking in such areas should be prohibited.
In the event that paints, thinners etc., are accidentally swallowed, do not induce
vomiting. Seek immediate medical advice.

Inhalation:
The inhalation of paints, dust or fumes should be avoided by the use of local
ventilation or extraction. Where fumes or dust are unavoidable, suitable approved
respirators or facemasks should be worn.
Remember that solvent vapours are heavier than air and will tend to accumulate at
the bottom of tanks or in confined spaces. Never enter areas where this could have
happened without wearing suitable breathing apparatus. If dizziness, drunkenness
or headaches are experienced, solvent vapours could cause these - move
immediately into fresh air and do not return until the area has been declared safe.
Where necessary, gas tests should be carried out in confined areas or areas that are
difficult to ventilate effectively. If anyone should overcome fumes, carefully remove
him/her to fresh air - allow recovering gradually and seeking immediate medical
assistance. In areas where the ventilation is poor, an airfed mask hood is essential.
If any doubt exists, wear an air fed mask hood.

17

Skin Contact:
Normally harmless chemicals can cause irritation by repeated or prolonged contact
with skin and, in extreme cases; there is a risk of dermatitis. All personnel who
handle and use paints should wear appropriate protective clothing (as a minimum;
gloves, eye protection and aprons). Splashes of paint on the skin should be treated
promptly by copious washing with clean water, or an approved cleansing agent.

Eye Protection:
It is recommended that operators should wear suitable eye protectors when there is
a risk of paint splashing into their eyes.
Splashes of paint into the eyes should be treated promptly by copious washing with
fresh water for at least 10 minutes. It is a sensible precaution to seek medical
advice.
Personal Hygiene:
All personnel involved in the handling and use of paints should be encouraged to
observe the highest standards of personal hygiene. Suitable protective clothing
should be supplied and maintained and adequate facilities for washing provided. In
the event of clothing becoming soiled with paint, it should be changed and the
affected area thoroughly washed with soap and water. Personnel should be
encouraged to wash especially before eating food.

2. Fire & Explosion Hazards:

With the exceptions of solvent-free and water-thinned materials, all paints contain
organic solvents which are flammable to a greater or lesser degree.
Users of paint and related products should make themselves aware of their
statutory duties with regard to national regulations, and seek advice from
Government Agencies, if in doubt.
The main points to observe are:

Storage and usage should be in separated areas, constructed to the

appropriate standard of fire resistance. The quantity of materials stored
in the actual working areas should be as small as is practicable.

Adequate ventilation
maintained.

Adequate fire prevention and fire fighting equipment should be

provided and maintained. Do not attempt to fight fire with water - this
will cause the fire to spread.

and

extraction

18

should

be

provided

and

Fight fire with dry chemicals, foam or carbon dioxide extinguisher.

All possible sources of ignition should be strictly controlled, e.g.

electrical equipment, metal-to-metal sparks. Smoking should be
prohibited in areas where paint materials are used, stored or handled.

In the event of a fire the possibility that poisonous fumes may be

emitted must always be recognized - if in doubt, use breathing
apparatus.

19