Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
HISTORY
OF
THE
ANCIENT
WORLD
"
h
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2
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I STORY
OF
THE
ANCIENT
WORLD
BY
WILLIS
GEORGE
OF
PROFESSOR
"THE
DEVELOPMENT
ROMAN
OF
OF
ASSEMBLIES,"
THE
ORIENT
"AN
THE
MAPS
OF
GREECE,"
AND
CONSTITUTION,"
HISTORY
"A
HISTORY,"
ANCIENT
"
THE
STORY
HISTORY
OF
(WITH
AND
OF
ROME
1911
rightsreserved
HISTORY
ROME,"
L.
S.
"
ILLUSTRATIONS
COMPANY
MACMILLAN
All
"
GREECE,"
NUMEROUS
AND
AUTHOR
UNIVERSITY;
ATHENIAN
THE
"
BOTSFORD)
WITH
COLUMBIA
IN
HISTORY
PH.D.
BOTSFORD,
OF
"THE
307*4
COPYRIGHT,
THE
BY
Set
up
and
September,
1911,
COMPANY.
MACMILLAN
electrotyped.
Published
July,
Reprinted
1911.
1911.
Nortoooto
J.
8.
Gushing
Co.
Norwood,
"
$ress
Berwick
Mass.,
"
U.S.A.
Smith
Co.
PREFACE
preparation
THE
History, but
as
of educators
in mind
has
for
state
been
made
to
bring
the
the
labor
of
Antoinette
have
of
parts
been
of
department
Missouri.
aid.
such
Ancient
It
gives
For
the
indebted
prepared
of New
choice
This
England.
New
The
York
relations
life.
field; and
clear
way
from
events
treatment
I have
of
the
study
of social
aimed
and
also
scholarship.
to
for
topics
am
cially
espe-
Schools,"
Secondary
Association
Teachers'
Syllabus of
in the
used
and
of
activities.
book
chapters
v
minor
many
cultural
the
to
up
on
will
make
to
the
room
date
from
Orient,
causal
social
and
in
work
pioneer
educators
that
hope
the
on
culture
on
did
history
the
proofs
high appreciation of
of
one
of ancient
In
ards.
stand-
Eugene Fair,
School, Kirksville,
my
History
(1899)
the
bring
effort
The
teacher.
Normal
events
elimination
the
to
sion
admis-
contributed
has
rightlylays stress
Greece"
cherish
now
for
kept
Department.
movement
of
been
Professor
express
is the
significance of
"History
My
their
the
the
outline
educational
and
of
reports
cooperation
the
who
arrangement
Education
State
newer
and
auspices
the
to
as
History Syllabus
"A
to
under
pleasure
; the
History Department,
the
by
State
the advice
have
enjoyed
of
study
educational
present
I have
mainly
the
brief, every
In
made,
History,
me
Five
sive
exten-
serve
in
cient
An-
my
so
requirements
of
of
been
obtained
of
experience
her
corrections
read, and
been
to
up
of
preparation
Massachusetts,
Chelsea,
book
has
Head
Holbrook,
the
its
In
examinations.
preparation
School,
demands
new
taken
work
have
It is to
Committee
been
revision
book.
schools.
and
Seven
as
alterations
country
and
all
view
the
account
High
and
meeting
college
Chelsea
the
for
to
Miss
began
substantiallynew
of
; and
In
to
expansion
throughout
Committee
of the
of
volume
history in secondary
ancient
has
this
text-book
practical
the
produce
to
as
of
soon
persons
this
see
and
larger
for
the
point of
for
instance,
vi
Preface
the
as
taken
been
has
advantage
of
such
edition
new
of
and
recent
Breasted's
authoritative
"History
of
cations
publi-
Ancient
of
des
Altertums," Vol. I.
Meyer's "Geschichte
Other
examples of improvement in this direction may be found in
of the early Greek
and
Italic civilizations,
the treatment
in the
Empire, and in the period of
growth and decline of the Roman
and
Egypt"
transition
improvements,
of
are
and
have
For
the
taken
from
objects or
for that
of
use
reason
this
of
authorities
of
the
Instruction
of
Italy,and
The
value
great
British
to
the
the
each
ter
chap-
of instruction.
due
are
Ministry
colleague, Professor
my
have
maps
period treated,
means
the
an
transferred, with
thanks
to
with
pictures in
a
my
Museum,
All
with
as
material
volume
been
contemporary
persons
some
have
or
earlier works.
my
the
illustrations.
and
maps
furnish
to
drawn
been
useful
of
abundance
Ages.
been
have
pains
Great
Middle
the
to
the
to
of
Public
N.
George
Olcott.
It
to
seems
text-books
been
has
be
to
me
due
compilation of
life
and
enable
to
me
instances,as
the value
all ancient
statements
shall be
or
offer
the
conquests,
do
understand, however,
historywithin
the
more
and
to
so
liable
few
becomes
Reader
the
who
GEORGE
MOUNT
VERNON,
June
NEW
i, 1911.
YORK,
the
present
century
But
sufficient
only
in
assemblies
Roman
depart
the
Greek
topics presented
with
The
few
a
or
on
inattention
me
to
to
densation,
con-
incomplete
details.
of such
defects
of the book.
WILLIS
the
ing
compress-
greater the
work
the
care
materiallyfrom
of
difficulty
will inform
improvement
of my
one
quarter
own.
pages.
arising from
errors
gratefulto the
suggestionsfor
of
sources
opinion of my
composition of the
no
of
interpretation
most
an
of Alexander's
view.
current
the
than
more
On
that
say
writings. The
study and
examined
express
on
the
sources.
within
to
historical
to
to
modern
of
product
earnestlydevoted
Roman
myself now
to
BOTSFORD.
SUGGESTIONS
CHAPTERS
form
and
VI
the
to
excepting
chapter
" 70,
with
the
and
One
of
progress
advisable
class
touch
to
the
appreciate
individual
of the
for
intelligence.
In
value.
Generally
books
the
on
the
the
The
readings
Many
topical outlines
of
periods
text-book
all-sufficing
be
written.
avoid
book
the
the
and
book
routine
nothing
itself
"
the
on
the
are
in
very
work
more
will be
of
"
as
time
save
the
vii
to
cate
indi-
minor
pupils'
cational
edu-
from
intended
as
only
not
Abstracts
or
Fortunately
written,
the
by
illustrations.
are
illustrations.
by
of its
high
profitablybe asked,
rewarded
of
moment
the
amply
it
learn
selections
own
questions, too,
of
first
way
and
names
stronglyrecommended.
been
history has ever
nature
and
profitablybe
may
injury to
his
the
energy
the
at
as
make
of
and
difficulties and
proper
the
may
and
class
in
history of
whole
fully
care-
find
by
pupils
given merely
and
maps
then
has
questions may
no
From
to
The
class.
more
also
text, but
are
prefer
the
nection
con-
the
may
elimination
of
process
will
the
to
teacher
and
in
recitation
Similarly in
without
omitted
fact
for
topics
Many
review
constitutional
explain
what
or
be
with
to
reading.
could
teacher
accessible
examples.
omitted
example,
will
teacher
in
place
every
in
government
lesson
collateral
the
occurrence
selected
respectively,that
looking carefully
every
is
made, in order
assignment
events,
of
first
read.
to
topics
the
by
its
on
be
over
expanded
location
may
The
be
geography
myths
evolution
may
the
chapters
Rome
institutions.
what
and
two
separate
as
and
Sparta, Athens,
79,
but
up
"
teach
the
pupils merely
the
take
to
two
of
to
maps
present
will
these
use
or
the
to
to
the
to
left to
rest
review
from
in their
find it
however,
omit
all
of chapter
subject, to
half
have
existence
Many,
the
" 354;
events;
described
geography.
second
omit
to
the
teachers.
beginning
the
TEACHERS
their
owe
of
classes
XXVIII
narrative;
XXVIII
requests
preferable, with
VI
TO
results.
or
can
effort
order
rather
to
in the
than
CONTENTS
PART
THE
ORIENTAL
NATIONS
CHAPTER
PAGE
I.
II.
III.
IV.
Introduction
The
Scope
and
Course
of Ancient
History
Egypt
The
Tigris
Syria:
Euphrates
"
The
Valley
Phoenicians
and
21
the
Hebrews
37
V.
The
Median
and
Persian
Empires
PART
48
.....
II
HELLAS
VI.
The
Country
VII.
The
Cretan
VIII.
The
and
and
First
the
People
59
Civilizations
Mycenaean
Period
of
68
....
Colonization;
The
Epic
or
Homeric
81
Age
IX.
X.
XI.
XII.
XIII.
XIV.
XV.
Religion
The
Period
Rise
Athens:
of
Conquest
98
Development
Expansion
105
....
Peloponnesian League
the
Monarchy
Democracy
to
of Asiatic
with
XVII.
The
Delian
XVIII.
The
Age'
XIX.
The
Peloponnesian
Persia
.123
.144
Lydians
and
the
Persians
157
166
Carthage
Confederacy
of
the
by
Greece
and
the
and
Athenian
Empire
.'
.182
Pericles
Sicilian
112
Awakening
War
the
its
......
Sparta and
From
Intellectual
From
of Colonial
XVI.
XX,
86
Myth
City-State and
Second
The
and
'91
War
to
the
Expedition
ix
to
Sicilian
the
End
Expedition
of the
219
226
War
Contents
Contents
xi
CHAPTER
XLIV.
PAGE
The
Invasions
Germanic
524
German
XLV.
The
New
XLVI.
The
Growth
of
CHIEF
EVENTS
IN
ANCIENT
USEFUL
INDEX
States
539
BOOKS
the
Papal
HISTORY
Power
and
of
the
Frankish
Power
547
561
566
569
MAPS
AND
ILLUSTRATIONS
FULL-PAGE
AND
DOUBLE-PAGE
MAPS
PACK
Earliest
Civilizations,for Reference
and
Early Babylonian
Median,
for
Greece,
Cretan
Assyrian Empires
Babylonian,
New
before
and
Lydian
"25
....
Empires
"49
Reference
"
eg
.......
and
Civilizations
Mycenaean
"69
....
The
Hellenic
Greece
World
the
at
"105
of the
Time
with
War
Persia
161
"
...
Athenian
The
Empire
its
at
Height
"193
of Athens
Acropolis
"
Athens
in
Empire
the
Peloponnesian
of Alexander
formed
Kingdoms
Italy before
the
the
from
Punic
Great
Alexander's
"
Empire
Expansion
The
Expansion
of
"
.
Roman
The
Roman
Roman
the
Power
Roman
to
Gracchi
the
from
Power
of the
Time
the
Gracchi
the
to
"
Empire
and
Augustus
to
Death
Diocletian
"
.
411
453
Constantine
and
Diocletian
under
"
509
"555
Empire
Empire
IN
PLANS
AND
MAPS
Egyptian
371
before
from
Empire
Charlemagne's
313
Augustus
The
297
...
Wars
221
281
"
"353
of the
Palestine
before
Vicinity
of
War
of Rome
The
The
208
on
Greece
The
207
TEXT
THE
"
"
"
.10
38
Phoenicia
.
The
Peloponnesian
League
.121
.
"
"
"
Salamis
Athens
i?7
and
BayofPylos
Peiraeus, showing
Long
Walls
.
"
"
*93
222
xiv
Syracuse
The
Hellespont
of
Kingdom
Dionysius
Theban
The
230
Illustrations
and
Maps
Tactics
at the
Battle
248
261
of Leuctra
281
Tyre
The
236
of
Tribes
Italyand
316
Sicily
Early Rome
Colonies
335
and
MilitaryRoads
of
362
Italy
ImperialRome
457
The
457
Sacred
Way
541
A.D
ILLUSTRATIONS
FULL-PAGE
Acropolisof
Egyptian Market
The
Halls
The
Athens
of
facing
Scenes
in the
in Columns
Vale
Frontispiece
Temple of Ammon,
Mycenaean Palace
Mycenaean Objects
Cups
from
Propylaeaand
Fall of the
Laconia
the Nike
213
on
........
facing
240
317
"375
of
of the Roman
Jupiter,Juno, and
Forum
of the Sacred
"
Julia
Way
Third
Pyramids of
Minerva
459
"
461
476
"
......
IN
Gizeh
Obelisk
Egyptian HieroglyphicWriting
THE
449
"
......
ILLUSTRATIONS
An
Ercte
and
79
88
107
"
Temple
Anio
CapitolineTemple
Second
on
"211
Part
78
........
of the Maidens
Summit
74
"
The
"
facing
Parthenon
Mount
61
"
Vaphio,
The
The
"
.......
Delphi
Acragas
Porch
16
Tempe
Gold
Thebes
14
"
TEXT
6
7
8
and
Maps
Illustrations
xv
PAGE
of Gizeh
Sphinx
The
II
of Rameses
Mummy
.12
at Thebes
Temple
The Euphrates River
of Hammurabi
Inscription
Assyriansin Battle
CylinderSeal of an Early King
Clay Model of a Liver
BabylonianTemple at Nippur
A BabylonianKing
Colossal Bull with Wings and Human
I7
21
22
26
..........
30
.......
31
"
32
........
33
...........
Head
34
.....
Phoenician
The
40
of Some
Ancestors
Tomb
of
Palace
of Darius
of the Letters
of
our
Alphabet
.41
Cyrus
52
Persepolis
a Monster
King killing
Darius
receivingConquered Enemies
Valleyof the Styx in Arcadia
53
Persian
in the Palace
Corridor
The
A
at
Throne
Cretan
Vase
Linear
Cretan
of
Entrance
Tomb
to the
found
The
7"
......
71
71
........
Royal Cemetery
Gravestone
63
at Cnossus
55
Cnossus
at
in Palace
Room
54
72
......
75
Mycenae
at
?6
of Atreus
Mycenae
"
"
77
"
89
Wrestlers
Head
cuttingoff Medusa's
Perseus
91
94
"Theseus"
A
A
Spartan Tombstone
Warrior
in
of
Helmet, Coat
"
"
Mail, and
Greaves
An
of
An
Plan
of
"
"
.116
!35
of Aristion
...."""""
I41
Ionic Column
Corinthian
"
!33
Ostrakon
Corner
"
I24
Areopagus
Gathering Olives
An
Athenian
Lady
Gravestone
"
J !
Capital
Temple
at
"
..."""""*"
Priene
I4
and
Maps
xvi
Illustrations
PAGE
Plan
of Small
Temple
Statue of
Temple
...150
Greek
Harbor
of Peiraeus
Persian
Archer
Trireme
Vase
152
Pericles
Women
of the Walls
Remnant
Athenian
163
.
BayofSalamis
West
.201
202
"
Marriage Procession
Lapithand
Centaur
Pediment
of Parthenon
."".-.
.210
Group of Maidens
Copy of Athena
Parthenos
Sandal
214
Quarriesat Syracuse
231
235
Erechtheum
Victory
238
242
............
Socrates
243
Euryelus
Ithone
Mount
210
228
Alcibiades?
Fort
205
212
"Hermes"
The
203
213
Victoryadjustingher
Stone
202
211
"Theseum"
175
199
Discobolus
171
.191
Knights
playingKnucklebones
.
169
183
.
Ivory Stylus
A
of Athens
....
School
149
....
Woman
.148
Poseidon, Poseidonia
of
247
...........
and
City Wall
of Messene
264
Demosthenes
271
Battlefield of Chaeronea
274
Alexander
Theatre
279
Epidaurus
at
The
New
The
Hermes
Stadium
at
290
Athens
291
of Praxiteles
292
Satyrof Praxiteles
Doriphorus
of
Polycleitus
Apoxyomenos of Lysippus
293
'
293
294
xviii
Illustrations
and
Maps
PAGE
Soldiers
Roman
The
in
Colosseum
in
Street
Cave
471
Colosseum
472
Pompeii
477
Canem
.
470
Amphitheatre
Triumphal
Flavian
or
of the
Interior
Procession
Dining
...
Room
479
..........
Peristyle of
in
House
Pompeii
479
.......
Furniture
House
480
..........
The
of
Column
Wife
Plotina,
Trajan
of
485
.........
Trajan
486
Hadrian
487
Hadrian's
Wall
488
Pantheon,
Exterior
Pantheon,
Interior
The
489
.
490
of Hadrian
Tomb
Dacian
Town
495
.........
Alcantara,
at
of Herodes
Odeum
496
497
Building
of
Roman
Legionary
Septimius
Severus
Triumphal
Arch
WTall
Spain
Atticus
Process
498
500
..........
Septimius
of
.501
Severus
502
......
of Aurelian
.
Constantine
.
and
Mary
A
German
German
Church
Infant
the
Village
505
.510
Jesus
512
.
524
535
Apollinare Nuovo,
St.
Sophia, Constantinople
St.
Peter
Ravenna
.
540
544
548
Charlemagne
Cathedral
Soldier
of Sanf
491
492
...........
Burning
Bridge
Urn
Cinerary
The
478
of
as
Hero
.
Aix-la-Chapelle
-555
557
HISTORY
A
THE
OF
ANCIENT
WORLD
CIVILIZATION!
EARLIEST
FOR
^J
Persian
REFERENCE
Empire
at
its
greatest
Longitude
extent
60C
from
Greenwich
55C
HISTORY
OF
ANCIENT
WORLD
PART
ORIENTAL
THE
NATIONS
CHAPTER
INTRODUCTION
Condition
1.
to-day
find that
we
another
THE
SCOPE
of the
government,
moral
States, Great
and
those
of central
find
can
peoples
some
made
2.
the
history of
of
the
HISTORY
the world
over
widely
refined
and
highly
are
of other
homes,
the
the
countries
of
the
Between
The
of civilization.
veniences.
con-
United
Europe
extremes
is that
stationary,whereas
almost
the
Others,
two
reason
good
and
of
savage.
remained
other
one
power,
comforts
think
We
from
as
we
for ages
others
have
progress.
Savagery,
and
no
grade
have
differ
have
civilized.
are
most
Africa,
every
Some
look
we
peoples
hundreds
and
people
the
as
As
ANCIENT
religion,schools, libraries,steam
Britain, France,
America
OF
"
and
habits.
COURSE
To-day.
nations
and
AND
World
the
in character
THE
the world
settled
much
civilization.
life,when
homes
intermediate
have
found
the
invention
live
men
or
use
those
it convenient
pottery
of the terms
is made
is the
and
by hunting
only
between
to
and
Distinguished.
Civilization
Savagery
stage
of
and
Barbarism,
of the
and
lowest
tion
condieither
have
kind.
Barbarism
and
barbarism
ending with
barism,
bar-
savagery,
fishing and
crudest
savagery
define
rudest
the
civilization.
as
In
"
beginning
invention
is
Some
with
of the
al-
Introduction
The
civilization refers
phabet. In a general sense
improvement, however low or high,in a narrower
barbarism.
of life above
the
especially
the lives and
idea of
We
any
sense
advancement
word
for civilization.
to the
dition
con-
zation
civili-
a well-ordered
property of the citizens,
some
degree of
government
to
History
sciences.
and
society,
History.
"
we
may
them
to
required bring
up
the condition
of years were
in which we
find the
The
Prehistoric
Age.
"
The
"
l"X2f.
Introduction:
The
and
Scope
of Ancient
Course
History
Gaul
and
affected
8.
Britain,remote
by
The
ancient
Great
the Mediterranean
from
less
coasts, were
civilization.
Divisions,
Races, of
or
Mankind.
"
In
the
9.
of
Subdivisions
is termed
race
of the
White
Caucasian
because
could
highestphysicalperfection
of
Caucasus.
or
It included
Caucasian
scholars
be found
three
main
Race.
The
believed
once
among
"
White
that
its
the mountaineers
branches, which
we
also
Asia.
is
European.
To
equivalentto*Indo-European.
Iranians.
Races
belong the
Persians
and
Hindoos
pean
; to the Euro-
and
and
the
and
All
10.
Groupings
Race
and
superficial
is at best
races
that
two
men
Any classification of
The
chief fault is
unsatisfactory.
Arbitrary.
are
"
may
form
the
basis of the
there has
race
or
nor
exists,
now
speak of
sure
we
and
in groups,
men
that any
sary
however, it is necesgeography and history,
In
are
above
those named
convenient
the
race
are
found
ground of
our
Hamitic
or
resemble
skull
be
to
or
of
blood
one
blendingof
one
all the
supposes
complexionor
in
another
one
the
from
No
language.
or
stature
in the
shapeof
the
In
stock.
or
Indo-Europeans to
many
up in
ideas of far greater value
however, stored
than blood.
Another
feature is
common
of mankind.
Suggestive Questions
i.
is the
Which
mankind
direction?
the
2.
Why
have
3.
What
are
barbarian?
?
the
more
4.
5. In the
Spanish
useful, a narrative
not
of
wars
or
peoplesprogressedequallyand
the
pointsof difference between
all
some
knowledge of ancient
classification of mankind, where do
is
How
? the Arabs
of the
our
progress of
in the same
savage
and
creasing
constantly inFrench belong ?
life
the
States ?
1"6i.
2
History has
derived
according to skull
that within
by
two
or
measurements.
three
no
practically
generations
change of surroundings.
benefit from
SECOND
AND
THIRD
PYRAMIDS
From
east.
OF
GIZEH
photograph)
II
CHAPTER
EGYPT
About
I. LAND
PEOPLE
AND
and
Physical Features
ii.
mankind
regionround
the
valleyof
River
of
progress
surroundings.And of all
their Influence.
the Mediterranean
the Nile
HISTORY
; POLITICAL
on
dependslargely
country
the
B.C.
5000-525
and
The
"
is so favored
none
in northeastern
by nature
Egypt,
Africa.
as
the
course
less than
miles in width.
ten
Maryland.
divides
Delta.
into
hundred
channels,and
Every summer, swollen by
in
it
earlyDecember
is about
area
one
of the
that of the
state
miles before
several
Its
It is therefore
rises,the
Nile
the water
returns
rich
depositedin
overflows
to
of earth.
coat
this
6
melting snows
manner.
the
the
In
of
valley; and
channel,it leaves
land therefore
Geography
is wonderfullyfertile.
With
and
Archaeology
littlelabor
man
can
three crops of
fold.
hundred
and
stones
forms
Nile
natural
it is
commerce
climate
rainless
decay;
sky
and
sides
With
her
is
wonder
no
trade.
of
building
makes
and
borders
For
foreign
little clothing
necessary
the works
preserves
the mountain
chains
natural
peoplefrom
and
resources
that
became
Egypt
of
The
; the
from
men
and
ing
meet-
navigable seas.
two
on
The
easy.
protect the
both
for domestic
waterway
of three continents
warm
deserts
on
invadingarmies.
it
her situation,
the birthplace
of civilization.
of Ancient
Remains
12.
traveller in
The
number
is astonished
Egypt
ancient
size of the
and
have
described
the
nowhere
The
only to
built
their works
at the
great
In
monuments.
else
chapter. Nowhere
and
so
magnificently,
been so well preserved.
is due
character,but
their substantial
to
the
not
dry-
atmosphere.
of these monuments
many
other monuments
and
of the monuments
condition
of the
On
this
in
ancients
have
good
ness
"
temples,and, grandest
vast
of
Writing.
colossal
parts of the valleyhe finds obelisks,
various
of
Civilization ;
Till about
strange characters.
inscribed lines
are
hundred
years
OBELISK
AN
(From
could make
them out, and the history
ago, no one
and
life of the country remained, therefore,largelya
on
of an
inscription
The key was
discovered
by means
known
as
the Rosetta
1798, while
of
covered
the
with
of his
some
fort,they
came
an
soldiers found
Delta.
The
stone.
men
upon
In
were
this stone.
inscription.It
it
credit
"
for
Napoleon'sinvasion
digging to lay the
was
photograph)
mystery.
of
what
is
Egypt,
foundation
the Rosetta
branch
of the Nile
in the
decipheringit
is due
chieflyto
Cham-
on
Egypt
French
a
pol'li-on,
scholar.
It
was
found
to contain
ment
publicdocuof
By means
disk O
stood
crescent
From
moon.
r?
and
business.
mentioned
On
the Rosetta
stone,
in the
above, the inscription
"
"
9.
"
4.
Originof the
the Nile and
of
hunt
The
another.
one
them,
if
resort
to
they were
farming.
nature
live
to
This
and
marshes
the
the marshes
among
State
of its
of the
valley,
independently
country, .however,compelled
there
in
step could
considerable
be
not
the
irrigating
taken
fields.
This
numbers,
without
For
so
to
ing
drain-
great
an
enterprisecooperationwas
brought the
necessary.
The
whole
of
Nile
the
state into being.
course
through Egypt
held by small
to be
came
states, each occupying the entire
width of the valley
and
miles
few
need
of
length. Each
ruled by a king,
was
whose first duty was
its
by
so
and
canals
make
to
as
dikes,
life
possible.The need
of
enforcing strict
cooperation among
the people in these
labors
rendered
absolute
and
his
a
duced
re-
to
subjects
condition
than
better
him
but little
slavery.
Gradually war
and
kingdoms,
petty
there
until
be but
came
THE
SPHINX
to
( From
OF
GIZEH
photograph)
one.
events
were
accompaniedby a great development
political
of culture.
We
safelysay that about 5000 B.C. the Egyptians
may
(3400)
Before the close of the period
had emerged from barbarism.
These
taken
on
the character
which
it maintained
14.
Old
B.C.). Among
"
Kingdom;
the many
the
Pharaohs
titles of the
of
Memphis
(3460-2100
Egyptian king,the
one
by
Egypt
IO
which
"
he is still commonly
House," appliedto
Great
times
earliest known
From
him
he
The
is Pharaoh.
known
as
looked
signifies
his
compliment by
upon as
unification of the
was
term
subjects.
god. The
country was
completed the
were
Me'nes
great rulers,
(3400 B.C.). He and his successors
who gave their country prosperity.
It became
Memphis is said to have been founded by Menes.
B.C.
the capitalof the kingdom about 3000
Among the Pha-
Pharaoh
who
"
EGYPTIAN
EMPIRE
CIRCA
The
1000-1275
Empire
at
its height
Partiallydependent
are
states
underlined
Williams
raohs
who
resided here
were
the builders
Engraving Co..
N.Y.
of the three
Gizeh
pyramids
at
human-headed
lion,carved
from
'"27.
hard, fine
rock.
Egypt
12
the
of
Egypt.
III.
His
south
Thothmes
extended
realm
Cataract
the Fourth
The
on
the Nile.
from
the
kings was
Euphrates River to
Egypt had
to this time
Down
a
singlecountry
merely a kingdom
ruled by a monarch.
Through the acquisition
it became
an
of foreignterritory
empire.
were
the merchants
Meanwhile
tradingwith
world and importing the prodall the known
ucts
thrived.
of distant regions.1 Industry
to internal
Pharaohs attended carefully
The
Thebes
a
nificent
magimprovements. They made
city,adorned with obelisks,colossal
statues, and temples. No other city of the
with it in splendor.
time could compare
the mind of
of all this magnificence,
In spite
the Egyptians had
long ceased to invent.
been
"
about
From
1400
There
declined.
the
B.C.
to
were
civnizatior^japidly
of
brief periods"
be
of (therace
recovery;' but the vitality
and its greatness lived only in
country found
The
warlike
Hittites,a
They
wrested
Ra-me'ses
from
powerful
people
Egypt
II in sixteen
of
was
hausted
ex-
history.
in the
enemy
\\sia
Minor.
all northern
of
Syria.
tard fighting
years
He ther/dividedSyria
stayedtheir conquest.
has been
with them by treaty. The document
II
preserved,and is the oldesc existingtreaty MUMMY
RAMESES
OF
)
(From
photograph
between
nations
two
(i2y/B.C.).
Rameses
a
was
great Jt^uilder.
Throughout Egypt he repaired
old temples and erected new
The proud monarch
had his
ones.
make
of himself that all might
statues
enormous
sculptors
many
of covering
duly appreciatehis great majesty. Followingthe custom
a
walls and
pleasurein
Some
columns
writing,he
representinghis personalcombats
believe
2
with picturesand
then in
that he
was
the Pharaoh
who
with
especial
the Hittites.
oppressed the
Egypt.
"21.
took
"52-
brews
He-
Political Decline
Foreign
18.
and
Invasions
the
Pharaohs
Conquests
13
(945-525B.C.). During
"
had
and more
cenary
merdepended more
on
recruited
from
nations.
As the government
foreign
troops,
weak, a leader of some
Libyan mercenaries usurped
again became
the line of foreignrulers thus established
the throne (945 B.C.). Under
the people were
greatlyoppressed,and the condition of the
Meantime
Nubia
revolted, and
extremely wretched.
country was
her kings got control of a large part of Egypt. Weakened
by
fell under
the country nearly as far as Thebes
misrule and strife,
of Assyria.1
the power
Egypt remained a part of the Assyrianempire but a few years
freed
(670-663 B.C.). Psam-met'i-chus,assuming the crown,
his
the foreignyoke, and gave it peace under
his country from
Sa'is in the western
part of the Delta.
strong rule. His capitalwas
sank to decay. As the
whereas Thebes
It became
a splendidcity,
cenaries,
Pharaoh
and his successors
depended greatlyon Greek mernew
to trade in
they treated the Greeks liberally.Many came
of the
allowed to found a colonyat one
the country, and they were
their
wars
of the Nile.2
mouths
country and
to
take
Other
home
of
Greeks
some
came
to see
the wonders
of its wisdom.
Sais,Egypt
was
prosperous
of the
home
and
spected
re-
foreignnations. Finallyit was conqueredby Camking of Persia,and annexed to his empire (525 B.C. ; " 64).
by'ses,
(i) In the fifthmillennium
of Political History.
19. Summary
ism,
(5000-4000)B.C. the Egyptians had alreadyemerged from barbarthe soil. (2)Before
and were
founding small states and tilling
among
"
end
They
were
of the
fourth
millennium
era
ness
closed in weak-
period
for the capital.
with Thebes
of the Middle
Kingdom (2160-1788),
internal improvements,
The age is noted for conquest, commerce,
the
It was
of a great system of irrigation.
and the establishment
time c
classic period of Egyptian history. (5)Again followed a
in which the Hyksos conquered the country.
decline (1788-1580),
and
came
the
Egypt
14
During
with
the
The
20.
Dynasties.
"
third
Man'e-tho, an
in the
of his country
lived
in the
Greek
history
language.
century B.C.,
made
of it,and some
Though the book disappeared,abstracts were
tions
quotadown
The
dates thus handed
are
taken, by later writers.
helpful,
Manetho
divided
the
though often proved inaccurate
by better sources.
into royal lines or dynasties. From
Menes
to the
history of the Pharaohs
Persian conquest are twenty-six. A list of the principaldynasties for reference
is given below, as they are used for dating in all works
on
Egypt.
I. Old Kingdom,
3400-2160, dynastiesI-X.
dynasty IV.
Pyramid builders,2900-2750,
II. Middle
Kingdom, 2160-1788, dynastiesXI, XII.
rulers of the period,2000-1788, dynasty XII.
famous
Most
VII.
III. Dissolution; the Hyksos, 1788-1580, dynasties XIII-X
IV.
wrote
1580-945, dynasties,XVIII-XXL
and rulers,1580-1350, dynasty XVIII.
great conquerors
and
dynasties XXII-XXVI.
Conquests, 945-525,
Foreign Invasions
of Sais,663-525, dynasty XXVI.
under
the Pharaohs
Restoration
Kingdom,
New
The
V.
II.
Classes
21.
Throughout
lived in mud
the mother
bread
their
beat
him
were
for the
miserable
along the
and
narrow,
in another
or
dressed in
ground
spun,
at his trade.
mistake
slightest
huts of
crooked
quarter.
the poor
lanes.
They
Middle
Classes.
of the
ashes,sewed,
in the field
The
historymost
carried water,
day
and
and
huts
in the
CIVILIZATION
people were
poor.
singlecotton garment.
between
meal
and
He
While
stones, baked
two
toiled
under
were
The
were
They
wove,
inattention
or
to
master
all
who
duty.
closelytogether
crowded
houses
of
and
larger,
the
were
tradesmen
made
of
Social Classes
better furnished.
brick and
had
manufacturer
Each
There
were
15
as
trades
many
as
slaves
among
and he
retailed his
generally
own
Under
22.
than
absolute
The
Soldiers.
happy.
when
But
in
In the
monarchy
When
"
of Nubia
the
that
few
of
Syria; for
those
who
class of
all the
men
who
made
rent.
The
or
of.
forth
best
men
to
peopleloved
went
dreamed
the enlistment
other government
no
buildinga pyramid
was
ever
was
left to
Pharaoh
these circumstances
to
of soldiers for
and
peace,
war
and there
called,
ever
came
an
invasion
they knew
well
returned.
The
to be in addition
livingas
paid for
the
use
of
"
l"
14-
Egypt
six
elementaryreading,
in the
an
apprentice
twelve
eightto
or
had
the
others
justice,
administer
to
with
himself
surrounded
Pharaoh
education.
some
some
officials,
On
scribe.
supervise the
to
host of
erection
and
publicworks, or to make the biennial census
of property throughoutthe kingdom, or to collect and
assessment
Each
the revenue.
or
district,
province,of the kingdom
manage
ally
Generhad its local government and officials subjectto Pharaoh.
time priests.They could be
the officials were
at the same
found
not
only at the king's court and in the capitalsof the
of the realm.
not
When
but in every nook and corner
provinces,
often corrupt and oppressive,
controlled by a strong king,they were
of the
and
care
and
their misrule
We
Religion.
24.
"
of their country.
the downfall
hastened
cannot
the
understand
Egyptian without
controlled
which
religion,
also of
birds,fishes,
crocodiles,
cats, dogs, and
cattle.
to secure
Expense and care were
necessary
the favor of the gods. Each deityrequireda temple as a dwelling.
Patterned
after the house of the chief or king,it was
a
originally
singleroom
containingthe image of the deityand simplyfurnished.
But gradually,
the wealth and power
of the priests
as
grew, the
25. The
temple
sacred
were
leading to
was
most
"
enlarged. Rooms
was
and
Outside
Temple.
tools and
open
vast
the work
of
vessels
were
court-yardsand
gateways.
a
succession
stupendous temple
the
The
of
added
to
corridors
temple
kings.
world
has
of
treasures,
furniture,
the
of
chapel.
original
columns
gigantic
Am'mon
When
known.
at
finished it
Thebes
was
Travellers
the
still
Religion
wonder
at the
and
were
beams
straight
able to
considerable
in the world
The
of their art.
masters
were
grand ruins.
architects who
They
used
planned such
columns
and
work
piersfor
port,
sup-
TEMPLE
AT
THEBES
(Restored)
had
to
decorate
the walls
and
columns
with
chisel
and to
inscriptions,
not only a goodly
each great
god was
wealth, includinga host
his cattle.
had
under
The
him
estate
as
of slaves who
was
assistants
of land and
managed by
a
of civilization.
the
largenumber
other
tended
who
god'schief priest,
of officials of various
themselves of many
ranks, the highest
priestswere
being Pharaoh.
They dressed in fine linen, bathed twice each
day, and twice in the night,and shaved their heads, faces,and
entire bodies,to keep themselves as clean as possible.They lived
in the sacred buildings,
drew their support from the templerevenues,
grades. The
and
were
free from
then,that .every
one
taxes
and
militaryservice. There
longed to
be
priesL
is
no
wonder,
Egypt
i8
26.
in the Future
Belief
Life and
its Effects.
Belief in
"
future
of the Egyptians. In
religion
it that it
their great care to preserve the dead body, they embalmed
might never
decay ; for if that happened, their spiritat the same
The embalmed
time suffered an agonizingdeath.
body is called a
life formed
prominent part
mummy.
Each
and
afford,
set aside
worshipof
built
man
a
strong and
as
great
tomb
considerable
Private
his soul.
of the
citizens,
nobles,and
even
he could
as
to maintain
Pharaoh
the
were
to live in
"
Hidden
was
far within
difficult of
and
placedthe mummy
the immensity of
of the builder.
We
are
in which
astonished
only
weight
not
the work
is the chamber
access
as
modern
science
we
should
of their
Religion.
"
of animals
of
our
29.
Before
Ten
Commandments.
Science
4000
and
B.C.
Literature.
their
"
Their
knowledge
of
sciences
astronomy
were
all
enabled
practical.
them
to
Science and
devise
calendar
months.
of
365 days
to
Literature
the year,
19
divided
into twelve
The
There were
great numbers
songs and stories of love.
of business letters and documents.
of this written material
Most
and
"
folk
They
received
i
" 48.
from
it and
handed
down
with
in
the
older
country.
improved patterns
"
" 83.
Egypt
20
the
of
columns,
still
Briefly, the
the
were
their
improvements
the
continue
to
so
of
the
earliest
the
to
what
From
people
high civilization
and
men
the
the
location
the
and
the
Life
II.
in
Thebes.
Useful
Arts.
Egyptian
could
was
the
borrowed
and
of
future
history
that
the
lonia.2
Baby-
happiness,
heritage
and
were
carried
of
Egypt?
in
of
the
Gizeh,
that
is
they
they passed
most
on
competent
Life
Erman,
Archaeology,
ch.
v;
4.
the
the
from
portant
im-
most
of
proof
age,
of coin-
dress
facing
scenes
and
the
invention
Describe
Describe
5.
Thebes,
called
pyramids
before
on
market
p.
of
scribe
De-
14.
the
the
the
maps
Sais.
Topics
Life in
Maspero,
the
are
head.
the
be
Egyptians
How
2.
trade
markets
shape
"
"
in
in
as
Questions
Note-book
I.
the
knowledge,
the
race,
Egyptians
history?
Memphis,
Egypt,
human
who
well
as
when
B.C.,
of
comfort,
civilization
respectively
women
eye
of
view
How
3.
in
instance
for
of
ancient
to
people
century
work.
good
point
of
the
which
all unconscious
are
Egypt
became
Suggestive
i.
in
the
of
we
furniture,
things
in search
Orient
science
Greeks,
place
of the
creators
other
many
seventh
essential
the
by
the
household
of
and
visit the
advancement
vastly improved
ages.
In
of
things,
mental
the
to
elements
these
All
and
began
the
forms
daily life,though
our
origin."
Greeks
learned
they
in
part
the
seals,
weapons,
Egyptian
of the
some
"
later
came
statues,
their
play
their
of
who
Greeks
to
in
Ancient
Ancient
Breasted,
Egypt
and
Egypt,
chs.
History
of
Assyria,
ch.
xviii, xix;
the
Ancient
i.
pero,
Mas-
tians,
Egyp-
88-102.
III.
iii,"
The
Pyramids.
"
Breasted,
ch.
vi;
Maspero,
Egyptian
Archaeology,
2.
Quoted
from
Dr.
Adolf
Erman,
noted
Egyptologist.
" 183.
THE
EUPHRATES
RIVER
CHAPTER
TIGRIS-EUPHRATES
THE
x\bout
31.
The
"
of Arabia.
and
Gulf
Country
Across
and
of the
on
VALLEY
3500-538
Semites;
the Arabian
It is bounded
mountains.
III
Gulf
the
B.C.
the
two
Rivers
and
their
fluence.
In-
from
border
extend
the Persian
rivers.
In the
valleyof the Tigrisand Eu-phra'tes
south this valleyis separated from Syriaby the desert.
Toward
the north the two regionsapproach each other.
The great Arabian
desert and the hill and valleyregionsbordering it togetherformed
the country of the Semites.
As their historybeginsin the valley,
must
we
study this region first.
north of
The Tigrisand Euphrates rivers rise in the mountains
and
the Semite
country. They flow in a southeasterlydirection,
jointogether before emptying into the Persian Gulf. Along the
the east side,
middle course
of the Tigris,
an
was
As-syr'i-a,
on
chiefly
undulatingplain. Farther down on both sides of the Euphrates
Here
the valleyis uniformlyflat. This region was
Bab-y-lo'ni-a.
the valleywas
In its natural state it was
like that of the Nile.
the
The
22
Valley
Tigris-Euphrates
inundated
by the
early summer.
and
government
and
Hence
was
necessary
of
repair dikes and
entire overflow
canals
in the
rivers
and
used
strong
drawn
was
spring
The
off in these
economicallyfor irrigation.
the
from
the waters
Egyptian. When
were
properly regulated,the soil was as
productive as that of the Nile valley.
In
some
was
less
favored than
the
ruins
over
INSCRIPTION
Recording
OF
(Limestone tablet
of years, much
We find it seamed
canals
of ancient
with
had
and
little
of it
with
dotted
gists
In 1842 archaeolo-
mounds.
HAMMURABI
buildingof
temple.
the
desolate.
now
has
country
for hundreds
care
is
the
As
"
Writing.
Civilization;
of the
Remains
began
to
excavate
these
heaps,and
ruins
of ancient
British Museum)
found
cities.
them
The
to
be
work
the
still
continues, and
Valley
Tigris-Euphrates
The
24
vaded
the
valleywe
they were
3000) B.C.
about
as
Arabia
livingthere
far advanced
thousand
poured
into
the
When
valley,these
late-comers
for the
Meanwhile
advanced
Sumerians
in the north
Period
34.
of
of the
Egyptians had
the
overflow
cultivation.
more
as
that time
At
new
mastery.
in cities.
in civilization
earlier.1
years
(4000they were
are
The
two
the Semites
and
of Semites
found
from
of
much
began a longstruggle
adopted the culture of the
races
cities of their
founded
been
own
ally
gener-
"
Babylonia.
(about3500-1917
City-Kingdoms
B.C.).
For
"
of
long time the country, like Egypt, was divided into a number
the important cities
states,each centringin a singlecity. Among
a
Sumerian
were
from
the
Semitic Ac'cad
and
Ur
beginning endless
powerfulsubdued
the
wars
weaker, and
and
Babylon.
There
the
The
states.
among
built up greater kingdoms.
known
of many
of these early rulers are
through the records they have left. But the first whose name
and
names
deeds
here be mentioned
First he united
all
Sar'gon,king of Accad
Babylonia under his crown.
was
about
more
The
to
us
need
2500
B.C.2
Then, continuing
into Elam, northward
far
his conquests, he extended
his realm eastward
of the Tigris,
and westward
to the upper waters
over
northern
The
to
The
Accad.
Mediterranean.
the Sumerian
2
the
were
thousand
years
a doubt
by the monuments.
usually called Agade, and the country in which it
date formerlygiven, 3800 B.C., is now
found to be incorrect.
approximate;
earlier than
is proved beyond
city is
The
he
now
might
have
lived
century
or
two
earlier.
situated
was
2500
3
"
is
17.
only
Political
The
period,though short,was
After
its downfall
more
less
or
progress
in the arts.
with
supremacy,
coming to the front.
Babylon was
city (1958-1916B.C.),brought
Ham-mu-ra'bi, king
Babylonia under his sway.
It is worthy of notice that
this
25
for the
Meanwhile
success.
all
the
of continual
of unusual
one
of
one
History
of
hundreds
two
rivers.
her
of years it continued
in force in the country of the
After about three centuries Babyloniadeclined and lost
became
foreignpossessions.Assyria
state
and
then
rival.
About
1250
B.C.
an
independent
Assyrianking conquered
first
an
historians have
''Till recently,
but
it is
now
well known
Babylonia tillabout
1000
that
B.C.
been
had
known.
accustomed
the Chaldeans,
to
were
time her
It reached
achieved
empire
from
the
empire "Chaldean";
invade
The
26
Persian
Gulf
Tigris-EuphratesValley
to the Black
Sea, and
above
from
Memphis
on
the
Nile
The
first state
to
make
business
ASSYRIANS
(From Hommel,
IN
made
no
up of
tributarystates
of war,
conquest, and
govern-
BATTLE
Assyriens)
on
Assyria; Babylon
27
the
the
time
same
860-783.
745-727.
722-705.
705-680.
ruins.
At
and
Persons
1125.
its
work,
Events
in
Tig'lath-Pi-le'ser
I, first notable Assyrian conqueror.
First great age of Assyria.
Tiglath-PileserII, a great organizer as well as conqueror.
Sar'gon, a great organizer and statesman; Assyria at the height
of her glory.
Sen-nach'e-rib
with
war
wages
and
Egypt
Israel,and
destroys
Babylon.
680-668.
E'sar-had'don
668-626.
the
As'shur-ban'i-pal,
and
Egypt
The
606.
The
1000
from
B.C.
Media
become
Scyth'i-ansinvade
destruction
Second
37. The
rebuilds
of
Supremacy
into
independent.
the
empire.
of Nineveh.
fresh horde
Arabia
of Semites
southern
"
the Chaldeans
Babylonia.
While
fall of Nineveh
to
chiefly
From
these
them
throne.
people,who
it got the
The
the
and
Mediterranean.
improvement
empire, which
Chal-de'a.
name
reignof forty-four
years
The
he
was
conquering
the
dominion
along
brick wall
to its defence
his northern
hundred
feet
the
upon
able
In an
kings sat
Neb-u-chad-nez'zar.
enlargedhis
Their
extended
had poured
Assyrianyoke.
due
of Babylon were
second supremacy
of the country.
held full possession
now
brilliant
most
"
it the
Egypt.
westward
he devoted
againstthe
border.
high,and
He
to the
to
the
Median
fortified
surrounded
about
a square
Babylon was now
citywith massive defences.
fortymiles in circuit. Within the vast walls the space was divided
into rectangular
by streets,as in the most improved modern cities,
and
blocks occupiedby houses three or four stories high. Here
ings
there rose giganticpalacesand temples. One of the greatestbuildof this king was
the
hanging garden." It towered to a great
his
"
The
28
heightin terraces,and
river.
Tigris-EuphratesValley
This
was
him and
up in a hill country. Under
queen, who had grown
the greatest, richest,and
long time afterward Babylon was
attractive
cityin
and
years
some
the world.
His
successors,
the
however,
cityfell into
for
most
weak,
were
the hands
of the
Persians.1
of Political
History.
"
"
free laborers
were
artisans
in the
the land.
share
mass
were
of the
They paid a
produce to the
owner.
Though legally
free,theyenjoyed,in fact,but littleliberty.
The slaves formed a largeclass,
employed mostly in the industries.
There
chief proprietorsof the soil, the palace (king)
two
were
tenants
on
"
and
"
"
Egypt.
'"63.
Valley
Tigris-Euphrates
The
30
but
other Oriental peoples,
among
rich.
In a family of several wives
as
property.
In
limited to the
was
practice
one
chief and
was
business and
could transact
Women
subordinate.
in
fact,their condition
seems
the others
inherit and
to
have
been
queath
beas
as
in
"
"
CYLINDER-SEAL
The
king is led by
or
priestinto
AN
EARLY
the presence
KING
of the Moon-God.
St-W
(BritishMuseum)
Euphrates valleywere
as
gods the sun, moon,
inclined than
the
Egyptians to revere
and stars.
Heaven, Earth, and Sea were
likewise great deities. As the peoplegrew in knowledge,they were
inclined to regardas deities the spirits
of those objectsrather
more
than the thingsthemselves.
and every association
Every locality
of men
had its gods. More
important was the chief deityof the
city-kingdom,and greatest of all was the god of an imperialcapital,
as Nineveh
or
Babylon. Religionhad to do mainly with life on
earth.
To the future world the Babylonianspaid little heed, and
more
'"24.
Religion
of death
their view
gloomy.
was
Some
31
written by the
moral, others the opposite. The literature,
and stored in libraries,
was
It prescribed
mostly religious.
priests
were
ceremonies
evil spirits,
the
repelling
and
for
they could
"
of
find
prayers
divination
of
The
priestsinvented many
ways
will
of
t
he
the
gods. The best means
discovering
the examination
was
MODEL
CLAY
of the liver of
OF
animal
offered
LIVER
an
of
used in divination.
(BritishMuseum)
system.
Another
means
of
they made
the
foretelling
into
future
was
complicated
the
study
of
known
and five
of the sun, moon,
heavenly bodies,especially
planets. In this way they created astrology. All this priestly
the
lore
was
Many
Sumerian.
reduced
of the
to
writing.
texts
religious
Grammars
and
were
composed
dictionarieswere
in both
necessary
Semitic and
in the
study
The
"
of the
Tigris-Euphrates
Valley
dead
matics,
language." Their scientific works included matheogy:
astronomy, and geography,zoology,botany, and mineralrecord
of each king'sachievements,
Their historywas
a
More
written by his scribe with extravagant flattery.
attractive are
the hymns and religious
myths. They created the epic a poem
of considerable lengthwhich celebrates in narrative form the deeds
"
,;:"
TEMPLE
BABYLONIAN
(From
and
Holman
of
real
of
account
which
one
gives
an
gods.
same
mythical
or
the
human
These
events.
tales
of
are
Co.)
One
of
flood
and
the
familyalone
the
was
creation
somewhat
the
heroes.
great
account
NIPPUR
AT
With
these
poems
building of
saved.
of the
Another
world
by
includes
an
the
ship in
religious
epic
one
of
their
Science and
43.
and
Astronomy
been mentioned
the
Calendar.
in connection
greatest advance
was
in
Art
33
Most
"
astronomy.
From
the
immemorial
sky
and
time the
recorded
daily
They soon learned to foretelleclipses,
almost
and
determined
preciselythe length of the solar year.
They divided it into twelve months of thirtydays each. As this
reckoningleft the year short by about five days,they made the
correction by insertingan
additional month
whenever
necessary.
divided
into
four
The month
weeks
of seven
they
approximately
of the sun,
days each. The days of the week bore the names
and five known
planets. The day contained twelve hours,
moon,
The hours they measdouble
which were
the lengthof our
own.
ured
and
the sun-dial.
by the water-clock
which they had invented.
Though the decimal system was known,
the notation
based
on
chieflyused was
6o (hencecalled sexagesiox6ori2X5
imal).
The
standard
the
weight was
into
The
talent, divided
sixty minas.
mina, weighingnearly i^ pounds,contained
of length
sixtyshek'els. Their measures
based originally
the finger,
were
on
hand,
of the stars.
the movements
foot,and
44.
arm.
Architecture
of the arts
connection
to
speak of
above
have
and
been
Most
Sculpture.
"
above
considered
in
It remains
sculpture. As
works
"
ples,
tem-
were
palaces,and walls of defence
KING
A BABYLONIAN
for
of brick.
As a foundation
necessarily
a
temple or palace the king erected a huge rectangularterrace,
to raise
to have been
feet high. The objectseems
fortyor more
it
the buildingabove
the dampness of the earth,and to make
more
imposing. On this foundation, often covering several acres,
the king built his oblong palace or temple. The flat roof rested
cedar beams.
on
High above all the rest of the buildingrose a
"
Tigris-Euphrates
Valley
The
34
terraced
It was
solid,and was
pyramidal tower.
the sides,
shown
in the illustration.
The summit
as
of the god. The palaces of the Assyriankingswere
covered
in Nineveh
one
twenty-fiveacres,
about
hundred
two
These
rooms.1
great works
up
the home
was
vast.
and
tain
cer-
contained
constructed
were
principlesnow
on
the world.
lost to
In
of
some
earliest the
arch
the
round
used,
was
long
before
known
to
it
was
other
nations.
The
interior
of
walls
Babylonian
were
buildings
covered with glazed
tiles. Those
Assyrian
of the
palace
decorated
were
with
reliefs
graved
en-
stone.
on
The
doorways were
guarded by colossal
human-headed
COLOSSAL
Held
by
BULL
a
WITH
mythical
WINGS
person.
HUMAN
AND
From
doorway
beasts
HEAD
material.
of the
the
B.C.
(BritishMuseum)
city-kingdomswas
conventional.
The
truer
of
to nature
of the
the
same
In general
sculpture
period of
stiff and
the human
form,
study carefully
for he looked upon
the body as base.
He preferredto represent
of battle.
men
arrayed in gorgeous clothing,armies, and scenes
more
Having plentyof stone in their country, the Assyrianswere
accustomed
Lackthan the Babyloniansto use it for decoration.
1
That
of
This
ruler
should
be
distinguishedfrom
the
The
World's
Debt to
Babylon
ing originality,
however, they made their buildingsalmost wholly
of brick,in imitation
of the Babylonian,and
preferredartificial
mounds
to hills as sites for temples and palaces.
45.
Contributions
the
European
to
Babylonians,unlike
Culture.
Through
"
their
merce
com-
the
hours
is their contrivance.
of civilization the
derived
Europeans
from
came
the
Orient,and
.Babylon.
Suggestive Questions
i.
In
Beyond
2.
Why
what
the
respects did
Egyptians,
and
the
in
Babylonians
what
and
the
Assyrians advance
they remain
Egyptians and
respects did
inferior?
the
of the
lonians
Babyyears?
during the past hundred
motives
the Egyptians?
to
had
the Babylonians and
3. What
progress
Are they the same
the picture of the Euphrates, p. 21,
ours?
as
4. From
what
do you infer as to the character
of the country through which it flows?
the illustration on
learn of Assyrian warfare?
we
can
5. From
p. 26, what
are
important
more
6. From
the
Ur, Accad,
1
This
map,
and
is true
opp.
than
p.
inventions
those
i, describe
made
location
the
of
Babylonia, Babylon,
/Nineveh.
of the fourteenth
century B.C.,
as
proved by
at
matic
great quantityof diploSgypt.
Tell el Amarna,
The
36
Tigris-
Euphrates
Note-book
Social
I.
II.
Library.
Assyrians,
III.
Winckler,
Ancient
Sayce,
Topics
Assyria.
in
Life
Social
Life
Maspero,
"
among
the
in
Ancient
Assyrians
and
Egypt
lonians,
Baby-
i-iv.
chs.
and
Life
xii;
ch.
Assyria,
and
Private
and
Valley
Maspero,
"
315
Science,
Commerce,
History
Empires
ch.
xvi
Goodspeed,
History
of
the
Babylonians
f.
of
of
the
Babylonia
East,
and
Architecture
and
157-178;
Assyria,
Goodspeed,
of
the
Babylonians.
Sayce,
131-164;
92-99.
chs.
"
v-vii;
Syria
little states.
of
country
One
be
alert to
ever
as
save
dependen
of their inpossible
Though they
much
as
often
bowed
the neck
to
remained
master, their spirit
of
The
free.
peculiarity
situation
their
help
may
ness.
explaintheir native shrewdriers'
Furthermore, as carthe two
between
early
them
of
some
tries
coun-
engaged in commerce.
Then, too, their cramped
position drove the coast
people to a seafaringlife.
I.
PHOENICIANS
THE
48.
Cities
The
Industries.
earliest
The
"
their
and
inhabitants
known
lived
who
Those
Arabia.
from
Semites
were
the
on
of the Lebanon
coast
west
range
called themselves
do'ni-ans and
city
Sidon.
named
them
Si-
their oldest
The
Greeks
Phoenicians,
PHOENICIA
"
AND
PALESTINE
IN
Red
BfoSTuiAN
OF
Solomon
and
David
ving/Jo-./N.Y.
Longitude East
TIME
THE
of
the
purplefolk,"because
the
they
purple dye
extracted
from
which
a
riety
va-
"
from
30
Greenwich
of shell-fish caught in
Phoenicians
the Mediterranean.
celebrated
the citiesafterward
Among
Both
Tyre.
was
39
placed on
were
founded,the most
rocky islands
barren
the coast.
near
All the
Phoenician
In defence
each
of their
however
cities,
small,were
sovereignstates.
country they often acted together. Otherwise
pursued independentlyits
the
advantage
cut
cedars
of few
for their
Egypt
and
Their
writing was
natural
and
The
On
resources.
houses
own
aims.
own
had
the mountains
ships,and
they
for
exportationto
coast plainyielded
The
Babylon.
Phoenicians
slopesand patches of
little pasturage and stillless grain. Hence
they were forced to the
for
The
obtained
from
sea
their purple fisheries
support.
dyes
were
eagerlybought by kings and nobles throughoutthe civilized
world.
As earlyas the third millennium
nicians,
(3000-2000)B.C., the Phoethan the other Syrians,
even
more
ing
were
importingand learnthe products of Babylonian skill. Their culture
to imitate
became
thoroughly Babylonian, slightlyinfluenced by Egypt.
for
long
time
productsof Phoenician
cuneiform.
Among
bronze
the
early
and
armor
industrywere
weapons,
vessels of silver and gold,tables and chairs inlaid with
war
chariots,
preciousstones, statues
ivory and ebony, or with gold and silver,
of the gods ornamented
with gems and with silver and gold,glassware,
and brilliantly
colored pottery.
and Colonies.
Cyprus attracted the Phoenicians
49. Commerce
in
settlements
They planted many
by its rich mines of copper.
About
the island.
Thence
1500 B.C.
they continued westward.
they reached Crete.1 In the Aegean Sea they colonized Rhodes,
and traded with the natives.
worked
the mines
in various places,
This was
before the beginningof Greek colonization.
"
the
As
and
1
From
Commerce
than
2
their settlements
extended
over
from
Aegean,2they expelledthe Phoenicians entirely
ward,
region. Thereupon the latter continued their voyages westand Sardinia,
plantingcolonies on the African coast, in Sicily
in Spain. They were
drawn
to Spain by its wealth of metals,
coasts
that
Greeks
two
of the
about
thousand
"" 92 ff.,98.
Asiatic
this time
between
influence
"
from
Egypt
can
had
be found
been
carried
on
continuously for
millennium.
more
Syria
only copper and tin,but silver and gold. Their colonies were
vored,
facircumstances
but where
planted merely as trading-stations;
terranean
they grew into cities. Of all their settlements in the Medias
so favored by nature
was
none
Carthage. This colony
not
founded
was
northern
about
800
B.C.
the
on
of Africa
oppositeSicily.
It had a largeharbor,and the neighboring
fertile.
remarkably
country was
ated
situBesides these advantages,it wras
nicia
midway between Spain and Phoereach Sicily
and
and could easily
tions
Italyby ship. These favorable condicoast
it in time the
made
mercial
greatest com-
the Mediterranean
cityof
basin.
In the Orient
Routes.
50. Trade
the lines of traffic followed by the
"
connected
Phoenicians
Babylon.
Their
'with
stretched
and
neighboringcoasts
do they seem
Nowhere
brought
PHOENICIAN
them
overland
northern
Adriatic
mouth
one
Sea;
the
over
Amber
by
the
Alps
How
earlythese
from
Britain
the
were
along two
passed from
One
routes.
pushed
traders
the head
to
of the Rhone.
can
51.
southward
Germany
to have
Baltic coasts
along
of the Atlantic.
the
of
covered
routes
sea
the Mediterranean
those
routes
the
came
of the
sea
at
the
into
use
no
say.
Carriers
of the Arts
and
of the
similar work
of their
In the
own.
Alphabet.
Eastern
way
Wherever
they
industry. The
nations
imitation
attempt
began in
same
"
the
to
tion,
Babylonian nota-
brief,the Phoenicians
Their
most
valuable
were
the missionaries
giftto Europe
was
of civilization.
the
phoneticalphabet.
The
find them
Alphabet
in
of it as earlyas
possession
900 B.C.
earlier system,
some
was
produced by simplifying
writing; but we do
We
PHOENICIAN
how
know
not
is due
invention
what
own
they
sources
its
ments.1
ele-
/I.
It consisted
of
ters,
let-
twenty-two
each
ing
represent-
the Phoenicians
pronounced
their vowels
but
_zr
lightly,
they felt
THE
of indicating
need
no
As
consonant.
from
or
derived
GREEK
much
their
to
systems, of
or
LATER
GREEK
ARCHAIC
Evidentlyit
ANCESTORS
SOME
OF
OF
LETTERS
THE
OF
OUR
ALPHABET
them
by
letters.
learned
Having
cuneiform
invented
or
system.
The
learned
Romans
In
changes.
the
has made
alphabet,they
the Phoenicians
From
alphabet,changing it
new
this
somewhat
it from
form
Roman
the
to
the Greeks
suit their
Greeks
it has
and
down
come
education
discarded
it
was
own
adopted the
language.
introduced
to
the
other
plicity
Its sim-
us.
the banks
on
of
help
Euphrates. It has therefore been an enormous
of the middle
and poorer
in increasing
the intelligence,
especially
in the scale of
classes of all countries,and
in elevatingthem
civilization.
II. THE
52.
Early Wanderings.
has been
Their
own
his home
him
above.
writers
tell us
in Ur
and
moved
described
to wander
his descendants.
about
in this
It has recentlybeen
cf.
script,
" 85.
HEBREWS
in
Canaan,
During
land
the
remainder
of his life he
some
of these elements
slaves,and
the Cretan
Trom
2
"
34
Syria
42
his flocks.
of which
The
peoplewith
Abraham
him
chief.
formed, so
speak,a
to
littlestate,
"
the Ten
were
moral
and
in the
for his
Commandments.
Moses
teachers in
religious
neighborhood of
Hebrews,
the
of laws
body
was
one
inhabitants.
The
of the
them
greatest
history. After
time
dwellingsome
people,the Israelites or
Mount
Sinai,his
Canaan, seized the land, and
invaded
Moses
killed
or
enslaved
fourteenth
century B.C.1
53. The
Judges
(about
on
twelve
of
sons
The
"
of
twelve
Israel,occupied each
beneath
From
the
the
between
"
them
yoke
Under
of the
lowed
fol-
distinct
only government
leaders,the
judges,"who
hordes
usuallyprevailed. The
in the hands
Fresh
; and
connection
little political
was
B.C.).
1400-1000
territory.There
tribes,and anarchy
the
generallyruled
these circumstances
who
Phi-lis'tines,
country had
the
each
Hebrews
was
a
fell
region.
Palestine.
name
The
An
Founding
of the
Kingship
Saul
Hebrews
Egyptian inscription
tribes of Israel
recently discovered proves that there were
The beginningsof their invasion should
written,1 273 B.C.
century earlier.
Historyof Palestine
overthrew
terrible enemies
killed his three
43
his army,
severelywounded
In despairthe warrior king fell on
sons.
him, and
his sword
"
"
centre
religious
of his realm.
portableshrine
of
Jehovah
Here
the Hebrews
which
of Israel
had
the
"
carried
with
worshippers
of many
gods. But the followers of Jehovah, though few, were
largelythrough the
exceedinglyzealous and aggressive.It was
to power.
that David
came
Jerusalembecame a
help of his priests
for Jehovah, and a halo of
temporarilywon
holy city,Israel was
religionconsecrated David and his descendants to the kingshipfor
lent him by the friendly
all time.
With the help of workmen
king
in their nomadic
them
Tyre, with
of
David
the
built and
of
cedars
adorned
in
The
life.
revolt
to
were
soon
an
now
was
city.
in a
of the world,livingmagnificently
the politics
and heavy
His extensive wars
wives and slaves.
After
followed
But
his death
the
his
his favorite
and
fell,
son
only his
forgotten. Remembering
The
son,
succeeded
put them
25-40
years
earlier.
son
Ab'sa-lom
the father
and
caprices,
oppression,
and
arts,
Oriental king,
He
his
were
the Phoenician
and
Lebanon
palacefilled with
taxes
oppressedthe people,who
in
masses
to
Solomon
lence
vio-
service to Israel
him
looked back
to
Decline.
After
"
the throne.
are
tinued
con-
as
his
Devoting
only approximatelyknown.
Syria
44
himself
to
Jehovah.
himself splendid
palaces. He surrounded himself with all the luxury
ranean
of an
Oriental despot. His shipsin the Mediterand brilliancy
and Red
seas
brought him the products of distant lands.
numbered
the kings of Tyre and Egypt.
Among his allies were
affairs
In administration and diplomacy,as well as in the practical
Even
of life,
he displayed
to-dayhe is popularly,
great shrewdness.
in history.
though with little reason, considered the wisest man
All this glorywas
to the people. He taxed them heavily,
a burden
his great buildings.
to labor unrewarded
and compelled them
on
were
kept busy cuttingstone and hewing
Thirty thousand men
the
wood.
yoke. When,
Naturally the people chafed under
continue
his
and
heir
his son
Judah,
policy,
attempted to
therefore,
faithful.
remained
with
a
part of the tribe of Benjamin, alone
The
Henceforth
weak
states,
strifeand
Ju-de'a(Judah) and
nearlyalways at
with
war
we
internal
Israel,afflicted with
one
small
another.
Captivity and
of the inhabitants
on
the
Restoration
former
occasion
"
of disobedience.
Now
he
Cf.
" 36.
"
37-
" 63.
Syria.
46
and explains
his teachings. The Old
earlyfollowers,
make
It has been read by more
and New
Testaments
up the Bible.
than
other book.
born
Jo-se'phus,
37 A.D., wrote
persons
any
of his peoplefrom the creation of the
Jewish Antiquities,
a history
of the
world, and The Jewish War, includinga detailed account
destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans.
Lastly,Jewish rabbis
laws and traditions
composed the Tal'mud, a collection of Hebrew
and explanations.
with comments
Before the captivity
Influence.
59. Life,Character, and World
the Hebrews
lived chiefly
the soil ; but their long stay in
by tilling
Babylon, the centre of Oriental trade,made of,them a commercial
of them
the world
travelled over
people. From that time many
lands in order to carry on business.
Wherever
and settled in foreign
in these houses of
it was
they went they built synagogues
; and
first proclaimed.
was
worship that Christianity
Among them the tie of blood has always been as strong as that of
Honor
the family bond.
thy father
religion.Still closer was
of their commandments.
and
one
Though
thy mother," was
it had
no
polygamy was
permissible,
footingwith the masses.
and
about
Women
went
were
highly respected,
freelyin public.
Morals
were
excellent,
family life was pure, and the nation seems
It would
be hard to overestimate
to have been full of happy homes.
the influence of this little nation on the historyof the world.
of
of Judaism, has become
the offspring
the religion
Christianity,
the Europeans and of their colonies throughout the world; and
missionaries
are
carryingit to all other peoples. The wisest men
of the present day can
code than the Ten
better moral
find no
"
"
Commandments.
In
elements
brief,religionand
our
were
civilization,
of
moral
law,
the
portant
im-
most
chieflyby
contributed
the Hebrews.
Suggestive Questions
i.
Why
studying?
people?
like
2.
Would
Egypt?
high
and
were
mountain
the
states
What
such
3. What
range
of
Syria
effect had
a
smaller
than
the
Syrian hills on
country produce a higher type
was
and
the
4.
(p.40).
Describe
5.
What
we
have
character
of character
of Phoenicia
the
was
others
the
the
been
of
than
the
one
between
physicalpeculiarities
the great contribution
World
of
the
Hebrews
to
Phoenicia,
civilization?
Influence
Describe
6.
Palestine,
Sidon,
Tyre,
the
location
Jerusalem,
and
Note-book
I.
/.
The
The
/.
"
ch.
Chronicles,
II.
Saul.
of
Reign
47
of
Lebanon
tains,
Moun-
Carthage.
Topics
viii-xxxi;
chs.
Samuel,
II.
ch.
Samuel,
i;
x.
Babylonian
Captivity.
Kent,
"
History
of
the
Jewish
People,
34-44III.
IV.
203-209.
The
Phoenician
Glory
and
Science
the
Fall
and
of
Tyre.
"
Trade.
"
Ezekiel,
Sayce,
chs.
Ancient
xxxvi,
Empires
xxxvii.
of
the
East,
CHAPTER
I.
THE
INDO-EUROPEANS
60.
The
find
history
the
Nile
Semites
is added
to
Aegean
region.
history.
of the
the
the
great
In
the
Gulf,
with
the
salt steppe
abundance
of
luxuriant
In
the
India,
The
the
herbs
name
group.
is
cerned
con-
the
of
the
and
Orient
has
continue
we
our
third
the
Indo-Europeans
are
48
is barren.
part
to
"
Indo
denote
those
known
of the
prevails ;
it
produces
Therein
with
and
beasts
plentiful."
are
of Iran
inhabitants
of the
"
are
well-stocked
of horses
branch
"
Persian
acquainted
climate
lakes
Iranians
the
well
olive.
animals
part
country
mild
the
easterly
most
central
America.
was
breeding
great
field is
of North
pastures
and
The
contrived
the
the
except
water
The
the
was
and
of
Here
full of wild
"
historical
south, bordering
"
of clear
Indo-European
the
Crete
The
Basin
writer, who
all fruits
; forests
the
Gulf.
well- watered
and
of
Indo-Europeans,
and
of
area
country
the
as
we
Tigris-Euphrates valley,
Great
the
In
follows
as
Rivers
people (Europeans)
of
it
the
larger part
Indo-Europeans.
word
the
history
the
while
Persian
the
ancient
and
prospers
well
in mind
of
east
irrigatethe country.
of burden
were
wine
parks.
water-fowl
"
in
and
time
within
the
and
the
An
describes
is rich
land
lies
Media.
was
Persia.
Persia,
same
come
resembling
water
northwest
was
61.
of
the
fact
to
It
Sea
Caspian
lack
Through
this
country
I-ran'.
of
at
as
centuries,
B.C.
fourth
EMPIRE
empires.
Asiatic
plateau
between
is
civilized
the
Europe
keep
to
Oriental
next
and
area,
Henceforth
It is well
the
through
In
valley only.
the
MEDIAN
THE
In
widening.
ever
with
The
descend
we
new
study
As
"
EMPIRES
IRANIANS;
THE
Country.
PERSIAN
AND
MEDIAN
THE
has
the
White
race.
reference
most
to
westerly
people (Hindoos)
White
race,
what-
ever
languages
of the
speak
have
group
an
49
Indo-European tongue.
descended
from
All
parent
common
both.
while
And
takingup
each
tribe
was
of
manner
people whom
way.
continued
long
migratingit
after to welcome
we
continually
was
it met
with
the natives
on
the
of its
of the
strangers, whatever
place,and
their origin.
the
In
Indo-European
62. The
B.C.
2000
Iranians
some
character.
; the
of the
eastern
the
take
"
possessionof
westward
(606-550B.C.).
Empire
Iran,and to
Iranians,as we may
and
Median
and
to invade
these countries.
of
Iran, worked
About
India
Slowly
their way
desolated the
and
tribes,the Scythians,overran
Assyrianempire ; others settled down quietlyand paid tribute to
the king at Nineveh.
the Babyloniansrevolted and made
When
war
on
Nineveh,2 they called upon a powerfulIranian king to help
them.
His people were
ian
Medes.
In the division of the fallen Assyrempire they received the northern part, leaving the southern
Some
JOur
Iranian
word
pitdr,in ancient
and
from
similarly
through
word in
a single
connected
'"36.
we
call Aryan
or
Indo-European.
The
50
part
to
Babylon.
Median
Not
Persian
and
content
Empires
with their
share,the
restless Medes
This stream
Halys River.
formed
the eastern
boundary of the Lydian empire,1which checked
in that direction.
Meanwhile
their progress
they were
subduing
their
But
south.
Persia
the
their nearer
on
neighbors,including
than half a
end in 550 B.C., only a little more
to an
empire came
all Asia
overran
Minor
far west
as
as
the
vassal
Great
PERSIAN
EMPIRE
of the Median
king.
But
in 550
B.C.
of
he led
Persia,
a
cessful
suc-
empire
Thereupon the Median
Able and ambitious,Cyrus pushed his conquests
became
Persian.
the
was
in.everydirection. One of his most importantacquisitions
Asia Minor.
The kings
Lydian empire,which included all western
of Lydia had created
this realm
by conquering their neighbors,
In the time of Cyrus
includingthe Greek colonies in Asia Minor.
wealth amassed
Croe'sus was
by his
king. The heir of enormous
ites
favorCroesus
lived in luxury,and lavished money
on
predecessors,
and on friendly
states.
Against the risingpower of Persia he
included the kings of Egypt and
formed
which
a grand alliance,
than he had calculated.
Cyrus
Babylon. But the blow fell sooner
marched
rapidlyagainsthim, defeated his army, and took Sar'dis,
his capital. Croesus was
made
prisoner. As Babylon had joined
Lydia in the war, Cyrus besiegedthe cityand took it by surprise,
in the palace.
while the great lords were
feasting
64. Cambyses
(529-522 B.C.). Cam-by'ses,son and successor
of Cyrus, conquered Egypt. There taking the place of Pharaoh,
he worshipped the gods of the country. It is said,however, that
in intoxication or violent anger he killed the steer-godApis. Puffed
the world ; but he met
up with pride,he thought he could conquer
with enormous
losses in a vain attempt to subdue
Libya. News
of an
Before
recalled him.
insurrection at home
settingout for
killed his younger
brother Smer'dis.
Egypt he had secretly
During
his absence a certain priestwho
the dead brother perresembled
revolt
against his
master.
"
'"63.
develop the
to
and
useful and
fine arts
felt that
nobles
Persian
and
Median
The
52
they must
subjects. All
Empires
lines.
along original
have
at
once
all the
The
king
good things
therefore
higher culture was
elements
from Babylonia,though some
of it came
Most
borrowed.
Greek.
Naturally they imported every
were
Egyptian and even
and
kind of movable
they engaged Babylonian artisans and
finery;
enjoyed by
architects
The
to
their
work
for them.
chief feature
was
the
their
of their
architecture,like that
With
terrace.
TOMB
their country,
an
OF
abundance
of the
lonian,
Baby-
of fine limestone
in
CYRUS
Architecture
base
of
ing
retreat-
seven
of white
ble,
mar-
surrounded
by
of
what
fragments
was
evidentlya
1
Persians
of their
with
nade."
colon-
Here,
the
laid the
body
king,covered
for
wax,
thought
it
they
sin
to
defile the
holy air or
earth by crematingor
by burying the dead.
the foundation
For
of
his
palace
at
2
Darius
Per-sep'o-lis
erected
of
terrace
mounted
by
beautifully
sculptured
stairways. On one
stone,
the
of
part
stood
his
dwelling,a
large
hall
porch
in
rooms
sides.
Hall
Near
Hundred
of the
the
other
for
state
same
platform
buildings
of
Ragozin,Story of Media,
p. 300
2
is the
festive occasions.
On
and
rear
by
and
front
Columns,
and
with
the
on
terrace
The
f.
Persian
several
king had
capitals, including
Susa, above mentioned, and
Persepolis.
53
The
54
Median
and
Persian
Empires
lions,
bulls,
Assyria,1
though better proportionedand
CertainlyGreek artists must have had a hand in
natural.
the work.
walls
like those of
monsters
more
The
Whereas
earlier Persian
shows
art
the
king fighting
with
science
arts, with
and
the
architecture
the
in
all the
exceptionof
and
sculpture,
Persians
accomplished
nothingworthy of mention.
They were not workers,but
warriors and
rulers.
the
Persians
few powers
PERSIAN
KING
KILLING
worshipped a
of nature.
from
(A reliefin Persepolis)
the
name
class, testifies
their functions
The
ma'gi, attended to
priests,
the offerings
and ceremonies.
Our word
rived
magic,de-
MONSTER
ture.
Litera-
to
of this
of
one
evil spirits
winning the gods and expelling
Before the religion
had come
to include many
by charms.
gods,it
lived in
reformed and purified
was
a prophet who
by Zor-o-as'ter,
the latter half of the seventh century B.C.3 He taught the existence
of
one
supreme
"
that of
God,
pleasantthingsfor
creator
He
man.
of heaven
was
and
wise and
earth and
holy;
1"44-"
3
This
subject;
his Zoroaster,141
A. V. W.
ff
.
Jackson,the greatest
man,
and
he alone had
all
maj-
2Cf. "42.
livingauthority on the
Religionand Literature
esty and
He
power.
of darkness,the
spirit
one
dared
and
he
of
contend
had
fell into
the reward
the
pit of
againstGod,
always worsted.
demons, worshipped and
and
eternal
an
leader of
was
strength,
Those who, in oppositionto the prince
obeyed the good God, gained immortality
their character
the demons.
DARIUS
55
RECEIVING
whereas
deserved,
The
true
CONQUERED
(Scene from
nor
the Behistan
the wicked
ENEMIES
grace
he conquers.
Rock)
is stillextant.
historical
Media
and
In addition
writing,includinga
Persia."
1
Esther,x.
to
"
This work
2.
literature
religious
book
of chronicles
has been
lost,but
The
56
stillhave
Median
Persian
and
Empires
numerous
"
"
"
"
"
69. Contributions
Civilization.
to
"
Their
greatest achievement
was
look
it as an
organic unit,and to exert
upon
defence and improvement. In the vast extent
compared with
the idea
those
of earlier
of universal
brotherhood
of their
times,lay another
could
not
for its
themselves
realm, as
;
for
world
of
advance
arise in
thus
1
The
name
of the word
2
to
broad
the progress
of the cliff,
hence
adopted by
Herodotus, i. 136.
of the world.
also of the
Professor
This
is Behistan.
inscription,
is the
Jackson.
"
spelling
Oriental Civilization
III.
General
1.
with
his
Features.
that
of
did
think
not
Civilization
civilization of the
The
never
was
of Oriental
The
"
Europe.
reasoning power
He
Summary
57
Easterner
strong
so
or
consistentlyor
so
had
Orient
vivid
well-trained
follow
contrasted
his
ingly
strik-
imagination, but
that
as
of
but
reason,
pean.
Euro-
rally
natu-
was
customs.
Contrasts
2.
between
between
cultures
these
contrasts
be
may
rarely suffered
the
are
Nile
included
noticed.
and
Euphrates Cultures.
paragraph above.
Similarities
"
The
in the
following
Through
invasion, the
The
Egyptians built in
peoples, Babylonia many.
of the
extensive
made
in
brick.
The
former
use
stone,
Babylonians
In religionthe Egyptians took much
column, the latter practicallynone.
chieflyabsorbed in this.
thought of the next world, the Babylonians were
few
other
the
The
one
nation
addicted
was
Mingling of
history. From
between
the two
customs
and
Morally
Egyptians
Babylonians took the
the
the
Cultures.
time
regions.
ideas
"
of the
The
of their
The
Old
Hyksos
own,
but
two
the
gods
lead in
was
in their invasion of
science.
some
Egypt introduced
Babylonia. To
representeda blend
from
the
were
oped
devel-
more
and
mingled
there
Kingdom
the
commerce
cultures
nothing
of the other
perhaps
were
the
the
3.
in
worship,
animal
to
some
of the
cultures
two
4.
and
seeds
Transmission
her
arts
to
of Oriental
of the
Crete
and
Culture
the
civilization
to the
West.
"
over
the islands
and
Egypt
gave
Phoenicia
coasts
her
products
scattered
of the
the
Mediterra-
The
58
arts,
western
discover
painted
the
Greeks
brought
them
this
cultural
and
and
of
Blending
of
Asia
What
i.
kings
Her
chose
in
front
of
the
3.
palace
the
with
chronological
made
these
by
of
I.
be
that
III.
took
also
can
imported
perhaps
much
as
best
Persia
"
decoration
completion
long
of
in
their
of
a
made
industries
and
arts
only
not
but
empire,
one
the
capitals.
period
of
ical
polit-
the
more
of
the
in
(pp.
of
the
Zoroaster.
their
and
relative
Persian
For
Jackson,
the
meaning
with
the
What
7.
From
Zoroaster,
of the
Herodotus,
"
Herodotus,
especially
word
capital,
ch.
the
see
iii,89-117.
iv,
xxi.
"
173.
cially
espe-
of
the
in
empires
if
Topics
"
ful?
grace-
Egyptian.
size.
Darius.
those
be
religion
Oriental
advances,
government?
to
the
the
history
more
seem
Compare
Name
of
with
the
seem
animals
character
5.
Empire.
of
of
peoples
Thebes
at
Which
Persian
6.
other
temple
pair
Persian.
the
Expedition
"
the
53).
17,
Hebrews.
to
of the
Scythian
from
of
developed?
organization
calculate
Questions
consisting
Compare
down
Organization
The
in
the
to
Note-book
II.
Cultures.
the
columns
Darius
capital1
order
each
empires
the
Indo-Europeans
the
4.
to
seems
Persians
the
Compare
appropriate?
Which
We
history.
2.
Does
Lydia
for
brought
empire
distinguishes
i)?
ch.
colonists
Egyptians
the
and
together
Suggestive
(cf.
Oriental
Greek
Europe.
to
Notably
Lydia.
the
to
country
thence
Crete;
harmoniously
Persian
the
way
especially
them.
nations
blended
be
to
on
gave
unit.
organic
an
empire,
this
Asia.
from
the
civilized
the
Europe
she
as
Minor,
Empires
Minor,
through
Asia
pottery
Consolidation
5.
In
of
Persian
Asia
was
passed
of
coast
reaction
delicately
from
ideas
and
customs,
the
on
and
intermediary
Another
nean.
Median
1-144.
any,
maps
were
of
c\"fN^V,K"is-bC^^^V
^'"^Mii^
"rS?T'''-.f"SS"f;
|-U/ N./, .Jiiaf %^?'to
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,oi
i,,,".
te^^;^*_
fc^if:K
L-A P^'e'a%%^"
-V,^%!
E\L^-p^of'r'p^E^IL
L^s.
ED
\iv,,-^.,
'
TERRA
^^
/-/..'v""
XE
GREECE
FOR
REFERENCE
SCALE
1Q
20
OF
40
MILES
60
PART
II
HELLAS
CHAPTER
THE
Hellas
70.
it has
been
these
people,
but
descent
There
"
is
the
by
"
hand,
from
71.
the
Mountains.
small
the
Mediterranean
a
of
map
of the other
1
Should
rians, it
'
Greece
is Mount
peninsula.
we
would
in the
The
great gods.
use
be
the
that
stretches
chain
highest point
the
notice
it,we
"Greece"
necessary
O-lym'pus,
Greeks
Near
will
with
to
59
it will
thus
on
tain
re-
guished
distin-
be
Hellenes, is
Greece
Europe
into
in
ing
look-
or
The
is mountainous.
in the
"Hellas,"
loftiest
abode
of Zeus
range
as
between
Its
border.
the
sea,
it the
distinguish
larger sense."
Greeks,"
Greece,"
the
of
the
near
Olympus,
"
northern
the
imagined
synonymously
constantly
country
along
cluding
in-
"
travelling through
In
sea.
and
southeastern
from
extends
was
colonies.
"
confusion
home
oldest
Greece, the
be
peninsula occupied
and
volume,
their
Hel'las
might
terms.
the
"x Hellas."
term
"
word
of
myth
numerous
avoid
To
Greece.
it
Hellenes
to
the
them
the
also
refers
present
the
To
equivalent
as
peninsula which
Cam-bu'ni-an
on
the
broader
"
the
at
in
meaning
"
of
state
"
using
generally
now
but
homeland,
knew
Romans
what
wherever
themselves
Greek
know
ancestor.
relations
They, however,
use.
not
Orientals
their
the
by inventing
it
common
old
"
and
modern
this
the
do
the
to
which
commonly
We
of
study
reference
by
we
difficultyabout
no
other
as
possessed by
only
Hellenic
the
Hel'len
country
not
one
PEOPLE
our
name
explain
to
In
frequent
Hel-le'nes.
tried
THE
"
is the
it is the
they
from
make
This
and
AND
Hellenes.
to
Greeks.
themselves
means,
the
the
necessary
the
called
COUNTRY
and
with
VI
"Greece
and
extends
which
is often
peak
done
by^histo-
proper"
and
Hellas
60
along the
from
the
Thessaly,is
is the
chain
of this coast
south
of
coast
east
mountains,
Far
and
divides
the west
to
Pin'dus.
of Mount
range
Cambunian
Os'sa.
Mount
It extends
the northern
ward
nearlyequaldistricts. As we proceedsouththe country grows
more
rugged. The central section is a
of mountain
mass
valleysand little
ranges separatedby narrow
near
plains. The loftiestpeak of this regionis Mount
Par-nas'sus,
the centre of the peninsula.
the most
Pel-o-pon-nese'
(orPel-o-pon-ne'sus),
southerlysection
of Greece,is only a little less rugged. In the northern central part
is the highland of Arcadia.
From
this highland mountain
chains
two
dividingsouthern
the south
To
the
runs
Ta-yg'e-tus
range,
districts.
This
is
range
and
Lakes.
In
"
small
so
country
as
Greece
of
small and short.
The volume
necessarily
diminished
by the dryness of the climate.
are
still further
are
than brooks.
the
is
water
The
so-
Some
mer.
winter,but entirely
dry in sumAll the streams
which
a great quantity of soil,
carry down
The littleplainsat their mouths
they depositin their lower course.
alluvial
are
composed of soil thus deposited. In this respect
they resemble the valleysof the Nile and Euphrates. The greatest
plain of the kind is in Thessaly,northern Greece. The river
the largest
in Greece.
which has formed it is the Pe-ne'us,
stream
Sometimes
the brooks of a region,instead of unitingin a river,
flow into a land-locked basin.
In this way a lake is formed, generally
with an underground outlet.
of gulfsand bays
Another feature of Greece is the great number
in the
torrents
are
of
rainyseason
"
which
in
proportionto
its
73. Climate
and
peninsulais
about
breadth
hundred
is
of Maine.
from
And
temperate
The
whole
so
great
coast-line
area.
Products.
two
'"
"
and
The
and
hundred
yet within
to
No
eighty;
these
fiftymiles,and
it is about
narrow
was
once
limits the
climate,ranging
a
ucts.
great varietyof prodof
well-wooded,though most
fosters
semi-tropical,
country
its greatest
62
Hellas
to battle.
and
In time
industry;
laggedbehind
75.
up in the
plain; but
preferredcountry life; they had
Thessalians
skilled
cities grew
in education
and
the commercial
Greece
of
Ae-to'li-a and
of eastern
Lo'cris
long remained
and
southern
Greece
or
the other
ni-a,a
defenceless.
Greeks, and
land
ate
of lakes and
colonists who
taught the
Some
came
about
Parnassus.
Mount
region
northern
are
After
had
reached
Locrians
the
cities
height of
still carried
murdered
or
the commercial
weapons
in
all whom
spoke
they found
language strange to
of Aetolia
West
early time
Hence
their
is A-car-na'-
from
the
eastern
The
coast
greater
Pho'cis,which
sections,lies partlyin the rugged district
Below
the mountain
the south, in
on
the celebrated oracle of Apollo.
in civilization than
into two
than
South
"
they
harbors
meat.
hither in
progress
divides Locris
mountainous
more
of them
raw
or
of Greece.
barbarous.
and
the Aetolians
civilization,
their daily life; they robbed
weak
of life
Thessaly and
It is
extendingeast and west.
Greece,and is well suppliedwith
inhabitants
little trade
in the refinements
states
E-pei'rots
Central
of coast.
both
did Aetolia
or
Locris.
cityof Del'phi,was
civilized than the Aetolians
The
more
or
Phocians,too, were
In the valleys
and plainswere
lords and busy
the Locrians.
thrifty
sides the shepherdpasturedhis flocks.
peasants ; on the mountain
East
Civilized Countries.
76. Central Greece : (2) the More
of Phocis is Boe-o'ti-a. A great part of this country is a basin,
whose waters
collect into Lake
Co-pals. The land about the lake
is flat and very productive; its moisture
fills the air with fog.
Some
that the dull sky
wittyneighborsof the Boeotians remarked
and
excessive beef-eating
made
these people stupid; but in fact
and in enterprise
the states
they were second in intelligence
among
the
"
of central
Mount
which
of
Greece.
Ci-thae'ron
forms
separates Boeotia
the eastern
end
of central
from
a
At'ti-ca,
peninsula
Greece.
In
the northeast
marble
; and
south
of Pentelicus
Pentelicus,
is the range
Political Divisions
Hy-met'tus,still
regionis a plainabout
of
which
Ilissus,
the
round
the
most
unite
renowned
small
two
before
cityof E-leu'sis
part
for
its
63
streams
reachingthe1sea.
the northwest
on
coast.
Attica is for
is
favored,however, with
In
and
intelligence
in artistic taste
VALLEY
OF
Greeks.
Athens,
the world
The
the
STYX
THE
(From
IN
ARCADIA
photograph)
became
capital,
in time
the foremost
cityof
in civilization.
passes
part of the Isthmus
of Corinth.
more
barren
than
of
great
centre
of trade.
Hellas
64
Peloponnese
77.
"
"
nese
"
"
with
"
central
above
which
loftymountain
tower
ranges.
each of which
valleys,
fruitful
are
tribe
plainsand
city. The Arcadians
the mountains
Among
was
the domain
of
lived in the
simple,homely styleof
and slaves ate their pork and
mountaineers.
Master
barleycake
bowl.
like,
together,and mixed their wine in a common
Hardy and warArcadian
freemen
for
homes
the
were
equallyready to fight their
and to serve
foreignstates for pay.
The northern slopeof the plateau,
with a narrow
border of coast
twelve
plain,is A-chae'a. Divided
independent cities,
among
till
in history. E'lis
late
this country remained
unimportant
comprisedthe western slopeand the broad rich plainalong the coast.
Its most
notable citywas
where the Greeks celebrated
O-lym'pi-a,
or
and athletes
festivals,
contended
site is
The
now
strewn
from
all Hellas
temples.
78. Peloponnese
near
the Isthmus,
Hellas.
Her
of her three
(2)the
was
harbors,two
on
Civilized
of the
one
loftycitadel
More
Countries.
Corinth,
"
greatest commercial
the
commanded
Isthmus,
cities of
and
one
by
means
the Corinthian,
on
River.
The
best-equippedand
of
people
the
country had
best-disciplined
army
all
danger, therefore,
"
of
the Hellenes
Sparta, low-lyingamong
in
looked
the caverned
for
the
to
centuries
world.
them
was
hills,"
In
for protection.
but
The
Islands
65
Greek cities,
it was
group of villages. Unlike most
whollywithout
fortifications ; the ranks of brave warriors were
its walls.
of Laconia
West
its centre
Near
The
79.
is Mount
site for
excellent
is 'the
Islands
over
has been
mentioned
latter is
The
the
The
famed
is but
Cyc'la-des
celebrated
most
and
and
marbles.
for
which
and
the
on
mentioned
will be
important
which
for
and
is
as
well
Phoenicians
and
to
Aegean.
peninsula
Minor, and
Asia
in groups.
Thasos
for its copper.
The
of central
Greece.
of Euboea
and
colonized.1
Crete,south
and
harbors
the
as
islands
history. It
of Asia
coast
in small
It abounds
Cyclades
Other
Egypt.
the
at
Greatest
of the
of Greek
study
glance
supplied with
are
had
Greece
further
our
purpose
the
them
in
our
borders
an
De'los,the cal
mythifor its
Pa'ros,already mentioned
of Asia Minor
coast
are
Les'bos,
and Sa'mos, seats of earlyindustry,
between
route
sea
Chi'os
the
important of
most
furnished
of the
continuation
among
the
Near
lyricpoetry,
Rhodes,
Greece
East
"
for its
of the
group
Attica.
Region.
islands,standingsinglyor
long island
Aegean
It lies between
with
is dotted
of Mes-se'ni-a.
fortress.
Ae-ge'an Sea.
is the
but
is
Minor
fertile plains,
opposite shore
of
Greece.
The
and
Aegean
the islands
other.
Mariners
Sea
are
does
separate,it unites
not
so
stepping-stones,
two
speak, from
to
coasts;
the
to
one
barks
in -the smallest
without
Indeed,
from
the mountains
the
Euboea
of southern
the
Greeks
could
look
"
ideas,and
thus advanced
culture.
equallyin
was
the
than
The
great fact jn
earliest home
the
of
peninsula,was
our
European
the
very
66
Hellas
80. The
Effect of the
character
Country
Greece
Euphrates. It is
A majorityof
by ranges.
mountains
man
somewhat
make
can
with
contrasts
the
and
the
upon
"
In
its
the
like
the Greeks
People.
valleysof
Syria,but more
the Nile
splitup
mountaineers.
were
tainous
moun-
In the
hunting,keepingstock,and
aid or cooperation
of neighbors or
of government.
This
unconquerable.
the character
was
which
the Greeks
oped
devel-
in their mountains.
The
of
the
effect. The
political
people of each valleyor narrow
plain,surrounded
by high ranges
and seeinglittle of their neighbors,
live alone in
to
content
were
the enjoyment of complete independence. In other words, the
mountains
preventedthe growth of largestates.
feature of the country was
Another
its openness
to
controlling
the sea through the excellent gulfsand harbors.
From
almost any
the Greek, even
with his slow way of travelling,
pointin the peninsula,
could reach an arm
of the sea in a singleday. This circumstance
naturallyattracted him to a seafaringlife. The stony
soil could not support a dense population; and the vast mountains
the north kept the Greeks from pushing out into central Europe.
on
nature
All these
commercial
and
in the
folk.
colonizing
Aegean, and
Aegean
area
to
and
combined
have
We
how
In
Egypt.
to
the
civilization.
on
the mind.
economical
habits
The
of
people the
world
has known.
rendered
them
of
season
thinking. The
their action.
The
make
easy
them
by
Eastern
moderation
They
became
mild
climate
gation
navi-
was
far out
of the
nearness
in that direction
made
ships
"
it
hence
ings
physicalsurround-
compelled the
that
life,so
well
as
be visited
soil
how
brief,the
poor
thought as
seen
to
of islands reached
chain
of European
birthplace
Most
important of all was
Greeks
to
controlled
form
their
the best-balanced
and
gentlechanges
clear
in the
Superior
its
other
of
men
beauty
the
Finally
with
combined
for
intellectual
peoples.
other
all
of
love
that
soul
in
coast
of
Greece
of
this
effect
literature,
is
Why
in
Greece
and
type
parts
of
to
Greece
with
7.
the
state
in
I.
Excursions
in
Attica.
"
chs.
vi,
II.
III.
IV.
vii
Thermopylae.
Thessaly.
The
"
Coasts.
"
Mahaffy,
with
the
all
the
parts
in
Compare
5.
in
why
reasons
adapted
given
portant
im-
more
Egypt,
of
to
nearness
civilized.
those
the
was
another
to
Greece
Which
What
best
What
contrast
to
this
were
most
lonia,
Babying
producchapter,
able
favor-
soil,
climate,
and
live.
you
for
Reading
Rambles
Mahaffy,
Days
in
79-89.
90-103.
ch.
famous
2.
her
by
account
attractive?
Richardson,
Richardson,
"
become
seems
From
Vacation
Richardson,
4.
countries
Topics
products
statesmanship.
harbors?
Mention
Greece
and
which
and
history?
country
to
of
6.
Compare
and
influenced
one
Europe
these
most
seem
progress?
products
of
character?
above
nation
her
on
with
now?
features
Which
of
of
is
of
Greeks
soil,
create
art,
Greece
Greece
was
it
country
climate,
to
supplied
nearness
than
physical
Syria.
and
high
first
the
contrast
what
times
the
was
the
was
ancient
of
How
3.
the
Questions
abundantly
most
of
science,
mountains
the
condition?
Orient?
the
had
effect
What
lifts
influences
Suggestive
i.
67
which
diversity
favoring
genius
Race
i.
Greece,
and
m-ii8.
Studies
in
Greece,
VII
CHAPTER
THE
AND
CRETAN
About
I.
81.
their
of
account
preciselywith
half
have
they
pioneer
his
the
of the
deeds
them
real
found
of
work
learned
heroes
mighty
the
his
1870 he began
digging
life.
concluded
Minor,
and
the
settlement,
After
the
on
far
nine
of
different
to
rude
the
the
from
Hellenic
war
area.
The
and
of
from
Homer's
his
about
business,
above
western
north-
3500
than
more
work
the
another
one
that
in
tion,
descrip-
in
successor
be
the
hill is in
result
The
thinking
became
in
This
In
might
Troy
fortune
is calculated
inhabited
But
poet Homer
2
settlements, built
It
and
dates.
this task
sea.
and
first century
bare
city
stood.
have
some
(Shlee'mahn).
Trojan
begun
B.C.,
the Aegean
hilltopwhere,
ages.
village,was
few
achieve
To
this spot he
On
the
the
by
amassing
must
not
ruins
belonging
than
ancient
the
earth.
Troy
justifiedhis hopes.
unearthed
for
Schliemann
during
believed
beneath
Asia
more
have
eighth century
and
stories told
the
inspiration of
he
Heinrich
was
history, he
buried
changed by explorations in
he
boyhood
the
776
year
given hardly
been
in
the
historians
recently
with
affairs
POPULATION
THE
Till
"
Greek
B.C.
3500-1000
REMAINS;
Discoveries.
Recent
of them
a
THE
CIVILIZATIONS
MYCENAEAN
lowest
the
B.C.,
and
that
in
Argolis, Greece.
at
Troy.
showed
the
sixth, which
Afterward
1500-1000.
he
he
Mycenae
it to
believed
flourished
called
shows
at
the
that
have
time
been
the
on
civilization
1
"
105,
such
signs
the
centre
shores
of
wealth
of
the
of Greece
and
Mycenaean.
n.
i.
68
"
113.
and
culture
civilization
in
Troy.
that
which
Hence
Beginningsof Civilization
After
these discoveries it
69
necessary
to
B.C.
3500
dates
These
was
do not
we
the records
get from
of the
Cretans,for
based on Egyptian
their
"
belonged. We
of
by means
only
can
their works
II.
83. Beginnings.
settlements
the
which
progress
of
in round
huts, made
decorated
rude
stillsurvive.
CIVILIZATION
CRETAN
village
early as 3500 B.C. there were
entire Aegean region. The inhabitants lived
tools
and
arms
'It
about
at
help of a wheel.
with Egypt. Among
settlements at Troy and
without
this
should
700
B.C.
centuries too
be borne
in mind, however,
that
and
formed
of stone, and
the
their civilization
As
"
the
over
THE
trace
the
regionfrom
of those
given may
be
even
history before
two
The
70
Cretan
Mycenaean Civilizations
and
of copper
and
then of bronze
of
wares,
and of many
the growth of architecture,
writing,
with
of life. Crete, in close
commerce
Without
movement.
followingit in detail,we
A
The
CORRIDOR
IN
1500
life at the
The
Palace
and
the
great works
of
and
courts, longcorridors,
one
led
shall take
this
brief
of
provisions.
photograph)
heightof
the
In
Egypt,
its
development
"
-about
2200-
B.C.
84.
with
ments
embellish-
CNOSSUS
AT
largejarswere
(From
view of Cretan
PALACE
THE
other
the art of
of the
with benches
rooms
was
Court
People.
"
The
king of
Cnossus
multitude
found
of chambers
the throne
on
which
and
the
store-rooms.
king once
councillors.
sat,
Another
Cretan Civilization
THE
A
THRONE
stone
ROOM
king ;
both
on
(From
room,
The
fitted up with
frescos
PALACE
CNOSSUS
benches
photograph)
to have
picturethe
"
AT
sides stone
benches,seems
the walls
on
IN
been
brilliant court
Sometimes
used
as
life of the
school.
period.
the
dependents of the
princemarch into the palacein stately
times
procession,
bringingtheir gifts;someis filled with gaylythe court
adorned
and curled gentlemen,
dames
ously,
vigorgesticulating
standing,sitting,
flirting.We
and
see
the ladies,
tryingto preserve
the fresh whiteness of their complexion.
Again the people of the court are
watching
CRETAN
Decorated
(From Annual
at
VASE
with lilies.
]
troop of bull trainers,"
cut
aiid finish,
delicately
Athens,
x.
p.
7.)
From
Evans.
The
Cretan
and
Mycenaean
Civilizations
as
seals,and dagger blades inlaid with the
gems
In artistic taste and skill they far surpassed the
preciousmetals.
and
engraved
forms of
The
Orientals.
and
graceful
animals
in their art
especially
are
to nature.
true
85. Writing.
and
men
had
They
"
hieroglyphic
; the
clay tablets have
covered with this
later
been
found
LINEAR
in
of
one
Doubtless
WRITING
CLAY
ON
be
the
at
of little
of the
rooms
they are
(From Annual
earlier
writing.
CRETAN
systems of writing,the
two
of
accounts
palace,
receipts
TABLETS
of events.
larger
to a deity.
to be a list of offerings
tablet,found elsewhere,seems
used for religious,
In a word, their script
business,and possibly
was
in decipheringthis
scholars succeed
When
historical purposes.
shall
the language of the Cretans, and
writing,we shall know
and
dues;
of them
some
Society
and
absolute
record
their civilization.
better understand
86.
may
master.
Government.
"
toilers and
There
It
is clear
that
is strong evidence
societywas
that the king
of peace
throughout
He
the
could
not
send
over
sea
an
army
strong enough
to
built
conquer
no
Egypt
him.
Originof the
he
Rather
preferredto buy
THE
III.
Hellenes
73
his sway
over
MIGRATIONS
OF
Aegean
many
study
peoplewho
our
have
Aegean region we
Greeks
rich
gifts
islands.
HELLENES
THE
with
had
of the Race.
to do
"
In
Indo-Europeans. We noticed
the Indo-European tribes,in the
that about
above
B.C.
3000
of the race, began to move
homeland
apart and to develop into
in their wandering halted long in the
separate peoples. Some
have discovered remains
valleyof the Danube, where archaeologists
From
various
tribes
of their civilization.
there, about
2500,
into Greece.
There
had
been
trade
southward
began to move
and the Aegean area;
hence
between
the valleyof the Danube
not
were
even
or
the
As
own.
with
the
modified
88.
mode
of life^not much
different from
their
of the two
to
found
new-comers
The
attempt
Hellenic
peoplesproduced the
Turmoil
a
and
detailed
race.
Strife of Settlement.
account
of the
"
It would
as
migration,
be useless
the Greeks
selves
them-
had
no
record
of
"
"
Egyptian record
A
from
of the time.
The
northwest
of
the
have
been
ward
the south-
peoples.
of Greeks
shiftingof masses
peninsula from Epeirus,Aetolia,
and
pressure of the Illyrian
was
part of this movement
the
must
cause
other
the
"
"61.
The
74
1
vicinity
and
into east
"
afterward
came
Mycenaean Civilizations
Cretan and
and
to be known
south
These
Peloponnese.
the
Peloponneseis termed
and the only one
great migrationwithin the peninsula,
to have taken
by the Greeks of later time. It seems
into
thirteenth and
twelfth centuries
THE
IV.
people
placein
the
B.C.
CIVILIZATION
MYCENAEAN
About
remembered
B.C.
1500-1000
While
the Greeks
taking possession
of their historical home, the Cretans
were
making great
their products,
progress in the art of living.Through commerce
with some
were
coming to all parts
knowledge of their industries,
of the Aegean area
and to countries far beyond. But for a longtime
the Greeks, distracted by the turmoil of migrationand conquest,
took little interest in these improvements. Toward
the middle
of the second millennium
(2000-1000)B.C., however, as lifebecame
89. Beginnings
for
season
more
Tiryns.
secure,
those of the
peninsulafell rapidlyunder
when
the Cretans
had
become
"
Cretan
east
and
influence.
stagnant, just as
did
were
south
This
coasts
was
at
of the
a
time
tion
power, and their civilizathe Egyptian in the same
period.2
Under
this
The
"17.
proves
them
to
have
come
is
from
nearlythe
same
that quarter.
as
that
spoken
in northwestern
Mycenaean Civilization
ments,
includingseparate
bath-room
courts
and
halls for
75
and
men
women
sleeping-rooms,
corridor
and porticoes. The
smaller and simplerthan that of
palace was
but
for
Cnossus,
a king who
ruled over
very great
only a few square
miles of territory.The
walls and palace tell a vivid tale of
the
wealth and luxury of the king,and of his
unlimited authority
over
the lives and labor of his subjects.
a
with
conduit
ROYAL
and
drains ;
CEMETERY
On
(From
MYCENAE
or
the citadel
a
photograph)
but
Mycenae.
because
"
of the
favorable
Schliemann
enclosure
on
the hill.
Here
situation
were
its
king
unearthed
of lords
and
grouped in
in time
not
only a palace,
More
servants.
and
became
about
markable
re-
circular
The
76
families.
The
Mycenaean Civilizations
Cretan and
for themselves
One
dome-shaped tombs.
A'treus,is about fiftyfeet
immense
of
them,
in the
the
lower
city
so-called Tomb
in diameter.
heightand the same
and was
of the kind was
built underground in the hillside,
A tomb
All those at Mycenae
approached by a long,horizontal passage.
found
doubtless they had been
pillaged. From
were
empty;
in the
of the tombs
from
the contents
these remains, especially
of
ENTRANCE
in
TO
THE
(From
The
court
make
and
lady
out
how
OF
ATREUS
city,Mycenae
Lower
can
we
citadel,
what they wore
TOMB
photograph)
the
even
ate.
in
dressed
bodice
and
skirt.
full flounced
"
The
sea-purplestain.
her brow, goldenfilletsand pinsof exquisite
diadem of gold was
on
techniqueshiningout of her dark hair; golden bands about her
lets
throat and golden necklaces falling
; golden braceupon her bosom
upon her arms, gold ringschased with inimitable art upon her
The
cloth
was
fine linen
or
soft wool
of
Mycenaean Life
77
l
The men
very robes agleam with gold."
simplecloth around the waist,either hangingloose or drawn
and finally
her
fingers,
wore
togetherin
such
way
as
to form
GRAVESTONE
short trousers.
FOUND
AT
On
the shoulders
MYCENAE
ahead.
; his squirewalking
Excavations)
Schliemann's
(From Schuchhardt,
Warrior in chariot
Tsountas
and
Manatt,
The
The
78
In
the
war
huge
shield which
leathern
or
king or
noble
equipped himself
reached
from
His
greaves.
Civilizations
neck
helmet,with
ankles,and
to
of
weapons
with
defence
sword
The
defensive
wore
no
lightly,
and sling. They counted
dressed
men
common
of
91.
Relations
richest and
with
in
Greece, as in
Aegean Sea, the
Laconia
"
similar.
was
the
brilliant and
most
In
battle
to
for combat.
and
armor,
for little in
have
They must
and enjoyedall the
shipped
body.1 They wor-
life.
used
with the
Decline.
Mycenae
"
the
powerful of
other
many
seats
Sparta,and
city at Troy was
cities in
the
brief,
Greece
is called
culture
Across
contemporary, and
culture
same
the age
of the same
Athens.
at
"
the
was
the civilization of
near
sixth
and
Crete;
there
buried
ornaments
not
rode
horses,but dismounted
woollen
with
were
life
the
over
prevailed
now
the
Aegean
area.
from
come
Crete
The
people.
striking. It
then
in
was
inventive and
was
their fortunes
to seek
decadent.
difference
was
In
those
simplerand
included
must
not
have
been
among
the
the
Crete
two
new
and
cultures
prising
enter-
was
not
temperament
more
was
artistic ;
more
of
more
features
these
walled,but
among
the
between
regularin
afterward
strenuous
kings,and
form
inherited
in Greece.
doubtless
1
"
100.
than
by
the
There
fiercer
wars
temple.
Life
for supremacy
strugglesto maintain
The
8o
Mycenaean Civilizations
Cretan and
tribes who
roamed
through
againstthe barbarian
interior of the peninsula,
Hence
pressingdown from the north.
the mighty walls which surrounded
Mycenae and other cities,
of travellers.
As Crete declined,
which stillexcite the wonder
of the Greek kings crossed over
to the island and made
quests
con-
their freedom
the
arose
and
some
there.
Life in the
though of a highertype
Aegean cities,
in spirit
and in broad features the same.
Orient,was
this condition
last forever.
did not
The
few
Fortunately
enjoyed wealth
body and mind
who
and
1870?
Greece?
Oriental
In
i.
With
3.
what
what
to
has
extent
2.
did
Why
knowledge
our
Crete
of
early Greek
civilized
become
before
closelyconnected?
with that of Egypt
of Mycenae
situation, Tiryns or Mycenae?
country
was
Crete
most
of Cnossus
or
Compare the government
had
the better
or
Babylon.
5. Which
Which
became
the greater city?
the illustration opp. p. 78 describe
6. From
of
the shield of a Mycenaean
warrior.
in detail the columns
7. Compare
the Mycenaean
with
those
of
16,
an
74).
Egyptian temple (pp.
palace
civilization.
from the map
the area
of the Mycenaean
8. Describe
4.
Note-book
Schliemann.
I. Heinrich
"
Topics
III.
The
The
a
Dress
Great
same
Age,
and
stress
palaces may
be
to
Domestic
Life.
"
110-150.
Tsountas
Personal
Adornment.
"
Tsountas
and
Manatt,
must
not
due
to
accident.
and
Manatt,
ch. iv.
be
civilization declined
rule, conquerors
even
and
Houses
Mycenaean
IV.
1
Private
Excavations,ch. i ;
Schuchhardt, Schliemann's
wars
The
ch. vii.
of the decline.
not
of
touch.
As
Mycenaean
with neighboring cities,to internal revolutions, sometimes
the internal decay, which was
affecting
was
great cause
world.
CHAPTER
FIRST
THE
PERIOD
OF
VIII
COLONIZATION;
HOMERIC
I.
THE
PERIOD
FIRST
HELLENIC
THE
The
92.
the
reached
This
Aeolians.
shall
from
island
with
the
in
mingled
with
greater
other
93.
The
the
Greek
possession
islands.
ended
and
began
the
in
Mycenaean
age.
order
geographical
emigrants,
of
been
Blood
races
"
the
the
was
the
the
colonized
emigrants
Meanwhile
Two
Cyclades.
Near
8l
in
mixed
of
Paros
those
is
other
the
same
Aegean
from
of all
that
their
reaching
and
homeland,
which
mentioned.
on
of
along
parts
of
home,
new
colonies
thing
to
is true
area.
were
ing
tak-
Delos
and
Attica
islands,
Nax'os,
guage,
lan-
speaking
mind
from
the
in most
Lesbos,
In
in
people
Greek
inhabitants
the
bear
must
went
in
Aeolians.
name
of
south
the
the
of
Aeolis,
group
we
cities.
Ae'o-lis, and
dialect
in
other
to
was
same
the
to
sea
they occupied
Minor,
distance
some
we
the
natives.
Asia
of
the
of the
expanse
Myt-i-le'ne and
Hence
Thessaly
in
wide
spoken
was
from
than
lonians.
Paros, have
migrations
neighboring
of
mainland
however,
race,
that
the
The
under
together
extent
the
their
Aegean
settlements
the
on
Boeotia.
colonists
and
of
and
as.
Greece,
close
extending
coast
Ae-o'li-ans.
countries
Aeolians
and
mainland
slight variations,
Thessaly,
these
the
territory
were
with
the
of
Their
inhabitants
the
founded
they
to
over
strip
Lesbos.
in
the
to
within
crossed
There
passing
narrow
Hellenes
cross
opening
colonists
of Lesbos.
Thence
the
to
principal
B.C.);
1500-1000
south.
to
Thessaly
From
of
their
(ABOUT
RACES
as
began
the
with
review
north
soon
of colonization
early period
We
they
sea,
approximately
As
"
OR
AGE
COLONIZATION
OF
EPIC
THE
which
in time
of Colonization
First Period
The
82
the
politically
important. Beyond the Cyclades, near
the adjaand Chios, and lastly
Asiatic coast, they occupiedSamos
cent
whom
Of all men
we
know,"
stripof coast known as Ionia.
the
had
lonians
good fortune
says an ancient Greek historian,1 the
favorable
to build their cities in the most
positionfor climate and
seasons."
The
soil,too, is remarkably productive. The greatest
and
of industry,commerce,
of their cities was
centre
a
Mi-le'tus,
(
intellectual life. In fact,for centuries after its founding Miletus
became
"
"
took
the
lead
and
Ionian
their
kinsmen
only
the
to
most
people of
The
in Attica.
and
the islands
on
and
its widest
In
appliesnot
occupiedthe
accordingly
race
central section of
islands
Aegean
coasts
The
94.
civilization.
Hellenic
the word
popular sense
Ionia,but to
Ionic
in
Dorians.
While
"
the lonians
and
the Aeolians
thus
were
Peloponnese
settled Me'los and The'ra in the southern
Cyclades,and conquered
The populationof this island was
a part of Crete.
now
a medley of
expanding
and
races
land
the
across
tongues,
called Crete
ninety cities.
confusion
of
all have
tongues
therein
; there dwell
sea,
of
Dorian
Aegean
race
and
coasts
the Dorians
history.
The period closed with
(about 1000
B.C.).3
Herodotus, i. 142.
Odyssey, xix.
The
170
Arcadians
Cyprian.
For
the
occupy
islands.
the three
were
to
came
The
most
races
and
same
is
innumerable
men
Cretans
way
There
speech,but there is a
Achaeans, and there,too, native
the
not
are
"
it :
describes
of the wine-dark
water, and
And
from
Dorians
as
in the midst
rich,begirt with
Sea,
Aegean
Dorians
and
.of
the Dorians
on,
Minor.
southernmost
In
this
section
prominent in
the colonization
of
earlier Greek
Cyprus by
Arcadians
ff.
and
the sake
fifth and
sixth
fourth
race
may
race
"
the Arcadian-
be mentioned
here:
Peloponnese.
This
classificationis based
on
the dialects.
Homer
II. THE
EPIC
About
95. The
Homer.
Source:
OR
g^
HOMERIC
AGE
B.C.
1000-700
An
"
real traditions
he describes
customs
lifein this
new
blood
97.
of great achievements
Life
of Homer's
1
The
those
of his
own
past, the
time and
manners
country.
and
Ionic
Mycenaean, freshened by
of new
surroundings.
the
of the lonians
(1000-700 B.C.). Among
time,family and kin were sacred,and under the
periodwas a growth
and by the stimulus
Social
lonians
are
of the
Babylonians
from
the
--
had
in
composing epics("42).
The
84
"
of
and
child,brothers
blood
had
"
household
care
Epic Age
Zeus, whose
and
altar
the hearth.
was
cousins,united
Parent
the twofold
by
bond
of
and
not
"
was:
stood by one
another in danger, for the state
religion,
manded
yet begun to protect the lives of the citizens. Zeus combe
kind
A
form
to
of welcome
to
men
common
wayfarers.
and
Hail,stranger, with us thou shalt be kindlyentertained,
thereafter,when
whereof
thou
of women,
of
hast
and
the
For
war.
hast
need."
tasted
features
then
of home
of
men
98. Property
Labor.
shalt
of
and
tell
that
us
kindred,freedom
of social life were
theycaptured,and
respectable
; the weak
and
thou
an
warriors whom
Piracywas
meat,
love
Hospitality,
gentle manners
admirable
the most
time
thou
enslaved
and
In time
"
the
homeless
of peace
and
women
had
no
children.
protection.
yards,
kept their servants busy in the country plantingorchards and vineraisingbarley,or tending the herds,from which they drew
of their living. As there were
most
few skilled workmen, they had
to make
at home
nearlyeverythingthey needed in their dailylife.
Kings and queens worked along with their slaves. Having as yet
values in
no
they bartered their produce, and reckoned
money,
cattle or in pounds of bronze, iron, or
other metal.
Although
traders suppliedthe rich with costlywares
from
Phoenician
the
themselves
East, the lonians were
building shipsand beginninga
trade
which
was
to
soon
drive
from
Greek
waters.
working in
people were
the fields or were
buildingwalls,houses, and ships,the nobles lived
in the cityin the enjoyment of wealth and authority. The greater
lords met
in a council to advise and assist the king in all public
business,and to providefor the interests of their class. The king,
who was
and
merely the first among the nobles,was general,priest,
judge. He led the army, prayed to the gods for the city's
safety,
and settled cases
of privatelaw.
He did not try, however, to keep
99.
Government.
the peace
to
no
fightone
means
or
While
"
the
as
absolute,for
much
as
only
not
1
common
allowed
they pleased.
did
Odyssey, i. 123
he
f.
His
power
was
state
by
Society
he
but
council,
freemen.
of
assent
influence
the
on
Government
important
did
assembly
showed
or
his
all
brought
This
and
not
disapproval
by
than
his
king
did
from
Draw
2.
did
Why
it the
live
should
Why
did
noble
citizens?
5.
(p.
of
Greek
the
Dorians.
In
older?
the
What
of
and
had
changes
Age
Mycenaean
I.
Life.
Family
Fling,
"
exercised
far
and
the
less
the
would
Epic
Age
equipments
of
place
in
tion
civilizawhich
undertake
the
men
the
"
the
of
the
warrior
during
matters
we
duty?
lives
the
in
on
zation
civili-
newer
under
protect
these
place
Ionian
the
was
west?
and
the
was
government
who
than
islands,
respects
If
rather
How
3.
taken
the
Note-book
from
shouted
merely
east
go
coasts
lives,
dress
gathering
advisers.1
what
4.
government
Describe
78).
Aegean
the
our
the
people
They
colonists
protect
to
the
and
the
on
cease
not
map
the
silence.
the
Mycenaean
improvement
an
decline
the
to
of
before
Questions
Greek
lonians,
the
related
"
memory
Aeolians,
vase
earliest
the
plans
vote
Suggestive
i.
85
Source
Topics
of
Book
History,
Greek
(extracts
1-13
Homer).
II.
Government.
Fling,
"
III.
Games.
"
Religion,
chapter.
including
Iliad,
that
13-16.
xxii.
of
257-897.
the
Homeric
age,
will
be
considered
in
the
following
IX
CHAPTER
RELIGION
about
think
to
Life.
Future
100.
While
shadowy
they
resting in
slumber
of
form
in the
When
"
themselves,
was
man
AND
the
body,
living
luxuries
the
enjoyed
kinsmen
those
punished
all his
to
who
grave,
which
had
supply
him
him
brought
Greeks
the
continued
this
at
food
duty,
sacrifice to
the
dead
self,a
or
them
To
the
second
the
tools
or
his
expected
he
drink,
severely
and
protected
with
and
he
As
and
but
but
used
his in life.
death.
duties
life.
decayed
offerings.
customary
to
in dream
times
proper
and
its routine
to
began
his second
with
Greeks
explain sleep
to
body
been
neglected
the
times
they supposed
The
in the
who
relatives
tried
adventures
sleep.
soul, abiding
self,or
of
eternal
an
was
earliest
attending
was
MYTH
blessed
fitting ceremonies
these
For
even
until
to
imagine
the
reasons
the introduction
Christianity.1
In
realm
of
the
after
went
eternity.
Styx
the
the
Cha'ron,
the
to
the
depart.
Still later
of
the
souls
below
to
the
deeds
done
101.
thinking
they
they
1
Gods.
not
lived.
came
to
the
at
the
in the
"
In
judgment
and
the
"
all
whither
the
souls
across
Cer'be-rus,
where
gate, allowed
of
place
souls
joyless, dreamlike
ferried
rewards
all to
enter
arose
three-
but
three
punishments
the
none
judges
according
body.
of their
childhood
but
themselves,
worshipped
that
their view
earth,
pass
dead,
the
idea
the
about
believe
to
boatman,
distributed
They
Fundamentally
different
only
divine
of
the
there
body,
watch
to
began
beneath
"
home
dog, keeping
The
Greeks
Ha'des
god
leaving
River
headed
time
of
course
was
the
all these
like
that
development.
86
about
of
powers
deities
of
the
were
the
race
the
Greeks
world
nature.
like
Egyptians
men,
(" 24),
were
in which
Gradually
that
but
they
it had
Religionand
88
The
men.
The
oracle.
by
means
the revelation
denoted
word
same
celebrated
most
which
in Hellas
oracle
Myth
the
made
was
of the
utterance
of
that
was
called
was
god.
an
The
Apollo at Delphi.
Parnassus, in
up in a ravine at the southern base of Mount
the midst of magnificentscenery, stood his temple.1 Within was
a
High
the
ecstasy from
In
the
vapor,
vapor
sat
she muttered
over
issued,inspiring
it
on
tripod.
reply to
something in
The
Delphic Amphictyony.
in the
Apollowere
the members
and
as
kind
At
were
central
admit
called
was
fixed times
celebrate
the
"
but
"
"
75-
in time
of the
some
am-phic'ty-on-y
an
"
members
on
For
tribes
"union
the
of
example
Originally
Thessaly
in
so
were
larged
en-
the
neighbors."
the
property of
religious
leagueof
gathered
Deputies
at
together to deliberate
1
shrine and
Greece,
to
The
"
of the ambiguous
response,
tribes met
his
see
worship.
"
143.
-2
National
This
body
of
was
representatives
Games
amphictyoniccouncil. Though
to fightamong
themselves,
and would
not help one
another when attacked by foreigners,
they
recognizedcertain laws of war ; for instance,
not
stroy
to dethey were
any allied cityor cut it off from runningwater
in a siege,
and
who wronged the god or injuredhis
any one
property they were to
punish with foot and
the members
hand
and
with
every
of the
voice,
an
league continued
and
in
means
their power.
This they
did
by declaring a
"
"
sacred
the
against
war
offendingstate.
Other,
less
brated,
cele-
amphictyonies
need
not
be mentioned
here.
The
105.
Great
Games.
religious
"
tional
Na-
Other
institutions
four
of
them, held
Olympia, Ne'me-a,
the Isthmus
at
THE
on
of
Corinth,
and at Delphi, each in
honor of the chief god of
the most
splendid. Once
WRESTLERS
From
Florence.
(Uffizi,
the
place.1 The
in four years
all the shores of the Mediterranean
photograph)
Olympian
games were
of Greeks
number
vast
"
the
exercises
of the
on
and
athletes who
Zeus
admirers, crowds
were
at
Nemea
in
and
training,or
at
Olympia.
Religionand
90
admired
for
the
the
practiceof
Heralds
races.
recited
recentlyformed between
more
widely known." 1
The competitors
in the
and religious
standingand
of the games
end bestowed
examined
Greek
Myth
chariots which
were
entered
treaties,militaryor commercial,
in order that they might be
cities,
the
the wreath
of candidates,and
qualifications
the
at
of
06. Historical
Early History.
nature, but
Myths:
The
"
also the
How
Greeks
Greeks
invented
originand
the
contain
reconstructed
myths to explainnot
earlyhistoryof their race.
a
kernel
their
only
Some
down
P. Gardner, New
two
from
festivals
was
776 down.
776
termed
The
up
system of chronologybased
B.C.
of
our
as
The
Olympiad, and
is purely arbitrary,
and an
acquaintance with the
read the later Greek
historians and the more
those only who
an
initial date
for
system is necessary
erudite modern
works
on
on
four years
intervening between
in their order
the Olympiads were
numbered
reckoning.
ancient Greece.
Mythical Heroes
lenic
and
race
from
Homer,
and
Hellen
107.
its subdivisions.
his
Hellen.
was
and
Achaeus,
the
of
the inhabitants
the
The
Dorian
where
that
location
of the other
the
we
The
has
races
explainedabove.2
08. The
-The
Heroes
Greeks
of
as
Argolis.
vented
easilyinexplain the
myths to
originand earlygrowth of their
cities. They imagined that,
in time long past, heroes, the
sons
or
descendants
near
all the
notice
earth.
became
few
the
however,
2
see
myths
to
only of
those
know
related here
the value
are
"
n.
Selinus,about
600
HEAD
B.C.
; from
in
tribes
nations.
their
hero.
heads
whose
or
of national
strong, brave
and
braver
men,
bers,
rob-
founded
Though
heroes, we
shall
importance.
In his day lived
were
covered
with
study. It is important,
thorough study of religion.
for minute
make
is imperfect,as
than
savage
of them
Some
war.
of
and
beasts and
from
that became
of the myths
deeds
women
The
94,
Taller,stronger,
and villages
had
tribes,cities,
Gor'gons,monstrous
The
from
MEDUSA'S
OFF
photograph)
ancestors
CUTTING
(A Metope
races,
a
on
PERSEUS
of
performed great
cities,or
the
Ae-o'li-ans,
Dorians,
them
Achaea.
country
races
Peloponnese,
find the
been
Hellenic
were
historical times
in
of the Hellenes
ancestor
common
The
crowded
northern
into
given below.1
are
"
of four
believed
invaders
The
Peloponnese
migration.
Dorian
Greeks
sources,
"
kings
here mentioned
Achaeans
before
became
"
principalhistorical myths,
lonians.
and
Achaeans,
were
Ion
fathers
myth
had
He
the last-named
To
Sons.
The
it does not
Myth
Religionand
92
of hair.
instead
writhingsnakes
all.
The
the Her-a-clei'dae
deprived of
it
came
about
mountainous
of the
Return
"
Heracleidae.
descendants
their inherited
that the
little
For
"
of Heracles
Dorians, who
throne
the
rightto
at that
country in central
"
time
three
generations
remained
of
in
Argos.
dwelt
Greece, chose
in
exile,
Then
Doris,a
the
hero's
and Ar-is-to-de'mus,
to
Tem'e-nus,Cres-phon'tes,
great-grandsons,
lead them in an -invasion of Peloponnese. In a singlebattle they
conquered the whole peninsula. Elis they gave to their Aetolian
received Argos as his kingdom ; Cresphonteswas
guide ; Temenus
givenfertile Messenia ; and as Aristodemus had died on the way, his
became
twin sons, Eu-rys'the-nes
and Pro'cles,
the first kings of
from
Laconia.
For this reason
Laconia always had two kings,one
Thus
the family of Eurysthenes,the other from that of Procles.2
founded in Peloponnesethree great Dorian
were
states, each ruled
by Heracleid kings.
1
For
"
Zeus
139-
and
Hera,
see
"
102.
Religionand Myth
94
hero.
He
In his
valor.
athlete second
an
was
youth he
fame
won
Every
as
nine years
sacrificeto
him
they sent
Minotaur, a
seven
monstrous
wielded
maidens
youths and seven
bull kept in the Lab'y-rinth.
Theseus, however,
of these
one
nied
accompa-
gloomy
; and
to Cnossus
bassies
em-
after
of Attica
to
king
united
city,he
towns
return
in
all
of
the
great
one
state.
The
112.
"THESEUS"
gOnautS.
from
of the Ar-
Voyage
herOCS
Sometimes
"
several
cities
joinedin
the voyage of
was
undertakings.Such an expedition
Ar'go-nautsin search of the golden fleece. Ja'son,heir to
throne of I-ol'cos in Thessaly,grew
up in exile in a cave
national
demand
The
but
But
had
with the
carried
return
call heroes
from
Colchis.
the water
with
if Jason
promised everything,
off two
ram
would
which
years
the royal household; for
to
on
at
deceitful ruler
bring from
before
the
Pelion.
Mount
the
all Greece
gathered to man
sailors
FiftyArgonauts
"
their oars,
"
and
in their
of
Argo for
the Argo
rapid hands
the
"
the
age
voystruck
rowing
The
War
Trojan
95
reached
the heroes
subjectsfor
with
the
was
of the
Most
Menelaus
when
the
was
Now
the Greeks
dramas.1
famous
most
Helen, the
fairest and
Grecian
the
won
furnished
mythical voyage
The
"
Trojan War.
Lacedaemon,
Hellas.
and
songs
Trojan War.
The
113.
This
earth.
of the
waters
Men-e-la'us,
king of
in
accomplishedwoman
had
sued
prize,they bound
it chanced
ings
undertak-
wife of
most
kings
of heroic
that
for her
themselves
hand;
to
but
uphold
of
Priam, king
Paris,son
taking advantage of his
"
leader.
They
near
her
The Greeks had assigned
captivemaiden.
a
captured town, but
in his share of the spoilfrom
to Achilles
Withdrawing in
had unjustlytaken her from him.
Agamemnon
refused to engage further in
anger to his tent, the impetuous youth
Agamemnon
the
Greeks
done
which
Thereupon Zeus,
war.
gave
over
as
favor
to
the
mother
of
Achilles,
upon
besiegedand sent countless woes
he
tillAgamemnon
was
ready to acknowledge the wrong
victoryto
and
make
induced
1
For
the
ample amends
Achilles to
resume
instance,Pindar's Fourth
for it.
his
It
was
part in the
no
war,
the
had
gift,however,
but the death
Religion and
g6
Myth
The
114.
end
children.
and
women
the
from
Return
of the Greeks.
woes
hardships,some
many
wide.
Troy.
Driven
even
hither and
On
The
"
destruction
their homeward
of
with death.
way
Odysseus wandered
thither
the
far and
by angry Poseidon,
he saw
interestingcountries and peoples,he underwent
many
and met
with strange adventures.
severe
toils,
Reaching home at
of nobles,who, while suing for the hand
last,he slew the company
of his faithful wife Pe-nel'o-pe,
had long been livingat his house
and wasting his property.
115.
myth
Character
and
Influence
over
of
Myth
But
refined and
in time
the
ideas
of the
Greeks
sea
and
to
Religion.
do
with
"
Greek
rible
hor-
many
find among
the Orientals.
these subjectswere
on
all slain or
were
purified. The monsters
the background of the imagination,and
the gods were
shorn of their terrors.
The supernaturalbeings became
thrust
into
gradually
as
rule
Purification
gift
to
fact
gods
far
toward
working
to
of
was
the
problems
but
gods,
The
for
fit
regarded,
meal
basis
of
but
in
the
not
which
the
relationship
fellowship.
fearlessness
society,
subjects
"
was
as
fear,
the
of
spirit
Sacrifice
longer
no
97
kindly
art.
accounting
the
Myths
worshippers.
men
out
with
anger
his
with
and
goes
in
the
part
between
endowed
inspiration
an
appease
took
deity
and
and
worship
for
as
form
in
beautiful
the
of
of
This
the
government,
Greeks
art,
and
science.
Suggestive
what
In
i.
that
of
respects
Egypt
what
In
ways
the
the
were
find
we
What
the
Greeks
benefits
were
respect
general.
in
of
What
2.
what
mythology
Greek
In
5.
4.
evil-doers
In
3.
Delphi?
at
religion
Babylonia?
or
religion?
their
the
was
Questions
the
heroes
was
the
Note
-book
Greeks
the
Greeks
in
engaged
of
this
the
to
killing
Oracle
Greeks?
and
monsters
myth
on
process
from
the
by
beneficial
than
derive
influenced
games
effect
beautiful
more
did
and
religion?
ch.
and
Apollo
I.
Artemis.
Demeter,
III.
Games
and
Persephone,
and
Festivals.
"
;
;
Mythology
Fairbanks,
"
of
Greece
and
Rome,
iv.
II.
53
Topics
Holm,
Mahaffy,
History
Rambles
of Greece,
and
Dionysus.
Fling,
xix;
i. ch.
Studies
in
"
Source
Bury,
Greece,
xi.
ch.
Fairbanks,
Book
History
of
Greek
of Greece,
vi.
History,
ch.
Hi.
47-
""
5,
CHAPTER
Oriental,
"
he
that
family
In
Attica,
connection
this
the
consisted
of
it
only
not
was
under
was
is
Apollo
the
was
need
we
notice
to
When
state.
families, as
which
had
with
into
themselves
and
property,
whom
from
the
of
spoken
as
of all
ancestor
common
held
The
united
Many
descent,
Phratry
the association.
large family.
reunions
of Zeus
1
of the
and
Ch.
It
fixed
the
"
had
members
the
festival
social
in
were
gentes
Tribe.
the gens,
some
social
intercourse
98
keep
up
them.
to
(not gentes)
the
word
in
related
property,
phratric deities.
iii.
laid
nobles
families
strangers
time
to
to
itself
blood.
admitted
were
officers,common
for
such
At
limited
As
gods
more
The
themselves
though
organized
position
"brotherhood."
families
relations.
up
or
reunion.
Several
"
one
better
new
officers,common
days.
mostly
were
considered
kinsmen,
Like
Athena,
XVIII.
and
members
in fact
were
the
and
phratry
indicates, the
on
the
ancestor
also
the
to
all connection
lost
they kept
had
gens
religiousand
Hence
form
to
on
relationships.
117.
Each
made
often
gens,2with
present
founded
world,
common
called
association
an
modern
however,
of
for the
and
married
the
its relation
and
ancestor
common
treasury.
stress
greatest
in
as
descendants
offeringswere
members
and
chapter
character
they
up,
Sometimes,
the
case
general
grew
us
another.
that
In
sons
among
sprung
one
its
only
the
in another
described
life will be
Family
household
The
unlike
family,
Athenians.
the
to
belief
the
Greek
complete
slaves.
In
Apollo.
ancestral," in
the
and
The
"
religiousinstitution.
and
of Zeus
care
Gens.
The
children,
also
but
the
monogamic.
was
father, mother,
social
and
Family
The
6.
1 1
DEVELOPMENT
ITS
AND
CITY-STATE
THE
Greek
and
Unlike
form
the
periodical
and
for
the
gens,
worship
however,
Phratry
the
phratry was
both
as
political
and
men
well
99
All
religious.
belongto these
it
citizens,
new
Tribe
social and
as
had to
women,
admitted
the state
and
zens,
citi-
societies. When
assignedthem
to
various
phra-
which
tries,
and
The
the modern
tribe
was
beginningsof
the
created
phratries.Doubtless
tribes
many
but
phratries,
the state.
by
of
group
race
of kindred
union
into
state.
The
formed
were
in the far-off
naturallyby the
in the
government
family.
tribal
and
lonians
The
scale.
earlyIonic
tribe furnished
8. The
evident
states
systems of
their
in
four
usuallyhad
tribes,
earlyDoric three.1
tribe was
organizedlike the phratry,though on a larger
social and religious,
It was
too, but in the main political.
regiment
proportionalshare of the
1 1
differed
Dorians
and
organization.The
the
Each
The
and
tribes,
City-State.
"
taxes
From
for the
army,
and
other
what
has
and
each bore
publicburdens.
thus
members
of the
and
and
blood.
the
Greeks
several
groups
togetherwere
neighborhood, except in
The
same
without
No
ours.
not, as
were
bound
cannot
clear
conceptionof
the
difference
state is a
found
the
understand
We
far been
divided
sub-
degree,but religion
slightest
of the state.
thus
is
ritory
with us, ter-
is true
A modern
tribes have
the
said,it
far been
its
country whose
in the Aeolian
between
inhabitants,
states.
few
exceptinga
The
its
City-State and
The
ioo
state,
on
who
societyof kinsmen
under
fellow-citizens
transients,are
Greek
Development
one
ment.
governexclusive religious
an
was
definite
territory.We
family,in another to a
possesseda
it in one
should rather compare
respect to a
church.
By residence through any number
of centuries
an
alien
familycould
the
case
not
is that
there
country and
another
government,
which
this
For
state.
it from
distinguish
we
was
may
Athens
was
of
were
for the
reason
as
the country
Attica
Attica
the
who
well
states
and
us,
over
included
merely a city
was
the
whole
state
of the
area
to
city-state
times.
of modern
Athens
for the
government
Greek
Athens.
cityof
which
state
with
call the
we
take
as
city; rather,there
extended
country in which
not,
was
As
an
tration
illus-
GeographicallyAttica
cally
Politi-
situated.
was
all Attica.
enjoyed political
rightsin
the
country
Athenians.
Influence
119.
of the
City-State on
History.
"
of some
thought to be kinsmen, the descendants
god. For
all children of Apollo. The people
example, the Athenians were
of each
city considered it impious to admit strangers to their
and their state, as the god
brotherhoods,their religious
festivals,
loved only his citizens and looked upon all others as intruders.
sides
Bewere
state
had
some
Largely because of
these religious
stowing
were
ideas,the city-states
extremelyilliberal in bethe citizenship,
in greater
and were
unwillingto combine
Greek
units. Hence
political
historyhas to do, not with empires
like the Oriental,but with a multitude
of little city-states.
Some
covered
but
than
thousand.
the motives
and
an
few
square
This
of blood
energy of
too
and
disliked strangers.
of the
no
largest,
smallness,however, combined
to produce a
religion
thought and action which we
devotion
to
find nowhere
more
with
country
else in
The
IO2
City-Stateand
against the
the
commons,
wealthy families
its
Development
aristocrats sometimes
admitted
tain
cer-
share in the
wealth
privileges.When
substituted for birth as the qualification
for political
was
rights,
became
the government
rule of the few," of
an
oligarchy
number
less
than the whole
citizen bodyJ
Sometimes
it
any
was
agreed that political
rights should be graded according
of property determined
to amount
In that case
by a census.
the government
called a ti-moc'ra-cy.2
was
Either a timocracy
of oligarchy might develop from
or
some
simpler form
an
aristocracy.
These changes did littleto improve the condition of the masses
in fact grew
to quiet their discontent,which
or
more
continually
bitter.
it often happened that a noble,
Under these circumstances
beaten
in some
conflict with his fellows,appealed to the
political
or
change
promising economic
improvements in expolitical
commons,
for their support.
their help he would
With
then usurp
the government
and
An
unconstitutional
rule by force.
rule of
the kind was
called by the Greeks
a
tyranny. The word did not
or
a harsh
originally
oppressiverule,in fact,many were the
signify
that meaning as the character
to have
very opposite
; but it came
of the tyrants deteriorated.
under all
common
Usurpationswere
which
the forms of government
followed the kingship.3
Generallythe tyrant improved the condition of the commons
the peoplemore
of the nobles ; he reduced
and lessened the power
nearlyto an equality. As a rule the usurper was himself a wise and
his grandson, who
herited
inable statesman.
His son, and still more
became
the power,
in nearly every
a
case
tyrant in the
modern
When
this condition
came
sense.
about, the people put
to
"
"
tocracy
oligarchy is concerned, it might include the arisabove, and it is a convenient
to use.
Necessarilyit included the timocracy.
About
changed to a timocracy; " 150.
650 B.C. the aristocracyat Athens was
It is true that in the
Some
writers on Greek historyspeak of an "Age of Tyrants."
So far
;
one
2
3
seventh
the
as
but
and
of the word
meaning
the Greeks
drew
sixth centuries
B.C.
there
were
many,
and
But
from the
fewer.
great part of Hellas, they were
fourth century to the end of Greek independence they flourished in all parts of Hellas
in greater numbers
leading.
before.
The expressionAge of Tyrants is,therefore, misthan ever
Sparta and
Athens
controlled
were
those
at
Corinth
(""
161-
From
tyrant and
the
down
Kingship
established
Democracy
to
either
103
democracy or
liberal
oligarchy.1
These
Some
are
went
advanced
others
The
the end.
;
part way
; still others
monarchical
to
of government
diversity
they were
as
inventive
of the
Diagram
liberal
(At Sparta)
(At Corinth)
Kingship-"
Political
aristocracy.
j^grtQ^racv-^tyranny-"libera
oligarchy.
aristocracy
of
Combinations
Neighboringcommunities,
in religious
leagues,
City-States.
"
tribes,sometimes
well
Cycle
jaristocracy-"timocracy-^tyranny
(At Athens)
122.
remained
united
as
as
city-states
Some
of these unions
the amphictyonies described above.2
mained
rewell.
others tended to become
Boeas
religious,
political
otia is an
instance
of this political
development. In time arose
like that headed
by Sparta
leagues which were
purely political,
federal
the
in Peloponnese.3 Toward
the end of Greek
history
into great promiunions
form of the political
came
nence.4
a
league
"
"
Suggestive Questions
i.
What
are
some
of the differences
between
the Greek
city-stateand the
How
state?
2.
city-state and the modern
national
from creating a
did their love of the city-stateprevent the Greeks
the city-state?
derive
from
Greeks
did
state?
What
the
advantages
3.
reached
have
high a point,if
as
the civilization of the Greeks
4. Would
modern
city?
they had
the
between
all been
united
brought about
5. What
did the tyrants in many
the
in
state?
one
Give
reasons
for your
aristocracy to tyranny?
for democracy ?
the way
change from
cases
prepare
opinion.
6.
How
;
good example of the change from tyranny to democracy ("" 164 ff.)
Corinth, of the change to a liberal oligarchy (" 144). It should not be thought that
The text merely states the rule,
in these ways.
every
tyranny affected the government
1
to
Athens
which
2
"
104.
offers
there
were
exceptions.
3
"
"
I4S.
"" 338-342.
City
The
104
and
-State
I.
from
Change
The
ch.
iii;
Kingship
History
Bury,
Development
Topics
Note-book
Athens
its
Republic.
to
of Greece,
ch.
i.
"
"
Aristotle,
Constitution
of
9.
II.
III.
Greeks
Cleisthenes,
The
and
General
Romans,
of
Tyrant
Subject
chs.
i-iii
Sicyon.
of
the
"
Herodotus,
Chapter.
v.
"
67-69
Fowler,
vi.
City-State
128-131.
of
the
THE
WORLD
HELLENIC
Willmm,
The
Hellenic
World
Engrav.ng
15
Longitude
East
The
io6
ful motive
the
was
of
Organization
and
of adventure
the
longingto see
with the fortune-huntingspirit.
When
a
a
Colony.
cityplanned to
love
of Colonial Expansion
Period
Second
"
the
send
"
the mother
communities
to
the
place in
like those
religion
of
centre
and
to
carry
with
citywith
mother
them
which
to
kindle
the
uninterruptedin
and
to
found
homes
deprivedof
125.
in
divine
Relation
of
the new,
the
was
the
the
divine
religious
founder
for colonists
hearth
of
the
those who
hearth
sacred
and
is well
it"
customary
was
fire from
of
continue
hall
hearth
sacred
life
settlement,that the religious
government
which
on
his sacrifices. It
received
assignedeach
In this connection
This
ancestor
founder
in its town
it
which
on
city.
cityhad
Greek
erally
Genthe government.
wished from neighboring
established
state,and
new
of the mother
that every
to notice
to arrange
citypermittedany who
join the expedition.The
his
man
and
settlers,
the
went
forth
moment
be
mother
city
protection.
Colony
to
the
Mother
City.
"
when
preferred,
bond
This moral
126.
Minor
Colonies
from
in
was
Italy and
the Greek
rarelybroken.
Sicily.
and
peninsula,
"
Italy is
the Ionian
farther than
Asia
Aegean,
Italy and
shore of
had
will be
Lower
next
in their
known
here
to
There
Italy.
they found
geographicalrather
be
Italymay
the instepis an
homes..
own
cityof Ta-ren'tum.
Sicily
Because
fertilesoil than
more
Our
than
compared
excellent
far
107
review
of the
they
settlements
chronological.
in form
to
boot.
harbor,on which
of the favorable
In the heel
up the great
situation it became
grew
for commerce,
It was
wealth,and refinement.
especially
in
Greek
civilization
the
to
natives
of the
influential,
giving
too,
renowned
southwest,received
the
to
its
name
from
Locris,the
country.
This
"
eastern
"
In
coast.
Great
Harbor
"
time
wealth
founders
their
adorned
did
2
built
it with
Next
Its
in
The
Ac'ra-gas(Latin Ag-ri-gen'tum).
was
and
The
Babylonians had
not
have
one
largestcity in Greece.
could
population and
the
it became
tillabout
code
two
more
than
centuries later
renamed
Romans
(" 386).
Messene
years
On
they planted vineyards and olive orchards.
and
of its brilliancy
beauty, Pindar, the poet, calls it
Syracuse, and Acragas were
eye of Sicily."Tarentum,
it
all about
account
"
The
io8
the
colonies.
Dorian
of
Results
127.
wealth.
"
calls them
in
Greeks
(" Great
hundred
two
related
the
to
Greeks
from
source
the
128.
the
who
that
timber
a
so
is
to
now
the
respects the
two
civilization:
for
busy
(i)
planting
were
ments
extendingtheir settle-
the northwest
On
of the
coast
reachingfar
peninsulawith three arms
rugged and has so long a coast-line that the
to
live found
work
shipbuilding
; and
became
their
In the interior
near
most
of them
Chal-cid' i-ce.
the
they had
'"49-
were
made
from
came
a
Pot-i-dae'a,
city of
Macedonians,
chief commercial
dialect,and
of their situation
as
Men
homelike.
it very
the copper,
colony,however,
Greek
the Greeks
While
"
home
In
historyof
the
new
region.
spoke
America
was
to science and
area.
region to
Chalcis,they named
Corinthian
includes
Hellas
Sicily.Western
as
"
Hellas
broad
there
went
to
to cut
account
west
of their culture.
Aegean
It is
sea.
swarmed
who
reason
occupiedthe
Western
intellectual contact.
Chalcidice.
the
for this
which
in
"
term
they were
Italyand Sicily,
within
into the
Latin
important in
largerpart
colonies in
and
country in
and
are
Colonies
The
Italy and
great contributions
they made
Greeks
and
its
tinued
earlyas 750 B.C., and conterritory
occupiedby the
name
Mag'na Grae'ci-a
as
country somewhat
mother
closest commercial
western
the
in both
It remained
Europe.
began
years.
by the
Italyis called
Hellas ") ; while
their settlements
drew
mother
of
Sicily.
about
the
Because
"
by Phoenicians,1who
The
West.
of citadels,"
which nearly
crown
gorgeous
The Greeks were
prevented from completing
the island.
surrounded
end
the
excelled the
fertility,
Sicilysoon
Its cities were
mostly on the coast,
wonderful
Pindar
in
Colonization
in fact
Greeks.
little progress
But
on
in civil-
The
Hellespontand
the Black
Sea
109
them
that they
chieflyfrom the colonies near
slowly adopted the improvements in life and the advanced ideas
cultured
Hellenes.
of the more
colonists in this region,
The
did for them
what
the Greeks in the West
did for
accordingly,
ization.
It
was
the Romans.
Colonies
129.
Sea.
While
"
the
on
of the Greeks
some
the Black
were
of Chal-
"
at
the entrance
magnificent harbor,
the strait of
to
it
Bos'po-rus.Situated
extensivelyin
on
trade.
engaged
Nearly a
the name
of
years after its founding,it became, under
the capitalof the Roman
Constantinople,
empire.
The
Greeks pushed on
through the Bosporus to exploreand
settle the coasts
of the Black
ply
Sea.
This water
they called simPontus
the Sea
"'the
or
more
commonly Euxine
Hospitable." In time a chain of colonies stretched almost
alone
is said to have
Miletus
continuouslyaround the sea.
founded
than eighty in this region. The great attraction
more
Colchis yielded
layin the rich natural resources.
gold; the southern
coast, cattle,
coast, silver,
copper, iron,and timber ; the northern
the natives slaves
fish. From
hides,and grain; the sea itself,
obtained
were
by purchase and kidnapping. The country about
this sea accordingly
suppliedthe populous districts of Greece with
materials for manufacturing.
laborers,
food, the preciousmetals, and raw
It had little part in the intellectual life of Hellas,and
its civilizing
influence did not reach far from the shores.
thousand
"
"
"
130.
The
More
extended
as
were
made
("" 96-99).
Distant
from
the
Greeks
"
"
Colonies.
Greece
century
the remotest
B.C.
The
interveningwaters
on
"
would
shores
allow.
of
the
like that
as
Other
tioned
men-
tinuously
con-
ments
settle-
Mediterranean.
of the
"Homeric"
The
no
Period
Second
of Colonial Expansion
our
worked
out
the
of Ionia
oppositedirection,the Phocaeans
fifty-oared
galleysto the southern coast
In
Mas-sa'li-a2
founded
they
centre
as
as
along the
on
established
coast
by
their trafficover
the whole
Baltic
Spain
Sea.
owing to
who
In
its distance
as
of these
of Gaul
the
well
and
Greeks
settlements
as
this
far
founded
as
they
Britain
their
they
colony
as
well
extended
and
the
settlements,
of the Phoenicians,
the opposition
to
as
From
in the interior
tradingstations
means
Gaul, where
harbor.
excellent
an
of
rowed
fewer
of this peninsula.3
alreadytakingpossession
of Hellas.
During this periodof colonization
131. The Extent
the Greeks spread their settlements over
a largepart of the known
ancient world, as the western
Europeans have made their home in
were
"
every
world.
The
Greeks
were
then
all that
"
of their
others by means
everywhere gainingthe advantage over
all their
and intelligence.
Hellas included
own
superiorvitality
settlements
the shores of the Mediterranean
and its tributaries,
on
from Egypt to the
Pillars of Heracles," Strait of Gi-bral'tar,
and
from
not
south Russia
the African
to
desert. They were
united under
in
in blood, one
a
one
singlegovernment, but were
in religion.
one
speech and manners,
"
"
"
8.
2
3
"49-
xhe
present Marseilles.
XII
CHAPTER
THE
OF
RISE
AND
SPARTA
About
has
the Arcadian
It
the
on
range
whole
of the
one
was
occupations
and
walls
were
and
only
on
made
there
sole
is necessary
to
simply
The
mon.
the
had
serfdom.
amounts
reduced
of
and
" 78.
mere
north
by
River.
the
mountain
the
iron
principal
wares.
right bank
city,placed
of
on
the
top
hill-
villages without
for
reason
of
this
peculiarity
reduced
to
once
helots
city-states in Laconia;
the
others
the
the
state
of the
free
tilled
by
The
Taygetus
112
it
Sparta
state.
Lac-e-dae'-
was
"
comprised
or
few
serfs.
state
conquest
oppression
of the
but
were
helots,
Spartan
whom
fields
some
state
had
Sparta alone,
There
"
were
the
the
and
but
population.
laborers
peasants,
the
and
the
Helots.
this condition
of
Lacedaemonians
"
the
case
city
of
name
submission
to
the
In
dependent
Classes
Most
of
in
the
on
group
The
city.
the
the
light-armed troops,
as
the
Eurotas
of
Greek
several
city, whereas
Social
The
was
distinguish between
members
were
usual
on
Naturally
situated
the
independent
in Laconia.
doubtless
the
manufacture
was
been
had
Spartans
were
fixed
the
The
133.
Some
the
Peloponnese,
below.3
clear
the
become
of
mines.
slightelevation.
Sparta by conquest
slaves
and
with
contrast
Originally
both
iron
strongly fortified,it
will be
was
rich
farming
basin
in
by lofty parallel
west
fertile
city of Laconia,
In
Eurotas.
west
and
east
the
is
country
It is bounded
the
on
country
most
were
the
Sparta,
and
highland,
The
ranges.
Laconia,
"
LEAGUE
B.C.
750-500
brieflydescribed.1
been
already
Laconia.
and
Sparta
132.
PELOPONNESIAN
THE
; others
forced
into
fruit.
were
given
range;
"
71.
They
their
served
in
freedom
3
war
for
" 138.
Social Classes
113
"
to
and
begin with.
Messenia
The
; and
father
as
brought
his
boy
soon
they
elders of his tribe ; and if they found him puny and ill-shaped,
ordered him to be exposedto death in a chasm of the mountains near
The
ii4
Rise
by
; but
if
him
to
live.
they judged
placedhim
in
he had
twelve
Eurotas, and
the
his seventh
To
the
mother; then
of his
company
to
and
of Sparta
PeloponnesianLeague
state
took
charge of
of lads under
gatherreeds
learn
the
for his
own
his
trainer.
bed from
education,and
From
the age of
the banks of the
live without
underclothingand to go
barefoot winter and
summer.
Every year the boys had to givea
test of their endurance
by submittingto a whipping before the
the hero who could endure
altar of the goddessArtemis, and he was
the flogginglongest. Boys, youths,and young
men
were
organized
in troops and companies,and exercised in marching,sham-fighting,
and gymnastics. They were
taught to hunt and to be nimble and
in music
and poetry.
cunning,but their only mental culture was
to make
The whole
brave, strong,
objectof their education was
soldiers.
The girls
and well-disciplined
passed through a training
of
less
like that
the youths,though
severe.
They, too, practised
running,leaping,and throwing the spear and discus. The state
the gymnastic
as it considered
encouraged them to such exercise,
education
of women
of the race.
perfection
necessary to the physical
At the age of twenty the Spartan youth
136. Young Men.
liable to military
became
service
and as he was
now
a young
man,
in the field,
he joineda
of about
fifteen
mess," or brotherhood
The memcomrades
bers
each, who ate togetherin war and in peace.
voted
admission
of the mess
his
with
he applied
to which
on
bread crumbs,
throwing them into a basin carried by the waiter
around
the table ; those who liked the young
man
dropped their
and if any one
liked
disball into the basin without changing its figure,
his fingersand thus
flat between
him, he pressedthe crumb
of these flattened
but one
And if there was
gave his negativevote.
desirous were
so
piecesin the basin, the candidate was rejected,
of the company
should be agreeableto
they that all the members
had to furnish his monthly share of
each other."1
Each member
and dainties ;
for meat
barleymeal, wine, cheese,figs,and money
black
also a part of whatever
he got by hunting. The
game
broth
the national Spartan dish,relished by the elderly
was
men,
Thus
their fare was
meat.
simple
though the young men
preferred
must
to
"
"
"
"
"
Plutarch, Lycurgus.
The
but
efficient ; and
Women.
Men
and
man,
and
could
from
cease
could
Mature
mature
one
no
by being overfed.
through life.
137.
Spartans
attend
now
militaryservice
At
"
and
could
not
claim
even
his
All the
family as his own.
older Spartans regarded the
their children,
as
and
younger
the young were
taught to obey
and
as
their
as
But
while
the
barracks
soldiers
the
fathers.
own
Spartan ate
in
his fellow-
with
and
in
lived in
comfort
Aristotle
and
luxury.
after
tried to make
the
discipline,
but failed,
and
women
orderly,
therefore to
permitted them
live as they pleased. As they
could inherit and acquireproperty
in Laconia, and as men
were
it resulted
138. The
in time
of the
Army.
SPARTAN
(From
TOMBSTONE
photograph)
ness,
engage in busithat two-fifths of the land in the state came
not
permittedto
women.
In
"
the
Mycenaean
and
Homeric
ages
the
The
and good weapons.
heavy armor
were
miserably equipped
masses, grouped in tribes and phratries,
noble was
and altogetherwithout training. On the battlefield one
worth a hundred
This is the chief reason
why the
commoners.
nobles
alone
Greek
could
afford
philosopherwho
wrote
much
on
the government
of
Greek
cities;" 328.
The
n6
Rise
of Sparta
nobles
despisedthe
rights.
the
common
age,
in an
of fighters
masses
in this direction
the
were
PeloponnesianLeague
and
men
in the Homeric
Even
the
and
find
however, we
line.
even
Spartans.
causes
with
the
be
traced
than
land-owners
more
were
may
of
country itself:
political
keep
to
But
Two
few
attempt
some
here mentioned
were
them
gave
ment
improveto
fertile
the
plain
elsewhere
who
nia furnished
abundant
and
"
of music.
sound
deep.
The
line
system made
This
WARRIOR
COAT
the form
HELMET,
AND
MAIL,
had
of
IN
OF
139.
GREAVES
been
an
Sparta
It
sary,
unneces-
importanteffect on
government.
The
Government.
that
stated
managed
besides
the
the world.
in
the fortification of
and
ranks
Lacedaemon
strongest militarypower
rendered
several
was
the
"
It has
towns
of the
already
perioeci
more
or
less
the
The
consisted of
armor
entire body,
buckler
and
they carried
a
a
coat
largeshield,somewhat
helmet, and
of mail in
sword.
greaves.
In
time
they substituted
which
covered
smaller
Besides
round
the spear
Army
the government
there
Government
was
kings
two
were
and
in
place of
between
quarrelling
117
by Homer, exceptingthat
one.
the two
I.
2.
Council
1.
Composed
the
two
fa.
2.
Functions
Ib.
III.
Constitution
Magistrates
1.
II.
Aristocratic
of the
Outline
Deliberation
on
to
measures
age
or
above, and
presentedto
be
the
assembly.
Trial of criminal
cases.
Assembly
i.
of
Composed
[b. Voting
140.
The
of
Myth
Lycurgus.
way2
"
"
The
Spartans of
for the
109.
the council..
of their institutions
origin
he was
Lycurgus. In their belief
man,
the state
king, his nephew. Finding
to account
presentedby
measures
on
councillors.
"
*"8-
n8
The
full of
he
violence,'
whole
body
Rise
of Sparta
went
the
the citizens to
obey
people in the
world.
PeloponnesianLeague
brought home
Crete,and
to
of customs
the
and
for his
and
laws
new
laws,he made
This
story
was
to
Delphi
and
It is true
the most
current
through
By compelling
orderly
at Sparta. Other
say that Lycurgus
them
to
god
After
the oracle.
built him
death,continues
where
country.
used
Greeks,wishingto giveApollothe credit,
went
there
from
his
temple,
reverence.
named
Lycurgus; but,
as
did not
earlyGreeks
enforced
have
of his achievements
or
of his existence
even
positive
knowledge.
First Messenian
War
(about 725 B.C.). After the
141. The
all Laconia, a desire
to plough and
plant
Spartanshad subdued
we
no
"
"
fertile Messenia
they needed
more
of their warrior
"
led them
land
and
citizens.
helots to
After
from
In fact
number
support the increasing
they
twenty years of hard righting,
Ithome, and
strongholdof Mount
fled
annexed
the eastern
Many Messenians
part of the country.
Those
who
remained
became
the borders.
across
helots,and had
been their own.
had once
to till for the Spartans the fields which
"Like
with heavy burdens they brought to their lords,
asses
worn
under hard necessity,
the half of all the earth produced."l
Messenian
War
Second
or
(about 650 B.C.). Two
142. The
in rebellion.
With the
three generationslater the Messenians
rose
help of allies from Argos, Arcadia, and elsewhere,they utterly
routed the Lacedaemonian
In despairthe Spartans talked
army.
drove
the Messenians
to the
the
"
From
Tyrtaeus ; see
but the facts given above
next
are
paragraph.
about
all we
There
know.
is much
war
to
Rise
The
i2o
of Sparta
are,
and
made
the
and
strong, brave
excellent
PeloponnesianLeague
men,
warriors,second
mountaineers
as
only
the
to
usually
Spartans
themselves.
the
(655-582 B.C.). Corinth was
most
important state of Peloponnesewhich entered into permanent
alliance with Lacedaemon, and for that reason
its previoushistory
The
is given here.
king had been succeeded
by a small body of
in time grew
illiberal and insolent.
who
aristocrats,
Thereupon
of
down
and made
the
them
a
common
Cyp'se-lus,man
people,put
himself tyrant. Though usurpers
generallyfound it necessary
144.
Tyranny
at
Corinth
themselves
to surround
with
"
band
beloved
majorityof
guard. His
other
his
subjectsthat
he ruled for thirtyyears without a
son
Per-i-an'der,
who succeeded
him, was compelled to use harsh measures
against
the nobles who opposed him, and laid heavy taxes on the wealthy.
But he used the revenues
in beautifying
his cityand in increasing
its power and influence throughoutGreece.
These tyrants founded
colonies.
island off the west coast of Greece,
an
Cor-cy'ra,
many
pendence.
had been settled from Corinth long before,but had gainedits indeence,
the island temporarilyto obediThe tyrants reduced
of colonies,
and planted in the neighborhood a group
which
liberal
rulers were
remained faithful to the mother city. The same
of the peasants ; and their
the religion
especially
patrons of religion,
1
of
the wonders
giftsto the gods at Olympia were reckoned among
the world.
of the family,
On the downfall
Corinth became
a wellregulatedoligarchy.2
states, Cypselus was
145.
The
so
Peloponnesian
by
League.
"
It
was
under
this form
of
(about580
allyof Lacedaemon
and Sicyon (Sish'i-on)
B.C.). Elishad alreadyjoinedthe alliance,
"followed some
brought into the
years later. All these states were
the assurance
that they should have
on
leagueby their wealthy men
control
of their several governments.
And
in general Sparta
3
desired that her allies should be governed by oligarchies
; because
she knew that oligarchs
would be more
loyalto her than either tyrants
that Corinth
government
or
became
an
democrats.
The
PeloponnesianLeague,
1
" IOS.
which
2
"
121.
Sparta was
forming,had
thus
3
"
121.
Constitution
no
federal
common
each
but
to
serve
had
its own
in
under
war
121
treaty with
Lacedaemon.
States,
ties
Depu-
met
and
war
as
League
settle questionsof
the
such
constitution,
community
from
of
the
Lacedaemonian
kings. They
did not
divided among
themselves the expenses
pay tribute to Sparta,but
of the league, which
were
always light. Thus the states en-
THE
PELOPONNESMK
\$||ps
LEAGUE
CH3 States dependent
Sparta
upon
in alliance
wit,
joyed independence,and
at
the
same
time
the
advantages of
union.
nuria
power
and
Argos.
the island
among
the
of
states
"
and
Cy-the'ra,
of Greece.
made
them
the foremos
The
122
Rise
of
Write
the
3.
early
Laconianart?
5.
it
Would
words,
be
do
the
Ithome,
Mount
of
say
you
in
location
of
Arcadia,
the
Laconian.
Lacedaemonian
History
Society.
of Greece,
ch.
"
iii.
of
to
perioecus?
the
three
advantages
of
Laconia,
of
make
Distinguish
What
116).
p.
character
training
or
boys?
Messenia,
Sparta,
Topic
Fling,
"
7.
the
scribe
De-
2.
Corinth.
Note-book
Bury,
28.
p.
Sparta
that
method
River,
and
to
8.
Spartan
Eurotas
Sicyon,
did
any,
to
as
preferable
"
on
(illustration,
B.C.
if
helots
and
see
that
infer
you
Spartan
Spartan
Lacedaemonian,
Spartan,
Describe
to
do
contributions,
life
"
right
century
what
What
4.
like
chapter,
sixth
115,
p.
the
Was
this
the
illustration,
disadvantages
9.
in
used
civilization?
6.
of
summary
armor
the
From
brief
League
Questions
Suggestive
i.
Peloponnesian
the
and
Sparta
Source
Holm,
Book
History
of
Greek
of Greece,
History,
i.
ch.
58-77;
xv.
CHAPTER
FROM
ATHENS:
From
MONARCHY
the
Attica
Greece
that
noticed
we
plains,
these
features
midst
Acropolis
In
the
was
before
the
("
within
Greek
period.
We
Soon
are
led
This
to
behind
Miletus
afterward
she
city
Hellenic
148.
of
the
the
and
with
in
myths
gave
remains
to
(to
Kingship
an
speak
of the
closing
" 76.
"
n.
other
of the
than
with
the
which
early
the
chapter
state
Athens
cities in civilization.
the
became
and
regal period.
descent
claimed
123
had
in
most
foreart.
the
chapter on
legendary kings.4 It
"
and
2.
but
The
B.C.).
750
years
"
Athens.
in,
Athens
study
this
by
country
intelligence, in literature,
about
B.C.
its progress
rest, and
all the
the
as
iij Attica
fame
Greek
other
some
Athens.
we
the
covered
period
known
whole
trace
why
reason
one
the
coast, rises
early history of
therefore
can
of Theseus
account
cities
city-stateof
the
All
In
1500-700
the
century
about
"
of the
and
Athens.
independent
outstripped
world
ages
the
height,
subject, too, by
this
city of
unusually
mountains
the country.
from
miles
central
seventh
is
During
won.
the
state, and
certainty.
four
an
unproductive.1
history of
the
limits
the
and
of
geography
with
of
up
stony
the
several
the
made
was
epic
acquainted
greater
lagged
of
B.C
the
of
peninsula
was
on
and
of
opening
other
afterward
soil
"), stood
one
50x3
study
was
about
and
citadel
better
are
of any
the
about
to
our
country
bearing
On
but
brought
We
Attica
Mycenaean
Athens
been
In
hills.
of
group
had
the
of
that
and
Age
DEMOCRACY
KINGSHIP
"
the
THE
Athens.
and
TO
Mycenaean
I.
147.
XIII
""
93,
120
from
The
last
King Co'drus
4"m.
("The
Glorious
invaded
the army
Attica.
From
").
There
Word
leader
whose
victorious in the
and
Athens
124
going into
war.
Monarchy
is
myth
to
came
should
him
the Dorian
Democracy
that in his
from
killed
be
Thereupon
to
he dressed
himself like
peasant,
intentionally
provoked a quarrel
slain without
and was
being known, thus bringingeternal glory
The Athenians,from gratito himself and victoryto his country.
tude
decreed that his son
Me'don
for his heroic self-sacrifice,
should
reignin his stead ; and after Medon, his descendants,the Medoncamp,
AREOPAGUS
South side
(From
near
east
end
photograph)
were
tidae,
kingsof Athens for many generations.Although Codrus
is mythical,no one
doubts
the existence of the family.
carried on by the king,assisted
In this periodthe government
was
and limited by a council of nobles and by an assembly of freemen.
of its duties,1
In later historythe council,
in the exercise of some
hill justwest
of the Acropolis. From
the A-re-op'a-gus,
sat on
a
the placeof meeting it came
the Council of the Areopato be named
gus.
This council,like those of other Hellenic states, desired to
increase its own
of the king. About
at the expense
750 B.C.
power
1
"
154-
From
it
accordingly,
his rule had
time
cut
been
kingshipin
II.
THE
down
Monarchy
his office to
The
another
was
period of
ten
149.
Aristocracy
to
AND
THE
750-594
years, whereas
remained for a
an
B.C.
"
from
the
aristocracy.1
TIMOCRACY
125
king and
bestowed
upon
after
power
officers
new
nine principal
(about 650 B.C.)there were
magistratescalled
archons.
(i) the Archon, who was the chief executive
They were
the army,
magistrate,2(2) the pol'em-arch,who commanded
a
mere
(3) the king, now
priestand judge,and (4) the six thesmoth'e-tae
(" legislators
") who recorded the laws, had charge of
For a
publicdocuments, and acted as judgesin certain civil cases.
time these officers were
selected from the nobles by the Council of
the Areopagus.
The
Council of the Areopagus, like the council in other cities,3
made
The members
held their
was
originally
up of great nobles.
placesfor life. All the nobles called themselves Eu'pa-trids
(Greek
of noble
fathers "). They alone had the
Eu-pat'ri-dae, sons
of equippingthemselves with heavy armor.
means
They no longer
used chariots,4
but rode to war
horseback.
on
Looking down with
these lordlyknightsallowed
contempt on the ill-armed commoners,
them
share in the government.
The
no
assembly of freemen fell
into disuse.
The nobles in council cared only for the interests of the
richer class,supervised the magistrates,
and punished immoral
as
well as lawless citizens. During this periodthey were
the supreme
until
"
power
in the state.
150.
Timocracy
For
an
explanationof aristocracy
see
"
121.
head
of "nine
of the board
4
"
90.
chons,"
ar-
Athens
126
nobles
From
Monarchy
to
Democracy
forced to
151.
Attica
Constitution
was
divided
of the
now
subdivided
into twelve
The
objectwas
to
country and
to make
Timocracy.
secure
"
Like
Each
other
Ionic states,
of these districts
was
in
townships,4making forty-eight
better government
for all
all.
parts of the
publicburdens.
A Council
and One, newly formed, was
filled
by lot in such a way as to represent the four tribes and forty-eight
to the assembly,
townships. It prepared decrees for presentation
and assisted the magistrates
in their duties. Henceforth
the Council
of the Areopagus was
made
Though
up of retired archons.
still the
limited by the other council and by the assembly,it was
head
every man
of Four
Hundred
of the state.
The
f
.
The
Called naucraries.
Ionic
Athens
128
Monarchy
From
While
"
were
Democracy
to
The
153.
these
full of confusion
was
changes
and
strife.
ened
for the most
part in slaveryto the rich,threatpoor, who were
to rebel againsttheir lords ; the shepherdsand peasants of the
of the Plain about
Hills in north Attica hated the wealthier men
The
Athens, justas
other ; both
the
Plain
highlandand
and
Hills
were
lowland
hostile
Scots
to
to
hate each
men
fisher-
between
the contention
used
In addition to
breakingout into civil war.
continually
with each
actuallyfighting
troubles,the great families were
inherited the
and as the son
for the possession
of the offices,
The
could hope for an end of the turmoil.
of his father,
no
one
in fact drifting
into anarchy.
was
was
There
was
at
ambitious
an
young
man
these
other
feuds
state
named
powerfulfamilies
himself by winning
of the state, and who had greatlydistinguished
ness
a
Taking advantage of the weakvictoryin the Olympic games.
With the
of his country, he planned to usurp the government.
mercenaries
and of a band of friends from the nobility,
help of some
the country peoplein great numbers
he seized the Acropolis. But
their
and besiegedhim in the citadel. When
put on their armor
exhausted, Cylon and his brother stole through
provisionswere
forced to surrender,
the besieginglines; their starvingfollowers,
upon
about Athena's altar on the Acropolis. Hereflocked for protection
l
their
the chiefs of the townships promised these suppliants
submit
lives if they would
to trial..They agreed ; yet, not having
full confidence in the promise,they tied a thread to Athena's image,
But when
and, holdingone end of it,went down to the tribunal.
dess
theycame near the shrine of the Furies,2the thread by which the godbroke ; and then the Archon Meg'agave them her protection
cles and his followers stoned and butchered
them, permittingonly
a few to escape.
Probably a feud between the familyof Cylon and
The Alc-me-on'ithat of Megacles led to this impious massacre.
Cylon,who belonged to
one
of the noblest
and
most
'"151.
2
The
cave
work
goddesses, was
to
punish perjury,murder,
offences.
At that time
ment
mistreat-
their shrine
was
Draco
dae,
whom
to
Megacles belonged,were
The
Attica.
the
but
state
of
curse
centuries
of
suppression
such
need
was
of laws
decided
"
in favor
cases
the
could
who
pay
and
injustice
;
highestfee.
Men
and
in 621
by
which
to write out
a
power
His laws of homicide
code
are
unchanged for
them
often at strifewith
were
oppressingthe lower
one
class.
and demanded
to
oppression
judged. The nobles yielded,
"2
with full
Draco
legislator
"
for the
state.
Before
centuries.
many
the Athenians
Draco's
tained
re-
time
who
man
they were
B.C.
resisted this
commons
the laws
know
own
were
Naturallythe
for the
courts
feuds.
secret
and
the
Draco,
154.
There
more.1
or
the
mightiestfamilyin
to have been powerlessto bringthem
appears
murder
for the mistreatment
of suppliants,
or
impiety rested upon the whole familyfor two
to
129
killed another in
compelled,like the
of money
the kinsmen
of the slain by paying them a sum
;
satisfy
otherwise they would
kill him in revenge.
According to Draco's
code wilful murder
to be tried by the council of nobles sitting
was
and the penaltyin case
the Areopagus,3
on
a hillsacred to the Furies,
was
of
conviction
Other
property.
were
not
was
sent
was
so
of homicide
cases
were
of the murderer's
killed another
punished. One who accidentally
severely
temporarilyinto exile,whereas killingin self-defence
unpunished.
Theft of vegetableswas
went
given Draco
was
stealing
1
too
severe,
suppliantwas
who
one
He
From
mistreated
was
one
this
Areopagus.
K
one
a
who
of homicide
the laws
took refuge at
suppliantbrought
placeof meeting
altar
or
in
great improve-
temple of
upon
;
an
were
"
some
curse
god. Any
impiety.
of
149.
Council of the
Athens
130
"
ment.
did
Whoever
features
so
to
Democracy
whether
originally,
unfortunate,but
heroes
or
gods,
alleviated
humanely their
l
It is even
they could with right."
probablethat
laws of homicide he made
littlechange in existing
be held whollyresponsible
he cannot
for the harsh
oppress
miseries so far as
customs,
Monarchy
them
made
the
not
apart from
From
his
that
of his code.
Lords
and
Tenants.
His
laws
did
nothing,however, to
of their misery requiresexThe cause
help the wretched poor.
planation.
The nobles were
not
content
with the enjoyment of
all the political
also to acquireall the wealth in
but aimed
power,
the state and to gain an absolute mastery over
the citizens. They
forced the free peasants into dependence on themselves; when
a
lord laid claim to a field,
whether
he
justlyor unjustly, placedon it
a
"boundary" stone, as a sign that the land and the persons on
it were
his. It was
stood on nearlyall
not long before these stones
the farms in Attica,holding Black Earth enslaved,"in the words
155.
"
"
of
Solon, a great
be
sold
into
If any
of the time.
statesman
to
nothing but
slavery. With
failed
one
to pay
his children
sharpened sticks
found
the poor tenants
it so difficultto
diggingthe stony soil,
and pay their dues, that many
make a living
were
actuallysold into
There was
no
legalway of obtaining
slaveryto foreignmasters.
cordingl
Acfor their lords were
the judges in the courts.
satisfaction,
themselves
to rebel.
they agreed among
for
III.
156.
of
His
"
and
experience,
confidence
year
and
594
REFORMS
of the noblest
one
SOLON'S
in
families in
Attica,but
him, they
B.C., that he
elected
might
him
restore
to
their lords.
To
secure
1
not
also
As all
Archon
the freedom
only a
merchant
member
of wide
had
therefore,
classes,
and
harmony
was
lawgiverfor
among
the removal
the
the citizens
of all the
the payment of
of citizens for the present
from
Social and
Constitutional
Reforms
131
"
His
157.
the
in
Improvements
henceforth
peoplemight
the
Constitution.
In
"
and
to
to
the
The
that
their erty,
propwell as
the
he admitted
others
order
court
was
"
entire
government.
158.
I.
The
Territorial
The
The
i.
Four
They
("
admitted
up
Classes
"
class
"
500
or
more
of
measures
men"
grain,oil,and
tary
highest mili-
service,to the
to cavalry
They were
eligible
archonships.
'to treasuryships,and
offices,
those
the
yielded
estates
explained above
the lowest
152,
"
admitted
made
remained
or townships,
forty-eightnau'cra-ries,
I).
pen-ta-co-si-o-me-dim'ni five-hundred-bushel
The
wine.
As
of Attica
Divisions
Census
whose
Constitution
as
II.
of the Reformed
Outline
("" 150,
only who
three
152,
could
higher,
the thetes
"
or
were
the
wealthier,census
excluded under
the
timocracy, but
pre-Solonian
2
4.
ment
governpre-Solonian
equip themselves
""
Athens
132
The
Monarchy
From
to
Democracy
whose
estates
knights
yielded from 300 to 500
and dry.
wet
eligibleto cavalry service,
measures
They were
various
offices of moderate
and
the
to
to
probably
archonships,
2.
hip'peis
"
"
importance.
zeu-gi'tae " yoked-men,"
3. The
battle array
whose
estates
"
and
wet
dry.
in
men
measures
in the
served
They
is, heavy-armed
that
"
gible
eli-
were
inferior offices.
to
whose
inferior
estates
were
laborers,the poor
who
without
land.
were
zeugitae, or
entirely
They served as light-armed troops, and though eligibleto no
offices,
they could attend the assembly and the popular court.
The
first three classes paid war
were
rarely levied ;
taxes, which
4. The
thetes
but
of
The
"
the
the thetes
II), but
III.
the
"
those
to
Solon
were
exempt.
gave
them
classes existed
The
before
duties
in the
the
same
as
for their
and
The
2.
Council
(Boule) of
the
The
as
Assembly
method
the
of
cillors
coun-
of the
tially
substan-
were
(" 1 5 2, IV).
before
Ec-cle'si-a
"
of all the
Composed
1.
152, III) ;
of office
powers
councils
Four
Hundred
V.
152,
Magistrates
They
IV.
("
citizens
who
the desire to
had
attend.
It elected
2.
the
The
VI.
magistrates
Council
of Four
of
it
by
at
the
the
who
had
sure
the lei-
judgments
of
archons,
and
tried the
of their terms.
end
with
the
outline
important changes,
in
of age
attend.
Government
comparison
introduced
to
appeals from
magistrates
continued
before
Hundred.
desire
the
It received
Form
questionsbrought
on
"
and
VII.
voted
Court
Hel-i-ae'a
Popular Supreme
Composed of all citizens above thirty years
1.
2.
and
force.
The
given
the
in
greater
government
"
was
152
The
which
constitution of
preceded.
The
period should
be
studied
only
the
historyof government
becomes
in
reasons
comparison with
the
one
and
profitable
even
interesting.
SpecialLaws
159.
Special Laws
but
was
The
"
improvement of
subjects. The
(i) Draco's
of Solon.
most
laws
he believed them
to
important
be
just;
laws
:
on
but
in the
sixth
painting,
case
various
"
he accepted without
GATHERING
(Atticvase
made
given below
are
of homicide
He
the constitution
change,for
of other
offences he
OLIVES
century
B.C.
British Museum)
Henceforth
the
lightenedsuch penaltiesas he found too severe.
with death.
theft of a cabbage or an applewas
not punishable
of all productsof the soil except
(2) He forbade the exportation
olive oil. His objectwas
to prevent famine
by keepingat home
the food produced in the country.
passed
a trade,and
to teach his son
(3) He compelledevery man
other laws
was
to
unfit for
encourage
and believed
agriculture,
manufacturing and
developedalong these
time
the
Athens
saw
only hope
prosperity
Thereafter
commerce.
lines.
had
no
currency
This island-state
was
now
of her own,
a
but
rival of Athens.
At/tens
134
From
Monarchy
to
Democracy
Her
more
silver
measure
which
and
introduced
Solon
Athens
scarcelyknown before.
(5) He limited,too, the
to go out at night except
The
in
of
came
to be
influence
confined
more
and
world
more
to
she had
torch-bearer
freedom
much
from
women
the
which
Thus
permittingthem
not
carriagewith
Athenian
standard.
same
of women,
enjoyed as
those
the
commercial
freedom
time
in Homer's
women
to
used
house, and
ahead.
the
as
men
Solon's time
their social
through the
waned
Knowing that
the people
still be civil strife in Attica, he ordered
there would
side they deemed
of violent party conflict to joinwhichever
in case
most
just. Any one who held aloof from the contention should
His objectwas
be dishonored and deprived of the citizenship.
to
active part in publiclife ; and he
to take an
compel the commons
believed that they could by united effort bringany sedition quickly
to a close,
as
they had done in the case of Cylon'sconspiracy.
his
160. Drifting into Anarchy (594-560 B.C.). Solon made
laws binding for a hundred
years, and requiredall the citizens to
he had completed his work,
When
he found
to obey them.
swear
himself beset by peoplecoming to him and harassinghim concerning
here and questioning
his laws,criticising
there,tillas he wished
neither to alter wrhat he had decided on nor
yet to be an objectof
ill-willto every one
by remainingin Athens, he set off on a journey
for ten years with the combined
to Egypt
objectsof trade
(6) Lastly may
be
"
"
travel."
and
After
visiting
many
foreignlands,he
the poor
His
money,
would
2
3
had
No
was
home
satisfied with
to find his
his reforms
he would
silver drachma
but
one
returned
was
nearlyequal in weight to twenty cents (ten-pence) of our
much
drachma
was
purchasing power
greater. In Solon's time one
medimnus
ox.
an
(i% bu.) of wheat, and five drachmas
the
buy a
"" 97, 137Aristotle,Athenian
Constitution,n.
Athens
136
The
exile.
"
From
Monarchy
to
Democracy
allies soon
should
back
two
he brought him
his daughter; and on these terms
marry
to Athens
by a very primitiveand simple-minded device.
first
that Athena
was
spread abroad a rumor
bringingback
and then having found
of great stature
and
a woman
Pisistratus,
he dressed
her in a garb resembling that of the
beauty,
The
goddess and brought her into the city with Pisistratus.
in on
chariot with the woman
latter drove
beside him, and
a
the inhabitants
of the city,struck with awe,
received him with
l
adoration."
A disagreementwith his father-in-law forced the
ing
tyrant a second time into exile. After devoting ten years to gatherhe
returned.
The
welcomed
commons
again
him,
resources,
nobles in terror fled from
but many
the country. Regaining his
authorityin this way, Pisistratus established himself firmlyby
He
...
means
162.
His
has been
"
Government.
said
other
"
before,and
more
states.
His
administration
like constitutional
was
temperate,
government
as
than
tyranny.
Not
163. Hippias
(527
1
his
B.C.)T,
Athenian
Aristotle,
and
sons
Hipparchus.
Hip'pi-asand
Constitution,14.
When
"
he
died
in
old
Hip-par'chussucceeded
2
Aristotle,Athenian
age
him.
Constitution,16.
and
Hippias
Hipparchus
137
time
Failing therefore
they
themselves
were
death.
taken
the
after
But
Aristogeitonin song
decreed
public honors
by the descendants of
consequence
treated the nobles
that he became
Meanwhile
to
bring
about
to
to
regained
Harmodius
the two
the
with
put
and
and
tyrant-slayers,
be enjoyed forever
as
of
In
and
Athenians
their
the tyranny,
overthrow
to
heroes.
murder
Hippias
great harshness, so
very unpopular.
the exiled nobles were
their
trying
Cleis'the-nes,
return.
leader
work
the
he spent far
more
demanded.
In
than the
money
tract
con-
the ous
generaid in
to
ready
gratitudefor
In
king
was
always,"Athens
obedience
of
to
Sparta, led
through the
an
oracle
army
the
."
be set free
Cle-om'e-nes,
into Attica
and
The
GRAVESTONE
An
Athenian
OF
ARISTION
warrior
in
(NationalMuseum,
Athens)
Acropolis.
his friends attempted to send their children secretly
into
besieginglines to a placeof safety,but they fell
besieged Hippias
tyrant and
the
must
in
Athens
138
the
hands
associates
of
the
agreed
the tyranny
way
From
enemy.
to leave
to
came
V.
Monarchy
To
end, 510
THE
five
days.
In
his
this
B.C.
DEMOCRACY
B.C.
the
Democracy
recover
Beginning 508
to the
to
before
custom
Cleisthenes
and
"
The
chief rivals
were
It
clear that
Isagoraswas
people,however, rose
seems
now
"
"
""
The
153,
160.
demes, created
which
(naucraries)
had
by Cleisthenes, took
come
the
place of
the
forty-eighttownships
Constitutional Reforms
localitieshe
small
in ten
grouped
139
tribes in such
new
the
parcelsamong
give trouble.
four
had
nobles
objectin
The
old ones,
tribes.
ten
do
to
was
with
away
the old
controlled
level
political
with them
distinctions
tribes,but the
in the
thereafter
plans ; the peoplewere
had been before,and sectional warfare
his
substituted
He
tribe
in
"
placeof
should be ten
66.
had
he
After
I.
made
Territorial
The
III.
The
Hundred
1.
2.
The
successful in
was
reformed
as
by Cleisthenes
others
:
of less
importance,the
"
into
same
Census
than
more
as
Classes
are
as
hundred
one
the
demes;
townships of a modern
(" 152, II)
the
demes
state.
before
nine
archons
importance
ten
the
as
before
as
generals, one
more
each
from
tribe.
the
the
under
council
war
a
regiments,and formed
in
The
authority
generalsgradually grew
chief
led the
They
of
i.
on
Magistrates
The
The
were
the
divided
nearly the
Four
in
IV.
for the
more
these
had
the
Divisions
tribes
were
II.
Five
of the Constitution
of Athens
Ten
the Four
generals,one
Outline
constitution
of
Council
rank;
commons
Cleisthenes
new.
of
to
at
ten
tribal
polemarch.
the expense
of the
magistrates.
Councils
Of
the
Areopagus
Composition and
measures
of
as
before
Cleisthenes
drove
duties
the
popular
background. It
; but
the
after
with
Persia, and thereagain to the front in the war
(480-462 B.C.) gradually declined as the democratic
institutions (the assembly, popular courts, and the Council of
Five Hundred) grew.
came
Athens
140
Of
2.
the
From
Five
Monarchy
Hundred
by lot from
fiftydrawn
the candidates
These
(a) Organization.
"
ten
business
the
managing
Democracy
to
groups
of the
of councillors
took
in
turns
tenth
of
The
"
and
gradually took
Areopagus
(regularlymeeting
Assembly
in
once
as
Court
Popular Supreme
The
few
Council
of the
administrative
each
times
and
Composition
prytany)
VI.
place of the
supervisory and
in the state.
power
The
V.
chief
the
as
the
(meeting but
year)
before
V, VI)
take
far
tions
func-
("
152,
they began
to
active
more
VII.
1.
of Government
elements
Aristocratic
filled by wealthy
(because it was
for
life).
places
of the archons.
(b} High property qualifications
(c) Fillingthe archonships by election (rather than by lot).
of pay for most
(d) Absence
public duties.
(a) Council
of the
2.
Areopagus
held
who
men
their
elements
Democratic
court
(because they
(as it
(i) before
that
Solon
modified
167. Ostracism.
termed
"
and
Cleisthenes
existingforms
"
ostracism."
of pottery, which
Solon
by lot,the poor
the rich).
was
The
the form
word
with
those
of the
of
had
ernment
gov-
and
of government
Cleisthenes
composed
filled
was
an
3.
were
in
introduced
democratic
direction.
peculiarinstitution
from os'tra-kon,
piece
a
is derived
of ballot used
in the process.
fit,the citizens met and voted
Once
against
deemed
they
dangerous to the state.
If the archons found, on counting the votes, that there were
fewer
than six thousand in all,the vote had no effect. If,however, they
found
that at least six thousand
persons had voted, they sent the
man
who
had received
years.
Athens
and
Sparta
14!
It did not
a
lacked
in
his
for
candidacy
submit
to
he would
not, when
defeated
office,
jority,
ma-
but
preferredrather in
of law to destroyhis
defiance
more
fortunate
rival.1 Ostracism
removed
the
from
man
left at
the
the
dangerous
community, and
the head
whom
one
Of
the
the
State
Cast
people be-
OSTRAKQN
againstThemistocles
(BritishMuseum)
Sparta
tries
overthrow
to
the
Democracy.
"
After
the
would
liberated.
When, however, he
the forces of
into
saw
Peloponnese,and
Attica,while the
in concert
he gathered
democracy established,
led them
without
statinghis object,
the
with
Thebans
him.
and
Though
the country
the Athenians
Chalcidians invaded
inferior in
number,
Cf
.
" 145.
the conduct
" l63-
Athens
142
though
it had
Monarchy
From
local government,
to
Democracy
its members
remained
citizens
of Athens.
Some
their
But
to Asia
land.1
the Lacedaemonians
afterward
city,called
the deputy
the
as
time
congress of
from
Corinth
invited
and proposed to
allies,
Hippias
to
him.
restore
afterward
Soon
Athenians
secured
with
their peace
Their place in it
History (753-508B.C.). We
of Athenian
have
"
followed
invade
the
Greece.
Political Condition
170. The
the close of the periodwhich we
of Greece
have
now
tell,acknowledged the
and
Sparta had
Greece
than
any
achieved
other
Persian
king
for the
more
cities. Attica
1
"
197-
as
their
master.
Athens
development
political
was
firmly.united under
of
a
CHAPTER
XIV
AWAKENING
INTELLECTUAL
About
General
171.
Greeks
Character
Mediterranean
the
it.
from
the
time
organizations
and
government.
Progress
the
of
art
and
whatever.
activity, in science,
world.
the
In
lines of this
and
the
the
Among
found
its
imagine
the
seventh
cities.
and
orders
of
period.
their
distinguished by
trade
military
the
of
art
by
period
the
knowledge
of
the
industry,
in art, in industrial
rapidly
in
nation
foremost
main
the
trace
B.C.,
these
shall
we
in
limit
the
making
the
metals,
study
our
sculpture, the
to
in the
temple.
needed
they
and
building temples
were
"
made
were
temple,
more
of
models
it is necessary
Doric, Ionic,
column
first the
At
dwelling-houses, but
buildings
of the
the
But
work
fine
as
to
branch
it.
gods
architecture,
and
of art, and
of this age,
graceful
structure
of
in
of art, such
branches
form
to
century
Gradually
the
the
noblest
Greeks
that
out
little skilled
the
shall
we
branch
their
useful
were
power
painting,
vases,
highest expression
not
less
they
mental
Various
"
closely related
most
end
of
development.
during
architecture, the
the
of
beginning
Babylonians,
chapter
present
of
cultivated
were
in
remarkable
decoration
the
parts
accompanied
was
had
they
At
and
Architecture.
172.
and
lines
the
In
crude
was
Egyptians
science
no
awakening.
Greeks
the
life than
these
along
strides
enormous
the
network
improving
were
making
were
with
period
remotest
which
seas
waters
they
the
to
smaller
those
same
great intellectual
the
this
During
"
settlements
of
covered
They
At
routes.
their
and
Period.
the
of
extending
were
B.C.
750-500
the
"
144
and
chief
and
architecture
early
as
in
more
To
first to
notice
feature
of
as
all their
beauty.
Corinthian.
did
Greeks
metrical
symstand
underthree
They
the
are
Greek
Orders
Originally
trunk, the
temple.
but
tree
column
in time
came
be made
to
of Architecture
of stone.
173. The
The
"
Doric
der.
Or-
Doric
umn
col-
on
directly
tion.1
temple foundaUsually it is
single
stone, but
rests
the
not
"
of
is made
drums."
diameter
The
at
The
bottom.
the
at
the
ing,
taper-
however, is not
in a straight
line,but
in a gentle outward
curve, or swelling.It
fact
is an
interesting
that the swellingis
greater in the
much
earlier
later
found
than
it
temples;
that by
the
the
in
was
ishing
dimina
curve
be
the
After
had
column
in
tained.
at-
been
set
its
place, it was
carefullychannelled,
from top to
or
fluted,
bottom.
1
The
on
"
row
Doric
The
tion
part of the foundawhich
the colonnade
of columns
"
rests
is
CORNER
OF
TEMPLE
OF
POSEIDON,
POSEIDONIA
Intellectual Awakening
146
order
has
usuallytwenty flutings.The
and channelling
combine
to give
swelling
the pillargrace and an
of
appearance
The
head of the column
is
elasticity.
the capital.Though of one
piece,it is
made
up of two elements : (i) the ab'ablock, restingon (2) the
cus, a square
e-chi'nus, cushion,"a round piececonsiderably
"
greater in diameter
column
itself.
than
the
In the earlier
temples the
echinus was
bowl-shaped,"but in time
the outward
curve
diminished,till in the
best period1it became
very slight.This
The
change,too, meant increasing
grace.
Doric column
developedfrom the Mycenaean.
earliest examples of the
The
order show Egyptian influence. Its home
the Greek peninsula.
was
"
Minor.
It
having a
differs
base.
is ornamented
shaft
and
Corinthian
originatedin
from
This
in
the
various
base
and
is greater
"
in the
number
more
or
is
always
general,
styleis
and
beautiful
chaste ; the Ionic is more
graceful.The Corinthian is but a
COLUMN
Doric
In
the Doric
beauty
growth from
IONIC
of flutings
the
and
AN
the
ally
period usucapitalhas the
ornamented.
The
of
the
is
shaft
best
twenty-four. The
form of a spiral
roll. Whereas
is very simple,the Ionic
capital
less
and
slender
apart from
capital.The
in
The
ways.
Asia
Doric
part is round
meant
Orders.
the Ionic.
severe
It is distinguished
Elements
by
was
use
its
capitalof
acanthus
of
the
Temple
I47
leaves,and by
Architrave,Triglyphs,Metopes, Cornice,Frieze,and
175-
Above
"
the
columns
ments.
Pedi-
reach
from
one
to another
the upper
building. It
umn
col-
and
support
part of the
is
always
left plain. Resting on
the
architrave,and
so
around
extendingentirely
the temple,is a succession
of triglyphsand
met'owith one
pes, alternating
another.
Triglyphs are
tablets crossed
by three
deep vertical channels,
hence
the
grooved."
two
sides
of
the
"three-
name
Those
on
the
the ends
cover
CORINTHIAN
stretch
beams
"
CAPITAL
(From Epidaurus)
the building
across
for the
which
face between
"is
the
roof.
The
metope
"
it is
placedbetween two
triglyphs.It is likewise a stone tablet,left entirely
plain,or simply
or more
painted,
ure
commonly ornamented with reliefs. A reliefis a figsurface
in such a way as to stand out from the general
sculptured
of the stone as a background. Low
relief stands out but slightly,
The triglyphs
and metopes togethermake
high relief much more.
the
up
Doric
Ionic frieze is
building. In
1
The
the word
frieze.
a
so
named
Ionic
this frieze
Above
continuous
because
band
temples it
runs
the
cornice.1
The
of reliefs
takes the
When
Doric frieze,
the cornice,
and the architrave constitute the en-tab'la-ture.
it appliesrather to the Ionic
frieze is used without a descriptive
adjective,
text
below.
Intellectual
148
PLAN
TEMPLE
OF
Double
stand
Plan.
the cella
"
to
form
two
or
square
on/a.
"
"
The
colonnade,
more
column
Such
SMALL
surface.
TEMPLE
simplestplan is
singledoor.
in front
ends
either
A, cetta;B, vestibule
of the
The
door.1
projectingwall
as
double
side walls
Between
in the
columns, as shown
the image of the deity. The
which
the columns.
of
(From Unedited Antiquities
Attica,Chap. VII, PI. I)
et le
OF
Rhamnus.
earliest and
with
vestibule
cella contained
The
PLAN
PRIENE
176. The
room
AT
(From
with
name
by
the
however, the
as
surrounded
the buildingis entirely
When
metopes.
Awakening
their ends
illustration.
temple
of the kind
temple
temple in
rectangular
projectso
was
The
not
in antis.
antis.-
If the vestibule
The
Temple
as
Whole
149
the
the
many
had
periodwhich
added
be
to
are
we
the
to
In
rear.
now
TEMPLE
POSEIDON,
OF
(From
sometimes
beau-
POSEIDONIA
photograph)
around it.
extendingentirely
is called a perl-style.
colonnade
Afterward limestone was
wood.
The earliest templeswere
tified by
In
this
then
of columns
row
the stone
case
painted.
Greeks
began
periodis that
Italy.
Doric
177.
the
In
to
use
covered
was
latter
marble.
with
white
best
used.
stucco, which
Such
B.C.
preservedtemple of
was
the
this
ern
colony in southa Greek
Poseidon,in Po-si-do'ni-a,
is an impressivebuilding,with simplebut massive
of
It
columns.
Sculpture.
"
There
reliefs,
explainedabove,
are
and
kinds of sculpture,"
principal
As an example of an early
statues.
two
Awakening
Intellectual
relief we
about
take
may
600
Behind
head.1
off Medusa's
temple built
of these metopes
One
B.C.
from
metope
him
and
arms,
work
his
is very
much
legsare
are
Selinus,
Sicily,
cutting
protectinggoddess
crude.
The heads,
represents Perseus
stands
The
Athena.
in
too
stare ; the
faces lack
the statues
are
the
at
time.
An
ample
ex-
found at Delos.
figureof a woman
of marble," with the
It is
a long,flat block
attached to
rounded, the arms
edges slightly
the sides,and the head and hair but roughly
worked
out.
During the period, however,
is the
"
considerable
progress
with
of
Aristion
maiden
Acropolis.3 Both
the
on
of the
one
Athens
human
under
the
shows
form,
the
these
warrior
found
statues
chiselled
were
The
tyranny.
evidence
As
made.
was
latter
at
pecially
es-
knowledge of the
greater skill in working out
far better
and
both
STATUE
(Found
OF
at
WOMAN
Delos
seventh
National
the
The
"
one
great motive
and
which
nation.
Divi-
led the
improvements in art
was
religion.The belief that the gods were
factors
of perfectphysicalform, the beneand women
magnified men
tect
of all who properlyworshipped them, inspiredboth archiand
sculptor. The age which saw these earlyimprovements
The
of religious
Greek mind
was
reachingout
was
one
progress.
into the unknown, tryingto discover the nature of God and of his
century
Museum,
B.C.
Greeks
to make
all these
Athens)
!P.
QI.
2P.
115-
3PP-
I3S,
137-
Intellectual
was
sad, and
therefore
about
whole
in search
earth became
cold and
barren.
to
daughter,till she came
Eleusis,where she was received into the familyof the king. There
her daughter was
restored,but with the understanding that she
his wife and queen
to live with Hades
as
was
during four months
She
wandered
the
Awakening
of her
of the
year
months.
the winter
"
It
was
originally a nature
myth, to explain the
alternation
and
of
summer
winter; but
in this
the
and
tion.
resurrec-
Dionysus,
some
features
with
of
the
Orphic mysteries,was
introduced
worship.
GREEK
VASE
each
great
festival
Eleusinian
held
this
into
in
was
September
All
year.
the
of
the
magistrates
and
priestsin
their official robes, the citizens in their holiday attire,took part
in a grand processionalong the Sacred
to
Way from Athens
Eleusis.
There
with
public ceremonies
they worshipped Demeand
and
author
of their civilization;
ter, goddess of agriculture
the initiated attended
in secret
to the mystic rites of her service.
a
Among the mysteries was
passion play which exhibited the
when
her daughterwas
taken from her by Hades,
griefof Demeter
and the joy of receiving
her back.
Such, her worshippersthought,
the sorrows
of death and
the joys of reunion in the world
were
men,
slaves and freeAll Greeks, men
and women,
beyond the grave.
had equalrightsto initiation.
The priests
1 80.
Increasing Knowledge ; the Use of Writing.
of Orpheus spread their faith with such zeal that in the sixth cen(Demeter, Persephone, and
king of Eleusis)
Athenians,
"
Literature
tury
the
it came
B.C.
work
near
Such
Greeks.
science,which
would
event
an
clearlythe
out
problems
they were
have
the minds
over
rendered
them
53
of
unfit to
of government,
society,art, and
alreadyattemptingto solve. Fortunately
of mystery was
a
offset by increasing
religion
made
storingup of facts was
possibleby
and
other
Greece
beginsat
181.
Hesiod;
writer
say
was
of
that
the
written
in the sixth.
mentioningexisted
worth
prose
we
There
this time.
seventh
no
Hence
documents.
in this
Apart
the
age
from
documents
period.
Poetry.
Beginnings of Personal
the
historical age of
poetry, too, in the
The
"
liest
ear-
Hesiod,
was
an
of the remote
past ; Hesiod
has
to
do
with
men
in
everyday life.
The earlyepicshave
came
about
Thus
extends
Persia
The
from
second
the time
arose.
of Hesiod
(700-479B.C.).
elegy is
Ionia,and
poets
personalpoetry
was
the
earliest form
of
One of
martial.
originally
Tyrtaeus of Sparta, mentioned
was
Messenian
War.3
used
Solon
It
personalpoetry.
the
"
106.
with
in connection
as
in
martial
elegy
arose
means
the
3"i42-
the
of
elegy,
Intellectual
154
182.
"
the
song
the music
home
as
of the ballad
"
well
of this
chief forms
The
highestform of personalpoetry
accompanied by the lyre. The lyricpoet
Lyric Poetry.
lyric,
Awakening
is the
posed
com-
the words
as
poetry
of his songs.
There were
ballad and
the choral ode.
the
Lesbos,1 and
two
The
its great
were
representatives
the Lesbic poets, Al-cae'us and Sappho, who
belonged to the early
Alcaeus
Aeolian noble,"
was
a fiery
part of the sixth century B.C.
who composed songs of war, adventure, and party strife,
love-songs,
a
nd
He
brilliant
was
a
versatile,
drinking-songs,
hymns.
poet.
her
friend
Violet-crowned, pure, softly smiling Sappho," as
was
"
"
calls
Alcaeus
"
his peer
her, was
in
the ancients
To
genius.
she
was
"
"
the poet
was
poetess,"as Homer
they
; and sometimes
her
the
tenth
muse."
styled
Ballads were
simple songs sung by individuals ; but the choral
ode was
publicand was sung by a trained chorus, who accompanied
eminent
choral poet
the music with dancing. The most
perhaps
the greatest purelylyricpoet of the world
Pindar of Boeotia
was
(522-448B.C.). As he belonged to a priestly
family,he began even
with myths and
lore.
in childhood
His
to fill his mind
religious
the
"
"
"
poems
up of this material.
of the victors
in honor
Those
made
are
are
in
which
the
have
been
great national
served
pre-
games.
the
myth
historyof
the victor's familyor city; it glorifies
noble birth,well-used wealth,
and all manner
of virtue.
justice,
Though difficult to read even in
will repay
the most
these poems
careful study. The
translations,
like jewels; he is
styleis bold, rapid,and vital ; his words glitter
always sublime.
The
ode
usuallynarrates
Besides
in
the
all
perished;
of Alcaeus.
fragments.
Pindar
183. The
were
of
The
parts of Greece.
of others
we
have
We
work
Beginnings
mere
have
has
two
the
had
has
of
with
connected
some
were
works
of
shreds.
have
some
There
remain
ished
flour-
utterly
but
ments
frag-
of Sappho, in addition to
poems
best fortune
of all the poets of
down
come
Science
in his
every
others who
many
;
own
day
to
us.
Philosophy.
way
more
to
The
"
solve the
complex
as
poets
problems
civilization
Science
155
of things,however,they always
seekingthe causes
back to the supernatural. For instance,they explainedthe
went
rotation of the seasons
and Persephone.1
by the story of Demeter
the time of Solon a few of the more
But about
Greeks
intelligent
as
an
began to seek for natural causes
explanationof things. Such
In
advanced.
scientists.
were
persons
The founder of Greek science
Tha'les.
Naturallyhe was a
citizen of Miletus,in this periodthe centre of Hellenic industry,
commerce,
and intellectual life. It is said that he visited Egypt and
scientific knowledge. He was
a
brought back from there some
of
mathematician, and knew enough astronomy to foretell an eclipse
he fell into a well is told
The story that while star-gazing
the sun.
how unpractical
to the
a
to prove
philosopheris. When
referring
Greeks,we use the word philosophyto include their sciences as well as
and
abstract thinkingon such great subjects
their more
as the nature
Thales had a theorythat water
of the universe.
was
cause
original
had
been
made.
of
which
the original
substance,out
everything
to be sure,
This was,
first to seek
makes
him
After him
of mention
natural
the
founder
came
was
many
was
mistake.
But
the very
fact that he
was
the
of things
supernaturalcause
of Greek philosophy.
other philosophers.One especially
worthy
rather
than
who
Py-thag'o-ras,
on
matics.
mathe-
They
followers,the Py-thag-o-re'ans.
many
and adopted the ascetic
organizedthemselves in secret fraternities,
He
had
lifeand
to
some
mankind.
Unity
of
Hellas.
In
"
"
179-
this
Intellectual
156
intensified
was
"
This
barbarians."
language
their
by
conflicts
word
with
foreigners, whom
originally signified
but
unintelligible;
was
Awakening
the
as
own
the
accordingly,
and
that
it
which
meaning
has
now
Greeks
our
What
in
this
145-147.
5.
of
woman
does
with
latter
show?
(p. 149) ?
indicate
what
an
In
this
age,
in
pathy,
sym-
in
spiritand
by
one
one
common
name
Give
9.
later
Orphic
examples
of
p.
sixth
impression
and
and
mysteries
Did
epic, elegiac,
Methods.
the
benefit
they
differ
to
of
the
and
the
of
progress
temple
of
don
Posei-
mysteries
if
and
Greeks,
lyric poetry
in
epic poetry?
from
why?
of
statue
What
Eleusinian
the
on
in
and
think
you
(p. 135).
the
ory.
mem-
architecture
seventh-century
century
personal poetry
Materials
Building
91.
of
do
detail
illustrated
beautiful,
most
What
the
philosophers aiming
Greek
the
in
capitals
orders
pare
Com-
of it from
drawing
three
you
is your
What
religion?
does
How
10.
the
Compare
of the
the
in
to
Describe
2.
a
Corinthian
of
on
architecture?
to
Make
and
Note-book
I.
language.
Greeks
145.
seems
6.
7.
Do
8.
early
the
the
Egyptians.
p.
pictured
one
advance
way?
literature.
were
Which
time?
that
the
on
the
examples
metope
(p. 150)
the
with
Mention
the
sculpture
word
Questions
of
Doric, Ionic,
the
4.
Describe
motive
illustrated
locality.
own
your
chief
respect
temple
Compare
3.
pp.
the
was
of the
parts
the
Hellenes.
of
them
their
to
call themselves
to
Suggestive
i.
own
becoming
were
beginning
were
in
discovered
attach
to
whose
people
Greeks
called
they
in
so
modern
What
u.
discover?
Topics
"
Fowler
and
Wheeler,
Greek
92-94;
Fowler,
Ancient
Archaeology, 96-108.
Sappho.
II.
Greek
Ancient
Greek
Literature,
Literature, 96-100.
III.
116
Murray,
"
IV.
Greece
Pindar.
"
Fowler,
ch.
Myths
of
and
Rome,
Greek
Jebb,
Literature
(Primer),
64-69;
Murray,
109-
xi.
Death
ch.
and
viii
.
the
Future
World.
"
Fairbanks,
Mythology
of
CHAPTER
CONQUEST
OF
ASIATIC
XV
GREECE
BY
THE
LYDIANS
AND
THE
PERSIANS
560-493
185. Character
of
and
government
Lacedaemonians
in the
and
the
lead
Greeks
in
Egypt
But
though
lonians
acted
together, and
They
loved
the
a
ruin.
military
It is
Asia,
based
controlling
186.
remained
a
country
as
strong
in
of
service.
were
civilization.
qualities, the
people,
of
diversion
of
the
submission
long-
political
their
to
state.
enjoyed
fond
not
was
inferior
unthinking
and
the
as
rarely
strong
one
towns,
neighbors
they proved
1000-
communities
character
Their
on
The
the
Sea
(about
Hellenic
their
commercial
that
their
on
of
Mediterranean
joining in
for
first
empires
to
one
of
all-
will.
great
Greeks
were
these
as
Croesus,
no
war
wonder
no
think
not
independence
they
yet
continued
was
could
the
excellent
many
torians,
histook
people
years
of
homes
geographers,
were
the
Minor
the
were
the
as
Asia
same
hundred
politicalability.
privilege of making
summer
their
for
in
complete
five
standard-bearers
admirable
lacking
were
The
ships plied
For
the
earliest
lonians
of
Ionia
oping
devel-
well
as
Greeks
and
The
the
their
were
the
lonians.
were
Massalia.
to
to
in
successful
Athenians
Aeolis
Greece.
inventions
money;
B.C.) they
494
far inferior
of
poets
the
war,
of civilization.
useful
coin
Although
"
of
art
philosophers
to
from
the
were
first great
lonians.
thus
finer elements
the
of
the
B.C.
560
of
King
foreign
power
free.
But
B.C.,1admired
but
As
long
neighborhood,
these
"
their
in
gradually Lydia,
who
Croesus,
state.
willing subjects;
(560-546 B.C.).
Lydia
the
the
ascended
Greeks
and
wished
they resisted, he
when
1
" 63.
Asiatic
came
interior, be-
the
in
there
as
throne
to
waged
of
this
have
them
war
upon
Conqwst by
58
the
Lydians and
the Persians
and
them
He
ruled
conquered them with no great difficulty.
them
well,however, as he sought to gain their favor and support
againstthe risingpower of Persia. He stole his way into their
affections by making costlypresents to their gods, especially
to
Apollo at Delphi.1 Under him, Lydia reached its heightin wealth
and power.
His treasury was
full of gold dust from the sands of
the Lydian rivers and of tributes from the cities he had conquered;
and as he was
the wealthiest he supposed himself to be the happiest
His empire had
all Asia Minor
earth.
to include
on
come
man
of the Halys River ; but it was
destined soon
to become
west
a
was
part of the far vaster Persian empire,and the happy monarch
his life in captivity.
doomed
to end
187. The
Relations
between
Cyrus, King
of
Persia, and
the
"
"
"
'
'
"
103.
Ch.
v.
The
should
now
be reviewed.
160
in the
about
country north
gallingto the
was
Greeks
the Persians
of the Danube
to
perform
and
such
the Black
Sea.
It
compulsory service,as
the annexation
was
empire,which
The
189.
therefore
The
in-law,for he
the
promised
from
them
was
on
felt that
he
the border
of
sian
Per-
Thessaly.
the
"
than
better
no
was
to his native
land,he
sent
of
tyrant
exile.
secret
siring
De-
message
Miletus, urging
assurance
should
to
from
latter needed
Persians
this
to the
The
(499-494 B.C.)
Beginning.
for his loyaltyby inviting
him to Susa,1
his life as a courtier in the palace. To the
to return
revolt.
Macedon
then
son-in-law,Ar-is-tag'o-ras,
to
and
therefore
Greek
ambitious
him
of
the remainder
to pass
to
Revolt
Histiaeus
king rewarded
his
extended
now
Ionic
of Thrace
be
Naxos,
conquer
; but
punished
had
and
in his
failing
received
attempt,
keeping his
for not
he
help
now
word.
He
decided
follows
free is
"
:
a
all others
That
the
sons
of the lonians
reproachand griefmost
most
to
I
Now, therefore,
you,
entreat
of all indeed
inasmuch
by
you
1
should
" 66,
as
ye
the
n.
2.
are
gods
be slaves instead
of
but
ourselves,
of
for
the
leaders
of Hellas
to
of Hellas.
rescue
from
Ionic
easily achieve
whereas
their
and
caps
have
ye
and
attained
161
kinsmen:
own
your
the
foreigners
the highestpoint
not
are
to
fightingis of this
fashion,namely, with
and
valiant
ye
in
of valor
in
bows
and
may
fight,
war:
arrows
who
again, they
as
quantities
not
gold, then
silver and
of burden
and
bronze
nations
and
in the world
first
possess;
garments and beasts
embroidered
ye
might
have
for
yourselvesif
desired."1
so
ye
are
Revolt
journeyis it from
"
asked.
enes
the Ionian
coast
three-months'
to the Persian
"
capital?
Cleom-
journey,"Aristagorasanswered
"
from
Miletus," the Spartan king
incautiously. Guest-Friend
interrupted, get thee away from Sparta before the sun has set;
of the
for thou speakesta word
which
sounds
not well in the ears
Lacedaemonians, desiringto take them on a journeyof three months
"
from
bribe,but
smooth
The
the sea."
frustrated
was
tried to win
then
Ionian
him
by
with
child
"
eightor
The
Athenians
near
were
relations with
had
ordered
them.
the Athenians
to
consequence
Persia.
They therefore sent
their neighbor,Eretria,sent
The
Suppression
captured and
1
Herodotus,
particular,
"
recentlythe
take
back
to
v.
burned
49.
This
the Persians
twenty
and
in close
mercial
com-
of Sardis
governor
Hippias as their tyrant,if
And
escape destruction.
that a state of war
now
they wished
191.
of the lonians
kinsmen
They
had
felt in
refused,and
existed between
them
and
five.
of the
Sardis,the
Revolt
most
"The
(498-494B.C.).
important cityunder
allies
Persian
of the facts,
except in
one
62
control
in Asia
Ionia, the
This
Persians
repulseso
home
returned
Minor.
Then,
attacked
as
they
and
were
defeated
thoroughlydiscouragedthe
and
would
The
their way
on
them
back
to
Ephesus.
they
near
Athenians
that
give no more
help.
encouraged the rest of
on
Athens.
"
Miltiades
his native
found
"
88.
For
descriptionof
the trireme
see
"
200,
n.
i.
Themistodes
Opposed
the
the
to
of
form
tyrant'sparty
163
the republicans,
who
were
established
upheld
by
were
Persia.
As
Archon
for
against
ready
elected
their
of
Them-is'to-cles, leader,a man
derful
won493 B.C. they
and
Heretofore
the Athenians
had
intelligence.
energy
their shipsin the open bay of Phal-e'rum,
but Themistocles
moored
harbor of Pei-rae'us
occupiedhis term of officein making the triple
to
government
(From
ready for
He
navy.
avoided, and intended
a
and
Cleisthenes,
powerfulfleet;for
HARBOR
PEIRAEUS
OF
photograph taken by
believed that
that
be
war
A. S. Cooley)
should
Athens
it would
Dr.
necessary
have
to
on
land, but also the combined
army
the sea.
and the Asiatic Greeks on
Persian
193.
Hellas
Was
to
was
be
Persia,because
In
ready
Hellas
most
at
her
for War
with Persia?
meet
navy-yard and
not
only the
cians
fleets of the Phoeni-
(about493 B.C.).
-
states
of them
could
were
not
bring themselves
with
war
to
act
favored
gether.
to-
the
of them
immediately yielded through fear.
Many
and
Commercial
jealousyof Athens prompted Aegina to send earth
favored the
to the king ; through dislike of Sparta, Argos
water
Persians.
the
Cdnquestby
164
Persian
addition
unity. In
league now
to be
the
Within
cause.
to
included
joinedby
Athens, and
And
the Persians
most
several minor
islands.1
Lydians and
within the
this
few
next
years it was
and the neighboring
in central Greece
states
was
in number
yet in territory,
of
fighting
men,
widely extended, was
empire. Darius supposed
when
most
wealth,the league,even
in comparison with the Persian
insignificant
that he had only to send a great army into Greece to crush all
resistance in a single
Greeks.
campaign ; and so it seemed to many
But the contest did not prove so unequal as many
imagined. The
Persians were
far from their base of
at a disadvantagein fighting
and militaryorganizationwere
supplies;and the Hellenic arms
It is a fact,too, that the system of
vastlysuperiorto the Persian.
when at its best,is the strongest possible
for resistance.
city-states,
be overthrown
An empire may
in a singlebattle ; but a union of
when
little city-states,
for independencein a country like
fighting
Greece,is well-nighunconquerable.
and
in
Summary
lonians
(i) The
which
under
world
of
Asia
had
Minor
created
the
brilliant civilization
most
(2)
seen.
But
and
afterward
militaryservice
Europe by
the
Darius
added
regular taxes
Thrace
and
and
of Sardis
were
to
(7)
The
(6)
his
Lydia
Persians
the Ionic
them.
on
Macedon
discontent
againsthim,
and
the
annexed
conquered
and
cities,
The
invasion
empire,but
Asiatic
to
Greeks
posed
imof
increased
revolted
ing
and Eretrians.
(8) The burnby the Athenians
Darius
of
home
the
to
necessity punishing
brought
who
were
encouraging rebellion in his empire.
aided
the Greeks
by
European Greeks
in the naval battle off Lade.
(10)
(9) The insurgent Greeks were overthrown
taken by siege and destroyed,and (n) Athens
Miletus was
began preparations
Persian
invasion.
for meeting the inevitable
(12) As yet, however,
the European Greeks
had thought of no general plan of defence.
those
Suggestive Questions
i.
Why
Hellenes
were
the
lonians
in civilization ?
2.
of Asia
Compare
1
"
Minor
the
the lonians
202.
most
with
advanced
the
of all the
Spartans
; with
CHAPTER
PERSIA
WITH
WAR
XVI
B.C.
492-479
I.
found
It
the
Hellenes
strove
wreak
these
motives
from
subjects.
as
country
of his
The
army
he
his
to
troops
conquer
would
He
lonians
had
Eretria,
that
them
of
Sardis,
(5)
of the
build
to
of
he
as
act.
doing, and
been
Ere-
kinsmen
burning
appreciation
expect
and
sidered
con-
To
all
value
of
and
man
he could
draw
the
sculptors for
ment
adorn-
capital cities.2
First
fleet
Athos
the
which
the
Greek
of Darius.
Thrace.
ships were
the
him
166
along
but
and
only
"
188
of
he
the
at
Mardonius
natives.
" 36.
expedition
head
the
provisions
wrecked,
peninsula,
first
At
For
accompanied
slaughtered by
whole
The
"
son-in-law
through
Mount
were
(492 B.C.).
Expedition
marched
chiefly upon
rounding
and
by Mar-do'ni-Us,
led
his keen
added
rest
peninsula.
Athens
the
chieflyresponsible for
their
195.
be
must
of
meddlesome
at
Athens
the
lasting submission
their
incensed
of
Greek
from
the
secure
on
the
on
subjects.
subjugation
conquering
aid
conquering
the
captured
the
on
briefly
Assyrian,1
of
plunder
of
received
not
vengeance
cities
two
could
earlier
after
and
islands
(4) Highly
Aegean.
to
fleets for
he
without
subjects
the
Greeks
that
be
may
imposed
think
to
and
revolted
that
saw
his Asiatic
these
tribute
begin
neighboring
Ionia
tria, Darius
he
the
on
when
beyond
should
Persians
the
from
only
war
the
like
kings,
annual
the
of the
causes
the
(3) But
Persian
from
more
was
Ionia,
The
"
profitable not
conquest
cities,but
(2)
The
(i)
summarized,
EXPEDITIONS
SECOND
AND
War.
the
of
Causes
194.
FIRST
CARTHAGE
AND
retook
cf. 66.
great
depended
shore.
the
was
same
In
time
expected
Thrace
and
received
into
brought him
Darius
heralds
demand
ready
those
among
"
disgraceat the
made
now
of Macedon.
earth and
Greek
The
Persian
another
court.
expedition,meanwhile
communities
water."
There
167
which
was
sending
still free,to
were
need, Darius
no
thought,
submit.
The Athenians,
attacking those who would willingly
however, threw the king's herald into a pit,and the Spartans
of
dropped
earth and
the
who
one
water
thence
which
law
to
came
to
made
them
into
their lord.
the
well,biddingthem
These
persons
acts
take
of heralds
sacred.
Those
and
of conduct
must
Spartans who advised this course
have felt that the Persian king would
never
forgivesuch an outrage,
and that its perpetration
would
commit
their own
states to a lifeand-death
struggle.
196. Beginning of the Second
Expedition (490 B.C.). After
Athenians
"
questionof
honor.
But
of Greece
became
rius
with Da-
his unfortunate
experiencetaught
him that the land route was
too
long and difficult. It required
this journey, whereas
months
fleet could sail directly
to make
a
the Aegean in a few days. This was
which he
the route
across
of
chose accordinglyfor the second
expedition. In the summer
ships,which had long been preparing,
490 B.C. the fleet of six hundred
a
moved
islanders
kinsman
Athens
whatever
westward
on
of
and
the
across
way.
Darius, were
Eretria
for
Da'tis,a
in command.
helpingthe
Mede,
a
Ar-ta-pher'nes,
objectwas to punish
and
Their
Ionian
of the
revolt,and
to conquer
territory
they could for their lord.
of
defence
After a brave
First the Persians
besieged Eretria.
six days, it was
betrayed by two citizens. Eretrian fugitiveswho
of
found the cityfull of the spirit
to Athens
brought the sad news
of
well trained in the use
resistance.
Her
heavy infantrywas
her
that among
arms.1
It was
a
happy omen,
too, for Athens
generalsfor the year was
Miltiades,who had proved his abilityas
ruler of Chersonese, and was
well acquaintedwith Persian warfare.
were
that the enemy
As soon
he and the other generalsheard
as
deand
moving againstAttica, they gathered their entire force,
68
War
with Persia
Carthage
and
a swift,
spatchedPhi-dip'pi-des,
long-distancerunner, to Sparta to
and fifty
miles distant,
ask help. He reached Sparta, a hundred
the day after starting.
of Lacedaemon," he said to the
Men
beseech you to hasten
to their aid,
authorities,the Athenians
"
"
and
be
allow
not
is the most
in all Greece
ancient
enslaved
forbade
them
to
go
to
war
month
in any
before
the
full
moon.
The
Battle of Marathon
"
the command.
He
waited
forcingtheir
1
Herodotus, vi.
Certain
to
600,000.
to about
of their
15,000.
Athens.
knew
He
well
that
106.
writers who
rough calculation
knowledge
to
way
200,000
a
with
their
view
to
strength
None
is the
of these
number
figuresare
of
capacity. Estimates
event
give
various
trustworthy. The
the fleet,and
we
ships in
of
modern
writers
run
have
from
no
certain
60,000
down
Battle
of Marathon
169
lay in long-distance
fightingwith the bow, whereas that of the
phalanx was in a hand-to-hand
the
struggle.When, accordingly,
armies
within
bow-shot
of
each other,Miltiades oropposing
got
dered
the Athenians
to charge at
a
double-quick march, so as to
avoid
the
shower
of
bring their
own
fled to their
ships,and
and
arrows
strength to bear
as
speedilyas possible upon the
The
had
Persians, who
enemy.
defence againstthe spear-thrust,
no
The
won.
was
Miltiades.
victory
ciple
prindiscovery
great tactic
employed
of
the
the
was
The
Greeks
never
forgotit.
This
historyof
Orient,it
the world
were
be
of the
powers
little difference to
made
so
civilization.
said of the
But
The
same
ways
petty strife althe
among
Greek
Marathon, Europe
Asia, represented by Greece
states.
and
wars
great
going on
and
In the
the
which
and
may
the world.
the
among
they
portant
im-
was
at
Persia
into
came
respectively,
conflict ; and the questionat issue
whether
was
Europe should be
brought under the control of Asiatic
government
whether
It
was
and
Europe
Asiatic
was
to
ideas.1
have
triumphed at
Marathon.
gave
In
Greek
of the
ARCHER
questionwas
Asiatic despotism.
or
no
They were
and
them spirit,
*P.
PERSIAN
57, in.
i.
braver
their
than
the Persians
provided
intelligence
with Persia
War
170
and
Carthage
with
them
II.
198. The
summit
Disgrace
of fame.
He
thought
who
had
sided
againstParos, and
promising to make them
intended
to
contribution
do.
of
He
a
rich,but
anything,he besiegedthem
wealth
king.
the
talents.
without
stood
now
present moment
and
with the
hundred
Miltiades
"
the
power
asked
PREPARATION
OF
of Miltiades.
the Athenian
buildingup
islanders
INTERVAL
AN
at
at
the
favorable
for
the expense
of the
So he
planned an expedition
for ships and men,
Athenians
not
them just what he
telling
fleet to Paros,and demanded
a
As
the Parians
refused
effect for
to pay
"
192.
197.
The
the
and
democrats,who
Aristeides
200.
and
the state
Meanwhile
the
wished
the Athenian
to be
were
Building of
silver mines
it
171
liberal, These
more
political
partiesof the future.
had
been
which
; the
between
Ar-is-tei'desand
Lau'ri-um
at
to
Building of
derivingconsiderable
it owned
Attica.
democratic
make
to
Themistocles
disputeas
Navy
of
the
Themistocles,
income
in
usingthis
from
southeastern
revenue
arose
leaders of the
two
party.
Navy.
which
had
Thence
he
won
evidently
was
the
among
citizens
should
tinue.
con-
Themistocles,
the other
on
determined
should
hand,
that Athens
have
to
navy
from
the
protect her
Persian
It had
mind
attacks
by
long been
provision a
large enough to
Greece
reasoned
force
could
she
held
Athens, by usingher
outmatch
Greece.
Themistocles
ostracized.
was
and
the
same
the facts
We
to
the
Just,"and
same
politics.A
men
prove that these two
In genius Themistocles
tried to fasten
tocles
the friends of Themis-
with the
often meet
vilificationin modern
seems
"
while
oppositecharacter,
retorted in kind.
sea.
buildinga powerful
and in this
service,
silver for
Aristeides
the
of the
command
TRIREME
quer
con-
unless
that
save
way
sea.
in his
not
navy,
was
were
hero-worship
careful
study of
much
alike in
vastly superior.
After puttingdown
he carried his plan throughthe
the opposition,
which proved
assembly. The state built two hundred triremes,1
moral
of
character.
Vessels
the
oarsmen
were
of
oars.
arranged in three
See
the
tiers,one
ancient
above
was
illustration. The
the
other.
Each
benches
tier
re-
the chief
be
to
with
War
172
and
Persians
of
means
Persia
winning
Carthage
great naval
the
making Athens
of
and
of
head
victoryover the
maritime
empire.
effects upon
Greece
far-reaching
the creation of an Athenian
by Themistocles
navy
of statesmanshipknown
to
grandestachievements
Measured
its
by
III. THE
by
the failure
Sardis, and
Greece.
than
ever.
after
now
was
than
more
little hesitation,
threw
fleet
been
one
of the
ancient
history.
troubled
more
the destruction
by
bent
ever
the
on
of
grander scale
Xerxes,
successor
The
be followed,but
to
was
of
conquest
his whole
by Mardonius,
to be
was
was
route, undertaken
land
Darius
"
than he had
Marathon
at
the world,
EXPEDITION
Preparations
201.
THIRD
and
the
crush every
opposition
weight. Provisions were stored at convenient pointsalong
by mere
of the king were
the route, and the engineers
structing
busilyengaged in contory
the Hellespont. Rarely in hisa
bridgeof boats across
has a campaign been so carefully
prepared. In the springof
481 B.C. the nations of his empire were
pouring their armed forces
and
army
were
but
was,
it
with his
of the year found Xerxes
how large
We do not know
at Sardis.
did
certainly
the
troops.1 On
to
autumn
encamped
his army
the
giganticas
so
sea
was
Phoenicians,and
invasion
into
win
Egyptians. The
hoped to
great peril
; for Xerxes
Union
202..
Sardis,his
quired
an
about
Few
"battleship." In
and
we
hear
came
messengers
oar
rowers.
200
Loyal Greeks.
of the
of
to
yard longerthan
states
at
this time
had
some
with
fifteen and
"
by
the
one
Xerxes
it.
the trireme
On
soon
five and
of
six banks
The
in camp
was
demanding
triremes,but they
sixteen banks.
bring Greece
states
below
by Greeks,
to
was
While
the Greek
sand
thou-
three hundred
exceed
not
became
oars
latter must
became
have
at
earth
about
were
the normal
common,
been
cult
diffi-
to manage.
1
ments
a
total of
The
be
an
more
than
5,000,000.
Modern
estimates
range
from
300,000
down
to
50,000.
scholars to
of ships given by Herodotus, 1207, is also believed by modern
number
Greeks.
of
the
to that
exaggeration. There is no doubt, however, of its superiority
War
174
Greeks
the
and
and
Persia
with
Orientals
at
was
its
Carthage
height at Thermopylae
to battle ; on
side,the Persian officers scourged their men
other, the Spaitans voluntarilymet their death in obedience
one
"
law.
in
The
Lacedaemonians
body;
since
them
over
that master
from
is set law
as
; and
Lacedaemonians
to
fighting
things,
do whatever
They certainly
always bids them not flee in battle
he
of men,
lose their lives." 1
above
the
free in all
not
are
when
men
on
master.
multitude
any
tell the
commands
victoryor
and
for
are
but
stay
The
dead
was
placed this
epitaph:
lie here
in obedience
that
we
at
buried
were
where
"
win
the
they fell,
Stranger,
to
their
laws."
Meanwhile
storm
off the
Magnesian
This
navy.
the wavering admirals
at
Artemisium
sent
were
two
now
; and
hundred
ready
captured several
Fortunatelyfor
squadron
whole
shipsround
for battle.
After
that
learned
to
the
the Persians
had
cut
Greeks
had
destroyedor
Persian
fleet of
of Greece
Euboea
destroyed a
enormous
though they
had
coast
over
thus enabled
three hundred
them
to
their
concentrate
shipsagainstthe
enemy.
in full force
On
the
of Attica
The
submitted
and
sent
their
troops
reenforce
his army.
ures
Delphi,accordingto their own
account, hid the treasof Apollo in a cave
and prepared to resist the Persian corps
which had come
to pillage
their temple ; then some
god aided them
and hurlinggreat crags down -Mount
by bringinga thunderstorm
Parnassus
In this way,
the advancing enemy.
they said,
upon
Apollo defended his holy shrine.
men
of
to
Battle
The
Greek
of
Salamis
175
Themistocles
but
Isthmus;
felt
they
found
Themistocles
had
Athenians
the
could
would
and
go with his fleet,
afford to lose it. On enteringhis
not
it in
Some
despair.
the Delphic oracle
sent
and
dreadful
BAY
The
Athenian
reply,sayingthey would
not granted. Then
were
the
"
wooden
The
205.
"
wooden
wall
no,
the
was
would
was
determined
foretelling
come
grew
(480 B.C.).
"
the
about
nians
ships,and thus he induced the Atheand place all their hopes in the fleet.
the
suppliedcourage,
with respect to
them.
save
the fence
it meant
this the
photograph)
god
of Salamis
"
had
city
favorable
besought a more
messengers
in the shrine till their death if it
remain
Themistocles
mind
wall
Battle
said
to
"
answer
before
the
SALAMIS
OF
(From
ruin.
time
to consult
approachingwar,
utter
not
unity,and
between
to Persia.
faith.
religious
Asia
and
resourceful
His
He
was
Europe should
exhausted
the
resources
was
now
be
of
the
War
176
with Persia
and
Carthage
most
favorable
had
face
to
much
greater fleet.
in the
But
narrow
strait
in number
was
a
superiority
disadvantage, closelycrowded
the enemy's shipswere
unable to manoeuvre,
and even
together,
wrecked
another by collision. Among the Athenian warriors
one
l
of
who givesa vivid and accurate
the poet Aes'chy-lus
account
was
the struggle.In this poem
he representsthe speakeras a Persian :
"
"
First their
the whole
Next
in order
meet;
began,
all at once
And
heard a mighty shout,
we
of Hellenes,forward, free your
O sons
country ;
Free too your
wives, your children,and the shrines
Built to your
fathers' Gods, and holy tombs
the fight
ancestors
rest in.
Your
Now
now
course
"
"
Is for
our
Arose
in
And
all ! "
to wait
its
over
was
speech,
ship on ship
bronze-pointedbeak
Of Hellas
And
Phoenician
from
side indeed
our
on
din of Persian
answer
time
Dashed
And
; and
fierce
barque
begin,
vessel crashes
off
carved
And
first a
prow.
Shiveringtheir
rowers'
each
Hellas,with manoeuvering
Charged circlinground them.
Floated
was,
And
And
every
All that
could
capsized,nor
Filled,as it
with
ship was
composed
and
And
benches.
Of
wrecks
And
rocks
sea
and
were
wildlyrowed
the Persian
1
the hulls of
be seen,
carcasses
full of corpses,
in fight,
armament.
ships
unskilful,
not
the
the
ships
Plataea
Xerxes, who
viewed
and
Mvcale
177
the brow
of
hill
the
near
The
in Greece.
himself
between
therefore able
was
206.
open
Battles
The
had
Asia
Minor
and
the
winter
during the following
of Plataea
destroyedAthens
and
so
yet
Mycale
that when
to
their
The
"
the Athenians
vaders
in-
returned
OF
AMIS
Eng. Co., N. V.
citythey
the winter
maintain
(479 B.C.).
SAL
to
to
donius
Mar-
come.
MAP
Williams
army.1
have
found
it in ruins.
made
good terms
loyalto Hellas,only urging that the Peloponnesianarmy should
be displayed
In the springof 479 B.C.
in Boeotia.
as soon
as possible
Mardonius
moved
from his winter quarters in Thessaly into central
of
their city. Some
Greece,and the Athenians again abandoned
the Peloponnesians
at home
were
busy working on the
; others were
fence.
Isthmian wall,behind which they still planned to make
thejr deinduced the.
With urging and threats the Athenians finally
1
destroythe bridge,and
The
move
would
N
have
thus cut
ended
advised
the
the Greeks
communication
the war,
to
of Xerxes
it too
supplies.
bold.
ephors of Sparta
of central
to
light-armedhelots.
joined him, and at
Persian
than
more
one
Pausanias
Pla-tae'a
on
between
the
thousand
followed
him.
Mardonius
The
Persians
would
and
favorable
Plataea.
positionnear
movement
haste
retreat, made
the Greeks
overtook
decided
and
them
saw
little
Boeotia,
northeast
on
position
skirmish
of
the
height
with
the
placed himself
plainand
the
successful
There
Plataea.
encamped
took
the
at
retired to
giveroom
other twelve
Persian
Greek
thousand, the
thousand.1
estimates
Herodotus
Aristeides.
under
hundred
enemy
of
son
heavy-armed
forty thousand
heavy-armed
the allied troops from
There
Peloponnese
further reenforced
Eleusis he was
by eight
Persian
fence
de-
perioeci,and
of their
above
militarystrengthin
five
Isthmus
the
three hundred
at
army
Carthage
Pau-sa'ni-as,
regent
to
Athenians
thousand
and
Greece.
Leonidas, brought
Spartans, as many
and
with Persia
War
178
battle.
after
But
which
each
faced
armies
the
pended
de-
the Greeks
to retire in the
nightto a more
Mardonius, who thought this
attack.
to
face
the
When
Persians
a
cade
barri-
of their
and
from
the
upon
The
Greeks.
had
critical moment
come
Pausanias
Persia.
says
on
About
the
same
Myc'a-le,and
Persians.
The
fear of Persian
the liberation
east
and
the
time
of
the
the crews
day,
gained a victoryover
"
battle
of Plataea
conquest ; that
from
Persian
at
full
battle
at
of the
a
Plataea,
Greek
"
Herodotus
vessels landed
greatlysuperiorforce
freed
continental
Greece
Probably
the forces
were
of the
from
Mycale pointedunmistakablyto
influence of the whole
Aegean region
at
north.
1
at
considerablysmaller
than
he states.
War
Greco-Carthaginian
IV.
The
207.
the
to
war
Condition
which
at
Sicily
the
attained
had
WAR
of
Sicily.
openingof
shall now
war.
The
turn
our
meanwhile
were
it is necessary
the
great wealth
We
Greeks
western
CARTHAGE
WITH
"
First,however,
Carthage.
of
the
THE
179
to
attention
waging with
the condition
glanceat
and
been
prosperity.All had once
aristocratic in government,
but had more
recentlyfallen under the
rule of tyrants. The ablest among
them
was
Gelon,ruler of Syracuse,
his
who made
city the largestand strongest in the island.
his authority. He
under
All southeastern
increased
Sicilycame
his power
still further by marrying the daughter of Theron, tyrant
of Acragas. While
the great cities of southern
thus
Sicilywere
unitingunder the rule of a singlefamily,a similar combination
the states of the north.
was
takingplace among
Rhegium, Mesunited by the intermarriage
of their ruling
were
sene, and Himera
families.
The
Then
came
tyrant of Himera
conflict between
a
2
was
driven
from
the
his
North
and
South.
city. Escaping to
the
"
126.
This
"49-
was
father-in-law
Terillus,
of Anaxilas, tyrant of
Rhegium
and
Messene.
with
War
180
who
powers
seemed
livingsacrifice
into
Summary
of
209.
Persians
attempted
through
Mardonius
of the
wreck
second
the
to
War.
subdue
fleet and
(490).
built
threw
himself
of
conquest
by
the
defeat
met
the
at
Greeks
to
by
owing to^the
(3) The
was
natives.
landed
led
the hands
for
hope
at
of the Athenians
in the
success
were
preparingfor another invasion,(4) the
(5) the Peloponnesian League was expanded
and
navy
Ionia, the
first expeditionwas
Its failure
his army
upon
encouraged
event
The
Macedon.
attacks
the
(2)
the
the Persians
While
war.
Greece.
the Persian
The
After
(i)
"
into
Thrace
There
Carthage
the flame.
expeditioncrossed
Marathon.
and
be
to
Persia
nians
Atheinto
union
(480),and
(8)
destroyed Athens.
Persian
the
But
fleet suffered
an
whelming
over-
feated
followingyear (9) the Greeks dePlataea
and
Meanwhile
the Persians
at
at
Mycale. (10)
decisively
at Himera
a
(480).
Carthaginian army which invaded Sicilywas overthrown
Immediate
and
of
the
The
Results
the
210.
Larger Significance
Victory.
led to a treaty between
the western
Greeks
(i) The victory at Himera
retain
their
former
and
which
both
to
to
were
Carthage, according
parties
the war
with Persia for some
possessions. (2) Greece continued
years, for
of liberatingthose Hellenes
had
the purpose
who
been
subject to Persia.
effort and
intelligence,created a
(3) The victory,gained by individual
spirit,which in the following years we find active in
stronger democratic
defeat
Salamis
at
; and
in the
"
both
and
East
remained
Sparta
of the West.
The
(4)
West.
for
time
war
the
(5) Finally,the
did
much
of Hellas
the states
l
of the East
centre
political
victorious
unite
to
and
Syracuse
and
energy
fidence
con-
by
these
From
the
most
their
considerations
important
events
it is clear that
in the world's
the
Greco-Persian
war
was
one
of
history.
Suggestive Questions
i.
which
Beginning
led to
guiding
1
the
the
far back
conflict
Persians
in the Persian
with
Greece.
2.
in their invasion
the
leadershipcame
career
the events
of conquest, trace
what
Hippias
object was
With
of Attica?
to
be divided
Find
between
the
Athens
answer
and
in the
Sparta.
XVII
CHAPTER
DELIAN
THE
CONFEDERACY
AND
479-461
Fortification
211.
As
all
as
soon
sacrificed
had
began
more
misfortune,
their
be
would
walls
The
join
to
the
the
Lacedaemon
to
only Peloponnese
of the
out
way
ambassadors
Before
setting out,
worked
material
to
he
could
It
suggestion.
tearing
if
Greece
in
The
all
of
policy
of
and
to
submit
not
condition
no
all.
sent
walls
would
were
for
city and
convenient,
Athenians
they
the
Corinth.
of
sion,
inva-
They
in
appointed
embraced
Athenians
his
building
easily find.
contain
a
to
face
provided
the
of
area
182
build
the
and
whole
remnants
and
had
two
issue.
at
with
the wall
population
walls, using
Some
than
him
question
to
advice,
gravestones
wider
the
discuss
to
the
directed
most
still extant,
buildings.
refuge
Athenians
Sparta
the
restlessly on
they
sufficient
Themistocles
Following
speed.
utmost
another
resourceful
the
advice,
others
the
the
army,
Athenian
the
As
the
ing
build-
difficulty.
his
Following
but
the
on
down
in
through
to
rule
to
cause
them
that
that
Persians
the
on
Isthmus
unjust.
so
Peloponnesian
the
evidently
was
arrangement
an
readily
of
the
afford
rather
north
communities
protect
would
Lacedaemonians
was
to
Athenians
the
advised
who
urged
protection
acted
ephors
It
with
asked
They
in the
doubtless
states,
Sparta,
Athenians
its walls.
together
and
stopped.
a
city and
sympathizing
Greek
to
the
over,
Greeks
of
the
Peloponnese
Spartan
envoys
merely
that
and
be
defences
of the
of
of Athens
jealousy, complained
other
was
their
instead
But
Peiraeus
Persians
all the
some
of
rebuild
to
than
freedom.
Hellenic
of
and
home
returned
the
from
danger
EMPIRE
B.C.
and
Athens
of
ATHENIAN
THE
whatever
fication,
forti-
of the
fragments
formerly
of
earlier
been
en-
Themistocles
'83
day
a
Themistocles
he invented
report
excuses
for
delayingthe
REMNANT
OF
(From
find out
but
the
THE
a
WALL
at
last he
OF
on
send
hand.
on
the
after
When
fortifications
envoys
to
Athens
ATHENS
photograph)
When
Sparta. Day
business
at work
were
advised
Athenians, secretly
envoys.
to do at
to
work
came
stoutlydenied
he
had
heard
They
did
as
he
suggested;
by Themistocles,detained
that
the work
was
the
finished,he
that Sparta
fortifiedand
ephorsthat Athens was now
must
treat her as an
equal. It was a bold game well played. The
ephors repliedthat their proposalto Athens had been intended
of the matter
was
advice.
The outcome
that,
merely as friendly
tocles,
although the Spartans were
thoroughlyindignant with Themisinformed
the
soon
as
the
the two
had
Athenians
1
states
remained
finished
" 216 f.
intact.1
rebuildingtheir city,
184
The
Delian
Themistocles
massive
began
wall
followed
seven
the
the Athenian
Confederacyand
to
Peiraeus.
fortify
miles in circuit.
windings of
the
On
shore.
He
Empire
it with
surrounded
the
three
were
it
sea
natural
in his archonshipmany
harbors,which Themistocles
years earlier
had brought into use.1
in fact the founder of Peiraeus.
He was
It
famous
for industryand trade.
In its markets
became
all
soon
the known
bought and sold. For ages
productsof the world were
it remained
of the most
commercial
cities of the
one
flourishing
Mediterranean.
The
212.
While
Naval
Leadership
the Athenians
were
events
port, interesting
were
the battles
and
Pausanias
of Plataea
to
command
passes
become
Athens.
to
their cityand
rebuildingand fortifying
happening elsewhere. The year after
sent
out
Mycale the Lacedaemonians
He
for the
war
laid
might
Sparta
that he
from
into Persian
hands
on
was
this
condition
of the
son-in-law
cruel and
he was
king. Meantime
arrogant to those under his
authority. The Asiatic Greeks who had joined the expedition,
Aristeides
resentingsuch treatment, begged the Athenian generals,
and Cimon,2 to take chargeof the fleet. The gentleness
and courtesy
of the commanders
from
contrasted
Athens
with the
strikingly
brutality of Pausanias.
They accepted the invitation. The
recalled Pausanias
the chargesagainst
Lacedaemonians
to answer
afterward
him, and soon
yieldedthe leadershipat sea to Athens.
They saw no advantage to themselves in continuingthe war with
of their prestige
Persia,and believed that they would lose none
by
this arrangement, for Athens was
still their ally. The Athenians,
the other hand, gladlyaccepted the burden
of the war
with
on
of their great navy
to gain both
Persia,for they hoped by means
wealth and political
power.
Confederacy (477 B.C.). The
213- Organization of the Delian
allies whom
thus acquiredincluded
Athens
from the first nearly
all the Ionian and Aeolian colonies of the Aegean islands and eastern
Greek
cities on
the Hellespont,those of Chalcidice,
coast,8many
"
"
IQ2.
" IQS.
"
92
f.
Confederacyof
and
few in Thrace.
one
as
and
about
small
too
These
two.
or
them,
185
the Greek
from
Chios,were
of
Some
Delos
wide
objectof
The
allies from
of
or
It centred
named
was
all matters
on
of
common
war.
of
the protection
chiefly
confederacywas
Persia.
De'los,and
of
the
deliberated
at
therefore
the
the island
the Delian
Confederacy. Its
the Peloponnesian
League.1
led by Athenian generals,
patternedafter that of
The allies were
to furnish shipsand crews
to meet
at
and a congress of deputiesfrom all the allied states was
Athens.
from
In
Delos
under
the presidencyof representatives
important respects the Confederacy of Delos differed from the
PeloponnesianLeague. It was necessary to maintain a largefleet
no
in the Aegean Sea as a defence againstthe Persians,whereas
for the protectionof Peloponnese.
needed
standing force was
Money is absolutelynecessary for the support of a fleet ; hence
the Delian
Confederacy,unlike the PeloponnesianLeague, levied
organizationwas
annual
Aristeides,who
taxes.
which
generallyprovided naval
The
total annual
the
assessment
The
The
of the
to
never
let hot
"
make
shipswith
the
their
ties
largercommuni-
paid taxes.
Confederacy amounted, by
the smaller
of
and
Apollo,was
sixty talents.2
managed by
were
145.
As
secede.
piecesof
*
to
Athenians.
exclusively
tives
to be perpetual. Aristeides and the representawas
terms
league exchanged oaths to abide by the original
who
union
The
money.
forces,while
treasurers
and
maintainingthe
Aristeides,to four hundred
cost
of
commissioned
contribute
should
which
was
they
iron sink into the sea, with the idea that the agree2
The
value
of the talent
was
bindingtillthe
should be
ment
Confederacyand
Delian
The
86
the Athenian
metal
of its
rose
own
Empire
accord
to the
surface.
The
214.
of the
Growth
Confederacy.
"
With
Cimon
as
Delian
the
the Thracian
from
and
coast
the whole
from
leader
the
maining
re-
Persians
country about
the
215.
Empire.
of Allies and
Revolts
this very
But
"
mischievous.
offered to
Many
taxes
pay
of
less expense
could
they
themselves,and
no
grew
tired
longer see
ceased
had
as
could
advised
build
and
the Athenians
to
equip triremes
at
class among
But
some
they
Cimon
than
their agreement
use.
of security
feeling
proved to be extremely
the allies,
findingmilitaryservice irksome,
instead.
the
to
have
even
the need
money
own
of
public
Indeed,
the Persians
trouble them.
could
by
not
enter
From
tion dictated
always
was
Next
by
Athens.
or
more
Confederacyto Empire
The
of government
thus
imposed
less democratic.
Tha'sos,the
the revolt of
came
form
187
between
the Athenians
Thrace,
in which
and
both
the Thasians
had
of which
cause
certain
over
interest.
an
was
Thasos
quarrel
gold mines
was
of
one
of
the
fleet of
thirty-three
shipsand valuable
After a siegeof two
in Thrace.
reduced
possessions
years, Cimon
it
he
had
and
Naxos
the island,
punished justas
(463B.C.).
a
in what way
to consider
It is necessary
now
violated the original
treaty of alliance. The
service
to
money
legal. And
perfectly
was
to bear
states
it
the
was
their share
by
these
change
from
mutual
agreement,
of Athens
duty
of the burden.
transactions
luctant
compel re-
to
The
naval
firstviolation
committed
treaty was
local governments.
sentiment
Athens
upon
216.
-
of the
as
But
Political Parties
The
Spartans
of
general,who
tyrant city.
Greeks
a
the coercion
were
in
at Athens
accustomed
therefore
began
with
their Relations
and
control
to
in their politics.
They always took
interfering
conservative
party.2 In the case of Athens they had
with
to the
urged
prominent
Themistocles
buildingof
Cimon
men
!Cf.
ever
the walls.3
forward
as
joinedCimon
"222.
since he had
In
outwitted
to
opposition
2Cf.
"145.
Sparta.
him
sides with
been
pleased
dis-
them
in
they
fore
there-
againstThemistocles.
look
to
affairs of their
the
allies by
the
the
offended
free state
gard
re-
Several
Representing
3"2II.
88
their
The
Delian
Confederacyand
great opponent
ostracized
the Athenian
Empire
as
(about 472
him
Asia
Minor.
For
few
of Themistocles
the Lacedaemonians
years after the banishment
the battle of
remained
But when
friendlyto Athens.
tinually
Eurymedon had been won, and they saw the victorious cityconadding to her possessionsand power, fear and jealousy
them
turned
againsther. By promising to invade Attica they
secretlyencouraged the Thasians to hold out against Athens.
This agreement, however, they were
prevented from fulfilling
by
which nearlydestroyedSparta. Only a few
a terrible earthquake,
of lives were
and thousands
left standing,
lost. To add
houses were
and in the generalconfusion
to the misfortune,the helots revolted,
caused by earthquakeand superstition
they nearlycapturedSparta
of the perioeciremained
loyal,and the
by surprise.But most
saved by the promptness of King Ar-chi-da'mus.
shattered citywas
The insurgents,
who were
mostly Messenians, seized and fortified,
in their own
Ithome,1 one of the strongest military
country, Mount
could accompositionsin Peloponnese. As the Lacedaemonians
lish nothing againstthem
single-handed,
they asked help of their
the envoys reached Athens,
When
allies,
includingthe Athenians.
hot debate
banishment
ensued
of
as
to
whether
Themistocles,the
aid should
democratic
be
sent.
After
the
party, believingthat
"
The
go
Delian
Suggestive
Had
i.
her
relations
naval
in
with
detail
the
have
force?
in
Delian
the
Naxos,
the
to
3.
the
between
of
rebellious
Athens
the
in
Chios,
I.
ch.
ii.
The
History,
xxiii;
of
Founding
Bury,
ch.
vii.
II.
Aristeides.
9.
Byzantium,
and
History
Delian
of Greece,
Aristotle,
chs.
which
events
had
part
the
solved?
dis-
together
the
What
Describe
What
by
led
Aristeides
location
of
in
Peiraeus,
River.
Eurymedon
Topics
Confederacy.
(Thucydides)
148-151
"
the
7.
8.
Sparta.
5.
been
Confederacy
Trace
the
Compare
4.
Confederacy
the
been
Athens
to
League.
the
holding
Note-book
Greek
had
states?
and
yield
to
have
confederacy?
Peloponnesian
states,
Confederacy?
Samos,
is
the
allied
probably
wish
really
What
with
justified
Athens
Was
organization
Delos,
so,
Empire
would
what
Sparta
why?
Confederacy
subjecting
rupture
Did
2.
happened
6.
the
If
Athenian
Questions
unfortified,
Sparta?
leadership?
would
to
remained
Athens
the
and
Confederacy
ch.
viii.
xxiii,
"
Aristotle,
""
xxiv;
i,
2;
Fling,
Source
Constitution
Holm,
Plutarch,
Book
of
History
Aristeides.
Athens,
of Greece,
of
CHAPTER
AGE
THE
I.
218.
Wars
B.C.).
statesman
and
the
to
All
powerful
the
time
was
Under
his
with
with
loose
Sparta,
carried
now
down
to
the
family
the
through
had
Athens
for
political
which
in
had
and
trade
neighbors,
victorious
Aegina
became
these
over
and
1
by
laid
mother
he
the
herself
soon
ward
after-
of
breaking
been
cated
advo-
Ephialtes,
unity,
far
so
PERICLES
was
the
two
their
rival
the
It
the
artist
to
the
by land
city.
; British
Corinth
and
But
war.
and
After
sea.
by
the
191
tury,
cen-
Museum)
cramped
of their
some
Athenians
They
long
felt
resistance
"
were
invaded
then
" 198.
fifth
rivalry, however,
Supported
Peiraeus.
enemies
of the
Sparta
Aegina
declared
states
B.C.
commercial
was
peace.
rise of
siege
of
Cresilas,
after
(Copied
as
and
broken;
was
supremacy.
first disturbed
their
his
be
allied
policy
which
attained,
openly
political
state.
deserted
and
Hellenic
out.
been
of
Cretan
it
leading
this
shall
we
and
The
Themistocles
by
the
Xanthippus,1
and
war,
in
Athens
Thessaly,
Megara.
from
and
any
League,
and
Argos
of
became
character.
guidance
Peloponnesian
Pericles
son
(461-456
Boeotians
Alcmeonidae.
activities
public
his
the
as
the
lawgiver, and
Athens
noble
study
to
the
Eupatrids,2
as
his
Through
able
of
been
Pericles
Persian
of
and
the
B.C.
PERICLES
OF
Cimon,
was
the
gens
statesmen
had
He
city.
of
of
Cleisthenes
to
461-431
Peloponnesians
ostracism
general
related
was
his
PERICLES
IMPERIALISM
the
the
of
leader
THE
with
After
"
OF
XVIII
149-
Aegina
The
92
surrendered,dismantled
a
Age of Pericles
her
walls,and
entered
subjectstate.
In this struggle
Sparta
the
confederacyas
the Boeotians
defeated
Cyprus.
the towns
of
Locris.
and
About
the
were
Peloponnese,but
entrance
it is clear that
the
sudden
driven
from
the
he
compelled them
Athens
came
near
losingEuboea.
lost control
of Pericles saved
"
intended
to
Gulf.
unite
established
of Boeotia
time
the
the
mopylae,
Ther-
not
Corinthian
same
Their
power.
Isthmus
to
to the
towns
Athens.
their
to
these
From
the
on
events
Hellenic
as
many
of Athens.
the military
leadership
end
Athenians,and
included
federation which
But
to
also
from
selves.
them-
to
alliance with
an
height of
extended
Pericles
under
possible
as
made
the
at
now
furthermore
and
governments favorable
time Achaea
same
Federation2
the
Athens
oligarchswhom
returned
in force,defeated
leave
the
league is sometimes
states
peninsulacame
country.
About
of
had
the
the
empire at
this crisis.
120.
This
and
victoryAthens
democratic
set up
Athenians
Continental
in
towns, and
The
took
Oe-noph'y-ta(4566.0.).
Federation
(456-447 B.C.); Egypt
this
Through
"
at
Continental
The
219.
months
Two
direct
no
"Land
Empire."
Athenian
failure
The
which
was
in fact due
overtaxed
Reverses
193
the
ambition of Pericles,
imperialistic
strength of his country. Egypt had
the
to
Even
on
Persia.
Cimon,
the
Cyprus
recalled
triremes
on
did not
to
from
further attacks
revolted
time
some
expedition
;
nician armament,
deter him
and
the
though
his fleet
project came
to
But
two
The
dred
hun-
he died
destroyeda strong
naught.
B.C.
449
Phoe-
disaster
in
the
exhausted
so
Egypt, followed by this unsuccessful enterprise,
that she had to adopt a more
friendlypolicy
strength of Athens
her neighbors. She abandoned
her federation on the contoward
tinent
for peace
without
a
struggle,and she opened negotiations
with Sparta.
with near
The
220.
neighbors
During these wars
Long Walls.
While
enemies.
Athens
was
exposed to attacks from her many
been
not have
it would
of her forces were
absent on service,
'most
"
The
194
difficult for
Age of Pericles
hostile army
to
in
and
Attica
invade
few
days'
"
"
of the other
in the
Athens
gave
up
"
"
clause.
open door
allies except Plataea and Nau-
the
"
pactus.
but
suffered
by
most
the treaty, as
About
Athens
each
and
The
B.C.).
"
Athens
In
not
was
excluded
only
of the Corinthian
the other
hand,
an
Gulf
and
from
the
acknowledgment
of
supremacy.
time
same
established
relations were
between
friendly
with
at peace
Persia,and thereafter they remained
222.
control
she
Change
years.
from
Confederacy
the
precedingchapter we
graduallyreduced to the
confederacyto empire was
to
Empire
have
seen
Completed
how
the
(454
allies of
subjects.2The
change from
completedby the transfer
of the treasury from Delos to Athens, probably in 454 B.C.
Only
the Lesbians,Chians, and Samians, as free and equalallies,
retained
whatever forms of government they desired.
time afterward
Some
Samos
revolted
and was
reduced to subjection.The
dependent
which
make
treaties
with
Athens
states were
new
requiredto
they
by
and to send their imagreed to adopt democratic
constitutions,
1
The
were
recentlybeen
abandoned
was
by scholars.
condition
of
Athens
2
"
to
215.
Phalerum
has
The
196
of five hundred
smaller courts,1
panels,or
tie.
received
the
one
each.
As
cases
to prevent
was
by a majorityvote, the odd number
the archons
were
Originally
judges and the courts simply
appealsfrom their decisions;but in the time of Pericles
had
archons
come
the
presentationto
trial,with
the
and
decided
were
a
Age of Pericles
no
power
be
to
and
courts
to
clerks,who
mere
prepared
them
presidedover
influence the
without
decision.
As
In
cases
through
other
for
the
words,
clined,
delargejury
judge.
the jurorsgainedin importance. Their largenumber
made
and
intimidation
difficult. Every person
involved in a
bribery
trial as plaintiff
defendant
had to plead his own
There
or
case.
writers of speechesfor such occasions,
to be professional
came
but
real lawyers.2 The Athenians
considered these popular cou^te
no
a
citizens from
protectionof the libertyof the common
necessary
the oppressionof the nobles and the wealthy. They served this
court
was
the
archons
well.
purpose
"
"
business of government.3
The introduction of a fee enabled
to
attend
Di-cas-te'ri-a,
pluralof dicasterium.
was
always odd.
Some
panels were
larger,others smaller,but
the number
2
3
"326.
The
laws
psephisma.
were
nom'oi, plural of
nomos
decrees
were
plural of
pse-phis'ma-ta,
Government
it
permittedthe
poor, equallywith
the benefits of government.
and
The
224.
above
Assembly.
eighteenyears
attend.
There
tenth of
were
The
"
the
I9y
rich,to
assemblywas
composed
of age who
had the leisure and
four regularmeetings in
of all citizens
inclination to
every prytany,
or
sessions as were
extraordinary
year, with as many
thought
One
of
each
meeting
necessary.
prytany was
occupied with examining
the conduct
of magistrates
and
;
any one of them who
a
was
could
be
to
of
Five
but
Hundred,
had
pleasure. They
the
citizens could
master
no
offer amendments
they acknowledged no
at
authority
There was
they and their fathers had made.
no
ofHce than that of the citizen who attended
higheror more
dignified
the assembly and law courts ; he was
at once
a legislator,
a judge,
and an
executive
officer. This positionof honor and trust made
him
The
Athenian
citizen was
called upon,
public-spirited.
as
was
no
of the state.
In the
in law
but
select few
The
225.
all of annual
elected
were
by
lot.
and
world,to
find his
largerinterests
in those
ucation
assembly and in the courts he received an edin statesmanshipsuch as has been granted to
in other
states, whether
There
ancient
or
modern.
hundred
offices,
A few of the more
duration.
importantmagistrates
by the people in their assembly,the rest were appointed
Magistrates.
"
were
fourteen
The
An
which
could
of
Age of Pericles
The
"
SOCIETY
III.
226.
The
Population : Slaves.
of Attica
and
far advanced
however
Age
About
aliens,leavingabout
children.
and
includingwomen
In the
"
350,000.
resident
were
40,000
about
was
EDUCATION
AND
Athens
These
facts
160,000 citizens,
show
at
that
once
owned
house
and
of the
in
field,
Some
oarsmen.
as
The
by
country.
were
overseers
enough educated
few wealthy persons
the
their labor,had
the cultivation
making
life more
anywhere
let out
who
owned
and
means
and
Athens
else in the
were
historyof
1
of work
their master's
slaves,and
in the
business.
were
leisure to devote
and
comfortable,refined,
at
to manage
of the mind
to work
the mines
well
were
he
thousand, whom
silver mines
was
treated
Thucydides, ii.65
"
better
Yet,
themselves
devisingways
beautiful.
well
the world.
to
supported
to
of
It is true,too,
perhaps than
Society
199
Resident
227.
resident
Foreigners.
aliens.
Some
of the class
most
themselves
were
by
B.C.)requiredthe
but
those who
had
Above
from
Asia
from
other
Greek
state
admit
to
more
grew
done
were
manufacture
the Athenians
as
"
and
Minor
and
They
states.
trade.
the
law
the
were
Orient,but
to enrich
came
of Solon
(594
all such persons to the citizenship
;
exclusive,
they acceptednone but
some
education.
same
in
Athens,
in
Peiraeus.
lived
Some
but
The
them
of
most
commercial
due
largely to
wealth
the
of these
228.
"
resident
little
cultivated
for
aliens.
Exclu-
hire; others
farms, which
alone
the
of the citizens
Some
laborers
had
and
Citizens; their
siveness.
were
labor
or
with
they
the aid
ATHENIAN
of
slave
or
two
; still others
KNIGHTS
shopkeepers or artisans.
in
wealthy enough to live without work, to serve
Many were
to fill the offices
or
the cavalry
their only standing army
few
of
of the state.
There
no
were
paupers, with the exception a
were
"
"
and
pensioned by the government.
they were
persons,
of the
members
citizens
than half the population were
disabled
Less
"
Age of Pericles
The
200
They
state.
of the
considered
same
another
one
as
Apollo."1
"ancestral
kinsmen
Each
ants
all descend-
"
"
of the
of the
country,
remain
This
aliens.
Athenians
but
foreigners,
must
also of
who
allies,
were
now
in
only
reality
Athenians
were
allowed
to
marry
women
from
other
progress
the children
of the world
of such
which
we
of the
Greek
generation
training,
after generation,
of such a society
of beings,
to make
a superior
race
far above the common
level of humanity as that level is above
as
the savage.
caste
Unfortunately,on the other hand, a narrow,
like that of the Athenians,with no fresh blood to revitalize
society,
later to physicaldecay. This narrowness,
or
it,is doomed
sooner
therefore,
though a cause of the greatness of Athens, was to prove
more
perniciousthan all the calamities of war that ever befell her.
the father
In nearly all ancient
states
Children.
229. The
had the rightto kill his children at their birth,if he did not wish to
times,and was
bring them up. The custom
began in barbarous
"
"
n6.
Children
not
abolished
by
highlycivilized
so
rarelymade
state
Athens.
as
But
the
of his
Athenian
father
201
in their treatment
familytogetherin
Soon
the
On
of
use
children,and
the
parents gave
this occasion
bound
the
festival to
(From
PLAYING
their friends
its name,
of the
of mutual
child,usuallythe
child received
WOMEN
members
helpfulness.
lowing,
day fol-
tenth
and
the eldest
kinsmen.
son
gen-
KNUCKLEBONES
infant.
phratry,as explainedin
"
100.
an
This
earlier
duty
was
attended
to
by
the
chapter.2
"
115-
The
2O2
The
At
Pericles
the
School.
Age of
"
A
(From
teach
SCHOOL
a
vase-painting)
the
He
not to see
or
was
boy good morals and manners.
hear anything
vulgar or debasing,and he was kept entirely
away
from bad company.
He learned modesty, respect for his parents
and elders,
love for his country, and other virtues.
Most
of all he
Pleasures were
was
taughtself-restraint and moderation.
good,but
He had to learn the proper way
nothingshould be done to excess.
to sit,
walk, dress,and eat. If the father could afford it,he placed
the boy as governor
over
a slave,
boy leader
pae-da'
go-gos
"
"
"
"
IVORY
(Fifthcentury
B.C.
found
STYLUS
in Euboea
British
Museum)
an
generally
old
man
who
"
"
The
2O4
Age of Pericles
state most
winners
The
games.
for the
prizewas
state
simplewreath
set
honor
than
such
above
and
or
citizen.
direction.
passed nearlyall
the youth came
aim
what
youth
was
not
of him
has been
said
intellectu
physical,
was
him
prepare
the best possible
to
Meantime
and
Men
laurel,or olive ;
parsley,
No
greater glory could
From
to make
at
of her citizens.
one
of the
The
moral.
but
profession,
of
"
the education
and
artistic,
for business
victoryby
state
money.
Education.
it is clear that
man
represent their
Well-Rounded
232.
above
to
Greeks
to
come
sent
were
the
to
clear
harmony with it. In that brilliantly
atmosphere he could see objectsnear or far justas they were, not
blurred by mist as they are in a great part of our
country. He kept
his own
mind
as
clear,so that he could describe objectsand actions
roundings
just as they were, with perfectnaturalness and truth. His surencouraged the growth of his imagination. He saw
about
him
endless varietyof islands,seas, plains,
an
slopes,and
the plainto
hills. From
the Acropolisof Athens he looked across
its border of mountains
and to other heightsstillfarther and farther
His imaginationled him to these distant places; it tempted
away.
learned
live
to
his mind
to pass
of
inventor
it.
or
the
satisfied with
was
and
became
father's
age.
so
was
a
mental
on
well-trained that he
discoverer
of
new
truth, an
have handled
Though he might never
brush, he was
by nature an artist,whose taste
tecture,
archinothing short of perfectionin sculpture,
literature.
man.
His
name
the
At
"
then
was
age of
enrolled
registerof
eighteen to twenty
township (deme).1 From
to take military
trainingalong with his fellows
At
voyages
could
art.
Military Training.
233.
mind
he became
Thus
in science and
chisel
to the unknown
the known
from
exploration.The
safelyfollow
the
in
the end
these
" 165.
young
he
was
of the
soldiers had
to
his
quired
re-
same
give
Women
and
publicexhibition
of their military
the
authorities of
skill ; and
presented
state, if satisfied,
the
each
with
one
shield.
his
of
two
years
duty, he
mained
re-
called
for
on
militaryservice
the age of sixty.
tillhe reached
Women
234.
and
spear
garrison
a
be
After
drill and
Athenian
and
Marriage.
and
from
received
their
kept closely
girlswere
home,
at
Marriage
tion
instruc-
mothers
and
domestic
Although proficientin
affairs,they had little
musical
and
nurses.
intellectual
Foreign
tion.
educa-
in Athens
women
were
and
hence
than
the
were
attractive
more
daughtersof
Between
twenty
the citizens.
and
thirtya
There was
usuallymarried.
no
opportunityfor courtship; in
fact, the young
people rarely
man
knew
each
other
but
the
chose
the
father
or
contract.
a
business
gave
his
before
the wedding;
youth's father
bride, and with her
guardian settled the
Marriage was
largely
affair:
daughter
every
a
father
dowry
proportioned
to his wealth
; and as
anxious to keep the
parents were
children
to
near
relatives.
205
The
206
Age of Pericles
of near
kinsfolk was
perhaps the chief cause of
intermarriage
decline of the Athenians.
the physical
in water
bathed
Before
the wedding both bride and groom
brought from the Sacred Spring. In the morning a sacrifice
tives,
offered to the marriage gods,and later in the day the relawas
This
and
men
In
feasted
women,
at
the house
home.
She
escorted her to her new
evening a procession
panied
in a carriageby her husband's
side,while the rest accomon
playing the harp and pipe,others singing
foot, some
the
rode
Various
attended
ceremonies
her
into
entrance
wife
was
often
not
seen
in
"
"
their hands
couches.
After
they had
washed
in bowls
the
ruler who
decided
subjectsof
how
conversation
much
wine
should
should be.
They
be
drunk
weakened
and
their
The
with water,
wine
Acropolis
that intoxication
so
drinking,
jugglers,
dancers,and
The
them.
guests themselves
was
or
While
rare.
musicians
sang
207
of both
sexes
told riddles
they were
entertained
conversed,as
or
IV.
INTELLECTUAL
236. The
LIFE;
Acropolis before
the Athenians
and
ATHENIAN
THE
Pericles.
The
"
GENIUS
private dwellingsof
small
ad
other
buildings,
leavingthe
inexpensive.
to build beautifully
and
grandly.
Athens, they burned the temples and
Acropolisstrewn with heaps of ruins.
For
time
Religion alone
the
means
entered
inspiredthem
the Persians
When
even
these shrines.
restoring
neither
the leisure
nor
work
Athena
became
of
tablished,
es-
protectingdeity. A splendidhouse
for her would
be a glory to the subjectstates as well as to Athens.
Revenues
from other sources
likewise used; and as the state
were
owned
the chief cost was
the marble quarrieson Mount
Pentelicus,
its
He
B.C.
the
edon; "
214.
the money
derived from
at
Eurym-
208
Age of Pericles
The
2IO
winning
This
the frieze.1 It is
chapteris
is
scene
a
the
becomes
victoryshe
the
on
band
It represents
colonnade.
-.-?iTw
group
preparingfor
^Ky
4^
sion
4?
T*
"*
the
of
ath-e-na'ic
citizens
of
various
the
procesPan"
Great
festival in her
every fourth
of July.
year in the month
The idea is that of plenty
honor, held
fit adornments
are
of
Parthenon.
the
comparing one
LAPITH
AND
(Parthenon metope
may
this
how
see
branch
fiftyyears.
CENTAUR
; British
wonderful
of
art
The
(Sketched by
are
the
PEDIMENT
with
succession
Parthenon
OF
above,3 we
had
Greeks
a
made
in
hundred
and
are
lifelike,
metope
PARTHENON
earlier
described
period of
short
the
figuresof
the
advance
wrought
mechanical
an
within
WEST
and
nus
Seli-
from
that
with
Museum)
By
of its metopes
little
figures,
related
from
this is the Ionic frieze,
as
distinguished
Strictly
and
"
triglyphs
metopes;
175.
sculptureshows a
to
one
another,
the Doric.
latter is made
The
of the
up
adjective signifies"belonging to
Panathenaea
a Lesser
Panathenaea, there was
2
This
3"
177.
all the
held
Besides
Athenians."
annually.
It
was
the
harvest
Greater
festival.
Sculpturesof
whereas
the
with
slab
greater genius in
the Parthenon
211
GROUP
MAIDENS
OF
Athena
in this
temple was
gold and the
Iof
were
of
bare
on
wooden
frame
parts of ivory. We
; the
know
ments
garthat
this statue
was
the work
time.1
had
the
He
made
of
temple.
the severe
of design,
beauty,and the finish of these
nobility
still
of those which
rivalled.
Most
been
sculptureshave never
exist were
brought to England by Lord Elginearlyin the nineteenth
The
to
of Argos
Polycleitus
him
in genius.
sippusintroduced
It
a
new
was
was
contemporary
Polycleituswho
principle.For
set
of Phidias,and
the characteristicsof
till Ly-
see
" 330.
Polycleitus,
The
212
century, and
are
now
in size with
compare
Age of Pericles
the
The
temples of Egypt
cathedrals
of mediaeval
and
grace,
or
Parthenon
with
the
balance
tian
Chris-
of all its
harmony
it is the
not
can-
of
most
dignity
nearly
perfectpieceof architecture
hands.
created by human
239.
Other
ever
The
Buildings.
"
other
of Pericles,
though
buildings
artistic
be
of great
value, can
here.
mentioned
but briefly
At
the entrance
to the Acropolison
erected a magnifithe west was
cent
called
the
portal
Pro-pylae'a
front gateway." Nearly
touching it on the south is the
temple of Wingless Victory
Ni'ke Ap'te-ros. It is a neat
little temple of Pentelic marble.
reliefs
of the best-preserved
One
"
"
"
connected
with
it
represents
ATHENA
OF
PARTHENOS
the
art is the
called The-se'um.
(Statuette; National Museum,
If
restrained.
highestattained
by mankind, this Victory represents
first
downward
the
step.1
of the Acropolis,
Northwest
on
a slight
elevation,stands the soPhidian
COPY
and
Scholars
now
Athens)
not
believe that itis really
shrine
to the hero
Of all
Hellenic
Acro-
but
It
seems
later in the
same
this
century.
pieceof sculpturewas
made,
not
in the age
of Pericles,
il
2
it
The
214
age
had
of Pericles.
foughtin
he drew
had
He
Age of Pericles
lived
the
through
and
with
war
Salamis.
Persia,and
From
this
flict
con-
have only
we
inspiration.Of his ninetytragedies
them masterpieces
of literature.
To the student of
is the
history the Persians
'
r^
valuable.
most
In representing
the invasion
of
Xerxes, it
of
givesa gloriousdescription
the
battle
of
Salamis.1
moral
aim
of the
show
how
Zeus
The
play is to
punished
Xerxes
In
are
and
the theme
writings.
was
Soph'o-cles
dramatic
the
great
Pericles.
strong or
he
not
so
Though
as lus,
original
Aeschy-
so
was
artist.
careful
more
plotis more
his language
His
and
finished.
have
We
but
cate
intrimore
seven
plays. Though
the Oed'i-pusTyr-an'nus
won
second
but
a
prize,modern
scholars
usually consider it
of his hundred
VICTORY
(From
HER
ADJUSTING
balustrade
of
SANDAL
Nike
Museum,
temple; Acropolis
Athens)
It tells how
his best.
king
and
by
pious man,
unintentional
between
of God
to
divine and
in
the nobler
exhibition
sin.2
to the
In the
the
An-tig'o-ne
human
preferenceto
cause.
himself
ruin upon
brought utter
law.
She chooses
See the
"iiS.
and
to
just
his household
a
obey the
flict
conmand
com-
tyr
king ; and she dies a maralways been popular,from its first
present day.
1
Thebes,
heroine faces
that of the
It has
of
pus,
Oedi-
quotation from
it in
"
205.
Historyand Philosophy
History.
In
the
241.
work
from
"
"
of
215
much
history spent
of the known
He
everywhere collected
from
world,and
visited
nearlyall
the natives
from
work
to be
he givesthe historyof
by way
introduction,
times
down
to the war
itself. He wrote
mythical
aloud, as
the poems
of Homer
had
tory
his-
causes
of
read
terestin
in-
the
his
been, at public
styleis so simple
and
of individuals.
large-mindedof
most
takes littleinterest in
his
pictureof
countries
the
which
is
certainly
and
historians.
or
politics,
world
the most
art,and
in
of his time
he visited makes
Philosophy
242.
Herodotus
was
and
of mankind
his work
Sophists.
"
Though uncritical,
though he
the deepercauses
of events, yet
of all
interesting,
of the
one
in the many
perhapsthe truest,as it
histories.
Pericles
was
ture
patron of litera-
friend of
243.
of Pericles
music,
and
From
mentioned
were
philosophy was
oratory he had
1
of Pericles.
no
"
The
above.2
the
best
specialtraining,for
o-o06s,wise.
noble
His
his
connections
birth and
education
in
afford.
city could
in his younger
literature,
In
days rhetoric
2
5 218
The
216
Age of Pericles
had
not
with scarcely
a gesture
quietly,
audience
The
mantle.
moved
was
movement
or
the
by
weight of
his
words, the
majestyof
the confidence
his pure
speakers of the
were
Athens.
A comic
thunders
from
tongue."
time
Olympian,2the Zeus of
fateful
speaksof him as
rolling
was
"
his
he
which
Like
true
every
describe
we
Though
He
a man
tocles,
able commander.
an
militarygenius,Pericles was
of diplomacy and a great statesman.
Themismaster
of far highergenius,
had boldlyfollowed his intuitions ;
cold and calculating, he would make
his entire policy
Pericles
was
rightby
most
"
careful attention
of his earlier
world.
more
engaged in
buildingof
triremes
Pericles
not
and
the
on
only more
bold
strokes
to make
his
the dominant
in the Mediterranean
power
through the followingyears
publiccharacter
the historian.
the
and
to the manufacture
of
Athenian
with
Character.
greater
is Pericles himself.
"
the other
earnestness
In
one
" 102.
Thu-cyd'i-des,ii. 35-46.
best
Athenians
The
Greeks, but
and
force to litical,
poof their
interpreter
of his orations
The
ideas
are
those of Pericles.
'
Oration,in
arms.
splendidmilitarycondition in which
beginningof the PeloponnesianWar.3
arsenals
than
intenselyreligious
themselves
and
artistic,
His
few
failed ; and
herself at the
they devoted
and
he had
activityis
found
244.
hoped by
In the enthusiasm
details.
of this
Athens
were
But
to all the
he toiled with
of peace
Proof
he had
career
citythe
and
classic.
no
was
as
The
language
is
he de"
247.
largelythat of
Pericles
fines their
the
"
kindness.
We
There
what
neighborif he does
the laws
he calls attention
is
he likes ;
in
we
offices for
do not
liberality
course.
private inter-
our
another,nor
one
and
to their social
exclusiveness
no
of
suspicious
not
are
equalitybefore
as
which
after
qualified,"
and
"
democracy
217
put
angry
on
sour
with
looks
our
at
him,
which
"
"
"
"
the school
person
varied
at
the
teachers
of
Hellas,and
or
rulers.
that
To
of
the power
of action with the utmost
to
seems
forms
the hour
to the
as
have
of trial Athens
report of her.
which
reverses
alone among
who
No enemy
he sustains
at
sum
The
Troubles
drawing
to
an
of Pericles.
end.
The
"
But
moderate
in fact.
of peace was
idly
rapPericles
of
pleased
policy
the
era
His enemies,not
democrats.
the extreme
nor
oligarchs
after another.
assailed his friends one
daringto attack him directly,
zling
the charge of embezon
First theyprosecutedPhidias, the sculptor,
the
to be used in gilding
to him
of the gold entrusted
some
neither
the
The
218
for the
Athena
of
statue
Age of Pericles
Parthenon.
he
Although
ready
was
to
prove
divorced
had
his
Aspasia to
and
orators,
But
the
be
law
who
in
this
age
sons, and
of 451
teacher
inspiringgenius of
Athenians,
must
woman
of his two
own
the
became
She
the
"
mother
his
house, though
alien.
an
marry
wife,the
his
of
the
had
taken
him
forbade
B.C.
to
artists,philosophers,
Periclean
to
come
and
had
social
believe
talk with
must
circle.
that
no
one
immoral.
as
family,regarded Aspasia'sconduct
the judges to acquit
Happily Pericles by personal entreaty induced
with Pelothus beset by privatedifficulties,
her.
While he was
war
began to threaten.
ponnese
of her
outside
own
Suggestive
i.
Write
Athens
and
Sparta, 456
3. Compare
controlled.
of this
summary
B.C.,
in
on
and
military power
Athenian
the
Questions
jury system
p.
189.
in extent
with
that
2.
of
of
Compare
territory
our
own
are
systems?
4. Compare
the seated
and
are
youths
training of boys at Athens
Sparta.
5. What
Describe
Describe
the
in
the
202?
material..
writing
doing
picture on p.
the appearin the picture. 6. Compare
musical
instruments
the two
seen
ance
whole
with the temple of Poseidon, and explain
of the Parthenon
as
a
country.
the
What
relative
merits
of the
two
the
the
superiorityof
the
one
over
the
other.
Note-book
Topics
under
Pericles.
of Athens
Aristotle, Constitution
of
Athenian
stitution,
Conxxvii
the
xxvi,
Botsford,
of
xxiv,
Development
Athens,
;
History,
Greenidge, Handbook
of Greek Constitutional
221-233;
xvi.
ii.
ch.
Holm,
History
Greece,
of
166-189;
II. Pericles
the Man.
Oration,
Thucydides, ii. 65, also his Funeral
ii. 35-46;
Plutarch, Pericles; Abbott, Pericles,357-367.
I. Government
"
chs.
"
III.
Greek
ch.
xx
Ancient
Literature, 103-106;
Jebb, Greek
Murray,
Literature,ch. vi ; Fowler, Ancient Greek Literature,ch. xv ; Holm, ii.
Great
Persian
War, xiv.
; Grundy,
Herodotus.
"
CHAPTER
WAR
PELOPONNESIAN
THE
XIX
TO
of the
majority
of Athens
years
but
between
of
Greece;
and
Athenians
League.
The
half
powers.
the
growing
the
the
several
sent
envoys
also
came,
Athenian
be
secured
to
make
fleet
great
with
the
was
for
a
Corinthian
this
broke
leadership
with
Sparta
them
the
preparing
in
battle
Corinthians
and
themselves
off Syb'o-ta,
219
and
their
defending
The
joint colony
great
the
432
B.C.
the
inevitable,
should
ament
arm-
latter
before
causes
Lacedaemon
them;
Cor-
ambassadors
Corinthian
with
terfering
in-
was
and
Thereupon
their
self
her-
battle, Corinth
in
advice, therefore,
with
between
In
in
Corcyraeans
his
armament.1
interference
war
of the
Upon
aid
aid
alliance.
an
alliance
to
Peiraeus
Athens
had
found
Corinth
defeat
parties pleaded
navy
Athens.
to
ask
Persia,
Ep-i-dam'nus,
severe
the
Corinth
Corinth
and
seas,
of
states
and
with
war
Corcyra.
Believing
defensive
sent
overwhelm
two
the
of
possession
to
particular
colony, Corcyra.
neighbors
to
felt that
her
of her
assembly.
Pericles
thirty
war
the
Furthermore,
trade.
suffering
Athens
and
of the
After
which
to
and
the
since
in her
the
for
mainland.
with
when
filled
Athens
ship
leader-
last
to
was
for
Athens
between
commerce
her
fought
persuaded
rivals
with
also
but
friendly ;
between
on
of
B.C.
great
the
under
elapsed
were
power
relations
painfully cramped
had
period
trouble
usual
monopolizing
cyra
had
B.C.
431
brought
of 445
peace
They
two
had
extremely
was
that
been
year
fear.
The
been
had
The
Sparta.
scarcely
and
jealousy
of
or
the
Before
"
of Greece
states
the
out
War.
the
of
Causes
EXPEDITION
B.C.
431-415
246.
SICILIAN
THE
by
it
was
small
island
were
their
all
means
resolved
Athenian
against
justly
the
angry
colonies,
es-
PeloponnesianWar
22O
treaty,and
to the Sicilian
Expedition
from
prevented Lacedaemon
affairs. They asserted that Athens broke
exerted all their energy to stir up Peloponnese
now
several times
againstthe offender.
the
At
same
Corinthian
city,
now
urging Potidaea1
they were
in Chalcidice
settlement
tributaryto
state,it
mother
time
had
revolted,whereupon
into
grown
Garrisoned
Athens.
to
by
the Athenians
revolt.
This
prosperous
force from
the
laid
siegeto
the
place.
allegedthat this was another violation of the
to call a
They persuaded the Lacedaemonians
treaty of 445 B.C.
congress of the League to consider the various grievancesagainst
the deputiesgathered,the LacedaemoAthens
nians
(432 B.C.). When
invited them
to bring their complaintsbefore the Spartan
the Megaassembly. Among those who had grievanceswere
rians. Athens
had recentlypassed an act which excluded them
from
of Attica and of the empire. This,
the ports and markets
suaded
also,the Megarians averred,was a violation of the treaty. Perby these arguments, the Spartan assembly voted that the
Athenians
the treaty. The
had broken
Peloponnesiancongress
ratified the decision,
and declared war
againstAthens.
The
Resources
of Athens
and
Sparta.
empire of
247. The
Athens,composed of subjectsstates,was stronger than it had ever
been before.
Chios, Lesbos,
Among her independent allies were
Thessaly,and Plataea,besides a few citiesin Italyand Sicily.She
had thirteen thousand
heavy-armed troops, and a largerforce for
garrisonservice. There were three hundred triremes of her own,
besides those of the allies,
and her sailors were
the best in the world.
Corinthians
The
"
She commanded
the
sea
and
subjectcities,
togetherwith
about
of
thousand
talents
its
resources.
The
tributes from
her
amounting in all to
revenues,
be nearlyenough, in case
year, would
other
"
128.
First Three
commercial
forces
First
248. The
221
it was
the
of the
states
Years
army
no
means
of
sand
thoutwenty-five
a
numerous
force,
that time.
at
Years
an
of the
(431-429B.C.).
War
In
"
summer
The
inflicted
done.
have
would
terrible
more
togetherand
damage
the
and
But
blamed
Athenians
The
their
crowded
they were
because
of life.
comforts
in battle
defeat
the severest
peoplesuffered
The
lacked
than
Although
izing.
demoral-
for both
war
nobly
many
and
plague,
heavily.
gave
soon
their
to
lute
abso-
power.
The
249.
died
Pericles
of the
of
In
the
surplus in
the
levied
the
wealthy by
he
hated
was
him.
(429 B.C.).
of the state passed
the leadership
(429 B.C.). Though no general,
plague,and
tanner
talent for
Cleon
as
finance,and
Leader
was
an
orator
of
great
the
policyof Pericles.
the state
treasury was 'soon exhausted by the war,
with
tax, and Cleon made himself very unpopular
main
direct
Pericles
Cle'on,a
remarkable
force.
of
Death
he
followed
his ruthlessness
in
the
it.
collecting
providingways and
They could not endure
in
As
means,
to
see
the
The
more
more
getic
ener-
the nobles
the
to the Sicilian
PeloponnesianWar
222
industrial
in taxes
pay
250.
Cleon
The
had
the expenses
Revolt
to
come
Expedition
of the government,
compellingthem
to
war
"
i-le'ne and
was
But
and
As
Athens
for
the
angry because
revolted
without
cause;
were
for their
Athenians
trial. The
own
Lesbians
they feared,
their empire,and
lives.
With
therefore,Cleon
great difficulty,
them
death
to
all the
had
condemn
and
no
suaded
per-
put
to
captiveoligarchs.Cleon's
idea was
to make
an
example of them
of"
that other communities
might fear to
revolt. The punishment,decreed under
excitement,was too severe, and out of
In putting
character of the Athenians.
keeping with the humane
this revolt,they passed the dangerouscrisis,
down
and were
again
of
the
Sea.
masters
undisputed
Aegean
The
of
Capture
Pylos (425B.C.). The war now
began to
251.
This change was
turn
decidedlyin favor of Athens.
chieflydue
the ablest commander
to De-mos'the-nes,
since the days of Themistocles and Cimon.
In 425 B.C., he seized Pylos, on
the west
of Peloponnese,
coast
and fortified it. This became
thorn in the
a
side of Sparta,
a refuge for helots and
a good basis for ravaging
It was
Laconia.
with an excellent harbor protected
a promontory
Demosthenes
held the placeagainst
by the island of Sphac-te'ri-a.
repeated attacks of the Peloponnesians.A select corps of the
landed on
Sphacteria,and tried to carry his positionby
enemy
A. A
B. Point
S. Land
since formed
"
"
Cleon
The
storm.
and
Brasidas
223
terms
accept, the
Pylos,and
The
demands
of Cleon
continued.
war
home,
latter
captured
hundred
two
her
and
raise the
measure
increased
to
under
the
the command
in
hold of Athens
tribute
the Athenian
to
to
of Demosthenes.
troops of Sphacteriaand
two
ninety-
victorystrengthenedthe
enabled
were
Cleon
wiselyplacedhimself
The
them
the
as
to
number
the
on
thousand
for
resources
brought
(425 B.C.).
empire, and
talents.
This
war.
252.
Losses
"
"
defeated
death
and
Brasidas
slain.
of these
two
was
removed
men
killed in the
same
battle.
in the
way
The
of
peace.
The
253.
desired
failure.
Peace
power
of Athens
Pylos
the
of Nicias
in
greatest
few
reverse
"
had suffered at
years at the most, but
anxious
in their history. They were
of them
for many
Sphacteria,
were
no
ordinarytroops, but pure Spartans. Nicias,a generalof
of his
as
the Athenians, carried on the negotiations
representative
concluded
It was
city,and the treaty accordinglybears his name.
also to
in 421
recover
B.C.
the
The
taken
prisoners
at
treaty providedfor
return
Peloponnesian War
224
both
was
to
last
fiftyyears
sides.
Expedition
As the
war.
to the Sicilian
and
the
to
was
extend
to
the allies
on
Though
treaty was
directlyattack each other for seven
years, and
the Athenians
while
it lasted.
enjoyed the peace
They returned
the
to
country, and began again the cultivation of their little farms,
behind the walls.
pleasedto be free from their long confinement
(418 B.C.). When it
254. Alcibiades; the Battle of Mantinea
became
in Athens
known
that peace with Sparta could not be maintained,
the war
into power.
leader
The principal
party againcame
of this party was
Al-ci-bi'a-des. He belongedto one of the noblest
families of Athens, and was
kinsman
of Pericles. Though
a
near
still young,
he was
influential because
of his high birth and his
fascinating
personality.His talents were brilliant in all directions ;
lawless and violent,and followed no
but he was
motive
but selfinterest and self-indulgence.
Through his influence Athens allied
herself with Argos, Elis,and Man-ti-ne'a againstthe Lacedaemonians
imperfectlycarried out, the
two
"
and
Mantinea
at
best
in
418
success
and
enabled
them
daemon
apart from
unions
met
in battle
regain much
to
Peloponnese. Argos
of these two
The
B.C.
organizationand
wiped out the
armies
Mantinea
and
of
their
now
former
made
peace
influence
with
in
Lace-
Athens.
the
Athenians
into surrender.
blockaded
They
the island
then
and
starved
men
of
the
inhabitants
militaryage
and
An
the
enslaved
them
to
good
the
in
common
of
name
Act
children.
and
women
annex
though
Inhuman
island,
that
Greek
but
the
has
age,
Which
reasons
war?
5.
the
the
Was
justified
war
Had
the
at
state
I.
II.
Cleon's
of
right
to
seize
in
Policy
Source
the
on
7.
plan
What
of
after
Elis,
the
conducting
his
ideal
high
location
the
Mantinea,
Give
for
responsible
conflict
6.
Describe
of
death?
did
the
Mytilene,
Melos.
and
Topics
to
Allies.
the
"
of
(see
Thucydides
the
Peace
of
Index)
Nicias.
"
Fling,
stain
Thucydides,
iii.
36-40
Cleon).
Alcibiades.
Terms
the
Melos?
Amphipolis,
Relation
Pericles'
Was
of
course
Sphacteria?
Cythera,
"
III.
for
conquered,
Lacedaemon?
or
chiefly
was
4.
general
Note-book
(speech
the
indelible
an
Athens
B.C.,
431
unavoidable?
the
Athenians
Pylos,
Sphacteria,
of
just
Questions
Which
2.
war
by
abandon
Spartans
in
stronger
opinion.
your
3.
the
slaughter
it
Athens.
was
for
made
usage
proved
Suggestive
i.
22$
Book,
207-211).
Plutarch,
Thucydides,
Alcibiades.
v.
17-19
(also
in
CHAPTER
FROM
THE
SICILIAN
XX
EXPEDITION
TO
how
to
and
Athens
256.
time
of their
After
Italy
their
and
upon
an
Greece
the
had
of war,
in
the
Persian
with
Sparta
those
and
of
From
more
and
Athens
to
the
she
under
cities which
interest
in the
the
manufactured
Ionian
island
her
aimed
control
of
consequence
disliked
of Corinth
the
rule
two
friendship
(2) she
; and
In
ing
dur-
followed
close
under
in time
Greeks
eastern
the
of
as
this
and
Syracuse
protection.
livelycommercial
the
abolished,
Syracuse,
maintained
Sparta.
the
city, and
the
flourished,
cities of western
cities of the
led
Sicilyand
was
Sicilian
gradually
of the
thoroughly
as
Themistocles
other
most
city,Corinth
of
Commerce
When
time
the
tified
tyrants beau-
position Syracuse
policy : (i)
were
The
tyranny
had
this
cities
of
governments.
Sparta
mother
Greeks
Then
Hellenic
In
Sicilian
for
from
Literature
statues.
century
the
as
her
Peloponnese
policy,(i)Syracuse was
looked
Greeks
western
stand
under-
it is necessary
war,
prosperity.
democratic
way
with
(2) the
in the
the
easy.
of the
of
Sparta, and
was
Sicily,led
lines
all the
bring
to
life
invasions.
related
nearly
of
To
"
involved
and
temples
middle
such
some
be
of great
era
and
in
(479-416 B.C.).
Greek
history
introduced
greatest power
WAR
THE
EXPEDITION
Carthage.
Himera
(480 B.C.),1the
cities with
before
to
OF
over
of
abounded,
Western
the
over
battle
entered
SICILIAN
came
victory
the
wealth
the
Sicilynow
rapidly
run
THE
END
B.C.
415-404
I.
THE
articles
led
to
War
West.
took
They
more
exported
and
vases
Italy, Sicily,and
Carthage.
politicalinfluence ; Se-ges'ta,a foreign
to
and
Rhegium
Peloponnesian
Athenians
Le-on-ti'ni
began,
1
"
208.
226
the
Dorians
became
of the
their
West
allies.
gave
228
Expeditionto
the Sicilian
From
Lam'a-chus
Alcibiades,Nicias, and
school of Pericles
of the evils of
councils of
258. The
Athenians
or
or
ing
say nothAlcibiades were
Nicias and
give no
to
as
the
expedition.To
the
divided command,
the War
officer of
able
an
"
of
war.
Mutilation
placeon
to
temple,a
Hermes
each other
opposed to
so
to conduct
were
"
the End
"HERMES"
before
the street
It
"
was
the door of
privatehouse
square
some
of the Hermae.
stone
discover
Eleusinian
mysteriesx by imitatingthem
for amusement
in
private
houses.
the welfare
of the state
and then
259.
armament
The
recall him
Voyage;
was
to
the
for trial.
Plans
of the
gatherat Corcyra.
"
179-
Admirals
The
was
"
whole
to watch
the
departureof
full of tears
and
the
prayers,
Plans
of
anxietyand hope.
thousand
and
the
surmised
seen
formidable.
so
its voyage
across
About
gave
alwaysbeen
had
now
Rhegium,
which
Athenians
The
no
going
more.
great number
Corcyrawith
at
of
five
the Ionian
Greeks
return
and
shipsassembled
on
was
strength
that it would
triremes
thirty-four
Hellas had
crews.
229
flower of Athenian
heavy-armed men
splendidor
began
The
merchant
transportsand
of the Admirals
the middle
of the
summer
it
Sea toward
Italy.
Athens a cold reception.
Even
would not admit the
friendly,
seemed
great armament
menace
in doubt
soon
appeared,too, that Segesta
mirals
Disappointed
by such news, the ad-
as
to
what
Alcibiades
was
on
"
cut
the
of the island.
but
which,if completed,
by land with the rest
a crossbesiegers
minor
engagements ;
lost
and with his death the command
killed,
Syracusans built and maintained againstthe
wall extendingfrom their outer line of defence on
was
The
and laid
wall
Lamachus
all energy.
From
230
the north
the Sicilian
free communication
Syracusanswere
with
acquiringa
reasonable
failure.
In the winter
fleet.
he wrote
country.
There
letter
a.
was
no
the
longerany
would
gladlyhave
assembly after so
to Athens,givinga
Athenian
naval
b. Athenian
c.
At
sufficiently
strong
navy
battle with
great
the Athenian
the
to venture
raised the
War
the
time
of the
the
to
prevented the
wall,and secured
same
camp.
fort.
Height in
rear
of Athenian
wall.
d. d. Athenian wall.
nian
k, I. Unfinished part of Athewall.
n,
n.
New
m.
city wall (415
B.C.).
h, h. Syracusan cross-wall.
m,
of the
detailed account
be withdrawn
or
strong reinforcements
either the
The
sent.
ment
arma-
Athenians
and prepared
thought of abandoning the enterprise,
to send nearlyas large a land and naval force as the original
one,
the fact that the war
with Lacedaemon
and this notwithstanding
would
was
take
openly
now
261.
-
In
no
Agis
resumed.
in Attica ; Ruin
Armament
A'gis,king of the
413 B.C.
Attica,which for twelve years had seen no
the
spring of
ravaged
suggestionof Alcibiades,he
positionin
the
to hold it winter
could
were
of the Athenian
now
north
and
do
no
seized and
of Attica.
summer
to
fortified
The
farming except
Lacedaemonians,
enemy! At the
a strong
Dec-e-le'a,
Lacedaemonians
the
end
of the
war.
continued
The
nians
Athe-
under
(413B.C.).
Ruin
of the
Armament
231
STONE
(Interiorview
QUARRIES
lines
are
modern
AT
SYRACUSE
rope-makers' works.
From
photograph.)
once
lost another
or
abandon
naval
the
battle,and
the disheartened
crews
would
the Sicilian
From
232
fightno
The
the End
Expeditionto
Athenians
then burned
of
the War
their
shipsand began
and Demosthenes
to retreat by land,Nicias in advance
bringingup
The two divisions were
the rear.
the
on
march, and both
separated
losses.
were
compelled to surrender after severe
Probably forty
taken
thousand
had
men
part in the Sicilian expedition,and
thousand
left to begin the retreat.
Demosthenes
were
twenty-five
both put to death.
and Nicias were
Many of the captiveswere sold
thrown
into slavery; many
into the stone
were
quarriesnear
where
of
of
them perished exposure
and starvation.
most
Syracuse,
The failure of the expedition
due chiefly
and
to the stupidity
was
of Nicias.
It compelled the Athenians
the superstition
at once
to
all hope of conquering other peoples,and
abandon
to consider
instead how they could save
themselves and their empire from ruin.
more.
II. THE
CLOSING
YEARS
413-404
262.
Effects
could
Athenians
when
of the
they heard
to realize the
it from
the
But
once
other
more
allies of
thither
city.
As
even
Sicily,
they came
with
overwhelmed
in
some
way
down
the enemy
could attack.
The Lacedaemonians
and
went
themselves.
first the
and
of the disaster in
news
the survivors
time
hope
At
"
citizens determined
to
(413 B.C.).
truth,they vented
soothsayerswho had
For a time they seemed
their losses they feared
the whole
the
WAR
THE
B.C.
Sicilian Disaster
believe
not
OF
The
from
for
had
alliance with
expenses
the winter
fleet.
new
the
At
same
and
for
preparationbefore
Athens, who
Lacedaemonians
their allies,
elated
success.
Sparta to
to build
were
then
concluded
Persia; they
surrendered
an
offensive
to
that
and
power
fensive
dethe
Alcibiades
Asia
cities of
for
enemy
Minor
nearly seventy
Athens
had
protected from
every
years.
checked;
Rebellion
263.
which
233
(412 B.C.).
Alcibiades
The
"
ans
Atheni-
put forth
Samos,
To
made
of their naval
operations.
The
ing
contend-
after
partiesremained
nearly balanced in strength,even
arrival of a Syracusan fleet to help the Lacedaemonians
; but
of Athens
were
resources
graduallyexhausted,while those of
seemed
enemy
limitless.
Such
unexpected event
turned
Alcibiades,hated
by King Agis
Sparta,went
over
the Phoenician
back
Sea.
Athens
the
desired to return
satrap of
and
to Athens
of affairs when
state
time
in favor
fearingfor
the
the
an
of Athens.
his
life,forsook
Sardis,and persuaded him to keep
was
dailyexpected in the Aegean
each
wear
for
war
which
fleet,
convinced
He
and
mon
to the
the
the
was
the
other
out
; and
in order
in
Alcibiades
war.
sincerely
"
of the
head
To
party,
who
was
had
sent
him
into exile.
first persuade
time
oyerthrow
to
ripefor
was
the
change of government
Athens, as the
democracy. Some
Sicilian
themselves
of the
at
the failure of
prove
officers of the Athenian
at Samos, who
army
disaster
seemed
to
were
of the
in which
class,favored the establishment of oligarchy,
of the privileges
naturally
they thought they should have more
Alcibiades
when
of their standing. Accordingly,
belongingto men
wealthier
sent
them
allyof
word
Athens
But
that
he
would
if they should
when
their
set up
an
spokesman
make
and
return
the
satrap
an
sented.
they readilyconoligarchy,
came
to
Athens,
the
citizens
the Sicilian
From
234
Expeditionto
the End
of the War
of indignation.They objected
proposalswith a storm
the impious
equally to changing the government and to recalling
the objectorsone
the oligarchaddressed
But
traitor Alcibiades.
How
we
are
by one, and asked them what else could be done.
both
Persia
the
and
to support
our
to raise money
war
against
many
this pointed arguhe asked.
Unable
to meet
Greek enemies?
ment,
the
the people gave way, in the hope that they might renew
It soon
appeared,however, that
democracy at the close of the war.
in making them
the Athenians
Alcibiades
had grosslydeceived
believe he could win the help of Persia.
to carry out their designs.
The oligarchs
proceeded,nevertheless,
his
met
"
"
As
their clubs
at Athens
assassinated
An-
other
to rule with
absolute
265.
The
Rule
the Four
power.
of the Four
Hundred
(411 B.C.).
Hundred
assumed
the
"
reins of
When
ized,
organ-
They
ruled by force, assassinating,
banishing,and imprisoning their
ism
suspicion.They showed their lack of patriotopponents on mere
their
make
with
Lacedaemon
to
at any
willingness
by
peace
price,and their weakness by yieldingEuboea to the enemy.
News
of the violence and crueltyof the Four Hundred
to
came
The
soldiers assembled, declared
the Athenian
at Samos.
army
constituted
that Athens
had revolted,and that they themselves
the true government
of the empire. They deposed their oligarchic
and filled the vacant
officers,
placeswith popular men
; they prepared
the war
with vigor,and hoped through Alcibiades
to carry on
to win
Persia
to
their side.
brought
once
more,
Alcibiades
in chief command
resources
the famous
of
of his mind
government.
one
Thras-y-bu'lus,
exile to
their
of the
camp.
new
manders,
com-
democrat
236
From
the Sicilian
Expeditionto
the End
of the
War
THE
AND
HELLESPONT
SURROUNDING
TERRITORY
Williams Engraiing Co., N.Y.
Hundred.
As
they held
the
Alcibiades
for
responsible
generalfor the following
misfortune,
they failed to reelect him
pont
Fearingto return home, he retired to a castle on the Hellesyear.
which
he had prepared for such an
occasion.
Thus
the
Athenians cast away
who might have saved them.
a man
Though
than in his
working to the end for his own glory,he was wiser now
youth, and would have served his country well ; but the confidence
of his fellow-citizens in one who had been so impious and so traitorous
of inattention
could not but be shaken by the slightest
appearance
to duty.1
268. The
Battle
of Arginusae (406 B.C.). The
contending
efforts. In 406 B.C. the Athenians,
now
put forth enormous
powers
"
authorities.
was
hundred
and
met
fiftytriremes,
237
Peloponnesianfleet of a
hundred
and twenty triremes near
the islands of Ar-gi-nu'sae,
and
gained a complete victory. Athens lost twenty-fiveships; the
a
seventy, with
enemy
about
fourteen
war.
After
their commander
thousand
This
men.
of
hearing
and
their
the
was
disaster,the
amounting
crews,
to
battle of the
severest
Lacedaemonians
were
willingfor
but
Athenians
The
death
the
six of the
that
ground
wrecked
to
ship-captains
the
the
constitution
The
the
to
of
rescue
violated the
battle.
in the
commanders
work,
but
in
sudden
unfortunate
had
two
had
storm
sailors.
condemning
ordered
vented
preAthenians
The
the
generalscollectively
and in refusingthem
sufficient opportunityfor defence.
Soon
a
repentingof their conduct,theyprosecutedthose who had persuaded
them
to commit
the murder.
The
Battle
of
"
"
The
Athenians
were
on
the
European
side at
the
mouth
of the
of
the opposite shore
the Peloponnesianson
Ae-gos-pot'a-mi,
nian
the Athethe strait. Lysander,who
in command, surprised
was
fleet while
the sailors were
seeking provisionson shore.
There
resistance.
It seems
no
was
probable that the Athenians
Co'non.
of their generals.
were
betrayedto Lysander by one or more
alone of the commanders
escapedwith a few ships; and sendingthe
cent,
official galleyPar'a-lus to Athens
with the news, he, though innofled for his life with the rest of his shipsto Cyprus.
of Peace
(404B.C.).
270. Effects of the Battle ; the Terms
on
was
nightwhen the Paralus reached Athens with her evil tidings,
-
receiptof which a
followingthe line
swept and
That
bitter wail of
of the
swelled, as
night no
man
woe
Long Walls up
each
man
forth.
broke
to
the heart
passed the
slept. There
was
news
Peiraeus,
From
to
of the
his
mourning and
city,it
neighbor.
sorrow
for
238
From
those who
in
even
they were
the
men
lost,and
the Sicilian
were
lost,but
the End
Expeditionto
the lamentation
the War
was
merged
deeper
for
of
sorrow
themselves,as
THE
the west
; two
right a
corner
ERECHTHEUM
columns
in north
of the Parthenon
porch
cut
away
to
show
interior ;
on
is seen)
the
point of starvation,
they sent envoys to Sparta with full
to treat for peace.
Thereupon a Peloponnesiancongress
powers
in
held
was
Sparta,in which the Corinthians,the Thebans, and some
others proposed to destroy Athens
utterly,and to enslave the
Athenians.
But the Spartan ephors objected; they were
ing,
unwillthey said,that a citywhich had done such noble service for
Greece in the periloustimes of the Persian
invasion
should be
enslaved.
be content
with
conditions : that
milder
They would
Athens
should demolish
the fortifications of Peiraeus and the Long
on
Xenophon, Hellenica,ii. 2.
Peace
all her
Walls, give up
239
peace
in war, and permitthe return of the exiled oligarchs.With these
Athens
concessions,
might remain free and " under the constitution
and
As the Athenian
of the fathers."
entered
envoys
their
a great
city,
the destruction
the
celebrating
they were
III. THE
return
PROGRESS
of
Architecture
and
"
"
north
intended
for two
which
on
Hellas.
LEARNING
NEW
THE
temple on
wish
a
fulfilling
of the Parthenon.
In
Sculpture.
B.C.
431-404
271.
pipes,with
to
liberty
CULTURE
or
of
new
For
it
Athena
divinities,
was
two
of
Acropolis
"
Pericles.
it is
reasons
It
in
irregular
built is uneven,
(2) it was
The Athena
and Erechtheus.
Parthenon.3
Through
*
3
the Athenians
of money
want
Cf.
"
177-
figurethus used
of this
as
support is sometimes
"
period accom-
J74-
termed
caryatid.
240
From
the Sicilian
Expedition to
PORCH
OF
(Present condition
THE
the End
MAIDENS
; from
photograph)
of
the War
Literature
plishedlittleelse
Greece.
The
as
notable
most
Pae-o'ni-us
Victoryby
there
in art.
memorial
at
of the
Good
work
241
done
in other parts of
of the periodis that of a Winged
statue
Olympia.
was
The
Messenians
dedicated it
The
of the time.
human
No
ancient writer
well
seems
so
modern
as
he ;
none
knew
sketches
Clouds
is
ideal state
so
with
in
The
newspaper.
sophists.In his Birds he picturesan
of
the cartoons
attack
an
or
on
the
Cloudland,whose
the
citizens
modern
were
the fowls
of the air.
"
"
25L
2"II2.
242
the Sicilian
From
gatheredthe
Expeditionto
of the
the End
War
observation
and
is therefore
remarkable
extreme
care
for accuracy.
It contains no anecdotes or
the historyof Herodotus
attractive.1
In contrast
and
partiesand
of
and
correct, but
ceedingly
ex-
into
the
causes
is
It
events.
and
nection
con-
the
first
scientific
written.
He
history ever
admits that his strictly
truthful narrative
lieves
disappointthe ear, but bemay
one
useful to any
pictureof the
to happen in
past and of what is likely
the future
human
of
in the
events.
ordinary course
As his work
he
to generals,
especially
tails,
campaigns with all the de-
but
pays
little attention
improvements
274.
The
Sophists.
"
Paeonius.
Since
2
sophists
knowledge were
the age
professors
of useful
increasing
in number
and in influence.
As they
aimed chiefly
to prepare
their pupils
"
"
"
Restoration
in Museum,
ternal
to in-
civilization.
and
of Pericles the
(By
to be
service
narrates
VICTORY
was
of
Olympia)
original
for
"
241.
"
242.
244
the Sicilian
From
of the
War
could make
but
poor
"
"
"
what
state
was
and
what
the character
of
statesman.
True
he
was
asserted,
the
Socrates
citizen
good
he
way
Inspired
the
death.
painless
this
drank
he
Cheerfully
It
crowned
them
Through
the
useful
hemlock
life
his
of
philosophy
the
Suggestive
did
Why
i.
it?
413
the
government.
"
4.
Spartan
"?
the
was
sculpture
them?
for
Write
and
"
changed
sophist
?
of
summary
Sicilian
The
of
II.
Apology;
Greece,
Expedition.
historical
dramatic
Socrates.
"
Murray,
ii.
452-456;
is it
the
10.
the
the
the
Cyzicus,
"
of
Age
entire
to
of
the
war?
speak
of
the
in
porch
In
respects
the
(p. 211).
what
Pericles
Arginu-
Notium,
frieze
8.
in
effect
pre-Solonian
in
Parthenon
what
In
that
greater
wrong
sculptor?
since
with
the
with
Maidens
in
B.C.,
respects
Why
9.
did
he
Peloponnesian
differ
cluding
in-
War,
effects.
Topics
Note-book
I.
of
the
advised
victorious
why
"
the
for
task
time.
have
had
Hundred
war,
Maidens
architecture
n.
causes
the
difficult
more
and
mistaken
Socrates
was
from
with
"
all later
454
Which
location
the
Compare
7.
martyr.
principles.
Pericles
Egypt,
?
Four
this
of
Describe
6.
loss
Peloponnesians
operations
(p. 240)
Which
the
the
were
Aegospotami.
Erechtheum
had
the
army
and
sae,
Why
describing
In
5.
government
of
In
throughout
his
on
Would
in
greater
of
and
scattered
thought
caused
execution.
saint
based
Sicily?
disaster
the
was
which
Questions
invade
Athenian
Which
B.C.
Compare
3.
the
Compare
2.
Sicily,
Athenians
the
of
of
disciples
influenced
Socrates
death
administered.
poison
method
the
by
unjustly
"
Athenian
ideal,
schools
when
even
of
cup
great
founding
Hellas,
laws
was
the
by
the
obey
to
245
Fling,
Ancient
"
vi, vii
Thucydides,
(bk. vii
is
piece
master-
writing).
Source
Greek
Gildersleeve,
Book
of Greek
Literature,
Essays
and
History,
170-177;
Studies,
240-249
Holm,
"Xanthippe
Plato,
History
and
of
rates."
Soc-
CHAPTER
SICILY:
THE
XXI
TYRANT
AND
The
fall of Athens
well
of
her
bay
those
to
as
was
had
name
; but
foreign
of
Carthage
sent
hundred
thousand
who
Hamilcar
laid
siege
thousand
the
captives
Hannibal
way,
fleet
conveying
ninth
day
Thence
the
spot where
to
killed
the
appease
great
with
that
of
armament
great
the
city
and
marched
Three
had
Hamilcar
ficed
sacrithis
In
torture.
hungry appetite
of
army
repeated.
horrid
the
Selinus,1
Hannibal
were
at
On
an
it stormed
led
sought
two
by
This
Himera.
massacre
were
Persians
Han'ni-bal, grandson
the
there
himself,2 and
vast
as
terror
Hellas.
threatened
(409 B.C.).
to
of
West
the
these
parts
siege and
were
the
supremacy
The
"
years
still
at
B.C.).
of the
was
King
the
on
naval
conquer
his death
met
inhabitants
where
Himera,
to
under
Selinus;
the
to
which
men
had
to
butchered
of her
Sicily a
to
over
Greeks
nearly seventy
Carthaginians and
the
again hoped
Segesta,
the
to
For
both
overthrow
powers
invitation
East.
kept
the
on
the
of
misfortune
great
Sicily (409-404
invade
Carthaginians
LIBERATOR
B.C.
413-337
276.
THE
of his
father's
grand-
ghost.
A
fresh
of
army
wealthiest
and
most
reenforced
by
their
their
city
quarters
Soon
made
of
to
art,
Syracuse.
1
tyrant
of Cam-a-ri'na
"
the
sent
young
officer of
of his
city.
to
was
Greek
much
the
world.
Though
finally abandoned
inhabitants
took
of its
He
Syracuse,
up
his
winter
wealth, including
compelled
indignation
of
the
246
people
invader
"
208.
of Ge'la
and
classes
all
2
257.
Di-o-nysri-us,
named
abandon
Great
the
(405 B.C.).
Carthage
to
in
the
then
Acragas,
Himilcon
Leontini.
in
Acragas, and
afterwards
himself
city
neighbors,
settled
invested
next
luxurious
in deserted
works
many
and
and
mercenaries
to
tire
re-
against
Dionysius
; but
the usurper
through his
againstevery attempt
he concluded
whole
the interior
in the Wall
corner
ginians,for
Syracuse.
277.
not
intend
busied
war
he
War
with
to
new
more
huge
Though
-
than
as
"
scale.
army
He
of
built
an
instrument, afterward
infantry
; his
known
some
vessels,
Dionysius did
wall about
as
three hundred
photograph)
Seven
years he
enemy.
and with preparingfor
immense
eightythousand
throwinglargestones
were
In 404 B.C.
he yielded
EURYELUS
yieldSicilyforever to the
his power
with increasing
grand
organized an
a
invented
to
himself
on
deposehim.
Carthaginians,
by which
or
himself
"
FORT
(A
maintained
and
"
he
mercenaries
assassinate
the
them
to
to
247
of them
the
Syracuse;
engineers
for
ballista,
In his
new
fleet
quinqueremes,
Sicily:The
248
taxes
and
violated
and
in
Messene
addition.
Most
the Messenians
of
caped,
es-
con
Himil-
but
compelled his
men
burn
to
woodwork
and
grind the
powder.
stones
The
then
KINGDOM
OF
in
The
raised
was
extreme
and
western
newly
the
end
built ramparts
vaders
in-
saved
the
sieged
be-
tyrant
Syracuseby land
city. The siege
the
by
to
feated
de-
Dionysiusand
the
sea.
to
the fleet of
DIONYSIUS
and
the
Wars.
Meantime
Dionysius in
Peace
249
from Sicily,
but stillheld the larger
dislodgethe foreigners
part of
his Italian possessions. He aided the Lacedaethe island,
as well as
monians
in maintaining their supremacy
eastern
over
Greece,1and
his power
He
was
poet
; his Character.
"
Though engaged in
end, in
to the
wars
in Peace
Dionysius
279.
the
recognizedas
was
as
his court,
nus,
for
at
poet
few
was
and
moments,
then
"
cried out,
Take
back
me
to
the
"
stone
in like
manner
applause.
no
won
there
and
the favor
from Athens,
Lys'i-as,
the
to begin war
upon
orator
assembled
tents.
holiness
The
of the festival
were
but
of the Greeks
admiration
and
The
by
his
hissed,
winning
exhibit,the tyrant
hated.
universally
No
In 367 B.C. Dionysiusdied,after reigning
thirty-eight
years.
of strong
tyrant could have ruled so long without the possession
without
proach.
requalities.The private character of Dionysius was
hesitated at bloodshed,
the other hand, he never
On
that he
discovered
was
confiscation, of property,
Many spiesin
he suspectedat
whom
performed a service
280.
337
"
was
Corinth.
of character.
He
of
Strife
which
would
make
Greece
and
for
him
of those
he
failings,
Europe by protecting
Italyand Sicily.
(367-345); Timoleon
the
Liberator
(345-
nysius
period of civil strife followingthe death of Dioat lengthended
by Ti-mo'le-on,a generalsent out by
of remarkable
abilityand strength
Timoleon
a man
was
B.C.).
death
for
civilization in
Civil
anything else
the movements
watched
his pay
With all his
and abroad.
home
safe.
Hellenic
or
Dionysiushad
then gave
since the
the tyrants who
usurped the power in many Sicilian cities.
laws and settled governments. On the
Gradually
he
overthrew
"
291.
Sicily:The
250
Cri-mi'sus
which
River
had
he
to
come
his small
met
the Liberator
Tyrant
and
the
mercenary
of
purpose
Sicilyfor
vast
the
force of
Carthage
overwhelming him.
the
up the hill from the top of which
soldiers expectedto get their first view of the enemy,
their religious
fears were
aroused at sightof a train of mules laden with parsley,
As
marched
army
"
the
swept
army
over
Throwing
his enthusiastic
which
had
justcrossed
blow.
sudden
thousands
and
host
of victorious
the
troops upon
Carthaginiancentre,
it with one
mighty
killed
were
athletes.
Crimisus,he crushed
the
storm
drowned
were
or
made
captive. The
sands
; thou-
stream,
victory was
When
liberated
all Greek
he
owners,
and
settle
few
peacefulyears
the vacant
on
lived to
invited
Greeks
farms.
from
other
Thousands
to
come
the call ;
and Timoleon
brought prosperityto fruitful Sicily,
see
countries
answered
again like
garden.
After
the
all
and passed
rulingeightyears, he resignedhis dictatorship,
remainder
of his days a privatecitizen of Syracuse,honored
by
their liberator.
as
When
festival in memory
the
tyrants,had overthrown
an
annual
and
cities,
had
their
laws."
own
281.
of the
and
Summary
Athenian
restored
to
"
man
had
foreigner,
suppressedthe
the desolate
replenished
of livingunder
privilege
who
had
of Sicilian
armament
of the
"
CHAPTER
THE
XXII
SUPREMACY
OF
B.C.
404-371
282.
the
The
Decarchies.
Peloponnesian War,1
in the
was
done
than
more
Spartan
lacked
the
beyond
the
dealing
In
board
of
the
allies
newly
oligarchs,with
The
low
birth,
caused
over
noble
and
killed
and
family
The
a
the
Thirty
board
of
state.
of the
unscrupulous
appetite
for
blood
ruled,
condition
of
nothing
methods
of
to
brutal
toward
Relying
rank.
He
could
man
Sparta
within
his
At
plunder.
1
"
270.
252
his
on
feel
the
fenceless
deport,
supfiscated
con-
women
that
Greeks
life,
found
career
and
Lysander
Athens
authority
absolute
with
the
cold
short
the
perioeci.
of
established
was
port
sup-
usually
the
mistreated
or
in most
politicalenemies,
and
under
guiding spirit of
and
was
"
be
To
harmost,"
their
decarchy,
up
garrisons
(404-403 B.C.).
Athens
The
highest
to
talents,
government.
and
greed,
safe ; but
thirty
set
watch.
kept
sheer
the
"
expelled
or
were
to
at
had
under
rare
Athenian
of the
Lysander
Athens
degraded
of
think
Lacedaemonian
he
through
While
of
opportunity
could
and
termed
to
whom
children.
283.
stationed
servile
over
property
themselves
He
full control
commander,
oligarchs
property,
task.
state, accordingly, he
decarchies, he
the
such
who
Greece
man
end
Syracuse
as
Lysander,
eastern
but, though
east
excellent
an
the
at
subjects.
allied
people
and
and
cities.
of
man
had
of Athens
stood
bring
to
man
Athens,
in the
of power
now
for
of
supreme
long-established Spartan
of ten
the
summit
He
genius
with
each
overthrow
Sparta
other
any
the rule
upon
left
the
leadership.
improve
he
At
west.
The
"
SPARTA
board
was
Crit'i-as, a
calculating,ambitious
he
developed
strange
Democracy Restored
after
Soon
of
takingpossession
political
opponents.
253
the government,
the
Thirtybegan
safety,
they called
in a Lacedaemonian
force of seven
hundred
and
men,
lodged it in
the Acropolisat the expense
of the state.
Supported by these
the
with
their
As they
Thirty proceeded
troops,
bloody work.
for
their
often murdered
men
property, they preferredwealthy
victims.
Hundreds
fled into exile; but the Spartan ephors,to
the fugitives
from all parts of
uphold the Thirty, warned
away
kill their
to
Greece.
of
Some
the
states
For
their
sheltered
own
them
in
defiance
of
the
at home.
284. Democracy
into
swelled
bulus
up
on
(403 B.C.).
"
The
of
crowd
exiles
of seventy patriots,
At the head
Thrasyarmy.
the border from Thebes, seized Phy'le,
a strong fort
an
crossed
high
restored
Mount
Par'nes,and
held it
againstan attack
thousand, he soon
his army
increased
With
to a
enemy.
the Thirtywith
ward seized Peiraeus.
When
of the
after.
their Lacedaemonian
down
to attack him, the
garrisonand citizen supporters marched
patriotsdefeated them and killed Critias.
The patriots
returned
to Athens.
They pardoned all for wrongdoing
except the Thirty and a few other guiltyofficials. The
had enough of oligarchy.Their two recent experiAthenians now
ments
in that
and
called
who
"
form
of the
better
claimed
of constitution
Thirty
class
"
proved
"
was
"
delusion and
on
superiorprivileges
rule of the
the
the
lie,and
ground
Four
dred
Hun-
of the
that
of virtue
the
were
so-
men
in
who had
of people,
The great mass
cutthroats and robbers.
reality
obedient to law and exerfar more
cised
littlewealth or education,were
Athens
was
greater self-control in public life. Henceforth
with democracy.
content
285. The Expedition of Cyrus (401B.C.). Although the Thirty
the Lacedaemonians
fell,
upheld the decarchies in the other cities
of their empire. It was
a
part of their policyas well to keep on
good terms with Cyrus, who had done so much to give them the
the death of Darius, the late king of
On
Athens.
victoryover
his elder son, succeeded to the throne,while
Persia,Ar-tax-erx'es,
"
The
254
Supremacy of Sparta
Cyrus, the
desirable
Greeks.
The
force of Asiatic
Lacedaemonians
of these mercenaries
from
not
only favored
Greece,but
even
sent
him
his
listment
en-
seven
hundred
this
state.
With
heavy-armed troops from their own
the princemarched
into the very heart of the Persian empire,
army
and met
his brother in battle at Cu-nax'a,near
Babylon. Cyrus
and
his
Asiatics
from
the
killed
retired
was
field; but the little
victorious over
the immense
Hellenic force was
of the king.2
army
286.
under
The
Return
of the
began their
entrapped
"
Ten
Thousand."
in
"Then
the
Greeks
northerlydirection. Their
and
slain by the Persian
commander
generals were
rival of Cyrus. Thus
left leaderless
a
Tis-sa-pher'nes,
they were
in the midst of the enemy's country, surrounded
by hostile nations,
with impassablerivers and snow-covered
mountains
between
them
and home, with no guideeven
which way to go.
to tell them
While
in despair,
from
they were
encouragement and good advice came
Athenian
who
had accompanied the expedition.This
a
young
was
Xen'o-phon,a pupil of Socrates the philosopher.Taking
from
his words, they chose new
them
generals,among
courage
march, harassed
Xenophon. Then they set out on their northward
Media
From
at every step by the enemy.
they entered the Car-du'chi-an mountains, which
covered with snow
and inhabited by
were
fierce barbarians.
In passing through this rough country the
Greeks suffered every kind of hardship,and were
sailed
constantlyasby the natives,who rolled stones down upon them from
harassed
them
in the rear, or
blocked
their adthe heights,
vance.
or
losses were
Their
is that any
heavy, and the wonder
escapedalive.
Thence
Their
was
now
easier;
they entered Armenia.
way
but it was
and
stillsuffered
from
The
the
cold.
winter,
they
satrap
of the country promised them a free passage, but proved treacherous,
and
the fighting
continued.
After a long, weary
march, full of
a
"
The
truce
retreat
191.
lowest
this number
estimate
a
of ancient
writers
great exaggeration.
is 400,000.
Some
modern
historians
sider
con-
A
adventures
and of
the footsore
it raised
narrow
with Persia
255
escapes,
reached
van
War
a
"
soldiers
New
ran
cheering. The
"
embraced
men
another
one
and
The
rest
of the
to share
in the
tearful eyes.
It seemed
like home.
They had lost about a third
of their number
in a journey of perhaps a thousand
miles.
The
thrilling
story of
the
"
"
Thousand
Ten
expeditionof Cyrus
is told in the
and
of the retreat
of the
An-ab'a-sis of Xenophon.
The
of these mercenaries
in the midst
harmony, and discipline
and moral
hardshipsand dangers prove the high political
character of the Greeks.
To the world of that time, however,the
evidence of Persian weakness.
as
significant
expeditionwas chiefly
The
discoverythat so small a force could penetrate to the very
heart of the empire and return
almost unscathed
the first step
was
courage,
of such
its
toward
287.
conquest.
War
Lacedaemon
between
and
-The
(beginning
400 B.C.).
important effects: (i) it
Persia
to
additional
king was
life,and
years
one
of the thrones
troops and
took
command
at
; but
few thousand
The
little lame
in person.
Faithful in friendship,
simple in
command
gentleand courteous.
he was
incorruptible,
of age
with
Sparta,came
at
ideal
an
his
accession,he
he
proved himself
without
was
Spartan. Though
an
forty
experiencein
wholly
able king and general. With
of Asia
Minor
from
the Persian
yoke.
(395-387 B.C.). The plan of Agesilaus for further conquest was
rudelydisturbed by trouble at home.
selfish and
Sparta was
tyrannical;the greater allied states, as
288.
Thebes
The
and
communities
Corinthian
War
in her supremacy
at least their independence. As
Corinth, wished
desired
"
share
; the lesser
theywere
all
The
256
Supremacy of Sparta
and
other
states
took
the side of
Thebes,
while
Persia
plied
sup-
the funds.
In the second
fleet under
year
Conon,1
of the war,
the
off Cni'dus.
Lacedaemon
Athenian
Thus
combined
Greek
and
admiral, destroyedthe
the
fleet of
fell
Spartan naval supremacy
island to island,
the
expelling
sailed from
Conon
singleblow.
all from Lacedaemonian
and freeing
rule.
harmosts
and
he anchored his fleet in the harbors of Peiraeus,
he began
of Persia and of the neighborsof Athens
at
Phoenician
The
next
with
to
the
year
help
rebuild the
Long Walls.
home
the Lacedaemonians
fortunate.
scarcelymore
Ly sander was killed;it became necessary to recall Agesilaus. But
the victories he gained on his return
helped Sparta little. One of
the most
importantfacts in the historyof this war is that the welltrained lighttroops of Athens
were
now
proving superiorto the
Near
Corinth they attacked a
heavy infantryof Lacedaemon.
battalion of the Spartanphalanx,2six hundred
strong,and cut it to
Lacedaemonians
never
pieces. The
fully recovered from the
dation
which
blow ; the militaryorganization
had always been the founof their supremacy
in Greece proved defective.
289. The Treaty of Antalcidas (387B.C.). They acknowledged
their failure in the war
by coming to terms with Persia. The king
of a
and influence for the preservation
was
ready to use his money
him the possession
of Asia Minor
should assure
; and
peace which
could do nothingbut accept his terms.
Lacedaemon
Accordingly
her ambassador, An-tal'ci-das,
and
the king'slegateinvited all
the Greek
of
states
to send
deputiesto Sardis for the purpose
When
concludingpeace.
they arrived,the Persian legateshowed
them
the king'sseal on a document
which he held in his hand, and
read from it the following
terms
imposed by Persia upon the Greeks :
King Artaxerxes deems it just that the cities in Asia, with the
islands of Cla-zom'e-nae
and
Cyprus, should belong to himself;
Nearer
were
"
"
" 269.
" 138.
Spartan Tyranny
both
the rest of the Hellenic cities,
independent,with
the
which
belongto
three
to
are
partiesconcerned
land
sea, with
and
impossibleto
Persia
they
Lacedaemon
her
positionmade
290.
It
terms.
the
Sparta.
of the
any
I, Artaxerxes,together
As
was
offenders
the Greeks
both
and
understood
that
"
by
believed it
Lacedaemon
well
Should
againstthe
war
money."
with
successfully
enforce
Violence
The
views, will
my
war
to
of yore.
as
accepted the
was
Athens
shipsand
wage
and
not
share
those who
with
small
257
of eastern
this
Greece.
Lacedaemonians
stillruled
of brute
accordingto the policy of Lysander, a combination
force and cunning. It was
their aim to weaken
the states from
which
Greece
they might expect resistance. In northern
they
assailed the Chalcidic League, which, though newly formed, had
with
this league,they
already grown
powerful. While at war
seized the Cadmea
the citadel of Thebes
and
occupied it
with a garrisonin open
the
violation of law (383 B.C.). Even
citizens of Sparta,not
in general,were
to speak of the Greeks
indignantwith the officer who had done the violent deed ; but
Agesilausexcused him on the ground that the act was advantageous
that Greece was
to Sparta,thus setting
forth the principle
to be ruled
for the benefit merely of the governingcity. Though the Lacedaemonians
punished the officer,
they approved the deed by leaving
"
"
the
garrisonin
291.
the Cadmea.
Tyranny
the
"
arouses
heightof
Resistance.
their power.
"
Their
The
Lacedaemonians
citywas
leader of all eastern Greece, supportedby Persia
Dionysius in the west.2 But their policywas
now
at
forces which
to
were
first aroused
was
the
were
acknowledged
and
in the east
to
soon
by
awaken
ance
Resistforever.
their supremacy
hand was
the oppressor's
in Thebes, where
overthrow
heaviest.
In that
Xenophon,
Hettenica,v.
2
i.
"
279-
The
258
Theban,
full of
Supremacy of Sparta
patriotismand
brave
without
292.
The
the
was
now
was
Liberation
need
(379 B.C.).
of Thebes
"
to
of 379
Sparta was
B.".
The
becoming
Meantime
the
was
the winter
resistance
"
fear.
Athens
at
to
das
Pelopi-
exiles to
this manner,
throw
over-
and
it
Chalcidic
every
of haste.
The
260
Supremacy of Sparta
in
to
awe
was
Sparta,and
the borders
within
Sparta
boldness
in
as
no
one
rage sprang
should be
the
bade
His
For
had
of Lacedaemon.
to
the
him
But
say
once
Boeotia
"
freedom
independent. Yes, if you will give the same
to
Laconia," Epaminondas replied. The
Spartan king then
in the
struck the name
of Thebes
from the list of states represented
convention,excludingher thus from the peace.
(371 B.C.). The treaty was signed,
295. The Battle of Leuctra
All eyes
the convention
dissolved,the deputiesreturned home.
turned
toward the impending conflict ; every one
expectedto see
the cityof Epaminondas punished,perhaps destroyed,for the boldness
"
of her leader.
Leuctra
was
small
town
in Boeotia
southwest
of Thebes.
The
battle
"
Battle
advanced
more
that
slowly,so
slowly than
of
the
Theban
the
Leuctra
column, and
But
the
Boeotian
high-spirited,
easilyput
enemy;
261
the
rightstill more
only the slightest
horsemen,who were
well
of
and
the
Sacred
to
the inefficientcavalry
rout
youths,followed the
impetuous Pelopidasin
extreme
charge on
Spartan
right. The king was
killed,his
THE
THEBAN
beaten
thoroughly
army
by a
BATTLE
OF
much
smaller force,and
the supremacy
of
irresistible
an
the
TACTICS
IN THE
of
Sparta
was
at
an
LEUCTJRA
end.
-I I
of the Spartan
296. Estimate
and
Power.
At the close
Policy
II
frqqq
""
J"1
\\
"
f^jU!
Peloponnesian War, the
Athenian
der
Empire had passed unthe control of Sparta,which
continued
to treat
it as subject.
But the Spartans were
less capable
of governing an
in
empire than
the
Athenians
had
been; they
less intelligent,
less justand
were
mild.
They had no experiencein
edge
governing an empire, no knowl[,I,
of finance,
I, II,
and no
system of
II,III,
had the
as
administering
justice,
Athenians. They could only think
of controlling
their subjectsas
in the most
favored
they did their perioeci,
or
cases, their
allies. Naturallythey were
guiltyof many harsh
of
the
inu,
ODDDTHEBAN
I a
CAVALRr
a, BOEOTIANS
I,
THEBAN
COLUMN
",
SACRED
BAND
THEBANS
AND
THEBAN-.
ADVANCE
"""
SHOWING
CUTTING
ALLIES
BEFORE
IN
^^^
SPARTANS,
THEBAN
THE
FORMATION
PELOPONNESIANS
AND
COLUMN
SPARTAN
ADVANCE
ECHELON
SACRED
BAND
LINE
tyrannous
Iin
C...
ponnesian
Peloand
acts.
The
262
proved
have
might
for
efficient
and
in
and
Thebans.
the
The
of
skill
the
was
the
Greeks
rule
for
it
as
of
view,
was
After
keeping
was
she
battle
fall
both
by
and
Athenians
justice, they
city-states
of
misfortune
obedience.
in
Sparta
independence
for
enough
strong
was
Had
the
of
triumph
Hellas.
preserved
city
no
Leuctra,
to
have
might
her
hundreds,
supremacy.
the
great
the
few
intelligence
by
their
of
to
surpassed
now
were
to
leadership,
nation.
the
they
end
point
patriotism,
retained
the
to
dwindled
had
Spartans
Unable
this
From
local
of
strength, too,
result
acceptable
and
easy
protection.
military
lacked
as
number
the
But
of Sparta
Supremacy
the
task.
Suggestive
Write
i.
rule
3.
of
in
Sparta
Compare
in
constitution
treaty
of
disagree
effects
and
the
over
of
the
method
battle
B.C.
should
Why
the
treaty
II.
The
The
Return
Battle
of
of
had
371
B.C.
7.
What
in
the
respect
any
Agesilaus
the
were
her
place
from
and
Epaminondas
?
with
taken
Greece
to
come
the
fifth.
the
century
changes
of
in
various
Leuctra?
Note-book
I.
fourth
good
Compare
2.
Athens
of
convention
peace
ratifying
the
what
any
250.
p.
that
in
Did
6.
on
with
interval
4.
the
387
of
of
this
Was
of
that
Lacedaemon
In
5.
that
like
century
society
?
on
chapter
of
seventh.
Antalcidas
improvement
this
fourth
condition
the
in her
an
the
the
condition
of
summary
Questions
the
Ten
Leuctra.
Topics
Thousand.
"
Fling,
"
Xenophon,
Source
Anabasis,
of
Book
Greek
ii-vi.
History,
269-
275III.
iii.
The
(conspiracy
Plutarch,
Condition
Internal
Lysander;
of
Cinadon)
Agesilaus.
of
;
Lacedaemon.
Lacedaemonian
"
Xenophon,
Constitution;
Hellenica,
Agesilaus
CHAPTER
THEBES
XXIII
ATTEMPTS
TO
GAIN
371-362
The
297.
reached
slain
not
women
the
with
bright
reported
with
to
and
be
and
clad, with
degraded
beards
occasion
present
three
What
should
be
Sparta
had
As
done
the
decided
for
through
298.
the
the
the
law
them
hundred
to
who
one
them
of
public
were
flitted
1
ship
citizen-
meanly
in the
resist.
not
street
On
the
citizens, of
hundred
themselves
those
in
and
them
met
seven
sorrow
these
unwashed
dared
they
the
if in humiliation."
as
go
to
friends
and
seen,
the
see
fro
whose
deprived
fifteen
hundred
would
be
to
government
In
be
to
out
and
to
to
of
by surviving
defeat.
about
sleep
their
fortune
mis-
in the
this
present
way
he
Agesilaus,
ruinous.
settle
remaining,
citizens
this
to
case,
piloted
serious
his
question,
revived,
be
who
ever,
how-
safely
country
crisis.
confusion
that
the
downfall.
Battle
the
of
control, while
her
sent
with
future.
Effects
wildest
it seemed
lost
let the
to
had
disgraced
only
requested by
was
had
warning
bear
to
those
and
Any
and
had
three
disfranchise
to
by
hundred
they
them,
Sparta
whom
shaven.
beat
of
was
runaways,
of
but
moving
whilst
man
names
strikingspectacle
slain
the
word
of the
news
"
delivered
scowling brows,
honors
half
liberty to
at
and
heads
of all other
was
looks,
living, barely
laws
Spartan
it
the
among
When
"
lamentation,
day
next
radiant
lowered
Sparta.
ephors
loud
SUPREMACY
B.C.
families, with
any
relations
had
was
and
make
to
who
by
friends
; and
in silence
the
Sparta,
their
to
of
Unfailing Courage
THE
and
anarchy
arose.
was
falling into
enemies
rejoicedin
world
her
Peloponnese.
on
first to
The
1
Xenophon,
profit by
Hettenica,
263
To
the
chaos,
the
the
vi. 4.
Peloponnese
In
"
friends
now
freedom
that
of
Sparta
she
assured
revolution
were
had
them
the
Thebes
264
of whom
Arcadians, most
in
Attempts to Gain
to unite in
They
then
of government,
were
attacked
MOUNT
Lacedaemonians
helpat
in
peasants, living
They
war.
the defence
now
of their liberties.
to be the seat
city,Meg-a-lop'o-lis,
the Arcaa strongholdagainstSparta. When
dians
by the Lacedaemonians, Epaminondas came
a
new
ITHOME
the head of
men.
all,seventy thousand
conia,and ravaged it from
CITY
AND
(From
to their
leaguefor
permanent
founded
and
Supremacy
still shepherdsand
were
and following
the
villages,
resolved
the
an
WALL
OF
photograph)
army
of Thebans
With
this
end
MESSENE
to end
and
their allies
in
"
in
La-
history,
camp-firesof an enemy.
to
Unable
to Messenia
to capture Sparta,Epaminondas went
built
aid the revolt of that country. With his help the Messenians
and fortifieda new
Ithome,
city,Messene, near the citadel of Mount
senia
sacred by many
for liberty. Mesa heroic struggle
on
a spot made
became
that LacedaeThe result was
an
independentstate.
sank to the condition of a
deprivedof a third of her territory,
mon,
Spartan women
saw
the smoke
from
the
Difficulties
of Thebes
The
second-rate
Thereafter
power.
Greek
with other
she would
which
states
did not
lost
were
Athens.
with
and
Pelopidas. As
of
allies of the
were
over
the entire
lengthof
aid in future
compact
few
now
wars
Greece,
years
Macedon.
the
majority of
no
not
next
to
include
Thessalyand
the
consent
Northern
the
Within
"
their influence
work
with
Relations
Theban
299.
265
the
with
the
Persia,
Thebans
This
continental
leadingpower
tended
ex-
the
was
states
through
the
peninsula.
This
interference everywhere disturbed existingarrangements
their militarystrength fell short of
but failed to bring peace;
When
their ambition.
it became
apparent
to
the Thebans
selves
them-
order in Hellas,they
too weak
to maintain
they were
to Susa
to bring the influence and
sent
Pelopidasas ambassador
in favor of peace.
of the king to bear once
Artaxerxes
more
money
was
ready to dictate another treaty ; but the Greeks had learned to
As this
him, and would no longerendure his interference.
'despise
to the
disgracefulbusiness failed,Epaminondas turned resolutely
almost
hopelesstask of reducing Greece to order by force of iron.
The maritime
from Athens.
The chief resistance to his plan came
now
element, as she refused to
cityhe had to meet on her own
of Persia.
dismantle
her fleet at the command
Though as well supplied
that
as
had
coasts, Boeotia
with
Attica
little
and
commerce
no
fleet
Athens
300.
had
no
from
The
time
Athens
mander
the
of
Mantinea
(362 B.C.).
"
had
Isthmus
to
and
restore
Sparta were
attempted by
Mantinea,
a
sea.
Battle
invasions of
across
the
in the
battle ; but
hope
in both
order.
his chief
forced
that he
it necessary to march
Many allies joined him;
enemies.
marches
might
Epaminondas
alreadymade three
But
thus
attempts he failed.
to
The
capture
Theban
com-'
Sparta, then
establish peace
without
Thebes
266
Then
tedious
the
came
Attempts to Gain
conflict at
journeys,the
of his
condition
full of enthusiasm
were
Mantinea.
and
the
Notwithstanding their
excellent; they
troops was
absolute
had
Supremacy
confidence
in their
them.
And
There
was
so, when
no
which
labor
he gave
them
mander.
com-
from,
flinch
failed
for
prepare
spoke the word ;
to
the enemy
his countrymen
to
make
The
peace.
surgeon
then
drew
out
the
been
javelinpoint,and Epaminondas died. Pelopidashad recently
slain in battle in Thessaly. The
heroes were
buried where
they
fell ; and
and
southern
Greece
stood
as
monuments
of Theban
"
Xenophon,
Hellenica,vii. 5.
CHAPTER
XXIV
RISE
THE
OF
To
and
Country
302.
river-system.
Its
People.
the
to
the
including
their
upper
and
then
century
skins, and
habits
were
till he
had
wear
They
weapons
fed
In
it had
of
arts
under
his
regions
the
three
with
the
country
Highland,
and
allel
par-
radiating
The
interior
sheep
body
Highland,
on
could
the
land,
Low-
as
sign
that
exposure
foe
no
men
had
to
yet free.
not
rudest
the
with
into
them
toughening
were
the
with
was
fought
Their
sides.
slain
he
the
as
hovels, dressed
table
had
who
late
as
lived in
sit at
not
he
even
mountain
the
dishes; they
and
valley dwelt
the
in the
of
the
tribe under
Greece
who
had
the rule
of
day.
The
of Homer's
not
yet
from
emerged
cellent
ex-
colonies
alon^
Lowlands
their
barbarism.
all the
the
and
By
coasts.
finallyunited
king and
nians
Macedo-
were
Hellenic
hard
tribes
of
time
of
his sway.
Philip : Accession
Epaminondas
the Thebans
303.
explained
in
continent.
population
boar, and
Greeks
fighting,the king
Macedon
the
youth
Lowlanders, however,
useful
plains
few
the
wild
been
indeed
were
The
of
hand
single
through plains
run
together
like
the
of
for soldiers.
separate
as
two
sparse
wooden
poverty
each
nobles,
about
material
flow
distinct
covered
their
from
;
of
The
B.C.
killed
ate
into
coast
and
nearly
warlike
rope
course
basin
sea.
forests
fourth
in
mountains
the
nearer
Dense
the
accordingly
up
is the
It is somewhat
sea.
from
fingersreaching
is made
B.C.
Macedon
338
"
in
waters
MACEDON
above,1
and
and
carried
Early
interfered
as
away
Philip.
1
"
299.
268
Conquests.
in the
hostage
"
In
affairs of
a
young
the
Macedon,
prince named
as
Philip
Thebes
army
and
then
was
the
assembly thronged
a
be useful to
ambition
with
to be
her
; her
busy
preparations for
barbarian,with
would
heightof
were
with
an
at
269
glory:
schools,streets,market-place,
life ; her
arsenals
sounded
tinually
con-
The
a halfroyalyouth came
for learningeverythingwhich
voracious appetite
his country ; he returned a civilized Greek,with
the maker
war.
of
nation.
Soon
to the
access
others
Some
belongedto the
by Lacedaemon.1
Chalcidians
coast
sea.
the
and
as
of these
allies of
were
Chalcidic Federation,restored
Grossly deceivingboth
to his purpose,
seized
cities
he robbed
Athens
Amphipolis,the greatest
Athens, and
after its
throw
over-
Athenians
of her allies on
cityin
commercial
and
the
the
"
with
some
had
revolted.
She showed
ness
great weak-
"
290.
he
Rise
The
270
enabled
was
keep
up
of the forests about
timber
every
himself
to
His
cityof Greece.
of
master
of Macedon
build
standingarmy,
fleet from
and
Thessaly;
in
the
nearly
make
to
offered
opportunity soon
itself.
305.
Athens
The
Sacred
broke
peace
race, whose
martial
and
commerce
with
(356-346 B.C.).
him,
the
trouble
ardor
had
were
submit
to
time
when
Phocis
and
fresh,vigorous
yet been
not
they refused
As
the
between
arose
Macedonians,
strengthand
citylife.
About
"
Phocians,like
The
Thebes.
War
to
softened
by
Thebes,
this
defence
commanders
borrowed
treasury,
Phocian
perfectlyhonorable
"
cityand
largesums
the
was
war
cried out
in self-
hypocritically
againstthis
stillmore
of
this money,
the
of
mercenaries,with
which
he
overran
Locris,Doris, and
Boeotia,
Philiptwice
Thessaly,
Macedon
was
of
of
conflict between
Thessaly.
campaign
in
to
The
Phocis
unfortunate
greater exertions.
In
Thessaly,defeated
behind
the Phocians, and
drove them
Thermopylae. Only the
force prevented the victorious king
timelyarrival of an Athenian
from passingthrough Thermopylae into central Greece.
However,
all Thessaly was
quered
now
his, and immediately afterward he conThrace
nearlyto the Hellespont.
Olynthus (352-349). Up to this time
306. Philip threatens
the Chalcidians
whom
had been in alliance with Philip,
they looked
at the wonderful
growth
upon as a petty tribal chief. But alarmed
of his power,
they made peace with Athens in violation of their
The
craftyking let three years slipquietly
agreement with him.
to himself by threats and bribes a
over
by, during which he won
considerable party in every Chalcidic town; then, when fullyprethe
army
in
"
"
104.
Demosthenes
pared for
l
O-lyn'thus
he ordered
271
to
"
up for
as
who
man
known
to
was
the
was
consideration,
the
"
the
eminent
most
orator
the
has known.
world
Demosthenes
only seven
father,a wealthy
died, whereupon the
old when
was
his
took
themselves.
He
home
his wrath
guardians
of
himself for
youth
body
with
unsocial,
"
for such
his
mother,
the
To
prosecutingthem
under
said,too,
to
his voice
and
an
ing
nurs-
unfaithful
became
youth.
he resolved
weak
guardians
for
slender,sallow
against the
his
It is
; but
estate
of
till it
legal oratory
master.
the
facturer,
manu-
rades
joiningwith comof
the
sports
gymnasium,
in the
passion
was
instead
boy, who,
stayedat
of
most
years
ruling
prepare
he studied
experienced
that
become
even
in
man
states-
defective,his
awkward, his habits
was
his whole
nature
(Vatican Museum,
Rome)
unfitted
The
chief
cityof Chalcidice.
The
272
Rise
of Macedon
continued
through many
years, gave him his genius. Success in
prosecutingthe guardians led to speechwritingas a profession,
from which he graduallymade
his way into publiclife.
He was
the first to foresee the danger to Hellenic freedom from
and lost no time or zeal in warning Athens
it while
to meet
Philip,
it was
to the king
yet far off. In 352 B.C. he began his opposition
of Macedon
in an
oration
called his First Philippic;and when
from Olynthus begged Athens
for an alliance,
he urged his
envoys
to accept the opportunity.
Give prompt and vigorcountrymen
ous
for
rather than for
use
assistance,
war
your surplusrevenues
be
festivals; not content with sending mercenaries,but take the
field yourselves
and you will certainly
defeat him, for
againstPhilip,
his strength is derived from your weak
policy,his power is based
and all his subjects
will revolt,if only you give them a
on
injustice,
little encouragement
and support." Such were
the sentiments
of
his OlynthiacOrations.
He tried to inspirehis countrymen
with
the vigor and ambition
of their fathers,who
had beaten
down
Persia and had founded
an
empire ; yet his words had little effect,
"
he
as
stilla young
Athenians
made
was
The
that before
the end
and
man
the
almost
unknown.
but
alliance,
of another
insufficient help;
sent
so
of
Philip;
Philip.
crueltyand
equalledthis one
scarcely
There
could
now
be
his
of her
disunion
The
year
violence
deed
states, but
that
his
He
was
the
hirelings
among
self-made
an
man,
he
in his struggle
for power
and
person, but
out, his collar-bone fractured,a hand and a
willingto
choose
and
to
sacrifice
take,provided
glory."l
The
he could
body
1
tyrants combined
king.
served
live with
a
He
of the Hellenic
ruled
cities.
his
sparednot
empire had an
eye
leg mutilated,and
any
justify
not
who
toiler,
"
was
leadingmen
incessant
Hellas
dangerous.
was
the
"
this does
of the Macedonian
Macedon, Thessaly,Chalcidice,and
he had
State.
doubt
no
and
Army
fortune
the remainder
masterful
own
cut
was
might
in honor
intellect ; few
men
Army
have
equalledhim
judgment.
The
in
and
State
273
in soundness
the creation
was
of
of the Macedonian
The
rapidlythan
more
any
their lances
enemy
in the
the
"
cavalry as
old-fashioned
phalanx,and
first to draw
were
"
companions
blood.
in conflict with
The
nobles
served
of the
welded
this
of
mass
into
men
organic whole.
an
The
jecting
militaryorganizationnot only civilized the Macedonians
by subbut it also destroyedtheir clannishness,
them to discipline,
and
and
of them
made
nation
one
with
hopes.
interests,
sentiments,
common
And
Athens
years after the fall of Chalcidice
The
treaty included the allies of both
Philip.
exceptionof
His
not
excuse
the
was
Philipreserved
Phocians, whom
that
had
they
peace with
with the
parties,
made
seized
the
for destruction.
treasures
Apollo at
Greece
and
Delphi ;
he
at the
prophet god.
lae,
days after signingthe treaty he passedthroughThermopyas
agent of the Amphictyonic Council he destroyedthe
same
A few
and
reallywished
time
to pose
gain
to
as
foothold
champion
and
scattered
The
the
Phocians
council
instalments
that
decreed
the ten
treasury. Their
thousand
seat
"
of the
the inhabitants
in
villages.
by annual
repay
taken from Apollo's
should
they had
was
givento Philip. This posi-
talents
in the council
in central
of
288.
tion,togetherwith
him
Rise
The
274
great honor
only
310.
The
the
and
Greek, but
Battle
(338B.C.).
of Chaeronea
which
Greeks
; it
was
of Macedon
his aim
to
"
busily winning
bring Hellas under
BATTLEFIELD
(From
OF
a
assured
now
not
nation.
In the years
of peace
friends
among
his will
by creating
the
CHAERONEA
photograph)
in each
him
at
Chae-ro-ne'a in Boeotia.
On
each
Rise
The
276
later
Significance of
312.
Hellas
earlier in
the
to
nobilityof
character.
and
motive
inferior
distinctly
as
congress
Macedon
of
Supremacy.
of and
long dreamed
end
The
united.
was
Macedonian
the
At
"
struggledfor
The
Hellenes
reached.
Greeks was
patriotic
the leading peoplein a great empire,and were
the benefit of their superiorcivilization. In so far as
achievement.
it profited
by Philip's
acceptedthe offer,
by
were
many
to become
Now
last
soon
to offer
the
it
world
at peace
were
freedom, which
he
benevolent
that various
It is true
bringingabout
emphasized is
be
to
came
could
not
the
was
exist under
Another
the
was
fearlessness
master, however
stimulus
of
party
warfare,which
other
decline
end
an
condition
One
be.
might
of interstate
strife and
in
forever.
Greece
literature
saw
and
art
the battle
of
Chaeronea.
Growth
313.
Before
"
could think
Soon
of the
the
of
conquering Persia
of
battle
Plataea
Philip'sPreparations.
Hellenes
(479B.C.),the
from
nothing further than self-protection
afterward,however, those who organizedthe Delian
of
conceived
the
the
strengthas
and
even
was
Cimon.
to
believe
profitable. The
For
greatlydisable
in the liberation of
failed,the
idea
of
idea
was
Persia
and
Egypt
a
and
time
1
advanced
such
war
held
so
Persia.
federacy
Con-
aggression
far in confidence
would
be
successful,
famous
most
Pericles
time
for
that
of
perpetualwar
upon
and
could
Idea
to
it.
He
believed
that
he
an
ff.
The
revived
tury it was
Idea
of ConqueringPersia
by
of the
"
277
Ten
Thousand,"
proved
empire
against
the Greeks.
the
of
Resuming
Cimon, Agesilaushoped at
policy
Asia Minor
least to conquer
for the Greeks,and would
doubtless
have
home.
succeeded, had he not been recalled by war
nearer
then took up the idea,and made
Writers and orators
the public
ship,
to the leaderacquaintedwith it. When, accordingly,
Philipcame
he found
the Hellenic mind
prepared for his propositionto
the Persian empire.
conquer
went
in 336 B.C.,
on
Preparationfor this enterprise
actively
till,
into Asia.
the army
But Philipwas
was
ready to move
delayed
in
his
His
wife
house.
troubles
own
the
by
O-lym'pi-as, mother
of his son Alexander,was
an
a wild,fierce woman.
Epeirotprincess,
and supplantedby a younger
Sent home
to her kinsmen
wife,she
began in jealousrage to plotagainsther lord. Between
Philipand
the weakness
which
Alexander
an
with
of the
brawl
angry
; then
arose
splendidfeasts
when
and
came
matched
reconciliation
In the midst
games.
of the
brated
cele-
ing
rejoic-
assassinated.
Philipwas
of the
Summary
Rise
of Macedon.
civilization
the
of
the
"
other
he conquered
(5) Meanwhile
(357-346) he waged a successful war with Athens.
this
time
Chalcidice.
of Thrace, and
(6) During
Thessaly, most
in the world.
he was
and
the
best-disciplined
army
best-organized
creating
for
Phocians
the
(7) Invited by the Amphictyonic Council to punish
alleged impiety to Apollo,he destroyed all their cities and transferred their
in the
votes
(8)
When
council
to
himself.
and
Athens, Thebes,
he defeated
their army
federation,represented
presidency. In this
preparing to lead the
way
He
he
Greeks
few
was
now
minor
Chaeronea.
at
in
congress
the
states
united
(9)
He
meeting
organizeda
then
at
Corinth
under
(10) But
great part of Hellas.
assassinated.
against Persia, he was
unified
lenic
Helhis
while
Suggestive Questions
Why
Compare
i.
2.
Athenians
did
not
the
in the
Macedon
Macedonians
age
of
develop
with
Philip with
rapidly in civilization
as
the
Homeric
their
ancestors
Greeks.
in the
3.
age
as
Attica?
Compare
the
of Pericles.
The
278
what
In
constantly
If
Greece?
find
you
Philip?
Epaminondas.
under
Thebes
in
so,
of
way?
with
the
is
Note-book
Philip.
I.
iii.
II.
question.
of
estimate
his
that
of
advantageous
Philip,
of
with
Philip
of
Compare
5.
Lacedaemon
career
683-7
37
Empire,
Macedonian
"
III.
in
Source
The
Holm,
the
Book
Athens
History
histories
various
Greek
of
of
Demosthenes;
Plutarch,
Demosthenes.
Indices
Fling,
133;
Demosthenes
what
to
evidences
general
character?
Holm,
23-85
of Greece,
History
;
Hogarth,
Philip
Alexander.
and
see
Curteis,
Was
Topics
of Greece,
History
Bury,
"
xv-xix
chs.
of
career
the
your
4.
this
that
In
7.
What
genius?
his
Debate
Was
6.
what
improved?
or
Philip
under
army
Macedon
of
declined
they
opposing
Macedonian
the
do
had
respects
in
wise
Rise
of
History,
Greece.
"
iii.
Extracts
Demosthenes;
from
his
Orations,
286-295-.
Demosthenes.
of Greece,
Butcher,
chs.
Curtius,
xiii,
xv.
History
of Greece,
v.
123-
CHAPTER
Alexander's
315.
twenty
of
knowledge
the
learned
most
fond
the
of
hero
Iliad,
Achilles
The
exercise
for
his
king
young
generation
he
When
he
as
he
found
was
found
rapidly
in
great
him
urged
him
but
his
316.
on
the
spring
the
of the
Persian
to himself
as
which
order.
Asia;
Alexander
with
forty
empire.
hero
who
terful
mas-
subjects and
to
of
in
beset
few
"
B.C.
bellious.
re-
Macedon
(334 B.C.).
the
ceit,
de-
father
cautiously
his
Invasion
Hellespont
passionately
was
the
tribes
of
enemies
334
his
Greece
with
reduced
Granicus
of
Aristotle,
was
nians
Macedo-
and
men
Alexander
The
of
proceed
troublesome
for
inheritance,
difficulties
strokes
form
midst
barbarous
wise
the
meeting
of
yet
of
the
the
"
invasion,
to
Alexander
the
eagerness
tutors
of
youth
with
same
time
image.
age
his
work
disaffected,
The
an
'in
to
crumbling,
threatening
and
the
of drones.
came
the
in
and
the
his
among
impetuous
an
active
incessantly
of
the
ideal
him
Greeks.
all
spirit,sincere
manly
and
At
"
ruddy-cheeked
in
was
of
own
was
336-3238.0.
Policy.
full of animation
face
There
runner.
as
and
Alexander
and
eyes
EMPIRE
Character
Early
with
years
Olympic
an
ALEXANDER'S
(336 B.C.)
accession
his
OF
FOUNDING
THE
XXV
He
Battle
ALEXANDER
In
the
(Capitoline Museum,
Rome)
troops,
and
invasion
draw
the
crossed
thousand
aspired
would
to
punish
279
the
began
hearts
Persians
his
of his
for
people
desolating
Founding of Alexander's
The
280
his
Alexander
Gra-ni'cus
the
on
crossed
River
the stream
the
Soon
pay.
Hellas
would
of
of the
fleets
follow
Nile and
to
had
to
find
the
coast
storm
Macedon.
As
harbors
on
rear.
and
Greek
had
never
seen
force
policyat
once
which
atic
Asi-
the
ships
war-
This
enemy.
to
fact
the mouths
keep
democratic
one
before
carried
servingthe
Ephesus
them
into his power, he gave
the privilegeof
denied
them
by
the
were
the
from
the
darts,and
of
sistance
re-
hesitation
learned,too, that
in his
landing-place
fortresses,
garrisontowns,
but
Hellas
who
no
with
fell one
Greeks
cooperate with
to
might
Half
he
; without
of
storm
dash.
afterward
him
determined
first offered
enemy
Troy
near
under
Empire
ments,
govern-
banishing oligarchs.
so
vigorousand so
humane.
317.
"
At
Battle
The
of Issus
(333B.C.);Alexander
yet posted
in
Darius
narrow
in command
'numbers
valleywhere
and
of
did not
the Greeks.
vast
host,
count.
By
royal
the
he routed
skilful attack
the
unreasonableness.
318. The
From
Issus
Alexander
cityby siegeand
Tyre
only reach
the
storm
stood
on
the most
cityby buildinga
mole
capture of this
The
island ; and
as
he had
to connect
no
ploits.
militaryex-
he could
fleet,
it with
the main-
282
The
The
Founding of Alexander's
armies
two
halted in view
of each
Empire
other.
While
reviewed
torchlight.The
by
plainaglow
beholdingall the
hearingthe
and
uncertain
with
and
Macedonian
the
of the
sound
vast
under
men
arms,
generalParmenion,
fires of the Asiatics,
and
lights
confused
Alexander's
of voices from
ocean,
amazed
was
their
at
the
sought
hasteningto the tent of Alexander,behim to make
a night attack that darkness
might hide them
from
I will not
the enemy.
steal a victory!
the young
king
replied. He knew Darius would lose all hope of resistance only
when
in a straightforward
battle.
It
conquered by force of arms
which took placeon the following
was
a fierce struggle
day ; but the
donian
steadyadvance of the phalanx and the furious chargeof the Macethe day over
the
cavalryunder the lead of their king won
of Orientals.
The long strugglebetween
mass
unorganized,spiritless
"
"
continents,which
decided
in
Greece, was
began
two
on
robust
320.
and
manliness
successor
of
Europe by
the
of the Westerners.
fled northward,
"
murdered
by
master
was
attacks
and
intelligent
Other
was
favor
with
an
attendant
of the
on
empire.
Alexander
his
the way.
as
Babylon surrendered without
This
"
"
kingshad
to
and
hundred
twenty thousand
talents.
hoardingthis wealth,which
circulation.
One night,while
been
put into
For
ages
the Persian
the conqueror
was
he and his friends
to burn
the
now
were
beautiful
victorious marches
which
he next
made
north-
Organization
283
to
for him
the
Greeks
mouth
of the
Indus
the water-route
to
the voyage.
it could be accomplishedin less
of
the
to
make
route
were
India.
Though
time,the
hindrance
the
to
It
under
Persian
Gulf,opened
requiredfive months
favorable
distance and
its extensive
to
conditions
the
use
hardships
throughout
ancient times.
321.
return
Organization of
to
Babylon,
empire, which
"
He
the
the
Alexander
reached
River
Hyph'a-sis
in
greatestextent
and
the
from
India,and
of
the
better
Empire.
began
the
to
western
from
Immediately
"
the
of Greece
River
Jax-ar'tes
satrap had
to
to
the
Nubia
government.
one
satrapies
nearlyas they were,
control.
his
affairs of his
settle the
limit
after
but
been
brought
a
despot
The
284
Founding of Alexander's
Empire
ing and improving his army and with buildinga great fleet; for he
was
planningthe conquest of Arabia,Africa,and Western Europe.
When
Death
His
(323 B.C.); his Place in History.
322.
ready to set out on his expeditionto the West, he suddenlyfell sick
of a fever,caused probably by excessive drinking. As he grew
rapidlyworse, the soldiers forced their way in to see their beloved
fileby
commander
once
passed in single
more, and the whole army
his bed.
He was
no
longer able to speak,but his eyes and uplifted
farewell.
hand
his
silent
expressed
in the brief narrative given
His character appears
clearlyeven
and in plantabove.
His geniusand energy in war, in organization,
ing
colonies were
marvellous.
His mind expanded rapidlywith the
captainprogress of his conquests. First king of Macedon, next
to be
generalof Hellas,then emperor of Persia,he aspiredfinally
His objectwas
lord of the whole earth.
not to Hellenize the world,
"
but to blend
the continents
dizzyheight of
mental
poise; in an
the
in
to
power
outburst
one
nation
which
of
he
and
had
passionhe
one
civilization.
climbed
murdered
disturbed
But
his
his dearest
order
to
the
Greeks
to
Alexander's
of the
civilization
Within
Hellenic
but
all
invaded
then
critical
Arbela
(6)
empire
and
reorganizing
the
the
for
(i)
further
campaigns
he
conquered
and
empire
conquests
short
cut
were
Can
we
say
for
reasons
to
his
there
Are
4.
would
Greeks
Wheeler's
his
for
Greece
further
the
nor
from
but
Alexander.
Great;
"
Fling,
of Alexander}
Hogarth,
Philip
Source
;
and
India.
(7)
the
(5)
ward
After-
Susa
and
inces
prov-
Meanwhile
(8) Preparations
colonies.
the
5.
world
to
find
still free ?
was
What
3.
Alexander's
to
and
Philip
Explain
joined
what
success?
Alexander
the
from
civilization
of European
the
due
nesses
weak-
this statement
of
Give
Alexander
of
success
himself?
to
seed-ground
two."
benefits, if
any,
6.
In
zation
civili-
conquests.
Topic
Note-book
Anabasis
and
In
northeastern
Greece
without
history, try
Alexander's
capitals
the
largely
Persia
The
Orient,
the
of ancient
study
derived
"
Great:
Darius.
He
death.
was
that
conquered
have
ever
of
many
much
how
believing
(4)
of
Alexander
much
and
(2)
Granicus
Persian
part
Alexander
of
army
by
contributed
side
reasons
and
How
2.
generals,
Persian
Alexander
is neither
your
and
the
on
Philip
under
opinion.
your
father
that
successors
Questions
Suggestive
i
touch
Alexandria.
subdued
planting
close
Greece.
battles
the
great
diately
imme-
his accession
On
and
vast
and
lying
rule of his
founded
the
distinctive
Orient.
the
won
Babylon
of
last
"
and
their walls.
in
kept
Macedon
and
Tyre
overthrew
he
his
of
Career.
in
beyond
country
the
the
empire
possession
and
history of
himself
to
captured
In
Persepolis.
was
of
took
which
Persian
he
Next
battle
he
Mediterranean,
of Alexander's
the
(3)
Issus.
the
in the
285
of Alexander
opposition
far
extend
from
career
episode
an
Summary
323.
crushed
he
the
Europe,
formed
east
History
remote
more
Apart, then,
the
round
with
the
character.
in
Greek
centuries
few
Place
Book
Plutarch,
Alexander.
of
Greek
Alexander;
(Arrian,
History, 300-329
the
Alexander
Wheeler,
XXVI
CHAPTER
THE
OF
MATURITY
THE
TO
POETRY
FROM
MIND:
GREEK
PROSE
B.C.
404-322
the
the
had
imagination
this
In
at
chapter
present
the fourth
from
; the
before
the
with
There
and
of
exception
three
are
the
whose
History
Xenophon.
have
works
who
got
then
with
Cyrus
went
than
charming
des.
His
event
in
an
Greeks
Memoirs
of
best
fifth to
of literature
ing
chang-
of the
nation
imagiGreeks
of the
poetry
century;
and,
that
date.1
after
prose
Greek
history,oratory,
prose:
on
and
Hel-len'i-ca,a
is only
longer
his Asiatic
gives
but
the
us
of
date.
the
hand
other
of
school
less
us
character
of
and
was
an
Socrates,
and
The
productivity
Antiphon,
z
an
of
eminent
" 285.
Thucydi-
narrates
of the
and
character
His
tactics.
of
Aristophanes
orator,
that
The
man.
Thucydides,
Attic
great
teachings
of
age
is less
style he
plain, practical
history
286
He
than
deep
much
the
earlier.
In
only
not
tells
this
Xenophon.
expedition.2
also
of
historian
military organization
approximate
on
the
thought
standpoint
continuation
and
in
and
their
of
the
an
in
is
already mentioned,
Socrates
from
principal
time
our
education
interesting way,
philosopher
This
to
Herodotus
Anabasis,
the
somewhat
his
The
"
survived
Athenian
the
fourth
the
than
deeply
language
the best
of
and
preme.
su-
was
reason
from
pass
form
maturity
at
philosophy.
325.
of
of
great departments
we
is the
their
history, all
keenly
the
All
beginning
the
and
considered
age
individual
As
former
reason.
The
an
find
occasionally helpful to
man.
more
history.
The
of the
of
thought
men
prose.
latter
produced
was
that
accordingly, we
to
poetry
of
somewhat,
declined
in ancient
century,
It is
"
that
like
was
period
time
other
any
with
nation
Mind.
Greek
the
life of
the
compare
in
of
Growth
324.
covers
continued
lived
what
some-
History and
the
periodfrom
to
B.C.
411
favorable
Oratory
the battle
of Mantinea.
Sparta, it is our
to
287
He
periodtreated,and hence is very valuable.
of other subjects,
the
as hunting,housekeeping,
and
the Lacedaemonian
knowledge of
man
a practical
in the breadth
326.
other
constitution.
the times
of the
of
in which
Oratory
the
heightof
on
variety
Athenian
are
revenues,
storehouse of
humanity
and
of his age.
great departments
reached
he lived.
story of the
wrote
His works
world,Xenophon shared
sympathy
cessively
Although ex-
only continuous
of
prose
Demosthenes.
oratory and
"
"
The
philosophy
"
their
Isocrates,
and
eloquent,"was
man
liberal-minded
most
school
rounded
the old
men
in Athens
education
and
of his age.
in which
young
read
rather
than
For
could
men
properlybe
vigor,but was
he
gain a
for
themselves
orations,which,
delivered,should
His
years
many
time prepare
at the same
for statesmanship.
especially
While teaching,Isocrates wrote
to be
one
as
ducted
con-
well-
life,
they were
termed
essays.
the
perfection
literary
stylelacked freshness and
chosen with
of grace.
His languagewas
melodious,his words were
the finest sense
of the appropriateand
arranged with the most
delicate taste.
pletely
He
brought to perfectionthe period the comrounded
thought expressedin a symmetrical sentence.
Nearly all the later prose of Greece, and afterward of Rome, shows
"
his influence.
Of
Demosthenes, the
world's most
eminent
orator, some
account
288
The
has
Maturity of the
alreadybeen given.1
the greatest master
was
works
of
With
of Greek
art,"inspiredby
Mind
possibleexceptionof Plato,he
His
prose.
"
orations
are
vellous
mar-
an
questionas
accordingto the point of view
Philipand Alexander embodied
the empire, as constituted in
to
the
Greek
statesmanshipmust
taken.
He
The
be decided
the
one
Philosophy
of the most
Plato.
eminent
"
The
of the age
greatestphilosopher
of the world
Socrates,he
travelled
"
was
Plato.
to various
"
After the
parts of Greece,
even
"
The
to
307.
founded
a
by
pleasant
The
go
not
become
like
the Greek
Mind
generallyknown
from
Maturity of
more
absolute
THEATRE
AT
(From
EPIDAURUS
photograph)
Architecture
play was
performed in
the hillside so
orchestra
"
"
In the centre
the Theatre
the open
see.
of the orchestra
air.
"
dancing place
the audience
stood
the
and
At
for
the Stadium.
Greek
The
"
chorus
placedan altar
the oppositeside
On
booth (Greek skene,
was
and
to
the
scene
the
actors.
Dionysus,the
of the
"
was
on
orchestra
") in
which
Architecture
the chorus
and
changed
graduallydeveloped. At
theatre
of wooden
seats
actors
stood
spectators. About
Meanwhile
on
291
dress.
From
these elements
the
Athens
hundred
seats
years later marble
the actors' booth developedinto
stituted.
sub-
were
"
scene
"
THE
NEW
STADIUM
in the modern
AT
as
From
ATHENS
"
"
scene
a
a
That
sense.
of Athens
theatre.
It
centuries
later,marble
was
in
was
built about
valleyjust outside
seats
were
the
same
of the
put in ; and
time
as
the stone
city. About
recentlyit has
three
been
The
2Q2
rebuilt of the
same
the Greek
Maturity of
material.
Mind
The
thousand.
330.
Sculpture : Praxiteles
the fourth
THE
and
Lysippus.
of the
HERMES
OF
(Museum,
severe
"
The
sculptureof
dignityand
self-restraint
PRAXITELES
Olympia)
it had
out
the minute
of the
details.
These
generalchange
that had
come
over
but
an
the whole
sion
expreslife and
Sculpture
genius of
Hellas.
Next
to
Hawthorne
has
unlike
or
at
famous
Rome
is
anything
wrought in that
SATYR
who
Phidias, Praxiteles,
the most
that
severe
293
ever
material
of
sculptor
copy
ble Faun:
of his
"The
in the
Greece.
In
satyr, which
whole
statue,
was
of
DORIPHOROS
PRAXITELES
lived
(SPEAR-BEARER)
OF
POLYCLEITUS
(Copy; CapitolineMuseum,
Rome)
(Copy
Vatican
Museum,
Rome)
naturalness than
qualitycan
discovered
be
any
some
only in
seen
years
with
The
294
delicacyof
at
genuine work
Olympia.
ago
the illustration.
by
modelling. The
able to attain.
been
ever
of his
The
The
face
the
"
power
But
this
is intellectual.
does
not
is rather
Greek
of the age.
Lysippus was
the
This
ideal
rary
contempois said
and
privilegedto
of the
the
of Alexander
been
like
seem
he
have
finish
combines
god;
to
Hermes,
remarkable
statue
Hermes
This
only sculptor
make
traits
por-
great conqueror.
fact marks
him
as
ter
mas-
of
portraitsculpture. A
worker, he made in
prodigious
his
lifetime
fifteen
hundred
They
have
of
Ap-ox-y-om'e-nos
athlete
his
an
working on
rightarm with a flesh-scraper.
Down
to this time Polycleitus
of Argos had set the stylefor
the
copy,
APOXYOMENOS
(Copy; Vatican
OF
the
LYSIPPUS
Museum,
making
were
figures
Rome)
"
of
statues.1
somewhat
His
flat
or
influenced
square, still slightly
Their whole
by the archaic block forms.
was
heavy.
appearance
the
loose
from
old
made
the
smaller
head
Breaking
rule,Lysippus
and
the
body
slimmer.
lifelike. Whereas
Thus
the statues
his
figuresappear
lighterand
more
of
to be seen
were
Polycleitus
mainly
from
the front, those of Lysippus were
perfectlyround, equally
His
symmetrical from every point of view.
controllingmotive
to represent the body, not
it actually
was
but as it apas
was,
peared
to the eye.
In
some
ways
1
therefore
" 238.
his work
seems
great
Lysippus
sculptor
classical
the
of
of
that
beyond
advance
artists.
earlier
of
age
Write
is
respects
3.
Why
4.
Compare
nation
like
nearly
all
was
with
its
291).
(p.
the
is
Which
is
in
lacking
be?
with
Xenophon.
Greek
Empire,
II.
ch.
Literature,
ch.
Archaeology
Handbook
(see
Doriphoros
stadium?
9.
pare
Com-
Polycleitus.
of
in
admirable
what
stadium
the
earlier
the
Greek
Mahaffy,
xxv;
ch.
Literature,
of
Progress
xv;
Hellenism
Fowler,
cient
An-
in
der's
Alexan-
Art,
ch.
i.
Fourth-Century
Gardner,
orchestra
Topics
Ancient
Murray,
"
the
the
Greek
latter?
the
Note-book
I.
7.
rebuild
anything
find
you
the
his
the
Describe
the
was
were
describe
290
out
B.C.?
400
Who
5.
what
different?
What
p.
Point
Greece
Do
great
In
2.
it
before
composed
on
of
Lysippus
graceful?
more
which
work
of
is
Thucydides.
"scene"
modern
Apoxyomenos
the
made
the
should
Why
8.
last
285.
p.
respects
Demosthenes?
illustration
the
should
Where
form?
and
before
seats
on
what
poetry
Herodotus
the
were
that
In
Greek
orator
From
6.
What
like
chapter
best
Attic
characteristics?
theatre.
is
the
the
was
Questions
individual?
an
Xenophon
distinguished
most
tfris
of
summary
He
Hellas.
Suggestive
i.
295
Sculpture.
of
Greek
Lysippus,
"
Tarbell,
ch.
Sculpture,
Praxiteles,
and
History
iv
Scopas
Fowler
in
of
Greek
and
Index).
Wheeler,
ix;
Greek
CHAPTER
HELLENISTIC
THE
Character
331.
the
Persian
The
of
interest
the
through
about
For
states.
the
with
ancient
time
same
this
there
The
the
after
while
non-Greeks
internal
it
great
more
or
from
the
two
less.
of
cerned
con-
selves
them-
upon
the
At
foreign
fluence.
in-
is termed
causes
Hellenic
better
city-
of the
part
taking
these
little
history is
changes independent
of
culture
EVENTS
POLITICAL
322-146
The
332.
died,
yet
but
and
infant,
an
decisive
authority passed
fill the
qualified to
none
for
the
as
the
the
first
place, the
battle
among
these
(301 B.C.).
times, as
This
B.C.
Battle
the
Succession;
Alexander
was
of
ization
civil-
time.
I.
war,
were
modified
resulting from
distinguished
over
world.
Hellenic
and
conquest,
culture
culture, they
were
the
of the
of the
creation
of
conquest
in that
merges
politicalparties
of Hellenic
civilization
Hellenistic,as
earlier
two
Naturally
of
of
centuries
spread
world.
some
rivalry
Alexander's
With
Greece
in
centres
AGE
"
history of
longer
no
Period.
the
the
empire
XXVII
was
it determined
the
Ipsus
to
his
place
of
(301 B.C.).
the
fight
to
the
fought
the
empire
among
his
son
selves
them-
pieces.
The
Ip'sus in Phrygia
of ancient
battles
important
most
history of
at
to
in
trained
As
master.
When
"
generals, all
generals began
generals
of
one
of
the
of Rome.
power
The
victors
Se-leu'cus
divided
received
and
Thrace
and
Cassander,
fell to
Asia
the
from
Phrygia
Ly-sim'a-chus
already
into
empire
governor
India
Ptolemy
of
296
to
kingdoms
themselves
; western
became
Macedon,
for
was
king
now
Asia
of
Minor
Egypt
recognized
Great
Powers
297
"
Hellenistic
The
298
desirous of
However
lacked
the
334.
The
policyof
of the
Empire
ablest
Alexander, the
Among
Seleucidae.
administrator
his master, he
in his realm.
them
Babylon
in
founded
Antioch
in
splendor. As
Syria,not far
of
Alexander's,was
these
as
colonies,
from
active
this nucleus
were
of the
Most
commerce
the
from
a
in
Hellenic
the
to Hellenize
eastern
western
a
the Romans
from
kingdom
335-
convert
of
he
nucleus
of
189
B.C.,
it
Seleucus
the
however,
Ptolemies.
empire,Ptolemy, one
Syria and a few
"
towns
into
his descendant
and
Macedon.
new
they lacked
But
cient
in suffi-
long in subjection.The
their dominion.
some
On
the
On
parts of Asia
Antiochus
at
also the
new
III
was
Egypt
Greece.
to hold
or
The
Around
tions.
in free local institu-
in this effort.
little longer. In
by
it
to
have
kingdom
The
sea.
hands.
Syria,which
in
were
tried
Se-leu'ci-dae,
a
great extent they succeeded
of plantingcolonies in
means
numbers
his
to
to
of veterans
retired
company
houses
and
lands from
the
and
language,in civilization,
the
To
and
They received
of performinggarrisonduty for him.
grouped natives and colonists from
and industryof the empire,hence
of them
Most
Tigris,said
inhabitants
the
capitalfor
service.
condition
king on
Followingthe
colonies
seventy-five
as
many
thousand
rivalled
of
successors
Seleucus.
Se-leu'ci-aon
was
the
Among
"
was
planted as
six hundred
contained
have
Age
their
Minor
defeated
nently
perma-
the petty
division of Alexander's
of
" 497-
Alexander's
Successors
299
privateestate, to be worked
prudently for the owner's
profit.They refrained from oppressingthe natives in order to
and in good working condition.
keep them in good spirits
The
It
only Greek colony worthy of mention was Alexandria.
their
as
the
now
was
India
of
centre
Britain.
to
In
commercial
wealth, in
facilities it outshone
educational
the
which
of
from
and
life,
It consisted
of various
mercenaries
extended
refinements
all other
exceedinglymixed.
populationwas
world
of native
Greeks
in
The
tians,
Egyp-
nationalities,
pure
the
like
for trade,
Jews, who came
foreignresidents,
of Greeks
and lastlya mongrel class formed
by the intermarriage
and
donians,
Mace-
other
with
all sorts of
people.
and
Macedon
Greece
"
"
exclude
her
the
orators
was
Demosthenes.
took
He
poison,that
his pursuers.
Thus
despotism. On
Had
epitaph:
"
the Macedonian
the
his
fled at
he
from
once
might
not
Athens,
mighty spiritceased
base
of his statue
and
soon
the
contend
to
his countrymen
ward
after-
hands
of
against
placedthis
strengthequalledyour will,Demosthenes,
your
have conquered Greece."
War- God would
never
The
Gallic Invasion
"
"
332.
The
300
of
approach
Hellenistic
cold
hunger and
as
Age
retired
well
as
northward, suffering
from
Greeks.
Soon afterward
of ten thousand
swarm
into Asia
Minor.
Gallic warriors
with their
After
plunderingthe country
forth
far and
wide, they settled permanently in the district henceafter them
For more
Galatia.1
than thirtyyears the
named
from
states of Asia Minor
paid them tribute as the priceof security
little
their plundering. FinallyAttalus, king of Pergamum,
a
them
Asia Minor, defeated
in two
in western
state
great battles
and put an end to their domination
(about 230 B.C.). The artistic
in another place.2
of these victories will be mentioned
memorials
The
Greeks began to feel that in
League.
338. The Aetolian
unite more
their liberties they must
order to preserve
closely.
idea
into
the
the
The firstto put this
least
Aetolians,
practicewere
the foremost
in political
civilized of the Greeks,yet among
capacity.
Their league,which
had existed from earlytimes, enjoyed in the
Many
present period a remarkably good form of government.
outside Aetolia
it.
others
communities
willinglyjoined
Though
become
all
had equal rights,and
forced to
were
members, yet
enjoyed fair representationin the government.
Achaean
Some
Achaean
cities,
too,
League : Aratus.
339. The
of
this
renewed
in
imitation
Aetolia.
From
ancient
an
league
afterward
built up,
small beginning a great federal union
was
father of Aratus
had
noble of Sicyon. The
a
chiefly
by A-ra'tus,
been killed by the tyrant of his city,
and the lad who was
one
day to
be the maker
of a great state grew
exile in Argos. While
up an
still a young
he expelledthe tyrant from his native cityand
man
true
He was
a
statesman,
brought it into the Achaean
League.
his
the public than
intent upon
private
high-minded,and more
concerns
good the
; a bitter hater of tyrants, making the common
advanced so
rule and law of his friendships
and enmities."
He
that they elected him general
rapidlyin the esteem of the Achaeans
crossed
families
"
"
"
when
by
he
no
was
means
extended
but
twenty-seven years of
misplaced.
itself till it
See map
between
Under
to
came
pp.
370
and
age.
confidence
Their
was
371.
"
345.
The
exceptionof
was
dear
so
Constitution
Power.
Federal
Nothing
301
the
was
under
340.
Lacedaemon.
Unions
"
he
union
Federal
"
of the
The
of the
objectof
within
its borders
of peace
and
The
federal power
limited
was
League
the
union
the
mutual
protectionfrom
the
vidually,
indi-
ance
assist-
States
the
was
as
weak
cities,
interest."
common
Achaean
but
him
to
and
the
maintenance
foreignenemies.
The
a
we
do
council
number
not
each sending
composed of deputiesfrom the cities,
proportionedto its population. The total number
was
know.
This
council
deliberated
on
matters
be sented
preits own
to
commanded
but
acted
of ten
him
and
the army,
advisers aided
as
the
limited
Plutarch,Aratus,
chief executive.
his
24.
authority. The
board
same
The
302
might
man
successive
an
office any
number
of times,though not in
This restriction was
to prevent him
from gaining
years.
of power.
the
commander
was
Age
the
Among
excess
admiral,
treasurer
hold
Hellenistic
of
needed,
as
the
other
cavalry,
the
and
states
the
the
secretary. No
all
managed
financial
matters.
342.
Unions.
"
The
outline
Achaean
to
stitution,
con-
the Aetolian
in civilization,
were
more
league as well. The Achaeans
progressive
inclined to peace.
The
federal union,in
however, and more
the form used by these two
the most
peoples,was
nearly perfect
institution
created
While
political
by the ancients.
providing
of all,it gave complete freedom
for the security
to each
state to
In this respect it was
developits own geniusin its individual way.
a
beyond the league under a city-state
great advance
leadership,
less oppressive. It was
which was
or
a still
always felt to be more
greater advance beyond monarchy, a form of government altogether
A striking
merit of the
foreignto Greek sentiment and character.
federal union
is that its increase in area, while affording
greater
in
of
the
The
the
states.
security, no way hampered
individuality
citizens of the league were
satisfied with their condition,
and it
rarelyhappened that any state wished to revolt.
There were, however, certain defects in the institution.
It was
unfortunate
that the highestmagistracyhad to be filled by a man
who
both statesman
and general. For militaryscience had
was
the whole attention of the general
so
complex as to demand
grown
throughout his entire life ; in this respect it was in the condition
which
exists to-day. Usually,therefore,
the magistratewas
little
for one
fect,
another part of his duties.
A still greater deor
qualified
from a military
pointof view, was the weakness of the federal
in relation to the states.
funds
of
It possessedno
government
its own
the
of its own, but had to depend wholly upon
or
army
for these resources.
it rarely
states
In time of war, accordingly,
succeeded in persuadingthe states to do their best,and it had no
efficient means
of forcingthem.
In a word, it was
very similar to
the union of the American
states before the adoptionof the present
federal
constitution.
On
account
of
these
defects,the
federal
Hellenistic
The
304
Age
these
between
factions and
further interference
there
leagues,
had
they
Rome,
on
other
in the
They
Besides
These
facts
another
the Aetolian
also
more
were
great
good
at
and
Thus
led to
Achaean
the Hellenes
inclined
peacefully
more
of their
had
hand, now
world, and they
authority.
and
isolated states.
were
time
state
one
to be many
in the
been
the other
state
central
continued
Rome.
stilldisunited.
were
than
from
between
the
war
with
Persia.
soldiers than
command
sufficiently
explainthe
of
any
one
Roman
conquest of Hellas.
To
an
suppress
another army
outbreak
in Macedon
and
Greece, the
Romans
to the
stand
peninsula. No force great enough to withit could be brought together. The Romans
made
of Macedon
a dependent district ruled by a magistrate
sent out by
a province
the imperialgovernment.
They destroyed Corinth as a punishment
sent
"
which
had
ing
revolted,includ-
world.
1
" 334-
The
Growth
II.
In
declined.
Art.
sightof nature,
models.
the
"
and
literature
of
activity
noblest
mind,
the
CULTURE
ceased
it had
writers
time
same
305
In
Realism
HELLENISTIC
and
Literature
345.
of
THE
were
they
DYING
to be
genius had
displaythe
inventive.
Losing
content
to imitate
isting
ex-
and
GAUL
(CapitolineMuseum,
Rome)
day.
another
scientific
of their minor
them.
from
age
charmed
writingsof
the
the world
period will
be
to
the
present
mentioned
in
place.
new
have
aimed
represented
persons
individual
to
traits.
express
In classic art human
disturbingemotions.
It
as
was
types of character
ideal.
The
and
even
peculiarities,
beings are portrayedas
In
the
fourth
stripped
realism
to
of the
exaggerate
calm
and
free
The
Hellenistic
Age
and
in the periodwe
are
now
sculptorbegan to express feeling,
he put into his statues a great amount
of emotion.
reviewing,
One of the best portrait
thenes,
statues of the time is that of Demoswhich
combines
realism and emotion
with classic dignity.
GAUL
(Museum
He
is
represented as
the
"
AND
HIS
WIFE
mourning patriot,"grievingfor
his
271.
"
"337-
A
the
sword
into
his
Great
Age of Science
3""7
breast.
"
Under
the
the
patronage of
dria
Ptolemies, Alexanthe chief of
became
these
of
centres
many
intellectual life. In the
so-called
Alexandrian
cient
Age (323-146 B.C.),an-
science
and
reached
arship
scholtheir
highestpointof development.
The
campaigns
of Alexander
had greatly
of
enlarged the bounds
geographical
knowledge,
had
and
to
stimulated
men
then
unknown.
The
information
they
gathered was
published
in geographies. Greek
scientists had
lieved
long benew
the
earth
to
be
APOLLO
BELVEDERE
(Vatican Museum,
round
; and
now
one
Rome)
of
the
famous
at about
28,000 English
geographerscomputed its circumference
miles,which is remarkably near the truth. He believed,too, that
the oppositeside of the world was
inhabited,and that India could
it possible
to
be reached
the Atlantic,were
by sailingwest across
made
in astronomy.
make
Similar advances
so
were
long a voyage.
times as largeas the earth,and
It was
is many
found that the sun
1
" 330.
The
308
revolves
on
however, by
rejected,
was
view
afterward
the earth
found
as
known
the
Hellenistic
Age
scientists of the
most
the Ptol-e-ma'ic
as
of
centre
the
the
around
day
in favor
system, which
universe.
of the
This truth
sun.
certain
mind,
represents
physiologist
that the
and
of the
nerves
are
of two
In the
years.
and surgeons
scientific,
in recent
347.
The
same
age
the
practiceof
acquiredgreat
Zoological Park
and
medicine
became
skill.
the Museum.
"
One
of the
kings
and
Jewish.
"
In
the Museum
entists
sci-
truth; and
discoveryof new
scholars were
knowledge.
equallybusy with systematizingexisting
They compared and criticised the manuscriptsof earlier authors,
with a view to preparingcorrect texts.
They wrote commentaries
the language and styleof these works, and composed histories
on
of the various departments of literature.
Others produced biographies,
and works
on
philosophy. Naturally
histories,
political
the work in Hellenic literature and historywas
all done by Greeks.
devoted
The
whereas
themselves
to
the
Er-a-tosth'e-nes
geographer referred
to
was
Hi-er-oph'i-lus
was
in
the astronomer
physiology.
was
Ar-is-tarch'us ;
Our
The
Debt
to Hellas
their quarter in
the
Greeks
309
Alexandria,enjoyedequalopportuniti
for trade
and
for culture.
into Greek.
"
a-gint,because, it is
work.
The
the
even
had
fact that
Jews, with
beautiful
Greeks.
The
such
seventy
were
translation
language for
own
of Hellas
Contributions
349.
said,there
version
their Bible
is called the
"
Sep'tu-
engaged
men
the
in the
necessary
proves that
all their love for the institutions of their fathers,
exchanged their
and
This
Under
was
that of Hellas.
to Civilization.
we
now
Most
"
enjoy were
thing is freedom
"
of the
created
freedom
good
by the
from
the
priests.Perfect freedom
gives courage.
The
Greeks
had no fear of men
their
loved
and looked
gods
; they
them as friends.
It is only the brave, free mind
that dares
upon
think original
Their greatest contribution
thoughts,that dares invent.
and intellectua
to civilization,
was
accordingly,
political,
religious,
freedom.
is
worth
it
is
unless
little,
however,
Liberty
self-controlled.
The
Greeks
have
given us
ter
charac-
their art
are
and
of
simply expressions
which
the
spiritof symmetry
personalcharacters and
classic
we
beauty
tion,
The greater part of Hellenic civilizastates.
best-regulated
however, died out during the later Roman
empire and the
Middle
nations in the periodof their origin
Ages. As the modern
and
were
ignorantof the ancient Greeks, they had to create anew
civilizationwhich
of the elements of our modern
independently
many
learned
had once
existed in Hellas; much, too, they
by the study
it happens that
Thus
of the literature and the art which survived.
life is Hellenic.
much
of the attractiveness
and beauty of modern
in their
Suggestive Questions
chapter like that on p. 285. 2. Why did the
and Achaean
tions
federathe Aetolian
empire
3. Compare
with the Peloponnesian and Delian leagues. In what details of organization
the earlier?
the later leagues an
on
were
improvement
4. ExI.
Write
summary
of Alexander
of this
fall?
pieces
which
6.
In
of
emotion?
In
with
what
In
Polycleitus.
of
ideal
the
(p. 307)
Belvedere
Apollo
by
between
difference
the
plain
this
The
League.
Achaean
(Polybius)
Life
Greek
Mahaffy,
Greek
chs.
Thought,
and
Book
Source
of
Handbook
Greenidge,
(p.
5.
294)
improvement
do
you
Compare
with
or
discover
the
statue
decline
evidences
Topics
Fling,
"
art.
peculiarities?
Note-book
I.
an
chapter
individual
pieces,
in
Lysippus
see
you
in
real
the
by
can
mentioned
which
and
statue
respects
art
Age
Hellenistic
The
3io
of
Greek
History,
Constitutional
xv,
xvi;
330-338
ch.
History,
Alexander's
Empire,
vii
chs.
xviii.
xvi,
II.
Hellenistic
Handbook
III.
Alexandrian
Sculpture.
of
Greek
"
Tarbell,
ch.
Sculpture,
Civilization.
"
ix-xii;
Alexander's
Empire,
ch.
xiv.
of Greek
History
Art,
ch.
and
Thought,
x;
ner,
Gard-
v.
Mahaffy,
Greek
Life
chs.
The
312
life. In
ern
roots
trunk
are
brief,historymay
Mediterranean
the
is the
Country and
Roman
be
the
compared
countries
empire,and
People
of
whose
pre-Roman
branches
nations.
It is
clear,then, that
necessary
to
understandingof
an
with
knowledge
are
of Roman
tree, whose
time, whose
the
modern
historyi?
Physical
Features
of
Italy.
"
eastern
have
than
spoken
to the
of the
western
coast.
This
circumstance
makes
the
Effectof Geography
slopeshorter,the
eastern
steeper and
coast
the
and
less
of harbors.
in fertile coast
terminate
west
rivers smaller
devoid
more
History
on
313
navigable,and the
The
longerslopeson
352.
of
Geographical Conditions
the
on
History of Italy.
greatness of Rome
Italian
whole
certain
only at
off from
did not
relations
with
her to associate
is one
This
Another
is its
notice
population. We
points,and
the
depend"on
the
with
that
there with
even
interior
cityalone, but
the
passable
are
difficulty
; they cut Italy
of the
the other
Alps
the
upon
continent,and
pelled
com-
nean.
countries of the Mediterra-
Noteworthy
accessibility.
historyof
the
peninsula.
in this connection
are
its
shore beyond
Illyrian
the Adriatic.
it connects
On the southwest
closelywith Africa.
Its nearness
to other countries has always exposedit to invasion
of the
from across
the Adriatic,from Sicily
and Africa,or by way
Ionian
to
the Alps,though a hindrance
Even
Sea, from Greece.
barrier against enemies.
have
often proved a weak
commerce,
various
From
to Italyfrom
came
earlytimes, accordingly,
many
either individually
in mass,
as
or
directions,
traders,immigrants,
lengthand
and
narrowness
its
to the
nearness
"
These
or
conquerors.
in
friendshipand
In
fact,for
of the
older
of courage,
were
war,
centuries
drawing
to
strangers of diverse
stimulated
one
Italy formed
itself the
world, and
nationalities,
mingling
another
the western
boldest
and
to
great activity.
frontier of civilization,
enterprising
people
qualities
intelligence.There
practical
most
developingintenselythe frontier
patience,hardihood, and
customs
"
126.
between
one
part of the
The
314
country
and
Country and
another ; and
there
the
grew
People
a
up
warring among
states,continually
however,
as
life became
more
settled and
peace
country
positivedisadvantage.
of
the
multitude
of small
themselves.
refined,and
In
depende
in-
time,
desire for
This
led them
in the
to
peninsula
of the country
give protection.Thus the accessibility
the first great work
unification
complished
achelpsexplainits political
of
her
in
the
The
same
buildingup
empire.
by Rome
another
fact ; even
when
united,
geographicalconditions explain
unsafe while neighboringnations remained
free to
the country was
that motives of self-preservation
led Rome,
assail it ; and thus it was
into her career
of foreignconquest.
the head of the peninsula,
as
the secunification of the Mediterranean
world was
The
ond
political
accomplishedby Rome.
great stage of empire-building
in
The
third and most
was
important task achieved by Rome
the western
half ; and in this work,
the empire,especially
civilizing
ern
too, she was favored by the form and situation of Italy. The westcoast, as we have noticed,is better suppliedthan the eastern
that the Romans
It was
with harbors.
came
partlyfor this reason
into closer touch and sympathy with Spain,Gaul, and northwestern
In some
Africa than
with
and
Greece
the Orient.
degree they
vital
but
the
their
whole
character
the
on
fresh,
empire ;
impressed
far more
ready than the decaying East
peoplesof the West were
and ideas.
to adopt their customs, institutions,
and
ablest to
"
353.
Climate, Soil,and
Products, and
their Effects.
"
more
intimate
"
"
The
316
with the natives
is Latium.
are
Country
known
Their
and
the
historyas
languagecontains
to
Another
branch
People
the
try
Latins,and their counwords adopted from
many
of the
stock
same
HE
settled
TRIBES
oz-
ITALY
and
SICILY
Closelyrelated
to them
of the
"
in
loose
sense
their colonists
"
were
the
THE
FALL
(Tibur.
From
THE
or
a
ANIO
photograph)
Mountaineers
Oscans.
Sa-bel'li-ansor
Thereafter
Etruscans.1
do
central
the
and
the Sabine
Italy.
Umbrians
over
The
and
and
west
the
onlyUmbrians
were
317
important
most
Samnium.
was
country north
the
time
Men
their settlements
Mountaineers
356. The
Plain
Startingfrom
neighborhood,they extended
and the eastern
slopes of
Sabellian country
and
of the Tiber
We
Sabellians
Sabellians.
was
with
whom
we
by
the
have
to
overrun
therefore
must
After
"
regardboth
the
mountaineers.
These
essentially
of the Italic race
branches
differed little in language and
two
subsisted
ing
Both
customs.
by hunting,herding cattle,and farmsmall
patches of soil. They lived in villagesand had no
states like those of modern
times, but each mountain
valleywas
of a tribe with
its own
the abode
independent government.
tribes were
with
another.
The
Whereas
one
constantlyat war
lived a more
the Sabellians
settled and peacefullife,
the Umbrians
for
restless and
were
were
aggressive,and for that reason
civilized plainmen
to the more
centuries a constant
menace
along
Umbrians
their western
The
357.
border.
Latins.
Latium.
was
as
"
The
It extended
most
country
the Tiber
from
and
They
soon
those
of Greece.
ranges
which
them
among
a
reach
was
lake which
of the Latin
short
distance
fortified and
out
Alba
most
from
attractive
1
" 358.
were
Longa,2 high
of
an
built
the
on
the Alban
up on
extinct volcano.
Here
Mount,
It
held
their
Jupiter,
northeast
of Alba was
one
Prae-nes'te,
From
powerful cities of earlyLatium.
they sacrificed
we
spurs of the
the interior into the plain. Prominent
of them
fillsthe crater
League.
in which
festival,
A
Most
like
city-states,
founded
is the fall of
ox
an
to
head
was
an
side
be-
annual
chief
deity.
of the best
Praeneste
other
Tibur, ancially
remarkablybeautiful situation. Espethe Anio from a great heightinto a deep
range
For
the
northwestward
placesin Latium,
to
see
map
opp.
p. 353.
wooded
but
ravine.
the most
about
There
were
fourteen
Rome,
slopeswere
be
may
very
This
steep. The
SHORE
OF
(From
The
studied
the Pal'a-tine.
citywas
heightwas
is true
ALBAN
of the Tiber
on
of
group
(p.335).
the map
on
same
THE
of Latium,
city-states
on
its mouth.
miles from
situation
other
many
important was
whose
hills,
its
The
318
The
easilydefended,as
of the Cap'i-to-line
LAKE
photograph)
-Palatine,
separatedfrom it by a deep
the Palatine,
around
from the Capitoline
keeping
the latter to our
to the QmVi-nal
right,we come
successively
Hill,the Vim'i-nal Hill,the Es'qui-line
Mount, the Cae'li-an Mount,
and the Av'en-tine Mount.
tine,
It is worth
noticingthat the Palawhereas
Capitoline,
Caelian,and Aventine are isolated heights,
the other three are
tongues projectingfrom a broad tableland,
which lies on
border
the
of the city. The
seven
heightsnamed
above
Seven Hills
are
of Rome.
spoken of as the
Mount, nearlywest
valley. As we pass
of the
"
The
Romans
settlement
was
of the
on
the
"
historical age
believed
Palatine,and
graduallyincorporatedin
the
city.1
1
"
375.
that
that
the
their earliest
other
hills
were
Etruscans
The
358.
much
time
that
their
Aegean
Etruscans.
ancestors
partlythe
colonization
Greek
forced
new
by sea, a
beginningbefore
came
800
new
home
with
the
natives.
seek
time,
In
B.C.
The
guage
lan-
the
new-comers
the Etruscan
time
historical
was
blending of
immigrants with the
formed
by
these
the
earlier Umbrian
of
If this view
Minor.
zation
superiorcivili-
the
prevailed,but
of
the
they mingled
their
race
of
Italy. They
in
of
of Asia
islands
early
to
few at
and
northern
which
of them
many
homes
are
recently devoted
becoming convinced
been
of
pressure
have
the
neighboringcoast
have
is correct, it must
inhabited
once
the
and
who
the Etruscans
study of
to the
Sea
Scholars
"
Etruria.
inhabitants
Their
country
rich in natural
was
copper,
"
resources,
marble, timber for
building,and
fertile soil.
The
neighboring island of
Elba suppliediron.
In addition
this country, they
to
acquired by conquest and
colonization
With
their
west
coast
time
they
in
the
no
one
1
2
From
valley and
Po
photograph)
of
Campania.
were
the
powerful
most
"" 92-94.
Tyrrhenian and Etruscan
ARCH
ETRUSCAN
(Volaterrae,Etruria.
AN
the Latin.
have
able to read
are
and
the
most
left abundant
their
equivalentin meaning
ambitious
inscriptions,
language. Scholars
the former
race
is from
are
the Greek,
The
320
they were
they brought with
the
Greek
AN
ETRUSCAN
not
TOMB
Etruria)
showing wall-paintings; Tarquinii,
(Interior,
ideas of architecture,
and advanced
ture,
sculpbeliefs,
religious
of their own.
and sculptures
and painting. They made vases
and on
They paved roads,dug canals for drainageand irrigation,
various
AN
ETRUSCAN
in
(Wall-painting
BANQUET
Etruria)
tomb, Tarquinii,
The
322
taughtthe
army,
and
359.
The
People
to
build
Greeks.
"
It
of the Italians
the
the
Greeks, who
virile
the
to organize
and equip their
interpret
omens,
temples,and cities.
sewers, walls,dwellings,
Romans
to
and
Country
destined,however, that
was
Etruscans
should
about
in the end
the middle
be
as
teachers
outrivalled
by
of the
eighthcentury
B.C. began to settle the shores of southern
Italyand Sicily.Soon
their thrivingsettlements
and lined the
nearly surrounded
Sicily,
more
Italian coast
from
Tarentum
Cumae.
to
As
been
it is unnecessary
to
chapteron Greek colonization,1
here.
mention
them
We should notice,however, that
individually
the Greeks
of the West
performed a most useful service in imparting
the Romans
a largeshare of their culture to Rome.
Particularly
received from them their alphabet,their military
and
organization
ideas,the elements of all
equipment,higherand better religious
the fine and
useful arts, and later the sciences and philosophy.
others through the Etruscans.
Some of these gifts
came
directly,
360. Other Peoples of Italy. The other peoplesof Italywere
of minor
the Li-gu'ri-ans
in the
importance. Among them were
northwest
of the country. In remote
time
extreme
prehistoric
they had inhabited a much wider area, but had been crowded back
and
into the mountains
Gallic invaders.
by Etruscan
Opinion
differs as to whether
they were
Indo-Europeans or the original
inhabitants of Italy. They were
tained
a
hardy race, who long maintheir freedom.
In the northeast of Italy,about
the head
of the Adriatic Sea, lived the Ve-ne'ti-ans,
who
an
were
invading
from
race
Illyria.The modern
cityof Venice retains their name.
the I-a-pyg'i-ans
or
Closelyrelated in originand language were
in and about the heel of the peninsula. Neither the
Mes-sa'pi-ans
Venetians
the lapygianshave any special
nor
prominence in Roman
the Gauls who
about
the middle
history.-More important were
of the fifth century began to cross
the Alps and to overrun
the Po
blond barbarians,
brave in battle
valley.2They were at the time tall,
and greedy for plunder. Early in the following century a horde
of these fierce warriors ravaged central Italy and
sacked
Rome.3
described
in the
"
1
2
now
to
be
early.
began in
" 398.
this date is
Minor
Peoples
Suggestive
maps).
countries
best
of
made
"
the
Fall
do
the
Sea.
banquet
the
animal
life?
represent
what
the
form
of
Italy
History
II.
History
of
The
and
Rome,
Greeks
of Greece,
her
People.
i.
"
of
Greek
Botsford,
temple
this
the
"
what
think
from
the
and
the
of
(p. 321).
Tuscan
in
men
the
beings
we
ences
infer-
Rome,
and
women
should
tion
condi-
Describe
5.
you
the
illustrations
Lake
human
temple
Etruscan
Note-book
I.
do
forms
two
and
mountains,
the
(see
these
would
Campania,
of
What
7.
the
of
From
Alban
Apennine
dress
Greece
harbors
country?
Etruria,
the
320).
Describe
8.
With
peristyle?
to
River,
the
4.
the
the
the
Latium,
(p.
scene
artist
Etruscan
Pb
Had
difference
of
of
Describe
6.
Shore
appearance
the
what
of
features
peninsula?
"
those
physical
3.
coast,
the
the
Tibur,
Praeneste,
Tyrrhenian)
and
of
and
east
of
and
the
to
as
location
the
Etruscan
of
"
Anio
the
the
on
with
Italy
histories?
history
the
draw
River,
Tiber
different
been
in
of
you
maps
(or
Italy
of
have
of
situation
the
their
explain
lands
do
far
How
2.
Questions
features
physical
the
Compare
i.
323
and
the
ability
of
plant
it
Does
have
it?
compare
Topics
Story
of
14-28
Rome,
Duruy,
17-43.
in
ch.
Italy.
ii.
"
"
3.
Holm,
History
of Greece,
i.
282-291
Bury,
XXIX
CHAPTER
I.
the
the
slaying
taken
had
Greeks
and
storms
mother,
And
him
after
and
and
A
of Latins.
the
from
kingship
Numitor's
forth
an
named
She
order
by
of war,
and
of
would
were
taken
they
had
Numitor,
362.
the
king, they
their
The
Myths
value,
2
"113.
are
see
had
for
by
manhood,
the
the
not
to
Founding
twin
merely
for
of
brothers
reading,
of
coast
taking
Longa.
Many
Italy.
the
size
human
adrift
Set
ashore
nursed
shepherd
of that
bring
she
bore
and
beauty.
on
the
Tiber
till
them
they
When
region.
Amulius,
to
Palatine,
Mount
near
she-wolf
killed
daughter,
and
marry
had
He
the
However,
than
name
tions
genera-
throne.
not
wrongs.
the
Nu'mi-tor
his brother
might
restored
and
throne.
(753 B.C.?).
Rome
led
not
brought
she
they
the
peril,and
Rhe'a,
a
a
goddess
compelled
cast
with
him
all
usurped
Re'mus.
were
with
city.
Alba
more
and
grandfather,
of
Myth
cared
to
grown
king's consent,
1
perished
and
of
sons
Rom'u-lus
up
that
were
his
west
in peace,
himself
family's
them
have
the
wickedly expelled
the
twin
dangers,
on
founded
Virgin4
of
avenger
and
together
Alba, and
of
Vestal
god
Mars,
build
assassinated, and
son
become
to
to
lived
A-mu'li-us
afterward
threatened
haven
and
together
sea
every
When
"
horse2
Juno3
trials
to
of Aeneas
son
angry
by
safely through
began
natives
escaped
with
wanderings
landed
Trojans
him
Remus.
of the wooden
means
Ae-ne'as
path
guided
many
he
There
by
and
of Romulus
though
his
beset
Venus,
and
Troy
inhabitants,
followers.
many
MYTHS1
THE
of Aeneas
Myth
361. The
KINGS
THE
UNDER
ROME
for
"
colony
study
and
to
the
recitation.
the
With
place
On
where
their
" 365.
3"373324
4"374-
torical
his-
The
Seven
Kings
325
founded
a
they had passed their youth. There Romulus
cityon
Palatine.1
Mount
Remus, however, in derision,
leaped the halffinished wall, exclaiming, Methinks
might
any of your enemies
Then
I
do."
of
this
his
as
Romulus, or one
easilyas
leap
men,
replying, But any of us might easily
and killed
chastise that enemy," struck
him with a pickaxe. The
new
citywas
"
"
named
Rome
laws and
had
alive
of
Martius.
ended
and
reign,
Romulus
Numa
was
human
and
of
his
"
heaven, Nu'ma
Whereas
aim
of Tullus
Numa,
of Ancus
to
his
gave
Hostil-
After
had
became
had
ulus
Rom-
ascended
been
king.
warlike,
in
peace, learned
made
it the
divine law, who
a
of
man
people
constitution.
363. Myth
ius,and
ing
Becom-
tempers
Refraining from
Romans.
war
his 'death
peace
Tul'lus Hos-til'i-us,
the
and
people
to
where
Rome,
an
end.
third
destroyed Alba
and
territory,
her
to
came
he
quered
king, connexed
Longa,2 an-
removed
settled
the
VESTAL
(Museum
VIRGIN
them
An'cus
364. Myth
Ancus
Martius
of
the
was
Tarquins
king,a
and
of
Servius
certain resident
of
Tullius.
"
While
in EtruTar-quin'i-i,
of 'Lu'ci-us
taking the name
Pris'cus (" the Elder "),he won,
Tar-quin'i-us
by his courteous
the favor of all. The people,therefore,
elected him king
manners,
ria, journeyed
to
Rome.
'"357.
There
He
after Ancus.
Latins,and made
carried
successors
the
under
Rome
326
Kings
the
Servius Tullius,
son
of
slave
mother,
succeeded
to
the throne.
reorganizedthe army,
his magnificent
Such were
his cityleader of Latium.
and made
But the plotsof his wicked
deeds.
daughter,Tullia,embittered
his old age ; and at last he was
openly murdered by her husband,
Tarquin the Elder's son, who, succeedingto the throne,gained the
The
the Proud."
hateful title of
Tarquin completed
younger
his father had
the public works
begun. On these buildingshe
till they cursed
the
compelled the citizens to labor unrewarded
to
came
Sib'yl,"
tyrant. One day a prophetessof Apollo,the
l with
nine books
of propheciesconcerningthe
Cumae
him from
She wished him to buy them, but he objectedto
future of Rome.
six of them, however, curiosity
the price. After she had burned
fear led him to pay the original
and religious
pricefor the remaining
of two men
of rank,
three.
He placedthem in charge of a college
the templeof Jupiteron the Capiwho kept them in a vault beneath
Servius built
Rome,
"
"
toline
Mount,
danger or
But
the end
consulted
and
them
whenever
the state
in especial
was
distress.
of
kinglyrule
drawing near.
was
The
so
last
Tarquin
oppressedthe
peopleby hard
Tarquiniusand
labor that
"
came
date
the
of
down
to
them
from
The
traditional
"
"
126.
Historical Sources
327
of it.
laws,1which
could
afterward
whom
Evidently Romulus,
but a deity.2 The
man,
fact been forgotten,
and
remembered
only were
ruled
toward
the
the
other
most
of
been
real
six.
to
as
story
belong
the
or
have
The
count
ac-
lives,however,
with
what
myths
elements
and
true
are
in
two
no
who
to
seem
is interwoven
and
worshipped,was not
the earlier kings have
close of the
persons.
of their
of all
names
historians.
those
They,
them,
by
the Romans
real
this time
To
period.
be used
of
what
the
are
fictitious.
366. Other
Sources.
"
Historical
the
In
accounts
"
THE
INSCRIPTION"
FORUM
given by ancient writers are
(In archaic characters ;
early religiouslaw.
of many
descriptions
customs,
From
photograph)
and buildingsas
institutions,
writers refer them
The
critically
unthey existed in historical time.
the
to
we
can
regal period. By careful examination
often distinguish
between
existed so earlyand
those thingswhich
those which
later into being. Thus
in
reconstruct
came
we
can
broad outline the publicand privatelifeof Rome
under the kings.
an
this task
In
of reconstruction
archaeology.
which
and
Such
Wall
derive
in Rome
One
Forum.
we
was
of these
religious
laws,engraved
Compare Lycurgus;
"
140.
450
on
discovered in the
B.C.
3
" 375.
II.
PEOPLE
THE
Kings
STATE
THE
AND
Romans.
of the
Character
and
367. Occupations
the
under
Rome
328
As
"
Rome
on
was
"
grand,but
rather with
URN
AN
from
Front
side
IN
THE
FORM
or
to sweep
wont
them
upon
down
his littlefield.
his warfare
life,
and
againstfamine,pestilence,
always
neighbors who Were
His laborious
HUT'
(Found
were
ing
feel-
of hatred
who
the
at
Columbia
"
made
stern and
mm
harassing,
and
in his dealingwith the gods, calculating
harsh,and, even
found little place
illiberal. Though love, pity,and benevolence
heroic virtues, he was
in his heart,he was
strong in the more
fathers,
the gods and the forebrave, and energetic
dignified,
; he revered
of his word.
he was
and obeyed the laws ; above all,
a man
and
We find the same
simplicity
368. The Family and the Gens.
made
act which
severityin the family. Marriage was a religious
the dwellingwas
hut with a single
the home
sacred.
a
Originally
"
"
like that
room
shown
in the illustration.
In time
it
to
came
have
rooms.
In early Latium
The
and
dwellingwas
Etruria
it was
customary
to
burn
the dead
living. The
urn
and
here
to
depositthe
illustrated is
Rome
united in
the
was
under
the
Kings
the Roman
was
curia
and
phratry (brotherhood),
In early
the Greek.1
the same
as
practically
institution
same
The
state.
as
the Greek
the
Rome
formed
tribe
foot and
the
troop of horse.
The
370.
The
regimentof
nobles
of each
commons
Social
commons
were
Classes.
called
ple-be'-
ians
the
nobles
other
of most
states.
to be
qualified
and priests.
senators, magistrates,
The king could ennoble
beian
any ple-
They
alone
were
whom
he
marked
considered
by
ciently
suffi-
wealth
or
personalmerit.
In generalthe plebeianswere
AN
ETRUSCAN
CURULE
CHAIR
like the
(CorsiniGallery, Rome)
modern
of most
commons
of Athens
and
or
the
Under
'"117.
2
The
word
plebeiansrefers
noun,
3
"
The
to
or
them
as
whereas
individuals,
"plebs," a
collective
class.
149-
the patricians
the only citizens and that the plebs
theory that originally
were
of various classes of aliens originatedabout
modern
1800
A.D., when
historical science was
into
stillin its crude beginnings,
and before sociologyhad come
existence. There is no evidence whatever
scholars are
for the theory,and progressive
referred to
of the subject teachers are
discardingit. For a detailed examination
Botsford,Roman
Assemblies, ch. ii (Macmillan, 1909).
were
composed
Societyand Government
to
protectionfor himself
secure
law,chose
noble
Thus
client.
as
many
them
on
the
sued.
their patron to
labored
him
The
himself to
clients of the
serve
as
patricians.
to
in
clients,
followed
and
war
in
him
he bound
of
the courts
defend
to
hand,
other
familybefore
for them
sue
injured,and
when
his
became
plebeians
The
their
and
33*
ported
sup-
public life,
in his fields
or
made
becoming
dignity. Though the original
less
doubtwas
objectof clientage
good, we shall see how,
after the
overthrow
kingship,it became
oppressive.1
371. The
King.
"
at
this
He
was
Government
of
the
ably
intoler-
the
The
only magistrate
time
the king.
was
elected for life by the
"
'"381.
In his walks
rule chair.
called
curule
the
he
was
each bearingan
lictors,
his
signified
axes
chair
Kings
accompaniedby ^twdye^attendants
axe
bound
in
bundle
of rods.
The
absolute
and
the
kings,and
Etruscan
the
under
Rome
332
borrowed
from
them
by
the
rulers
of
Rome.
When
the
king wished to
consult his people on questionsof publicinterest,
his criers went
about
the citywith ox-horns,calling
them to the co-mi' ti-um, or
placeof assembly. Here the curiae met, each in a group by itself,
and listened to the proposition
of the king,with the reasons
he might
372.
The
Then
each
"
curia voted
whether
it would
sustain
oppose
the
"
itself.
the
the
Religion.
The
373.
"
""
24, 42,
101.
Religion
then
under
Greek
influence.
It
mainly the
was
gods had
human
in
and
closed in peace.
the reignof Numa
they were
war
rarelythereafter
of Rome.
From
introduced
the
and
in the
333
latter which
form.1
double-faced
The
duced
intro-
In their earliest
god
who
blessed
ing
Dur-
shut,
long history
the Etruscans
Rome
great trinity,
Jupiter,
Minerva.
Juno,
Supplanting
be
the supreme
to
Janus,Jupitercame
guardianof the state ; Juno, his wife,
the patron spirit
of women
was
erva
; Minbecame
the goddess of war, skill,
and
wisdom.
likewise
deity,was
the
was
Vesta
Mars,
was
native Roman
god
of
the countless
mentioned
deities
here.
When
can
Vul-
war.
of the
forge.
hearth.
few
Of
only are
the
Romans
became
MINERVA
(Etruscan;
Archaeological Museum,
Florence)
identified with
Aphrodite,goddess of
love. The
attributes of the Greek deity they transferred to the
right.
native god. Several Greek deities they adopted outcorresponding
One
of the first thus
pansion
introduced
was
Apollo. This exof the native religionunder
foreigninfluence continued
not only during the kingshipbut throughoutRoman
history.
374.
held
made
"
"
Services
of
the
by priests fla'mi-nes,
pluralof fiamen
"
uncomfortable
conduct.3
1
Religious Officials.
101.
Among
2
"
chief
"
whose
deities
were
lives
were
3For
group
of
flamines,see illustration,
p.
459.
Rome
334
are
not
his
his
the
under
Kings
the
mud.
No
they afford
us
the
knows
one
reason
rules of
for such
conduct;
but
in the details
religion
and
of its cramping
life,
an
of
the mind.
effect upon
duties
'religious
of groups,
sacred persons.
care
tain
Cer-
were
the
of
colleges,
or
Such
were
Virgins,who
attended
to the worship of
Vesta, and kept the sacred
fire of the state in her temple.
The
collegeof augurs had
for
the duty of interpreting
the king the omens
sent by
vealed
Jupiterthrough which he rehis will regardingthe
the
six Vestal
These
state.
"
the
AN
ETRUSCAN
(Wall-paintingfrom
tomb
AUGUR
;
tfTarquinii,
Etruria)
of
flight
and
elements
of
from
pices
aus-
"
in
manifested
were
thunder
omens
birds and
in the
lightning.The
rowed
borthe auspices,
Etruria,
were
As the Romans
to a complex system.
were
developed in Rome
intensely
religious,
they gave strict obedience to what they believed
will. It was
fore,
thereto be the divine
mainly through the auspices,
that the magistratecontrolled the people.
The collegeof pontiffs
had charge of all religious
knowledge,
includingthe calendar,which had to do primarilywith fixingthe
sacred days. When
questionarose, the pontiffs
any difficultreligious
called upon to decide it. This generalsupervision
in all
were
max'imade
the chief of the college pon'ti-fex
matters
religious
of the most
mus
one
important persons in the state.
So influential were
these priests
that the government
might have
"
"
Topography
fallen into their
been
hands,as
335
often
"
E-A.RL.Y
lation outgrew
the
the
this
narrow
neighboringhills.
CapitolineMount,
Then
and
ROM
E3
" 357.
on
dwellings
of
possession
At
first
people could
because
they were
the
these low
drained
works
these
of
it
drained
Forum1,
it habitable.
the
But
of
separatedthe hills,
overflowed.
The
Tarquins
The
sewers.
famous
most
Max'i-ma
Clo-a'ca
the
built hundreds
was
Kings
valleyswhich
live in the
was
sewer"), which
the ground about
covers
not
the
under
Rome
336
or
arch which
great stone
after
years
the
downfall
now
of
the
of
the
"
"
"
the whole
surrounded
; but it is
of which
be true
remnants
B.C.,
than
more
now
are
with
well known
hundred
traditional
same
tribes and
the Greek
soldier had
found
who
Servian
account
Reforms
may
the
Tribes
and
as
the
the
Army.
creator
Wall,
century
Equally
"
of
reorganizerof
buy
to
take
heavier
the army.
census
and who
new
First,then,he
and
new
His
to know
this purpose
for the three old
For
The
objectwas to introduce
militarysystem alreadyadopted by Etruria. As each
and equip himself at his own
to arm
expense, Servius
the
it necessary
should
This
stillstanding,
was
376. The
wall.2
great stone
divided
the
" 364.
and
the
territory.
called tribes,
cityinto four districts,
tribe by
tribes.
Taking the census
CapitolineMount
on
the map
of Rome,
p. 335.
their
build
to
men
homes
small
and
trade
the
chief
which
event
led
Greeks
and
system,
This
the
too,
in
the
was
Servius
the
Rome
of
beginning
Suggestive
do
i.
Write
we
need
fact
resemble
Romulus
of
with
with
those
are
early
the
the
by
the
If
kings
it?
6.
at
of
Source
Roman
Book
II.
Religion.
of
8.
in
History,
that
has
foundation.
no
in
early
Time
Abbott,
22-29;
theory
the
Rome
the
the
military
Latium.
p.
285.
revolution
in
it
Has
early
with
Rome
Servian
pleased
dis-
be
to
what
reforms
Athens.
7.
windows?
any
the
does
place,
take
scribe
De-
What
chair
curule
the
of
respect
likely
the
Why
2.
view
in
most
detail
phalanx
the
what
should
in
in
(p. 330).
Etruscan?
Topics
Botsford,
History,
Roman
Government
"
resemble
chair
with
of
classes
were
Describe
Note-book
I.
people
the
In
3.
of
(p. 328).
top?
curule
Roman
Hills
head
Rome,
social
the
Compare
dwelling
the
Seven
superior
on
early
of
truth?
class
adoption
Roman
projections
did
Why
of
most
attending
the
the
profit
that
to
myths
Compare
What
5.
rule
the
4.
the
for
career.
similar
historical
Lycurgus?
the
would
class
little
Athens.
early
of
telligent
in-
Questions
chapter
something
contain
they
that
those
know
to
this
of
summary
political
great
their
and
situation
intercourse
adopt
to
the
of
City
Commercial
made
turn
the
life
city
of
advantage
made
Latins.
the
of
Kings
Hills, encouraged
manufacturing
market
Etruscans
the
on
Then,
enterprise.
the
under
Rome
338
of
Story
6-16;
of
Carter,
the
were
made
33,
Religion
"
up
Munro,
40-44;
1-61.
of Numa,
Pelham,
of
Outlines
Institutions,
Political
Roman
curiae
Kings.
Rome,
exclusively
ch.
of
ii.
man
RoThe
patricians
CHAPTER
EARLY
THE
XXX
(I)
REPUBLIC:
THE
PLEBEIANS
WIN
THEIR
RIGHTS
509-287
378. The
the
Magistrates.
with
equal
for the
the
chair
compelled
had
Often
disadvantage
senate,
under
state
dangerous
to
the
martial
six months
it
; and
the
safelythrough
the
as
cu-
were
the
over
the
as
power
double
the
at
rule
request
was
of
the
him
He
power.
His
cavalry.
term
bring
to
appointed
limited
was
the
to
government
the
within
command
resign his
crisis and
of
usually alternated
this
case,
a
to
powerful
consuls
same
by
authority
assembly
army
absolute
honor
an
was
the
each
rulers
too
the
the
seditions
such
the
command
to
to
As
attendants,
the
of the
with
of
capital cases
nominated
ruled
law,
his
exercised
or
In
state.
growing
most
and
appeal
an
wars
consuls
the
of horse
master
in
But
command
in
of
one
trappings
grant
The
possessed.3
daily.
enjoyed
to
way
(colleagues)
consuls
two
office from
field,however, they
in the
soldiers
king
judges
as
their
lictors.
to
gave
the
They
his
with
monarchy
annually by
assembly.
public act of the other,the two
any
state.
the
and
lifelongking,
hindered
of the
good
king, together
rule
veto
other
each
checking
the
B.C.
509
elected
were
right to
of
place
power
had
consul
In
republic.1
In
"
B.C.
fewest
possible days.
quaes'tors, appointed
Two
in the
treasury
1
The
dates
temple
for the
Also
only approximate.
than
2
"
371.
the
praetors,
already
3
curule
The
period
republican
not
some
centuries
fourth
of the
the
on
Forum.
B.C.,
assigned
events
the
based
to
the
on
the
ancient
fifth century
authors,
are
are
less certain
of later time.
those
Cf.
fifth and
of Saturn
consuls, kept
the
annually by
chief
the
and
noble,
the
the
magistrates
officers
curule
position
of this
aediles.
ennobled
those
were
class
If
him
"371339
were
man
and
who
the
sat
to
chairs.
curule
consuls, the
elected
all his
in
one
In
dictator, the
of these
descendants;
"
392.
offices
the
sors,
cenwas
Early Republic
The
340
The
chief
"
the
in the state, he
to in person.
the weakest
was
office.
political
All importantplacesof honor and trust
Senate.
379. The
filled by patricians,
and
pecially
esreligious were
military,political,
of
three
hundred
Now
consisting
members,
by senators.
in real power,
as
he could
hold
no
"
"
"
continued
the senate
It
king.
by
its decisions.
from
For
it
reason
abide
to
taken
were
experienceand ability.
the consuls,who at the
influential than
more
was
of
men
were
the
composed
was
leadingfamilies and
the
this
It
king ;
held under
to consult it and
greater obligations
under
felt themselves
of the
the downfall
gainedby
even
it had
assemblies,it was
380. The
Comitia
been
organizedin the
militarysystem was
to
Centuriata.
assembly
to
to
in
words, the
the
place of
every
of his armor
more
by
to furnish
each.
men
this
use
make
For
"
republic.
In the
curiae.2
had
the army
of
principle
the
classes according
fixed number
of
companies
it occurred
earlyrepublic
also
plan of organization
that
property
The
peopleinto
Their
time
some
Servius.1
of a hundred
(centuries)
been
devised
way
to the Romans
in the
motive
for their
seems
correspondto
soldier.
to
the
his worth
man
his
have
pleteness
com-
In other
is,to
as
voting
to be
influence.
political
In the new
the citizens were
comitia,accordingly,
grouped into
in all a
There
centuries,each century with a singlevote.
were
hundred and ninety-three
vided
dicenturies. As in the army, they were
into knightsand infantry
subdivided
were
; and the infantry
into five classes,
of their property. The
accordingto the amount
centuries of which
this assembly was
composed did not necessarily
contain
hundred
a
men
each, but varied in size. A century of
1
" 376.
"
372.
Assemblies
The
341
juniorswas
the sanction
of the Senate.
ORGANIZATION
OF
THE
COMITIA
CENTURIATA
SENIORS
JUNIORS
(17-46years) (above 46 years)
I. Class
40
II. Class
centuries
centuries
40
10
10
III. Class
10
10
IV.
Class
10
V.
Class
10
"
14
14
84 centuries
84
1
Cavalry
centuries
68 centuries
18
Substitutes
for the
killed and
"
wounded
Musicians
and
"
workmen
....
"
Landless
Total
.....
The
I93
knights (cavalry)voted
first,then
the first
or
centuries
wealthiest
majoritywas reached.
The knightsand the first class formed
a majority. If they agreed
they decided the question,so that the voting proceededno farther.
It rarelyhappened that all the centuries were
called upon
to give
their votes.
centuriata
his
the
rightto
The
of
These
more
property
comitia
formalities.
Roman
magistratesor
"" 37i f-
had, the
man
curiata continued
It had
a
effective became
vote.
magistratesafter their
the
make
considerations
When
to
sanction
attend
the
to
imperium
other
such
its organization,
authority. Whatever
little power
as
compared with
the senate.
to
real
assembly had
with
meet
and
election,1
longer a
no
to
retained
the
Early Republic
The
342
381. The
most
First
respectsthe
Secession
the
Plebs
peoplelost by the
common
kingshad
of
shielded them
from
the
(494-493 B.C.).
"
overthrow
monarchy.
The
later
But
of
In
gan
bepatricians
They exacted
"
" 395.
Plebeian
He
have
may
who
were
nobles
holding it,and
would
not
permit
that
asserted
had
he
his real
of
objectwas to
the
office expired,
condemned
was
The
and
to take
wished
to
strong
distribute
to
his
publicland
it among
to become
from
the
the rich,
The
poor.
offered
measure
law.
it
"
death.
were
384. Establishment
could not
of the
343
They
merely to win popularity, that
himself king. When, therefore,
make
his term
quaestors prosecutedhim for treason, and he
fate of Cassius
how
some
Progress
shows
how
helplessthe plebeiansstillwere,
their oppressors.
of the Comitia
(471B.C.). Though
"
the
pices,
plebeianassemblythrough the austhey with their clients attended the meetings to impede the
who owned
land.
business.
no
Among these dependentswere
many
To destroythe influence of the latter class,Pub-hTi-us
a
Vo'le-ro,
and the assemblyof centuries
tribune in 471 B.C., induced the senate
to pass a law which
providedthat the plebeiancomitia should vote
As
by tribes,each of the twenty-one tribes to cast a singlevote.
enrolled in the tribes,
the landless were
were
cluded
exonly landowners
from the assembly. The newly organizedgathering,
called
had as yet no
the comitia tri-bu'ta,
authorityover the state, but
In the same
met
simply for the transaction of plebeianbusiness.
of tribunes was
later was
doubled, and somewhat
year the number
the nobles
increased
control
Tributa
to ten.
(462-452 B.C.). Up to
this time the laws were
unwritten.
The patricians,
who were
alone
them
down
acquaintedwith them, handed
orallyfrom father to
This exclusive knowledge they used for the oppression
of the
son.
of his
commons
judge decided cases in favor of men
; the patrician
justice.
own
rank, and no plebeiancould quote the law as proof of the inThe
tribunes began therefore to urge the codification of
the laws in the interest of the common
people. Their aims were
favored by one
of
of the patricians,
Appius Claudius,a man
heartily
and ability.Under
the influence of Appius and
rare
intelligence
the tribunes,the senate yielded,
and sent a committee
of
to some
the Greek
of Italyto examine
states
their codes of law.
On their
the centuries elected ten men
with the power
return
(de-cem'm-ri)
of consuls,for the purpose
of writingthe laws.
During their term
385.
The
Struggle for
Written
Laws
"
Early Republic
The
344
one
suspended.
(451-449 B.C.).
board of ten, the assembly
to the new
were
eligible
Though plebeians
filled it with patricians.Before the year ended
they had engraved
and
ten tables of the law, which, after ratification by the senate
people,they set up in the Forum, where all could read them.
As they had not finished writingthe laws,and as their government
386. The
gave
the
Decemvirs;
Tables
Twelve
was
decided
to
elect decemvirs
for
"
"
other
members
of the board
consuls
Ho-ra'-ti-us,
in 449
Then
Va-le'ri-us and
tables.
387. Contents
of the
Twelve
Tables.
"
Intermarriagebetween
and plebeianswas
patricians
prohibitedby one of these laws, as
it had alreadybeen by custom.
With this exceptionthe Twelve
Tables
equalizedthe privaterightsof all,and continued to be the
fountain of justice
for centuries.
after
As a part of their education thereRoman
them to memory,
a text-book
boys had to commit
useful than entertaining.The following
of the more
more
are
a few
laws :
interesting
Let none
make
of gold in funerals.
But if the teeth of the
use
deceased are fastened with gold,let none
be prosecutedfor burying
or
burning the deceased with that gold.
"
"
The
346
restricted
rightto
veto
Early Republic
all acts
of the
the assemblies.
Tribunes
(445 B.C.); the Consular
(444-367 B.C.). A few years after the consulshipof Valerius and
Horatius,a law of the tribune Can-u-lei'us permittedmarriage beThose wealthy and influential plesocial classes.
the two
beians
.tween
in a positionto profit
who alone were
by this reform looked
to office.
with the patricians
as
a stepping-stone
upon intermarriage
They reasoned rightly;for immediately after the passage of the
formed a plan of admitting them to
Canuleian law, the patricians
office,
though not to the consulship. It was agreed that whenever
the senate
determined, militarytribunes l with consular power
so
should be elected for the
consular
tribunes
briefly,
or, more
and that both classes should be alike eligible
year in placeof consuls,
often
so
to the office. The
plebeian candidates,however, were
of the party came
to regard
defeated that at length the leadingmen
the consular tribunate as a disadvantageto their cause.
(443 B.C.)and of the Military
390. Institution of the Censors
Quaestors (421 B.C.). All the powers of the consuls did not pass
Law
Canuleian
389. The
"
"
"
"
to their
created
the
substitutes,
two
new
consular
tribunes
; for in 443
B.C.
the Romans
chief
whose
the censors,
patricianmagistrates,
of the citizens and their property and
a register
months
For
long time
to
with
meet
B.C.
two
business
greater
in the occasional
to take
commanded
remained
censors
in their
success
military
quaestors
of the army.
militarytribunes
power"
trates.
patricianmagisstrictly
direction,
however, the plebeianleaders began
the
In another
into office.
instituted
were
At the
strugglefor
same
to attend
time it was
office.
each
election of from
legion. The
agreedthat plebeians
change mentioned
421
to the financial
were
In
the consuls.
in the text
"militarytribunes
with
Six
consisted
consular
The
also should
be
Licinian
Law
the office of
to
eligible
-347
quaestor, whether
civil or
military.
(367 B.C.). But the leaders of the
desired especially
the office of consul thrown
to have
commons
Many plebeians,
too, felt oppressedby debts,and
open to them.
discontented with the way in which the authorities disposed
were
of the publicland.
When
they acquiredland in war, they either (i)granteda part
forthwith to settlers,
or
(2)leased,or (3)sold it. To these ways of
disposingof the land the poor did not object; but (4)the larger
left unsurveyed,and the authorities proclaimedthat all
part was
who
it on
condition of handing over
wished might
to
occupy
the government
of the grainand a fifth of the fruit proa tenth
duced
each year.
those who
flocks
these
From
on
lands,a
kept
share of the animals,both oxen
and sheep,was
required.In spite
of the liberal form of the proclamation,
however,it is clear that
the patricians
and wealthyplebeians
alone exercised the privilege
of
occupying or
possessing portionsof the unsurveyed
land.
They bought, sold, and bequeathed it,tillin time they
Licinian
The
391.
Law
"
"
"
"
"
look
to
came
their small
it
upon
rich
"
"
as
their
satisfied with
Not
own.
this advantage,
often ejectedhis
proprietor
farms, which
he then
poor neighborsfrom
There is
to his estate.
annexed
wonder
proposeda
367
to
support.
B.C.
Its
(1)There
consuls
two
reform
After
were
provisions
shall be
no
consular
more
shall henceforth
follows
as
be
"
tribunes,and
of the
one
plebeian.
shall be
deducted
shall be
paid in
from
three
the
equal
instalments.
(3)No
the
the
surplus among
one
(4)No one
sheep on
1
The
the
poor
provisionwas
in
Roman
acre
(jugerum)was
seven-acre
than
about
acres
made
of
(ju'ge-ra)
for
distributing
lots.
hundred
cattle
or
ours.
dred
five hun-
The
348
The
392.
the law
was
Effects
but
Early Republic
of the
Licinian
Law.
superficial
remedy
The
"
second
clause
of
the cause
of poverty.
nothing to remove
still eager to retain in their own
The patricians
hands as
were
much
authorityas possible.The senate accordinglywould not
permit the first clause to go into effect tillthe peoplehad consented
to the institution of three new
: the prae'tor,
patricianmagistrates
who
who were
was
to
judge in civil cases, and two curule aediles,
and
the markets, and the
publicbuildings,
supervisethe streets
After
the consulship,the
to
gaining admission
public games.
in winning their way to other
leaders of the plebshad less difficulty
placesof honor and power in the state. At the end of the century
find them
of pontiffs
and
to all offices and to the college
we
eligible
of augurs.
The opening of the consulshipto plebeiansgradually
it consisted
not
enlargedthe nobility.Hen'ceforth
only of patricians
but also of all plebeianswho
admitted
to a curule
were
new
office,1 themselves called
men,"
togetherwith their
In other words, the patricians
descendants.
and the plebeians
ceased to be the political
(i)
parties;thereafter the partieswere
the nobles,who
office-holders and their descendants,
and (2)
were
it did
"
"
"
who
the commons,
were
the other
citizens.
the more
honor would
Understanding that the fewer they were
be theirs to enjoy,the nobles strenuously
opposed the admission of
members.
hold
new
They preferredto have one of their number
the consulship
four or five times,and other high offices in addition,
rather than to receive new
into their privileged
men
society. But
when
in
a law2
was
passedthat no one should hold the same officewiththan one
office at a time, a greater
a periodof ten
years, or more
number
of new
men
was
elected,and, in consequence,
necessarily
the nobility
became
of the people as a whole.
more
representative
393.
Liberation
of the
Assemblies.
"
While
the
of the
leaders
tribal
stated
above
assembly
" 378, n.
The
was
that
valid
no
act
unless
by
the
2.
Genucian
Law,
342
B.C.
or
of
senate.
Summary
of Development
349
that time
assembly succeeded in shaking off this control. From
free to pass whatever
it was
laws it saw
fit. Even
constitutionally
more
important was the emancipationof the tribal assembly. In
287 B.C., a law of the dictator Hor-ten'si-us declared that without
resolution of the plebs in their tribal
the consent
of the senate
a
assembly should have the force of law.
the assemblies
free from the senate
were
now
Constitutionally
and were
the sovereign
in the state.
In form the government
power
therefore a democracy ; but in fact it remained
was
aristocratic,
for the senate
composed
exercised
actual
more
than
power
ever.
As
it
was
394.
OF
most
CONSTITUTIONAL
THE
(509-287 B.C.)
DEVELOPMENT
coming
bewere
During this period the duties of government
and
and
for that reason
the number
of
difficult,
offices gradually increased.
At first (i) there
were
(a) two consuls,who
chief executives,judges, and commanders
in war;
were
(b) two quaestors,
whose
chief duty was
the care
of the treasury, and who
were
appointed by
the consuls ; and lastly(c)an occasional
dictator,who took entire charge of
the government
and ruled with absolute
Next
instituted
(2) were
power.
Magistrates.
1.
more
tribunes
plebs for
of the
first two,
"
numerous
the
the
protectionof
oppression.
At
to ten.
gradually increased
(3) The two plebeian
aediles were
their assistants.
for compiling the laws,
(4) The decemvirs
and (5) the consular
tribunes, to act in certain years as substitutes for the
vals
consuls,were
temporary expedients. (6) The two censors, elected at inter-
of about
In
time
number
five years,
and
census
militaryquaestors
Two
made
of the
have
appointed
military chest
charge
judge in civil cases.
streets, markets, and
with
were
them
(9)
The
public
and
the
to
Soon
games.
in this work.
The
morals
of the
accompany
the
supplies. (8)
curule
two
of the inhabitants.
assessment
the
aediles
the
number
The
citizens.
(7)
and
army
praetor
had
was
supervisionof
plebeian aediles were
of quaestors
and
to
a
the
sociated
as-
of praetors
graduallyincreased.
2.
"
the
Assemblies,
The
comitia
assembly
"
the
curiata.
comitia
(i) Under
(2) About
the
but one
kings there was
assembly
the beginning of the republic a new
centuriata
was
"
"
374-
instituted.
In
the
former
there
The
350
the
equalityamong
was
of their wealth
the
"
Early Republic
in the latter the citizens voted
members,
property
more
had,
man
the
the
his vote
more
The
in the order
counted
question
people.
than a
placeof the curiate assembly, leavingthe latter hardly more
third
kind
in
the
of
form.
the
tia
comia
republic
(3) Early
mere
assembly
introduced.
At first it attended
tributa
ness,
was
solelyto plebeian busilaws gave
it the right,with the consent
but the Valerian-Horatian
of
this
for
the
In
all
the senate, to legislate
had
state.
an
assembly
equal
curiata
the
comitia
but
which
in
the
the
to
as
came
advantage
great
vote,
;
tribal
in
the
the
fact
that
it
from
was
organizationlay
plebeians
presided
inclined than patriciansto
over
by the tribunes, who were
naturallymore
laws favorable
Soon
introduce
gan
to the commons.
patricianmagistrates belikewise to call the people together in this form
of assembly for making
distinction
laws
and
for electinginferior magistrates. The
between
the
of organization; for all practical
of assembly is mainly one
three forms
consider
identical
in composition.
them
we
may
purposes
and tribal assemblies,
After the institution of the centuriate
the next step
in the
took
decision
of the
before
comitia
centuriata
the
"
"
their liberation
was
constitutional
law
of 287
3. The
from
right.
which
the control
This
the senate
emancipation
was
exercised
completed by
over
the
them
by
Hortensian
B.C.
described
In the way
above
the senate
lost its constitutional
rightto control the assemblies.
Meanwhile, however, (i) through
Senate.
"
before.
supreme.
4. The
At
Rights
(i)lacked
from
all
was
to win
virate
At
"
protectiondue
and
political
Twelve
period it
our
of the Plebs.
the
(a) through
of the
close of
the
the institution
Tables.
admission
of the
the
the
offices.
plebeian.
little in these
rather
than
became
consular
then
The
of the
leading plebeians
(i)to the decemeligible
tribunate, and (3) to the
declared
that
one
consul
had
ways
al-
disappeared.
far the
most
influential
main
democracy.
and
office-holdingnobility,
by
was
offices and
conflicts.
toward
This
republicthe plebeians
ward
important gain. Afterthrown
rapidly
priesthoods were
In the early part of this struggle the rightof intermarriage
open to them.
between
the two
social classes was
established
by the Canuleian law (445
marriage
able to form by interB.C.). The alliances which the leadingplebeianswere
with patrician families were
a great help in the strugglefor political
rights. Beyond the securityof person and property, the masses
gained
to
be
chief aim
the
legally,
as
They
for
the
not
and
debarred
citizens,
(2) were
the
They gained
tion
protecnecessary
tribunes,(6) through the publication
them
Thereafter
to
beginning of
the
religiousoffices.
actually,though
was
the
tendency was
leading men
The
old
distinction
always
toward
in the state
between
aristocracy
formed
new,
beians
patriciansand ple-
Government
and
Suggestive
did
How
i.
(2)
the
consuls
two
date
the
From
as
to
list
the
with
laws
all
the
brief
laws
the
of
The
Institutions,
II.
of
Government
The
24-29
Ihne,
Decemvirs.
"
Rome,
340.
76-79;
Ihne,
Early
Early
Early
Rome,
Botsford,
Rome,
the
and
of
in
people
the
that
time?
mentioned
why?
infer
we
7.
the
each.
and
may
in
of
of
Make
chapter,
the
each.
Topics
Republic.
chs.
Story
ch.
showing
table
people,
the
what
of
functions
"387,
the
prefer
magistrates,
Make
trates,
magis-
the
Romans
4.
quoted
of
contents
the
the
each.
subjects
Note-book
I.
of
(i)
affect
did
representative
constitutional
of
statement
table
of
Tables
character
on
Why
organization,
most
Twelve
the
and
customs
the
was
2.
functions
the
republic
to
Make
composition,
the
of
monarchy
3.
and
351
Questions
people?
the
king?
single
showing
the
of
assembly
Which
6.
(3)
senate,
to
from
change
institution
of
assemblies,
5.
the
People
xviii;
Abbott,
"
Roman
Political
x-xiii.
of
Duruy,
Rome,
90-92
History
of
History
Rome,
i.
of
327"
XXXI
CHAPTER
REPUBLIC
EARLY
THE
509-264
I.
Romans
in
begin
the
through
downfall
had
longer
strife.
the
Under
of
the
Cassius,3
with
the
alliance;
defence
for
of
the
with
they
their
hills.
later
now
they
had
and
their
year
the
homes,
pillaged
Aequians
burned
farmhouses
story is told
See
"
This
that
once
the
and
the
united
year
Rome
the
brief
the
Spurius
war
time, negotiated
(486-405 B.C.).
Volscians
the
lives
against
their
renewed
Latins
long,
hard
the
off
the
hungry
tribes
from
their
and
352
the
cattle.
peasants'
consul
in
struggle
they entrapped
for the
the
acknowledged
a
greatest
his
army
plebs.
3
in which
civil
been
357.
is the
no
plebeians
The
long
had
state
(493 B.C.).4
drove
of the
tinue
con-
put down
to
After
peace
Roman
pansion
ex-
and
the
Sabines, descending
and
for
had
of
begin
territorial
neighbors.
cities
and
to
soon
mountain
The
and
Romans
after
patricians
statesman
gradually
republic
and
war
revolted.
of
preceding chapter.
kings they
Aequians
the
in
all its
perpetual
the
the
condition
were
this
Rome;
whose
the
property
Year
from
Roman
the
that
the
Latins,
League
well
was
but
leading
Latin
Wars
396.
-It
Rome,
the
lead
to
attacks
from
of
weakened
ruler
they
While
"
the
tracing
by
between
to
In
founding
covered
monarchy
country
came
headship
of
of
league.2
the
dissensions
the
danger
with
single strong
The
exposed
Italy.
Latins.
and
above,
over
period
the
government
described
way
power
must
we
The
the
their
extending
the
ROMAN
BECOME
with
; Alliance
improving
were
B.C.
LATIUM
AND
of Rome
plebeians
in
ETRURIA
Weakness
395.
the
SOUTH
ITALY
IN
SUPREME
BECOMES
(II) ROME
first time
had
tribunes
of the
" 383.
Aequians and
in
senate, nominated
the
commission
him
in his
he leaned
brow,
the
Tiber
his
rural
some
spade. Then,
his four-acre
to
relieved the
Rome,
to
his
He
Finding
took
and
dust
from
command.
the enemy,
and
booty. So brilliant
with
grantedhim
as
his
Without
humbled
besiegedarmy,
troops laden
farm.
he
delay he
the
across
tunic,
engaged in
on
353
the other
valley. Thereupon
Volscians
turned
re-
was
triumph.
grand procession,
2
Sacred Way
through the
to the temple of Jupiter. In front
Forum, then up the Capitoline
the captiveleaders of the Aequians; men
followed with the
were
standards
of the enemy;
then came
the triumphal car in which
Behind
the car the soldiers
robes.
sat the generalclad in splendid
marched
carryingthe booty,singingthe hymn of triumph,while
the citizens spreadtables before their houses for the entertainment
of the army.
halted before the temple,that the
The procession
of gratitude
generalmight bring the chief of the gods an offering
for the victory. Then, resigning
his command
the sixteenth day
after taking it, he returned
to his farm.
Though not genuine
the story of Cincinnatus givesa true pictureof the simple
history,
life of those earlytimes and of the triumph of a victorious general.
After Cincinnatus,
the Romans
had stillmany
ful
years of unsuccesswith the Aequians.
war
Meantime
the Volscians,
southeast
who
lived in the mountains
of the Hernicans,descendinginto Latium, overran
the country to
moved
accordingly,
within
few
miles
along the
of Rome.
At
one
the mountaineers
time
help!
end
of
cityas
" 378.
2 A
A street
in the
city,indicated
on
the map,
p. 457.
Rome
354
it.
took
This
afterward
conquest doubled
extended
398. The
Sack
music
the north
on
of Rome
OF
this time
of the
SO-CALLED
THE
eleven
in
fought
the
helmets
bore
panic;
no
one
news
of
Etruria
tall warriors
"
"
SERVIAN
with
harsh
din."
WALL
photograph)
dense
and
masses;
gashed the
their
heads
soon
barbarians
through
from
In
"
(From
Etruria.
(390 B.C.).
Wherever
clamors
REMNANT
Shortlybefore
which
territory,
Ci-min'i-an Hill.
to the
by the Gauls
flashing
eyes.
discordant
and
the Roman
first came
Rome
Supreme in Italy
Becomes
the
thought of
disaster
to
" 360.
of the
Romans.
battle,fled in
refuge in
Rome.
defending the
swords
enormous
walls.
terror
deserted
The
The
citywas
The
cut
The
from
Veii;
in
soldiers and
First
the younger
The
hurried
senators
of the
rest
Samnite
to
the
city was
War
355
citadel
sacked
to
and
strengthenits
fences.
de-
burned.
"
Each
rubbish.
man
place. Within
year
wherever
he found
crooked
convenient
streets,arose
from
the ashes.
To
"
for Rome.
success
enemies,and
On
either
every
side she
victorious
was
over
her
thorough
territoryor secured more
control of the lands she had alreadyacquired. In this period she
into contact
with Samnium, the most
came
powerfulnation in the
interior of the peninsula. For a time the two
states were
allies,
but afterward quarrelledover
the possessionof Cap'u-a,
a
wealthy
cityof Campania. As the Samnites threatened to conquer Capua,
this citygave itself up to Rome
in return
for protection.By accepting
these terms
the Romans
brought upon themselves their
first
with
war
The
won
new
Samnium.
two
Writers
B.C.
who
Scholars
now
agree,
events
is
no
to Servius Tullius ;
earlier than the fourth
and
toils,rarelyover-elated by
severe
misfortune.
They
strugglewas
were
one
with
fought,therefore,
the
war,
success
or
inspired,too, with
the
for home
civilization of the
and
Supreme in Italy
Becomes
Rome
356
Romans
not
and
cast
down
by
idea
that
the
of the
country, in defence
wealth
They
plainagainstencroachingbarbarism.
As a result of the
and success.
great spirit
only retained Capua, but gained control of
nearlyall Campania.
(340-338B.C.). In 341 B.C. Rome
and
Samnium
suddenly made peace and alliance;but the Latins
continued
the war.
and other allies of Rome
Finallythe Latins,
demanded
as
thinkingthat they were
strong as the metropolis,
that they be made
citizens of Rome
and that one
consul and half
The
400.
the
Great
Latin
should
senators
War
be
"
chosen
from
their number.
The
demand
"
"
War
the
followed.
The
the Latins
and
Romans
militaryorganizationand
same
one
or
the
Latin
the Roman
extended
the
same
arms,
discipline.Rome, however,
to a singlecityin opposing a
the
war
series of
to
successful close in
then dissolved
sieges. She
League.2
Admission
401.
had
State.
from
of South
"
The
now
territory
the Ciminian
the control
under
Hill in Etruria
Campania
to
of Rome
Vesuvius
Mount
into
in
determined
and
to
therefore
organizethem
Livy, viii.4 f
""
to
and
3S7"
admit
their
39S"
most
of them
in
territory
3
"
3Q7.
to
new
full citizenship,
tribes.
4
" 376.
Second
Latin
few
Samnite
War
357
inferior to
the rest.
They
were
given the
Thus
their citizenship
rightto vote or to hold office at Rome.
limited. The Etruscan
mitted
was
city of Caere had already been adstate and
to the Roman
placed in this position. Such
described as citizens without
people were
suffrage cives sine
they were
suffragio.Like the other citizens,
requiredto perform
militaryservice. A largepart of Campania had fallen under the
1
likewise placed in the
Roman
power ; and the inhabitants were
class of inferior citizens. Whatever
the grade of their citizenship,
same
the peopleadmitted
to the Roman
state retained their towns
in local matters.2
with self-government
admitted
the
to
Roman
but
citizenship,
not
were
"
All the
Latins,however, were
Tibur, Praeneste,and one or two
them
and
were,
like Tibur
of alliance
and
there
the
was
Second
peace
CONQUEST
Samnite
War.
The
fortunes
tide turned
Samnite
of
B.C.
fifteen years
During this time
(326-304).
War
Rome
varied.
war
in favor
at the
compelled them
1
between
leader,enticed
ambush
Samnite
ITALY
OF
For
"
and
Samnium.
Rome
an
between
Romans
made
the
made
were
colonies.4
338-264
The
cities 3 remained
II. THE
402.
state.
Several
Rome.
called Latin
were
old Latin
other
taken
not
Among
Latium.
the consuls
them
were
Pass, in
surrender.
" 39Q.
Sutrium
first Rome
of Samnium.
Cau'dine
to
At
As
and
The
In
was
321
successful;then
B.C.
the
Pon'ti-us,
into
fortythousand men
valleyof the Apennines,and
with
a
consuls,in the
explainedin "
405.
Nepete in Etruria
of the
name
*
"
357-
state,
swore
to
the
in
Supreme
Becomes
Rome
358
enemy's
Italy
Then
of peace.
terms
yoke
was
formed
two
spears
the top.
"
than
the
peopleat
would
Accordinglythey
have
soon
fixed
enemy.
All
knights,who
home
been
found
were
the surrender
the
allowed
were
was
detained
a
entire destruction
for
pretext
the Caudine
Pass, the
a
to
return
as
tages.
hos-
iation
greater humilof the
breaking the
army.
treaty.
dragged on from
to settle and organize
the policy of Rome
It was
year to year.
lishing
in her enemy
and to hem
by estabevery foot of conqueredground,
the border.
fortress colonies on
Although the Samnites
and the Umbrians, Rome
now
reenforced by the Etruscans
were
in all her battles. The consuls ravaged Etruria,
with success
met
ended in 304
The war
of Samnium.
and capturedthe strongholds
had suffered great losses,
they remained
B.C. ; though the Samnites
free,and renewed the former treaty.
War
Third
Samnite
(298-290B.C.). In the Third
403. The
horde
all the Italic peoples,the Etruscans, and
a
Samnite War
decisive battle
The
took part againstRome.
of Celtic invaders
was
(295 B.C.). Here by a hardfought at Sen-ti'num in Umbria
Deserted by
won
victoryRome broke the leagueof her enemies.
for five more
their allies,
the Samnites
held out resolutely
years.
who
At last Man'i-us
Cu'ri-us Den-ta'tus,
a peasant
by personal
them
to sue
merit had raised himself to the consulship,
compelled
for peace.
now
They were
dependent allies of Rome.
The
the mountains
the plainand
strife between
began in the
with the Aequians and the Volscians as earlyat least as the
wars
beginningof the republic.1In time it culminated in a fierce struggle
between
Rome
and
Samnium, which, with brief interruptions,
than half a century. The
now
raged for more
long conflict was
Cities
ended.
It had desolated
Italyfrom Etruria to Lucania.
and villages
in ruins; pastures and cornfields had become
a
were
lonelywaste; thousands of warriors had fallen in battle and thouAfter
the disaster at
war
"
these
they called
as
So
miles of Rome.
great had
been
his
house
Pyrrhus
he
these words
In
take
would
we
forth the
set
of the interests of
care
battle
another
won
crossed
was
As'cu-lum
at
"
to his
he
senate
Another
friends,
aid
Sicilyto
over
to
; but
even
the enemy,
dor,
his ambassaCin'e-as,
on
Claudius
Caecus,
:
proceedings
make
Italy. Failingto
returned
by eloquenceor bribery,Cineas
report that the Roman
with
peace
Appius
may
join
forty
recent
with
peace
principlethat thereafter
then
and
home,
return
to
within
came
shameful
againstthese
to
carried
blind,was
old and
statesman
of the
losses in the
own
dash
began
now
till he
spoke eloquentlyin
sudden
Allies
victorious
the
Italy
beasts,when
enormous
horse
Thessalian
in
Supreme
Becomes
Rome
360
win
to
him."
Rome
his
his master
Let
cause
with
the
there,he failed
to
from
the island.
erans
Returning with a few vetdislodgethe enemy
defeated
at Ben-e-ven'tum
to Italy,he was
(275 B.C.)by
parture
After his deto his home.
Dentatus, and thereupon withdrew
surrendered,and
Tarentum
of all
Italysouth
mistress
became
Rome
soon
of the Rubicon.
Suggestive Questions
Write
i.
the
triumph
the
increase
location
of
of
Rome's
territoryto
of all the
the
conquest
the
on
peoples mentioned
Rubicon
River,
River, Ciminian
Heraclea, Beneventum, Sentinum, Lacinian
of the
Allia
5. Describe
the
shape
this
the structure
of
period
the
formed
of the Roman
stones, and
part of
how
the
are
long
map.
on
p.
285. 2. Describe
facing p. 353 show
map
of Veil.
4.
Describe
Describe
the
the location
Promontory,
wall illustrated
they arranged?
conflict between
on
Tarentum.
What
p. 354.
6. Which
the
wars
plain and
is
of
the
mountains?
Note-book
I. The
Source
II.
Second
Samnite
Topics
War.
Botsford, Story of Rome,
Duruy,
History
of Rome, i. 425-445.
74-77;
Pyrrhus.
Botsford, 77-83; Plutarch,Pyrrhus.
Book,
"
"
72-77
Munro,
XXXII
CHAPTER
I.
Rome
citizens.
these
enjoy
to
Such
advantages.
notice
let
us
so
near
or
of
that
lived
Others
persons
the
from
Roman
could
they
sellingand
and
municipium
mu-ni-cip'i-a. A
called
Rome,
its courts.
before
disputes settled
their
in
under
privilege,ranging
First
of that
markets
the
use
lived
of them
Many
of
grade
citizenshipto subjection.
full Roman
territoryunited
the
Within
"
of every
communities
were
ORGANIZATION
Citizens.
Roman
The
PROGRESS
ITALY;
CIVILIZATION
IN
405.
IN
RULE
ROMAN
OF
ORGANIZATION
THE
could
have
far away
too
had
towns
of their
the
best
standing
own
was
our
municipality. It had a government
as
practically the same
of its own,
consisting of magistrates, council, and an assembly
like a
The
all the citizens.
town-meeting," but
assembly was
of
"
oftener
met
magistrates
the
was
and
had
and
voted
the
in
vocations
there.
As
and
Rome
to
to
go
as
candidates
they
office.
for
and
town,
own
assemblies
the
character
Athens.
their
had
followed
or
of such
example
An
at
or
had
it
The
law
their
citizens,they
Roman
were
in
vote
Rome
at
it elected
as
general
usually
municipium
government,
origin and
In
popular assembly
of their
courts
the
with
do
laws.
on
such
of
inhabitants
settled
the
as
same
to
more
it
cases
several
a
right
present themselves
municipium
was
Tusculum.
municipia, however,
Other
their
own
standing.
a
right to
but
not
to
mentioned
termed
local
self-government,
Their
inhabitants
trade
vote
as
"
with
or
an
citizens
the
to
hold
example
without
of
at
this
the
"
401.
361
to
grade.
those
of Rome
intermarry
capital.
class.1
suffrage."
1
citizens
and
citizens
office
than
less
no
also
were
other
inferior
of
were
The
Caere
had
They
of
highest
they
with
has
inhabitants
had
them,
been
were
Organizationof
The
362
Rarely to punish a
and
government
Such
Citiet
The numbers
="
are
Rule
Rome
rebellion,
prefectto
in
deprivedit
rule it with
pre'fect-ures.
They
than
cities
two
1They
War
absolute
were
power.
the lowest
which
were
treated
in this way,
out
citizens withhear
and
of
no
their
more
dation
degra-
only temporary.
was
Punic
of self-
the dates
in name
grade of municipia. The inhabitants were
but in reality
suffrage,
they were
subjects. We
1
Italy
Latin
Colony.
Military Road.
"
"
called
were
Colony.
Other
out
sent
communities
for
town
Roman
were
Anagnia,
deserted
to
which
rebelled
Hannibal.
in 306
B.C., and
Capua, which in
the
Second
Allies
kind
363
the Roman
community
usuallyof three hundred citizens
colony. It was always a garrison,
It was
with their families,
placedin some
newly conquered town.
generallyon the coast, and the garrisonwas for the protectionof
from
the natives,was
A third of the land, taken
the seaboard.
and they were
transferred to the new
settlers,
given full control of
the natives
the government.
as
They stood therefore toward
The natives were
out
withnobles toward commons.
givencitizenship
ship.
the rightto vote ; and graduallythey acquiredthe full citizen-
There
The
406. The
with
do
more
one
was
Allies
Roman
customs, and
and
Latins
only.
Those
nearest
old Latin
and
Italians.
citizens
sympathy
"
them
distinction between
the allies.
the few
of Roman
We
to
now
to the Romans
the
were
Thus
"
are
the
Latins.
colonists
far
in
They
had
appeared
dis-
have had
we
take
then
under
to
eration
consid-
blood,language,
(i) of
yet accepted
consisted
not
Roman
"
civilization to
the
natives.
in
every
the Samnites.
rightsto Rome,
restricted.
Rome,
but
in the
As
gradation
Neither
of
whereas
Latins
were
case
of
Rome.
There
was
among
inferior
little
were
privilege;some
the independenceof others
Italians paid taxes or
nor
furnished
"
4"i.
the number
was
more
tribute
of
to
troops
The
364
fixed
by treaty
Those
the
on
with their
their
of
in
serve
or
whatever
allies had
All the
crews.
the conclusion
had
might
wage.
furnished
cities,
ships
and
equip,provision,
to
voice,however,
no
Italy
Rome
wars
Greek
the
coast, especially
troops. They
own
wars
to
in
Rule
of Roman
Organization
pay
in the declaration
of treaties.
The
"
the
this time
B.C.,
"
Egypt,
were
Macedon,
and
and
2.
3.
with
the
foremost
which
Seleucid
of the East
powers
at
Rome.
of the
407. Members
I. Roman
Citizens
1.
"
The
Roman-Italian
League
Those
and courts.
livingin or near
Rome, using its markets
Citizens of municipia of the first class
with local self-government
and the rightto vote
and hold office at Rome.
Citizens of municipia of the second
local self-govclass
with
ernment,
but
without
the right to vote
hold
office at
and
to
"
"
Rome.
4.
Citizens
neither
of
municipia of the
self-governmentnor
with
class, or prefectures
hold
office
at
and
vote
right to
third
the
"
Rome.
5. Citizens
II.
of
Roman
colonies
"
"
333-
in
the
easy
privilegeslike inhabitants
leadershipof
access
to
Rome
the
in war,
Roman
of
not
ship.
citizen-
Military Reform
old Latin
few
a.
Subjects.
"
408. MilitaryReform
Legion.
"
of the
and
pay,
themselves
equipped
according
their
to
the
In
means.
to the
privileges.
served
soldiers
The
in
another
Italians,less
2.
with
towns.
colonies.
b. Latin
III.
365
war
Veii,however,
the
began to pay
thus
for service,
them
ough
a thormaking possible
change in the
military system ; for
senate
the
henceforth
had
who
citizens,
been
tomed
accus-
short
to
mer
sum-
campaigns, could
when
the
as
a
entire year,
and
necessary,
the
serve
man
as
poor
the rich could
ITALIAN
buy
complete equipment.
Hence
the
distinction
of the
The
line,and
when
same
vase-painting,about
of classes in the
line of the
he became
lines,besides
armor
300
B.C.
and
way,
thence
heavy infantry,
veteran,
defensive
javelinsfor hurling,and
in the
; British
Museum)
in the arrangement
the front
(From
SOLDIER
troops gave
passedto
or
well
to
instead
except that
lance.
1
" 376.
carried
armor,
sword.
the third.
The
of
veterans
the
to
The
second
soldiers of
each
were
javelinseach
two
pi'la,
armed
carried
In
now
in
Italy
were
phalanx,the lines of heavy-armed men
into ten companies, called maniples,stationed
placeof
the solid
divided
each
intervals in such
at
Rule
of Roman
Organization
The
366
way
that
the
spaces in
followingline. Each
vacant
line
were
line was
companies of the
sand
several ranks deep. Ordinarilya legionconsisted of three thouheavy-armed troops and twelve hundred light-armed. The
of legionsvaried accordingto the requirementsof war.
number
covered
by
the
AN
As
B.C.,
weighing io"
There
regularlythree
were
legion.
The beginningof
the
at
famous
the end
dictator
of the
war
II.
Public
oz.
hundred
cavalry attached
this
militaryreform is
who
captured Veii; it
with Pyrrhus.
CIVILIZATION
While
back,
prow
of
galley)
AND
ascribed
was
to
to
each
Camillus,1
nearlycompleted
CHARACTER
becoming masters
of Italyand improving their laws and their constitution,
they were
also growing richer. In the fourth century B.C. they began to coin
silver. The nobles reaped the profits
bronze,and earlyin the third,
of largetracts of conquered land and bought a great number
of
409.
Works.
"
the Romans
"
4"4-
were
The
368
410.
forced the
the
that
and
Education
Greek
more
language.
children had
to
Business
Intelligence.
"
ambitious
Romans
in
Rule
of Roman
Organization
in this
even
Italy
and
diplomacy
earlytime to learn
yet no schools,so
probably as
their parents or from
get at home, from
Greek
slaves,their whole education.
Tables
and a
Apart from the Twelve
few poems,
proverbs, and orations
composed by Appius Claudius,the
had no books
Romans
whatever,and
Greek literature was
not yet studied,
exceptingby a few individuals. The
Romans
continued,however, to adopt
of their latest acGreek gods. One
quisitions
in this period was
Aes-cula'pi-us,
god of healing,for whom
they built a shrine on an island in
the Tiber adjacent to the city. It
There
were
for
sick
to
persons
night in this temple,in the
was
customary
pass
the
belief that
the
411.
and
Public
The
acter.
Char-
tinguishe
diswere
earlyRomans
for their patience and
Their virtue,the fruit of a
energy.
increased
in strengthand
simplelife,
AESCULAPIUS
in Severitythroughout the period.
(Excellentancient copy of fifth century
(B.C.)original.Probably stood in the
This growth WaS
Owing to the Care
shrine at Rome.
National
Museum.
with
which
the
republican government
Naples)
supervised the citizens. The
had power
to punish,not only for crimes,but for every
magistrates
offence against order,however
and
for immorality,
even
slight,
includinglazyor luxurious habits. While all officers enjoyed this
that
authority,it became the especialduty of the censors
to see
every citizen subjectedhimself to the severe
discipline
prescribed
the
state.
by
"
.,,
,,
,.
Character
in the
aim of education
The
make
of brave
nation
familyand
of the individual
the freedom
warriors
in
publiclifewas
and
dutiful citizens.
reached
were
training
thereafter
369
to
state,to
The
in the Samnite
press
re-
highest
Wars,
"
the
of
long
as
from
and
even
and
poor
under
strict
following
periodthey were
and,
magistrates,
wealth.
their
discipline,
they
dom
gaingreaterfree-
to
and
power
These
conditions
new
to the
government
transactions
narrow,
they remained
in their business
of the
Romans
virtues,were
In the
moral.
were
slaves,and
the
grasping,
and
shrewd
as
same
time,
to
were
severest
the
at
test.
Suggestive Questions
Compare
i.
the
and
Roman
colonies.
Greek
2.
Some
of the
allies in
offered.
Explain why. Did
citizenshipwhen
a
municipium? 3. Compare the
advantage over
any
Roman-Italian
League with the Confederacy of Delos ; with the Peloponnesian League.
the development of the Roman
militaryorganization
4. Trace
from the earliest times to the end of the PyrrhicWar.
lustrati
the il5. From
warrior
of
about
of
the
describe
B.C.
on
a
365,
equipment
300
p.
does
the text
that
this
How
stamp
Romans
the prow
with
agree
the illustration ?
warrior
of
introduce
with
discipline
Roman
might
galleyon their
be
Greek
the
gods
Roman?
Roman
II.
8.
did
the
7.
Why
Compare
the
fore
thereRomans
did the
Roman
the
Roman-Italian
Topics
League.
(p.366)?
conclude
Spartan.
Organization of
Historyof Rome,
you
Why
6.
earliest coins
Note-book
I.
Would
i. 500-524.
Public
the
"
Pelham,
Outlines
of
Life,295-310.
Samnite
Wars.
"
Duruy,
XXXIII
CHAPTER
ROMAN
THE
OF
EXPANSION
THE
POWER
SECOND
THE
PUNIC
264-201
I.
PUNIC
FIRST
THE
WAR:
and
her
the
country
for trade
situated
These
Italy.
time
In
it
of
islands
strip of
the
of
small
of
tried
departed, he
is said
These
two
that
they
nations
would
the
in
to
Greeks
vain
have
Rome,
the
to
dispute
soon
rivals'
movements.
The
"
49.
two
protector
ambition
"Punic"
of the
of
when
whole
cities,they
the
(Punicus)
would
Italians, was
Carthaginians
is Latin
was
for Phoenician.
370
and
great
of
to
the
the
all
Sicily,
wrest
the
came
regretfully,
Mes-sa'na
and
up
nearly
"
island
Sicilyand
Africa,a
Hercules, part of
of
possession
well
was
coasts
coast
their
as
island.
What
As
a
of
he
knew
the
well
exception
Syracuse.
If
they
Italy.
anxiously watching
her
for commercial
more
2
!"
Sicily. Quickly
with
naturally invade
even
fair
Carthaginians
but
against him,
the
only
prosperous.
the
from
and
it
and
Pyrrhus
her
Romans
allied
Not
with
about
was
drive
to
the
then
were
these
north
Pillars
exclaimed
Carthaginians regained
the
territory belonging to
conquer
the
Carthage
the
could
of the
of
coast
built
Carthage
leaving
are
and
West,
the
islands.
He
northern
harvests,but
the
and
beyond
Sicily from
we
abundant
larger part
coast
the
city wealthy
politicalpower.2 On
POSSESSION
THE
city of Carthage.1
Mediterranean
western
many
battlefield
made
western
champion.3
of
advantages
too,
FOR
On
"
Punic
produce
East
Spain, and
remainder
the
with
It included
southern
besides
it
became,
the
the
the
the
empire.
he
about
OF
B.C.
Empire.
was
END
SICILY
264-241
Carthage
THE
B.C.
STRUGGLE
OF
412.
TO
WAR
"
208.
"
404.
Longitude
20
Roman
ROMAN
POWER
To the time
SCALE
100
50
100
of the
OF
Gracchi.
Power
1 Acquired
Acquired
in 264. B.C.
241-218
B.C.
201-1 33 B.C.
MILES
200
300
Allies of Rome
in 133 B.C.
400
Carthaginian
Posessions
264 B.C.
Expansion of the
The
372
immediate
The
from
mercenaries,released
killed the men,
They
of
cause
war
was
Roman
as
Power
follows.
the service of
Some
Campanian
Syracuse,seized
Messana.
and property
children,
414.
The
of Rome
Resources
of the two
nations
Carthage
controlled
and
Carthage.
quitedifferent.
were
the
sea.
Her
tines
wealth
however
as
resources
magnificent
navy
her
enabled
to
enlist
proved treacherous
mostly merchants and
Few
This
The
often
to the
except
her
With
"
served
was
in the
great
war
source
tural
Carthage. Italy,on the other hand, was an agriculfit for
men
country with a dense population; it had more
militaryservice than any other state of the world at that time.
the
their farms, they were
Accustomed
to severe, patientlabor on
in the world.
best- disciplined
hardiest,
Equallyimportant
fighters
is the fact that they were
devoted to their country and to Rome.
Their
states formed
a
strong league of kinsmen; each managed
absolute mistress
its own
local affairs,
but all acknowledged Rome
of their militaryresources.
their lack
Their only weakness
was
of shipsand of naval experience. Of the two
now
great powers
weak.
each was
coming into conflict,
strong where the other was
of weakness
The
to
strugglewas
to be
long and
severe
no
one
knew
which
would
conquer.
415. Opening Events; the Battle of Mylae (260 B.C.). After
the government
had resolved to help the Mamertines, the consul in
"
command
brought
borrowed
his army
and skilfully
shipsfrom the naval allies,
Messana, though the Carthaginiansand
few
into
Victories
Roman
Syracusans were
besiegingthe city by
had
To
373
and
land
Driving
alliance with Hi'e-ron,
made
the Romans
the besiegersaway,
an
as
they
king of Syracuse. The cities of the interior readilyyielded,
than either Syracuseor Carthage
under Rome
found greater security
it
given them.
drive the
to build
necessary
could furnish a few
was
Rome
Carthaginiansfrom
fleet.
sea.
the coast
For
triremes,no
of oars,
such
vessels with five banks
que-remes,
But usinga stranded
of the enemy's navy.
the strength
"
"
quinquereme as
model,
the
towns
Romans,
with
made
as
ian
Carthagin-
their usual
and
were
sit
on
up
busy
courage
with this
benches
along
pleted
practiserowing in the sand.1 When they had comtheir fleet,
they put to sea and engaged the enemy off My'lae
(260 B.C.). Their shipswere
clumsy and their sailors awkward,
of drawbridges
but they boarded
the enemy's vessels by means
which
they had recentlyinvented, and thus gained the victory.
the shore
This
and
increased
success
The
416.
Invasion
of
Libya
and
war.
the
and
then built a fleet of three hundred
B.C.). The Romans
and forty
thirtyvessels,and placingon board nearly a hundred
the Sicilian
thousand men, they set sail for Libya. Off Ec'no-mus
on
coast
they met and defeated a still largerfleet of the enemy,
after which
they continued on their way to Africa. There, under
the consul Reg'u-lus,they gained victories and captured towns,
till Xan-thip'pus,
a
Lacedaemonian, taught the Carthaginians to
offer battle in the plain,where
they could use their elephantsand
their great force of cavalryto advantage. The result was
the destructio
250
"
of the Roman
Other
misfortunes
Pa-nor'mus
circumstances
still a
promisinghim
is no
This
reason
libertyif he
poets who
account
for
to
lived
the
capture of Regulus.
; but
the
Romans
gave
the government
captive,to Rome,
Roman
and
army
followed
of
Carthage
for an
arrange
should succeed.
long
after the
is given by Polybius,an
doubting it.
Regulus,who was
exchange of prisoners,
In the story told by
sent
event, he refused
to
and
eminently trustworthy historian,
enter
there
Rome
his
he
not
Expansion of the
The
374
as
senator
as
even
or
persuaded
was
to
to make
the land
they would
an
their fate.
share
and
as
serve
citizen,
sayinghe had
to
be
the
address
peace or to
where they had
Power
Roman
taken
forfeited all
captive.
senate, he
When
advised
that
the
In
vain
the
die in
Thus
return
remonstrated
senators
finally
body
against
While
sacrifice himself
for
fellow-captives
he believed
fate
of
strong-
who
man
knew
walked
and
traits of
his
lutely
reso-
it.
to meet
were
what
to be his country's
good,
willed
his
and
the
These
ideal
Roman.
417.
CHICKENS
IN
PORTABLE
COOP
bae'um
north
was
Drep'a-na,where
stationed with
sailed from
his fleet.
"
this time
were
SACRED
at
(249 B.C.).
Drepana
At
Defeat
The
the
Romans
besieging Lil-yon
the west
coast
Sicily.Farther to the
Ad-her'bal,a Punic
admiral, was
In 249
B.C.
of
the
consul
Publius
Claudius
But
Lilybaeum to Drepana to surpriseAdherbal.
the admiral,far from being caught napping, met
and
the enemy
inflicted upon
him
tried
an
overwhelming defeat. The Romans
to account
for this disaster by a story that when
Claudius
was
the
he
received word
that the sacred chickens
planning
attack,
Hamilcar
would
which
that the gods forbade
eat,1 an omen
signified
enterprise. Haughtily exclaiming that if the fowls would
have
to drink, he threw
them into
eat, at least they would
His impiety,together with his lack of skill,
is given as
sea.
the
not
the
the
375
not
"
cause
418.
Barca
"
"
of
genius.
swoop
troops who
From
the Italian
he
performed
the littleharbor
coasts, while
down, rapidas
and
as
from
the
raised
wonders
beneath
the
him
the
could
small
cooperate with
his
under
the
support the
spellof
friends
which
no
Drepana.
he
used
in the
to
borhood,
neighdared
enemy
years in this
side of Mount
at
his
his lightshipsharassed
the Romans
nest
explore.
After maintaining himself for three
it for a post on the
suddenlyabandoned
he
to
eagle'sperch above
lightning,
upon
easilyretire to
corn
position,he
E'ryx,where
But
with
his
force he could
Whereas
of
an
magistratein
army
of eating furnished
the omens.
favorable were
manner
Rome
carried with
him
took
him
with
on
auspicesby watching
his campaigns
auspices.
The
a
more
the sky
mander
com-
greedilythey ate,
the
more
Power
Roman
half millions
After
to
Expansion of the
The
376
in 241
end
an
II.
B.C.
"BREATHING-TIME"
24I-2I8
GREAT
Two
BETWEEN
WARS
B.C.
the
(227 B.C.). When
their first thought was
to
Romans
began to win victories in Sicily,
regard the island merely as an extension of Italy. In this frame of
mind
they made treaties of alliance with Messana, Syracuse,and
favored them.
These
states
which had specially
a few other towns
condition as Italian allies. Another
in the same
left precisely
were
declared
class of Sicilian states, slightly
were
more
numerous,
act of
not by treaty,but by an
exempt from tribute and free
the same
the Roman
rights
They had substantially
government.
419.
Province
Roman
First
Sicily the
"
"
"
"
as
could
Rome
as
rights,
a
was,
departurefrom
taken
departurewas
remainder
The
group
It included
the Italian
when
of
in
dependent
completed in 227
every year a praetor2to govern
and judicial.He commanded
law between
government
it.
in the
state
began
to
send
out
mainlymilitary
and settled
province,
were
had
its own
laws
and
popular assembly,and
greater
placed the
of perpetualsubjection.
the provinceof Sicily.
of the
The organization
Rome
own
far
courts
for
customs, its
usuallyfree
was
on
did not
takingchargeof
its
government
His duties
It retained
council,and
magistrates,
interference
B.C., when
the army
Romans.
Each
from
constituted
states
provincewas
disputesat
of the
condition
pleasure. This
her
at
federal system.
act
an
of the states1
of these
no
such
local matters
here referred to
if it had
did not
wished, and
occur
to
Rome
the idea of
tilllong
littlecity-states
; "
18.
"
"
The
378
Expansion of the
Sicily(227 B.C.).
government
Gaius
the
Flaminius;
majorityof
Roman
about
was
the
though
same,
to the inhabitants.
less favorable
somewhat
421.
Its
Power
Roman
citizens
Gallic
not
were
War
(225-222 B.C.).
"
satisfied with
the
new
The
vincial
pro-
"
422.
The
Flaminian
new
the banks
of the Po.
and
Way
the
"
Flaminian
Circus.
"
In
for
censor
220
B.C., Flaminius
this
on
nected
con-
cityto Ar-im'i-num,
named
after him the Flaminian
value for
Way.4 It was of priceless
the protectionand development of the new
and for supplyterritory,
ing
the armies, and in time of scarcity
the inhabitants of Rome,
with provisionsfrom the marvellouslyfertile valley of the Po.5
it with
Rome
by
of
When
sometimes
boundaries"
Gaul
came
it
to
pay
but in
point
thus
was
used
"
to the
the
to
"
"
IllyrianWar
the
At
opened
expansion,of
northward
for
it
time
same
379
the
up to
which
Romans
they
had
great outlook
hitherto
not
even
dreamed.
The
Capitolinehill and
from
earliest time
or
ancestor
an
the
and
Martius.1
the
Flaminian
Tiber,were
belonged to
Flaminian
the censor's
Circus
popular exhibitions.
played, and tradesmen
From
use
of the
beginning
which
meadows,
Either
family.
and
In its arcades
their
he
There
government.
for horse
held
the gate,
Below
chariot
races
citizens
walked,
The
building
fairs.
of citizens.
masses
Flaminius
end
to
to the
estate
for other
for the
from
Campus
presentedthis
built the
censor
children
was
had
had
the
crossed
of the
direction
in the
started
mentioned
here
road
worked
the
for
chiefly
terests
in-
the foundation
of Rome's
ness.
greatproprietors,
of territory
outside
the acquisition
With
Italy a class of
felt
was
capitalists
alreadygrowing up in Rome, and Flaminius
that capitalism
would ruin the peasantry. In this respecthe proved
himself a far-sighted
statesman.
time
War
with
the Illyrians (229-228 B.C.). For
some
423.
Italian merchants, trading with
Greece, had been plundered by
Illyrian
pirates. Some had been murdered, and others taken captive
of the peasant
"
and
had
held for
before
come
After
ransom.
the Roman
many
complaints of
government,
the senate
these outrages
sent
sion
commis-
members
to investigate.The
were
mistreated,
Il-lyr'i-a,
and
killed.
made
one
was
war
against
Thereupon the Romans
the offendingcountry.
In a brief naval campaign they chastised
the piratical
them
and made
inhabitants,
promise to pay tribute.
Corcyra and one or two other Greek states became allies of Rome to
for the future.
Roman
secure
protectionfrom the Illyrians
envoys
2
then went
the conto the Achaean
and Aetolian
duct
leagues to justify
of their cityin the war.
The
federal authorities expressed
their gratitudeto the friendly
had chastised the pirates.
state which
These
Rome's
first diplomaticrelations with Greece.3
were
to
" 380.
Ten
years
likewise
were
organized
afterward
as
there
was
successful.
provinceunder
the
second
Illyrianwar
Illyriathen became
name
(219 B.C.),in
dependent
Illyricumtill some
on
unknown
" 338 f.
which
Rome, but
the
was
mans
Ronot
B.C.
gainingthese
in
successes
arisingin Spain
was
as
fatherland
began
to
think
in
create
by
as
how
Rome
a power
Illyria,
her
and
the
indignantover
force and
existence.
Rome
Corsica.
was
His
treachery
soul burned
had
fraud
thage
Car-
robbed
his
possessions.He
Italyand attack
mercenaries,he planned
supply both troops and
depend upon
provincewhich should
he could
Spain a
in
between
the peace
city,which
While
threaten
to
soon
was
of its naval
But
Rome.
which
hatred
"
makeshift,grew
temporary
of the Romans
with
(237-229 B.C.).
the north of Italyand
looked upon
had
Hamilcar, who
Power
the Roman
Spain
in
Hamilcar
424.
to
Expansion of
The
380
not
for another
war.
provisions
Spain,he is said to have led
When
his
son
him
years, to the altar and made
Hannibal
with his father,and
went
he
about
was
set
to
then a boy
Han'ni-bal,
swear
undying enmity to
was
true
for
out
of nine
Rome.
to his oath.
"
; for he
battle in which
he
"
"
no
more
than
nature
demanded.
thoughtof sleeponlywhen
there
1
was
Polybius,ii. i.
with
War
ping himself
in his
the watchers
and
as
Hannibal
militarycloak,he
the outposts of
his
plainofficer,
and
arms
III.
THE
would
381
lie on
the
army.
his horses were
SECOND
2I8-2OI
PUNIC
the
ground among
Though he dressed
l
splendid."
WAR
B.C.
felt himself
(218 B.C.). When Hannibal
prepared,he attacked Sa-gun'tum,a cityof Spain in alliance with
This act gave the
Rome, and took it after a siegeof eightmonths.
But while they were
Romans
a pretext for war.
preparingto invade
of fifty
both Spain and Libya, Hannibal, with a well-trained army
of
number
thousand
a
infantry,nine thousand
cavalry,and
crossed the Pyrenees and marched
rapidlythrough Gaul.
elephants,
had conquered the Celts of northern Italy.2
Recently the Romans
of injuries
As this whole nation was
indignantwith Rome on account
in his march
received,they eagerlysupported Hannibal
through
their country.
It was
that he
not till the crossingof the Rhone
with oppositionfrom
gan
met
the natives.
When, however, he beof the Alps the real difficultiesof his journey apthe ascent
peared
for
the
the
and
and
mountaineers
was
narrow
rough,
;
way
attacked
him.
the higherground, which
From
secured their own
safety,they rolled stones and hurled missiles upon the troops and
and many
Many soldiers fell,
upon the long train of pack animals.
beasts of burden
either disabled or lost,so that the army
fered
sufwere
for want
of provisions.At lengthwith great toil and peril
Hannibal
reached the summit, where he rested his men
and cheered
of Italy
426. Invasion
"
them
with
some
such
words
as
these
"
Here
on
the summit
of the
Alps,we hold the citadel of Italy; below us on the south are our
friends,the Gauls, who will supply us with provisionsfrom their
bountiful lands and will help us againsttheir foes ; and yonder in
the distance
But
army
when
he reached
with
which
were
worn
!"
lies Rome
Livy, xxi.
he had
out
4.
with
the
"
half the
who
421.
vived
sur-
the cold.
The
382
Their horses
lame, their
were
than
like savages
had come
to attack
of
men
Expansion of the
clothes in tatters ;
nation
militaryage.
which
And
numbered
yet it
was
they seemed
With
well-disciplined
troops.
a
Power
Roman
such
seven
to be
no
more
forces
hundred
one-sided
he
sand
thoutest.
con-
of their great
spirit
bal
commander, opposed a raw militia. A born genius for war, Hanniunder his illustrious father; as
had served an
apprenticeship
generalhe had subdued fierce tribes of Spaniardsand Gauls and had
the Alps themselves.
overcome
Compared with him, though he
the ablest Roman
stillyoung,
was
generalswere tyros.
(218 B.C.).
427. The Battle of the Ticinus and of the Trebia
astonished
The Romans, who had been dreaming of conquests, were
in the valleyof the Po.
made
He soon
to hear that Hannibal
was
and their
them
feel that the strugglewas
to be for their homes
a
tributary
country. In a lightcavalry battle on the Ti-ci'nus,
the consul Scip'i-o.
of the Po, he easily
routed
Discoveringthat
far superiorto his own,
the Punic horsemen
were
Scipiowithdrew
of the hills
of the Po, and sought the protection
to the south bank
the Treb'i-a River.
his colleague,
with
Here
near
Sem-pro'ni-us,
another
for Scipio
joined him and took chief command;
army,
An
army
of trained
full
soldiers,
of the
had
been
One
wounded
in the battle.
to cast
News
the
the victor.
of the misfortune
citizens could
talk
depressedRome.
of nothing but
Throughout
evil
omens.
the winter
Meanwhile
Trasimene
383
428. The
B.C.).
Battle
was
of Lake
Hannibal
Trasimene;
Hannibal
and
Fabius
surprisedthem
(217
But
"
""
421
f.
Expansion of the
The
384
The
429.
made
"
levy and
to
(216 B.C.).
Cannae
of
Battle
Power
Roman
Unusual
efforts
followingsummer.
The
were
new
than eighty
consuls,Ae-nuTi-us and Var'ro,led a force of more
This was
the
thousand
includingallies,
againstHannibal.
men,
had
while the
ever
largestsinglearmy Rome
put into the field,
force of the enemy
met
at
Can'nae
thousand.
fifty
about
numbered
on
in
The
armies
two
held
assailed
on
the
on
all
"
wind
driving clouds
flanks,and in the rear
rank
or
the
even
knives
and
Gauls
sides,
of dust
in the
thousand
household
mourned
their
lives.
It
face,veteran
Libyans
crowded
violent
both
on
to
keep
their weapons,
fell like sheep under
the Romans
use
of butchers.
Seven-eighthsof their army, including
of this defeat
own
front,with
to
scarcelyten
News
in
Aemilius,eightysenators, and
Varro, who survived,collected
to
Iberians
its
eminent
perished.
men,
of the army,
amounting
men.
the
But
other
many
the remnants
senate
the
met
Rome.
to
for the
crisis in
the
Every
cityand for
manly spirit.
city,and did
"
Rome
!"
Hannibal
could
take
Rome
neither
Changed
by storm
hoped to cause
Character
with
by siege;
nor
present force he
his
of the War.
"
With
through the
capital.
but
nae
the battle of Can-
" 408.
war
"
4I5.
"
""
3^
433
f.
Expansion of
The
386
Power
twenties,showed
geniusfor war.
captured New
Carthage,
in Spain. Hasdrubal,
surprisedand
he
Soon
his
the Roman
real
the
crisis of the
The
Alps and
the
from
southward
rians,marched
; for her
country
exhausted
colonies,
armies
to
by
desolate
was
the
bore to Hannibal
consul Gaius
news
little
could have
from
end
two
hope
great
for victory
to
Nero, commander
Claudius
If the
were
war,
in the field.
were
Hannibal.
meet
unite,she
should
of Rome
enemies
war
in southern
army
dius
hurryingto the north,ClauStealthily
Liv'i-us
with that of his colleague,
Marcus
bal
consuls surprised
and destroyedHasdrutwo
Hannibal.
opposed to
Italy,
his army
Sa-li-na'tor; and the
united
As Claudius returned
the Me-tau'rus River.
with his army
on
southward
he carried with him the head of the defeated Carthaginian,
which
inform
to
he directed to be thrown
him
In
of his misfortune.
brother, Hannibal
After
this
read
his
battle,while
Italy,Publius
campaign abounds
southern
this
acts
in the romantic
of
brilliancy
and
himself
still maintained
adventures
The
and
in
story of
the chivalrous
mire
admay
generosityof his character and for
"
"
ghastlyfeatures of his
of his city.
the doom
ScipioreconqueredSpain.
of the commander
both
the
Hannibal
Hannibal,
the
fate and
own
of
whom
we
his mind.
432.
Battle
of Zama
"
of the second
columns
and
with
lanes
those of the
thus
first,
the
ing
form-
enemy's
Philip V
elephantscould
make
their way
387
without
the ranks.1
For
disturbing
the first time Hannibal
suffered defeat in a pitchedbattle
feat
dea
which
made
further resistance hopeless.
By the terms of the treaty which followed,
render
Carthage agreed to sur2
and
Rome
to
two hundred
talents of silver a year
Spain,
pay
for fifty
all her warships
years ; to give up all her elephantsand
outside of Libya,and in Libya
except ten triremes ; to wage no war
without the consent
of Rome.
none
With sorrow
the Queen of the
her great fleet sink in flames.
Waters
Even
saw
more
gallingwas
the clause of the treaty which
forbade her waging war
in Libya ;
for it left her helplessagainst Rome's
ally,Mas-i-nis'sa,
king of
of
to the extent
Numidia, who plundered Carthaginianterritory
his pleasure. Such was
Rome's
policytoward a fallen enemy.
The
First Macedonian
War
(215-205 B.C.). Before the
433.
had taken a few
openingof the conflict with Hannibal, the Romans
"
"
Greek
Greece
this time
At
the
great power
in
Some
of the Greek
he
states
PhilipV of Macedon.
actuallyconquered; others submitted to his alliance through fear,
with difficulty
maintained
their independence. Philipresented
or
Roman
fore,
meddling within his own
sphereof influence. When, therewas
with
of Hannibal's
came
news
the
victor,and prepared a
in Italy. Foiled in
army
had to giveup his ambitious
himself
againstthe
from
men
known
great
the
as
some
First Macedonian
all his
alliance
an
landingan
home, he
in defending
resources
sand
by a few thouten years of defensive campaigning,
War, Philip sought and obtained
entered into alliance with Aetolia,
then
(205 B.C.) Rome
Athens, and other important states
peace
made
of
fleet for the purpose
minor
operationsnear
After
Rome.
he
success,
aided
of Greece.
Suggestive Questions
as
and
Write
i.
Rome's
of America
defender
Carthage
1
2
"
"
after 1823.
sufficient
On
404.
213,
n.
2.
reason
for
on
p.
285.
2.
Compare
States
Rome
Explain the latter date.
3. Had
other?
each
making war
4. Does
upon
of the
maniples,see
" 408.
3
"
423.
or
is
of
illustration
the
the
of
battle
of
history?
the
location
of
bria.
10.
the
did
Why
welfare
of
Sketch
the
of
the
I.
Carthage.
Carthage,
II.
ch.
III.
114-126;
IV.
Roman
Hamilcar.
Hannibal,
Hannibal's
Morris,
Treaties
History,
Why
battles
to
as
Describe
9.
the
Syracuse,
Mylae,
Picenum,
and
Um-
countries,
and
Cannae.
Topics
Rome,
i.
ch.
xix;
Smith,
Rome
and
i.
Botsford,
"
Morris,
war.
may
6.
question
Mediterranean
to
of
History
Duruy,
"
the
this
decisive
great
islands,
western
Note-book
Ercte
Messana,
Aegatian
Spain
from
in
Sardinia,
Eryx,
outlines
Hannibal
of
was
Corsica,
the
able
favor-
as
what
375,
p.
Mount
Debate
8.
stake
at
omens
facing
on
among
fail?
Mount
Ercte,
counted
the
represent
position
Hannibal
Europe
Libya,
Carthage,
route
often
Power
illustration
Hamilcar's
Metaurus
Mount
Ecnomus,
draw
the
7.
whether
5.
Roman
374,
p.
the
From
of
strength
the
to
as
the
of
chickens,
sacred
the
unfavorable?
as
infer
we
Expansion
The
388
Story
of
Rome,
to
Italy.
110-113;
Smith,
84-108;
69-98.
March
from
Spain
"
Botsford,
114-1
19
Smith,
99-116.
between
89-91.
Rome
and
Carthage.
"
Munro,
Source
Book
of
XXXIV
CHAPTER
OF
EXPANSION
THE
ROMAN
THE
TAURUS
POWER
THE
TO
Second
The
humiliation
the
of
of the
overthrow
the
At
found
in
each
conflict
came
mainly
for
recovering
he
assailed
had
senators
long
and
Hannibal,
that
beneath
his feet
Romans
in
through
in
behalf
would
were
centuriate
of
the
army
twenty-five
number,
same
world
phalanx.
On
level
but
legion, on
with
the
view
to
thousand
his
in
""
troops
the
conflict
the
the
among
were
in
the
part of
him.
They
putting
Greece
the
Italy. Though
the
peace,
of
led
forced
senate
against Philip
war
and
was
fighting
the
mountaineers
Heads
"), a
low
389
strong
the
whole
civilized
the
legion
and
the
was
conquerable,
un-
body,
easily broken.
The
flexible,developed especially
of central
range
Italy.
of hills in
431.
about
The
massive
be
him
had
Philip
between
hills it could
light
against
boys.
phalanx,
contrary,
343,
for
Though
men.
ground
os-ceph'a-lae(" Dogs'
taken
chastise
attack
commander,
Roman
interested
was
had
The
help.
allies.
of
most
to
declaration
for
tempts
at-
spatched
de-
thereupon
succeed
to
anxious
assembly
Greek
should
hesitate
now
2
Philip
Rome
these
In
Greece.
appeals
urgent
first
with
peace
cession.
suc-
merely
Her
war.
allies, who
that
king
not
in
opportunity
an
if this ambitious
he
with
indignant
of
lost
had
his
used
rapid
but
view,
further
for
Rome's
of
glad
Flam-i-ni'nus, the
of
he
senate
been
not
in
end
to
energy
in
states
this
occasion
what
the
general
the
had
The
"
all her
devote
to
Philip1
some
were
felt,too,
she
an
B.C.).
Mediterranean
Macedon.
to
envoys
free
remaining
conquest
with
War
left Rome
beginning
(200-196
B.C.
Macedonian
Carthage
MOUNT
ATLANTIC
201-133
434.
FROM
" 380.
At
Cyn-
Thessaly,
the
Expansion of the
The
390
Power
Roman
the legion
victorious (197
was
sharpstruggle
due to her militaryorganization,
of Rome
was
B.C.). The success
to the poor
qualityof the opposing troops, and above all,to the
Aetolian cavalryin her service.
superior
The king was
to
compelledto cede his various Greek possessions
armies met, and
the victor.
after
But
the Roman
as
empire to
the Isthmian
senate
disliked to extend
commons
decided
to
be
their
ingly,
Accord-
generous.
festival of the
tion
followingspring,
by the direcof Flamininus
and his colleagues,
who were
ers,
peace commissionherald proclaimed to the assembly the freedom
of all the
a
After the games
Greeks who had been ruled by Philip.
were
over,
in the extravagance of their joy,they nearlykilled Flamininus
by
the exhibition of their gratitude. Some
to look him in the
wanted
at
"
face and
call him
freedom
was
They
only guaranty of
their freedom.
was
stantly
conpeacemaker,Rome
invited to settle their disputes
this interference was
; and
destined soon
to destroytheir liberty.
to have
(192-189B.C.). Rome was soon
435. The Asiatic War
trouble with the Seleucid Empire.2 This state had once
included
nearlyall of Alexander's dominion in Asia,but had greatlydeclined.
Its satrapies
east of Persia proper
now
belonged to the Parthian
Antioleft it in Asia Minor.
empire; and few possessions
were
chus III, an
aggressiveSeleucid,took advantage of the Second
keep
not
themselves
fair delusion.
peace
among
As their protector and
the
"
"
Macedonian
After
chus
game
the
west
to
the Romans
with
had
Minor
and
an
the hands
in his
of Mount
under
her
1
protectorate.
Polybius,xviii. 46.
from
Europe,
at
war,
Rome
AntioPhilip,
turn
played the
Driven
Thrace.
Mag-ne'sia,in Asia
of Africanus
(190B.C.).
his
all
possessions
gave up
overwhelming defeat
of Lucius Scipio,
brother
he
invade
to
free from
small
king suffered
a
all Asia
overrun
Minor, at
As
War
of Asia
Antiochus
was
2
" 334.
Minor
stoned
pendent
inde-
to death
Third
Macedonian
War
391
by
436.
to the
own
The
167 B.C.).
"
another
Condition
the states
Meantime
before
; the Third
of Greece
of Greece
senate, and
the Roman
Macedonian
(171-
War
accused
constantly
constantlyinvited
that
one
body
of the
quarrels.Accordinglywe find one committee
after another
senate
coming to Greece to arbitrate disputesand to
had the Greeks been
look after the interests of the republic. Even
able to unite their strengthwith the Macedonians
under one
ernment,
govperior
they could not have hoped long to resist the vastlysuand of
of Rome.
But their love of personalfreedom
power
It not
completeindependencefor their cities was as strong as ever.
terests,
inonly prevented them from unitingin defence of their common
strife among
the
but frequentlystirred up jealousyand
states.
Though their geniuswas not nearlyso brilliant as in the
degenerateeither morallyor
they were by no means
age of Pericles,
mentally. In fact,they continued to furnish the brain and skill for
The
all the higheractivities of life throughout the civilized world.
of independence,
which
had always been their noblest trait,
spirit
for their political
ruin.
The
was
Romans, at
largelyresponsible
first their protectors, began after the second war
with Philipto pose
to
settle their
as
their masters.
them
Their
from
culture
did not
from
disunion
fostering
the growth of political
factions subservient
Rome.
to
themselves
of a troublesome
Hellenic
patriot,these
"
Greece
Such
his
"
sometimes
was
the state
resorted
even
of affairs when
prevent
to
To
"
rid
lovers of
assassination.
Philipdied
and
was
succeeded
by
son
"
" 476.
Son of Aemilius,who
died at Cannae
(" 429).
Expansion of the
The
3Q2
he often admitted
; and
occasion
Power
Roman
to his friends
at Rome
afterward
beheld
never
anythingmore
' '
"
Perseus
in the
thousand
war
men
the statesman
from
the Achaean
and
historian.
detained
they were
The
influence of
who
then
When
for trial.
to Rome
sent
were
Among
them
were
Po-lyb'i-us,
League alone,including
Far from
ever,
howa
being given trial,
Polybiusprocured the
the towns
of Etruria.
remained.
these exiles returned
438. The
in
was
End
Macedon,
Spartanswho
from
Rome
the Achaeans
who
most
had
of Greek
chanced
men
to
be
"
broke
war
present
out
in Corinth.
murdered,
were
and
some
The
voys
en-
succeeded
of the
the Achaean
lus
Metel-
While
(146 B.C.).
Freedom
he
to
the
command,
found,and
1
then
enslaved
Polybius, xxix.
entered
Corinth, killed
the remainder
17.
of the popu-
The
394
giveup
too, of
Power
Roman
They
their
The
439.
Expansion of the
of
Kingdom
Pergamum
and
deprived,
were
the governor
of Macedonia.1
(189-
of Asia
the Province
acquiredover Asia
B.C.). The protectorate which Rome
continued
Minor
through
by treaty with Antiochus (189 B.C.),2
The
and Achaean
the period of the Macedonian
wars.
country
of native kingdoms and Greek
number
contained
a
city-states.
of
that
The
most
Pergamum, which
important kingdom was
far from
the Aegean
not
centred in a city of the same
name
and was
It had adopted the Hellenic civilization,
coast.
only less
129
had
"
than Alexandria
famous
as
seat
in
of culture
of art and
general.3
The rulingfamilyhad
kingswere steadfast friends of Rome.
greatlydegenerated; and the last king,Attalus III,was a weakling.
he bequeathed his kingdom and treasure
to
At his death (133B.C.)
the Romans
Rome.
When
attempted to take possessionof their
their claim was
resisted by a pretenderto the throne.
inheritance,
In 129 B.C. he was
put down, whereupon the kingdom, with some
became
the Roman
neighboringterritory,
provinceof Asia.
The Third Punic War
(149-146B.C.). In the year 146 B.C.
440.
the Romans
destroyedCarthage. For the beginningof the trouble
The
"
which
Punic
War.
The
we
go back
must
to
Carthage,
attack.
Rome, to defend
against,
Taking advantage of this condition,
Masinissa,4
king of Numidia,
of
an
of Carthage
ally Rome, continually
plundered the territory
and seized some
of her best lands.
In answer
to her complaints
Rome
sent out various commissioners,
structed
inwho
in every case
were
to give secret
to the plunderer. As
a
encouragement
member
of such a commission,Cato, a narrow-minded
of
statesman,
whom
shall
hear
we
a startling
more, brought home
report of the
wealth and prosperity
of Carthage. In his opinionthe cityof Hannibal
without
the
stillmenaced
speech in
1
It
under
2
was
the
" 435-
not
name
of
consent
Rome.
B.C.
forbidden
herself
Indeed, he is said
had
the
to
with
subject,
have
the
" 346
ended
words,
became
"
" 432
every
"
Car-
province
Destruction
thagemust
be
wished
for
majorityof
with
"
destroyed!
monopoly of
the senate.
immense
an
army.
concession.
with
He
of Carthage
convinced
easily
the world's
avoid
First
the
the
they handed
who
formed
consuls
war
who
capitalists,
and
commerce,
Accordinglythe
To
395
Carthaginians were
over
three hundred
"
clung to
gave them
up,
seized hold of the shipsand of
mothers, who
takingthem
"If
desire
sincerely
peace," said the consuls on their arrival at Utica, why do you
After vain protests,the people
them!"
need
arms?
Surrender
We congratulate
you on your promptness,"
gave up their armor.
the consuls continued
ever
yieldCarthage to us, and settle wher; "now
land, ten miles from the sea ; for we
you like within your own
resolved to destroyyour city."
are
with grief;but finally
At first the people were
overcome
they
of
the
last
blood.
As
defend
their
resolved to
they had
cityto
drop
shops,
to make
new
they converted even the templesinto workweapons,
and the women
lantly
gave their hair for bowstrings. They galrepulsedthe attacks of the consuls,and for three years
themselves
like heroes.
defended
At last ScipioAe-mil-i-a'nus2
soldiers massacred
His
forced a passage
through the walls.
the inhabitants,then
the
city. After
plundered and burned
they had destroyed this innocent
people, the authorities of
which
Rome
cursed the ground on
the city stood, that it might
into the
be
rebuilt.
The
never
territoryit ruled they made
province of Africa.
were
away."
you
"
"
441.
Ligurian and
Gallic Wars.
"
The
and
viii. 77.
Son of Aemilius
of Hannibal.
The
Paulus
name
Aemilianus
gens.
conqueror
Expansion of the
The
396
Power
Roman
border.
their western
Year
baffled and
were
Before
the middle
was
"
"
"
them.
govern
the
But
Rome
natives
resisted.
The
bloodiest
and
most
waged now
began. The mountaineers
almost
were
unconquerable. It was no uncommon
thingfor them
Roman
the Romans
succeeded in
to slaughter
a
; and when
army
taking a stronghold,
nothingwas gainedbut barren rocks. Women
as
foughtalong with the men
ready
; to prevent capture they were
desperatewar
as
the
them
In
to
men
carried
178
B.C.
years later
poison,to
violated
take in
then
and
themselves.
they fellinto
case
the
Most
of
enemy's hands.
made.
Fifteen
to the natives,was
peace, favorable
fresh revolt broke out, and the work of conquest began
Failingin
anew.
ever
and massacred
treaties,
The
agreement.
resorted
the Romans
arms,
resistance
troops who
to
had
treachery. They
surrendered
under
of Nu-man'-
Through
these
brave
many
of Rome.
many
camp,
enemies.
Roman
Aemilianus
and
years
The
took
few
heroic
general had
had been
army
disgraced himself in the
command.
He
reduced
After
many
banished
his
All
mountainous
siege,Scipio
gained possessionof
triumphalcar.
beaten, and
an
Spain was
now
from
the
at last he
survivors,to follow
fifty
conqueredexceptinga small
but
Summary
of Acquisitions
397
colonies
443.
Summary
were
of
and the
Dependent
133 B.C.).
ruled most
the
Romans
reviewing
(241 to about
At
periodwe have
of the territory
been
from Mount
Taurus
to the Atlantic.
They had seven, possiblynine,provinces
under governors
in the
sent out from the capital. These
provinces,
order of their acquisition,
dinia
were
(i)Sicily,
acquiredin 241 ; (2)Sarand organizedin the same
and Corsica,seized soon
afterward
and
Farther
Spain,acquiredin
year as Sicily,
227 ; (3,4) Hither
the Second
Punic
and organizedin 197 ; (5)CisalpineGaul,
War
known
unreconqueredearlyin the second century and organized at some
1
time afterward ; (6) Illyricum,
donian
acquiredin the third Macewar
(167),the date of organizationbeing unknown;
(7)
Macedonia, organizedin 146 ; (8)Africa,acquiredand organizedin
the same
(9)Asia, acquiredin 133 and organizedfour years
year;
Allies
"
later.
the
all
often called client states,2
were
dependent allies,
those of Asia Minor
outside
In Africa,
the province of Asia.
and Egypt, with Libya,were
In Asia the
in this condition.
Numidia
kingdom of Syriapossessedmore
freedom, but was alreadysinking
into clientship.
Among
It
less than
was
century and
two
changesin
cyclesof conquest
the character
borders
to
were
of her
of
round
surround
which
embarked
to
out
her
another
Within
Italy.
her
on
empire
so
the Mediterranean.
government
and
to
as
But
momentous
in the condition
of
her citizens.
later than
Not
So-called because
client toward
81 B.C.
a
state
his patron ;
of the kind
"370.
stood
toward
Rome
in
some
such
relation as
The
398
the
of
Expansion
Suggestive
i.
Why
for
peace?
cid
Empire
Give
2.
Asia
acquisitions?
4.
the
6.
and
cleitus
the
Compare
8.
did
How
7.
Lysippus
all
294).
293,
Note-book
The
88-91
of
Organization
;
Greenidge,
Administration,
chs.
i,
ii.
of
of
their
appreciation
(p.
with
393)
more
Rome?
to
5.
the
in
acquired
it
over
those
merate
Enu-
ranean.
Mediterthe
period
of
nearly
these
to
Greece.
conquest
does
Seleu-
of
Greek
Poly-
resemble?
Topic
Province.
"
Public
Roman
sea
Which
the
system
serviceable
fall
provinces
the
of
anxious
protectorate
more
and
show
in
history
provincial
Roman
the
Romans
found
statue
(pp.
of
the
the
to
location
the
early
the
decline
political
citizens
Roman
establish
provinces
or
contributed
Describe
B.C.
241-133
causes
which
causes
the
and
senate
applying
allies
of
the
the
were
origin
the
did
of
subject
Were
the
Enumerate
art?
3.
period
of
Why
instead
Minor
Questions
this
of
account
an
xxvii).
(ch.
and
Greece
beginning
the
at
Power
Roman
Life,
Abbott,
ch.
Roman
viii
Arnold,
Political
Roman
Institutions,
Provincial
CHAPTER
XXXV
GROWTH
THE
OF
PLUTOCRACY1
B.C.
241-133
POLITICAL
I.
remained
Rome,
and
assembly
well.
the
of
injury
the
her
became
Rome
civilized
and
of
spite
In
happy.
horde
from
of
the
misery.
of
Government
" 406
f.
farther
in their
citizens
who
interest
this
to
the
reason
and
unjust
more
the
worked
own
For
away.
the
the
limits,
government
Italy
was
the
on
the
to
whole
oppressive
cities
of
in
fair.2
from
provinces
The
peace.
advantages,
regulating
trade
subjects.
local
In
all the
the
favoreU
of native
place
provinces
peasants
by the wealthy
two
Review
carefully "
Roman
citizens
sections
The
the
less
customs
anything
was
her
citizens
own
merchants
; and
and
and
from
for the
should
reduced
now
the
their
wealthy
be
the
accordingly
traders
their
while
at
but
citizenship4
of
most
people
farms, these
poured
the
erty
prop-
debt
to
and
speculators
" 446.
carefully reviewed.
419.
provinces enjoyed
in the
provincials, and
retained
affairs.
adopting
vantages
ad-
rule.3
province
condition
their
Rome
subject countries,
These
Some
Roman
the
attend
masters.
these
Driving
city-state,like
could
in the
by
these
self-government
capital over
Rome
at
and
their
of the
expense
as
citizens
ideas
In
the
in
likewise
laws
own
the
outgrew
acquired,
they enjoyed
Usually
all
long
were
supremacy
came
their
who
As
"
government.
early
Her
state
managed
those
territory
more
in
part
hand
that
small
take
at
near
Rule.
Roman
so
when
But
were
of
Character
444.
CONDITIONS
SOCIAL
AND
it
was
399
privileges and
many
generally impossible
to
punish
them
right?
for
not
possessed
wrong-doing.
of Plutocracy
Growth
The
400
by
The
slaves.
the collection
of taxes
to contractors
whose
wealth enabled them to take
knights,2
times their
to pay many
these contracts, compelledthe provincials
find a governor, like Cato, who was
due.
we
perfectly
Occasionally
check
these
to
and
who
and
wrongs.3 But
attempted
just
upright
himself
cruel and
was
oppressive.Not
generallythe governor
with the wealth of his subjects,
a greedy ruler seized their
content
of the gods they worshipped,and
the statues
works of art, including
into slavery. The rapidchange of officers
freemen
sold many
even
increased the evil. In his short term the governor expectedto make
three fortunes
his way
on
in
The
full of evil.
was
to power
his return
luxuryfor
second
to
the remainder
he had
the debts
to
his judgesin
satisfy
; and
Rome
of his
contracted
third to enable
days. Though
committed
in bribing
of cution
prosehim
to live
case
court4 was
special
in the provinces,
it
a
of like mind
with the
accomplishedno good ; for the judges were
culprits.Thieves and plundererssat in judgment on thieves and
the role of the two parties.
reverse
plunderers
; a year or two would
the provincials
from injustice.To them
Thus
found no protection
the
meant
slavery,
decay,and death.
peace of Rome
"
"
The
445.
Decline
of
and
Italy: Commercial
Agrarian Conditions.
"
that of state
to
serfs.
By monopolizingthe trade
the prosperity
of the towns.
and Tarentum
disappeared;
Greek
towns
The
1
which
of
The
" 419.
" 459.
merchants
equallywith
2
great
capitalists
destroyed
commercial
in the streets
stillremained
farmingclass suffered
ItalyRoman
of the
cities of
once
prosperous
gave placeto
the traders ; for
beggars.
" 43".
Rome
as
3
6
Capua
"
449.
The
402
Growth
of Plutocracy
Punic
the Second
War,
the
nobles,
rapidlydecliningin character and in ability.They
op-ti-ma'tes,
of a few great houses,and
became
a
hereditarycaste, consisting
circle. They kept all
to their privileged
men
rarelyadmitted new
the higher offices for themselves, and
passed them in rotation
From
of
end
the
we
see
of their families.
the members
among
A young
noble,after service as an officerin the army, and
after enrichinghimself as a provincial
quaestor, secured
perhaps
election
it was
his duty to entertain
In this position
aedileship.1
the people with
costly religiousfestivals and shows, chiefly
at his own
expense ; in this way he gainedtheir favor and their votes
for the higheroffices. With this legaland pious system of corruption,
Thence
he
he had little need of resorting
to open
bribery.
and to the consulship. As praetor,
to the praetorship
advanced
where he glutted
he governed a province,
propraetor, or proconsul,2
him haughty
himself with spoil,
and where irresponsible
power made
of honors,the people
and brutal.
If he won
distinction in this career
him to the censorship the
their appreciation
showed
by electing
of gloryof the nobility.To complete our
crown
understandingof
the nobles of this period,it is necessary
that they
to bear in mind
who sought office not merely for honor, but also
were
capitalists,
of absorbingthe riches of the world.
The nobility
of
as
a means
merit became
a
self-seeking
plutocracy. In other words,
narrow,
the empire now
had a government by the wealthy and for the
wealthy.
The nobles and other wealthy men
filled the eighteencenturies of
of means
in the comitia centuriata.
Stillother men
knights,eq'ui-tes,
who might be required
horses for service in the
to furnish their own
also called knights. The
class so named, originally
cavalrywere
the capitalists,
took government
who
includingthe senators, were
for collecting
contracts
and for buildingpublic works, and
taxes
who had in hand most
of the commerce
and industryof the Roman
to
curule
"
world.
447.
-The
The
Government
government
magistrates,and
1
" 392.
still
the
time, of senate,
senate, however, had gained
consisted,as
assemblies.
The
in earlier
" 419.
Constitution
power
the expense
at
of both
403
magistratesand
assemblies.
It
was
who
had filled offices at home, had comof men
manded
composed chiefly
to foreignstates.
armies, and had served on embassies
trained executives,
The leadingmembers
generals,
were, therefore,
been
enrolled
the
and diplomatists
on
senate list
; and having once
by the censors, they usuallyheld their positionsfor life. It is
natural that in a periodof conquest the senate, composed of such
The magistrates,
who
should become
were
already
supreme.
men,
forward
enrolment
in
that
to
senators
or
were
looking
body, were
its
commands.
The
with rare
exceptionsobedient to
highermagistrates
in the paragraph above in the order of
have been named
their rank.
all
Constitutionally
citizens with
full
rightswere
permitted to
the assemblies.
In fact,these bodies were
attend
composed of
the city,
those who lived in and near
distance preventedmost
of
as
the city population,which
the citizens from
attending. Hence
fast becoming a rabble,alone exercised the right to vote.
was
of an assembly could not propose a law or a candidate
Again,a member
for office,
or
speak on any subject; he could merely vote for
offered by the presiding
or
againstthe candidates and the measures
who
officer,
rarelyfailed to enforce his will upon the comitia. In
other words, the magistrates
controlled the assemblies.
In this period,as earlier,
there were
two
principalassemblies,
the tribal and the centuriate.
The
tribal assembly elected the
and
tribunes ; it ratified treaties of peace ; it
quaestors, aediles,
received appeals from the judicial
decisions of magistrates
in cases
The
involvingfines ; and it was the chief legislative
turiate
cenpower.
elected
the
it
ratified
tions
declaraassembly
highermagistrates
;
of war
it
acted
the
of
as
cases
highestcourt
appealin capital
;
;
and
it passed a law.
The
assemblies
differed
two
occasionally
merely in organization.
II.
PROMINENT
worthy
character
of attention
"
We
CIVILIZATION
helped to an appreciationof
by a study of prominent men.
Especially
is ScipioAfricanus.
The
conquest of Spain
ROMANS;
are
The
404
and
the
victoryat
fifteen years he
It
and censor.
Zama
was
was
of Plutocracy
Growth
should
he
of
need
the
that
saw
not
organize
them
hold
should
provinces,but
For
consul twice,
was
dependent allies;for
in Rome.
greatest man
senate; he
of the
foreman
the
him
made
the
garrisoning
exhaust
the
provinceswould soon
strengthof Italy. In keepingwith
he planted in Italy
this principle,
several colonies whose
military
strengthwas to be reserved for the
of the peninsula. Thus
defence
the
the
colonial
he had
But
the
field,at
his
in
command
he
Rome
used
He
king.
customed
Ac-
enemies.
many
on
Flaminius.1
policyof
absolute
to
carried
the
acted
fluence
in-
immense
ment
advancepolitical
family,and trampled
for the
of his
upon
from
the law
to
trial
for
protect
brother
embezzlement.
had
he had
bribes, and
received
been
extravagant and
Without
PUBLIUS
CORNELIUS
SCIPIO AFRICANUS
charges,he
as
follows
people,and
good fortune
is said
"
you,
that
rannica
ty-
replyingto the
to have
spoken
Tribunes
Romans,
of
the
on
the
Cato
at
other
many
times,endowed
me
405
both
with the
"
moral
model
"
by birth,and
Manius
Curius
"
sit at
the
Roman
virtue.
He
was
modest
cottage
with
with
his
stood
peasant
of the
near
slaves,in
the memories
in
sleeves,
meals
older
he worked
without
coat
to
drew
time, whose
old
of the
winter
nothingbut
them, eatingthe same
wearing a
of
good
cordingly
Accoarse
summer
wine."3
same
the patronage of
rich
and honesty,
neighbor,but more
by ability
this thrifty
to the highestoffices of the state.
peasant rose
he was
of Sardinia,where
former
rulers had
When
governor
been
in the habit of charging their tents, bedding,and wearing
for
and likewise making it pay largesums
apparelto the province,
that of their friends,he introduced
their entertainment
and
an
unheard-of
He charged nothing to the provsystem of economy.
ince,
foot and
and visited the various cities without a carriage,
on
alone,attended by one publicservant, who carried his robe of state
he
all this,
and the vessel for making libations at a sacrifice. With
his rule,so
showed
himself so affable and simple to those under
and so
and
of justice,
inexorable in the administration
severe
executed,that
vigilantand careful in seeingthat his orders were
By
"
the
government
in Sardinia than
of Rome
when
was
never
feared
more
or
more
In his home
the
loved
"
Plutarch,M. Cato, 6.
403.
Growth
The
406
of Plutocracy
"
rebuked
man," who
new
the
hated
and
feared
nobles
this
overthrew
influence which
his
chiefly
their sins.
Chosen
he expelledfrom
the senate
spiteof their opposition,
of disreputable
number
members, taxed luxuries unmercifully,
a
and let out the public contracts
the publicworks
administered
in
censor
favoritism.
without
Civilization
450.
became
periodeducation
the children of the
slaves owned
Greek
privateschools
general. As
more
wealthystudied under
by the family. For
in the
In
"
this
precedingage,
the instruction
of educated
established
were
Morals.
erature
taught. A Latin litpose
was
now
coming into existence. The Romans
began to comfirst historyof Rome
and oratory. The
in
poetry, history,
written by Cato.
This work no longerexists. We have
Latin was
remaining a few comedies of Plau'tus and Ter'ence,who lived
in this period,and
mere
fragments of the remaining Roman
for instruction.
Greek
Both
and
Latin
were
literature.1
The
Romans
Their
were
more
roads,and aqueducts,
bridges,
the best in the world.
were
They produced little sculptureand
but preferred
of art as plunder from
to import shiploads
painting,
the cities of Sicilyand Greece.
of real
With
little appreciation
beauty,the nobles took pleasurein adorningtheir houses and villas
with
publicworks, as
sewers,
stolen statues.
with
Along
The
of Rome
was
history
on
come
famous
most
Fabius
down
poets
written
the
and
are
very
The
of the senate
the
Roman
valuable.
power.
Considerable
historian
earliestRoman
in Greek.
expansion of
to us,
were
Pictor,a member
His Annals
wrote
an
able
have
Civilization
407
economic
ruin
was
stillsound
at heart
; and
even
"
473.
Hellenic
while
of
(8)
vice.
and
of
symptoms
its
did
Why
United
morals
"
6.
nobles
and
5.
privileges
What
classes
city
and
II.
Scipio
Aemilianus.
what
of
various
to
Institutions,
63-80;
ii.
ch.
Rome
of
during
Greenidge,
Religion
xxxv.
end
other
of
Roman
and
optimates,"
this
of
tem?
sys-
England
period
In
did
influence
nobles,
what
were
way
Topics
of
Story
Rome,
see
144-150;
Numa,
Punic
Botsford,
Wars.
"
47-52;
Public
Roman
and
of
the
History,
Roman
Morals,
Carter,
93-100;
xx
Book
Manners,
III.
ch.
of
Source
of
that
political
of
Italians
each
provincial
the
"
territory
also
dices
in-
histories.
Government
Munro,
the
and
all
deterioration
the
degree
Latins,
Botsford,
"
the
show
to
to
with
populares,"
toward
attached
of
power
was
"
policy
defects
the
Roman
Define
plebs,
poor
federal
extent
enjoy
country
the
the
Note-book
I.
scepticism
beginning
was
their
were
of
what
To
4.
conquest?
plebs,
city
knights,
What
2.
expansion
following
the
of
Italy?
the
to
equites."
fostering
and
Questions
extend
Romans
States.
due
each
the
of
Compare
3.
the
of
or
the
not
outside
acquired
ment
develop-
Gracchi
decay.
Suggestive
i.
the
of
was
empire
the
parts
those
side
the
aiding
was
like
other
the
on
all
In
Rome,
characters
noble
Aemilianus,
Scipio
and
and
great
into
coming
culture,
Plutocracy
of
Growth
The
408
Religion.
104-145;
"
Abbott,
Life,
Botsford,
Duruy,
chs.
127-136
Political
Roman
iii-vi.
Munro,
136-140;
History
of
Rome,
i.
againstthe
enemy
a
singleclod
possessing
earth without
without
men
property
Agrarian
The
to
became
of Tiberius
the wealth
Gracchus
(133 B.C.).
"
solving
Re-
eminent
jurist
2
of Licinius
as
"
added
:
maintain
temples
family
improvement
to
tribune of the
of the age, he
has
one
homeless.1
and
of the
follows
Law
and
Strictly
forbidden
militaryservice;but we
in fact armies had recentlycome
to
speech that
largelycomposed of the poor
454.
of
were
this
from
learn
no
they fightto
tomb,
others,and they die with the
luxury of
and
many
so
tombs
Romans
but
ancestral
an
or
of
; for out
their
exhort
altar
with
wives and
be
Revolution
The
410
as
third clause
of
more
than
law
than
hundred
five hundred
cattle
passed after
or
acres
dred
five hun-
the time
of Licinius
"
(3)Of
the
laborers
on
any
farm,
certain
proportionshall
be
freemen.
To
these clauses he
:
joinedthe following
The
of
not
(4)
sons
exceedingtwo
present occupiersmay
each hold two hundred
and fifty
of publicland.
acres
(5) A committee of three,elected by the tribal assembly,shall
divide the surplusamong
the needy in lots of thirtyacres
each.
His plan was
from idleness
to rescue
families as possible
as
many
and poverty, and to fillthe country with thrifty
peasants in placeof
slaves.
a
By giving the poor an opportunityto earn
living,he
hoped to make them honest,useful citizens. An equallyimportant
aim was
of citizens
the number
to strengthenthe army
by increasing
for generations
But the rich,who
to serve.
legallyqualified
had bought,sold,and bequeathed the publicland,like privateprop"
"
Before
" 391.
"
armies thus
composed
were
exceptional;" 462.
Longitude
10"
Longitude
THE
EXPANSION
CXFXHE
POWER
ROMAN
FROM
THE
GRACCHI
to the
133
Death
B. C. to 14
of AUGUSTUS
A. D.
Power
Roman
100
50
100
200
Acquired
Allies
133 B. C.
133 B. C.-
of Rome,
14 A.
14 A.
D.
D.
40"
Greenwich
50"
0. W. Botifari,Del.
40"
Tiberius
his bill a scheme
erty, declared
Gracchus
411
of
he
robbery. When accordingly
brought it before the assembly,they induced Octavius,a tribune,
to veto it,and thus they prevented it from
passing.
With the advice of Tiberius,the assemblydeposed the obstinate
The
then passed without
tribune.
agrarianmeasure
opposition.
It
well carried
so
was
showed
increase
an
military service.
add
to
and
so
many
out
of
that
after four
nearly eighty
To
stop the
useful
citizens
decline
was
the
years
thousand
the
of
the
work
of
roll
census
citizens
fit for
population and
a
great patriot
statesman.
455.
The
Legality of
the
Acts
of Tiberius.
"
The
depositionof
As
no
requiresfurther examination.
magistrate had
been deposed before,this act involved a sweeping departure
ever
from
custom.
long-established
Nearly all the powers
acquired
in
however, had been won
by the assemblies during the republic,
In other words, an assemblygaineda new
a similar way.
function,
and connot through a law, but merely by assuming that function
tinuing
exercise
it.
the
to
was
a
Constitutionally government
If it wished
duce
to introdemocracy and the assembly was supreme.
it had the right. But
the custom
of deposingmagistrates,
it had allowed the senate
since the tribunate of Flaminius,232 B.C.,1
under
Tiberius
to take the lead in everything. When, therefore,
the senators
it attempted to resume
its supremacy,
rally
natuGracchus
declared its conduct unconstitutional.
unwilling
They were
what
to admit in practice
they had long acceptedin theory. Not
find the senate acceptingthe
many
years afterward,however, we
that a magistrate could be put out of office.2 Soon
new
principle
offered himself
after the enactment
of the agrarianlaw Tiberius
for reelection to the tribunate
another
departurefrom custom.
The same
considerations
tinuance
to legality
as
apply to this act. His con-
Octavius
"
in office seemed
for the enforcement
other
to himself
of the
and
reforms.
'"421.
" 468.
instructor
For
may
Assemblies, ^
further
consult
i. 125-127;
pupil and
the
Botsford, Roman
The
412
456.
The
Death
Revolution
of Tiberius
Gracchus
"
were
senators.
Added
to
of lar
popudred
to last a hun-
causes
it provoked a revolution,
which was
discontent,
The
aim of the revolutionary
party, opposed to the
years.
nobles,was to substitute the assembly for the senate, democracy
for oligarchy,
in fact as well as in theory. Contrary to expectations,
the revolution was
of the republic.
to end in the overthrow
The
457.
Democratic
Outlook.
"
Some
time
of
Tiberius,
ScipioAemilianus,the destroyerof Carthage,put a stop
to the distributions of land, and brought reform
to a standstill.
gained
reThough depressedfor a time, the democratic leaders soon
l
the
One
of them proposed to give the Italians
courage.
in order to have them
citizenship
as
supporters of the land law.
This offer the Italians would
gladlyhave accepted,had not the
senate
Another
leader passed a law
put a stop to the measure.
dates.
permittingthe peopleto reelect a tribune in case of a lack of candiMore
Gaius Gracchus
important still,
was
coming to the
1
These
suffered
is described in
who
Revolution
The
414
Gaius
then
appliedhimself to
the economic
improvement of the empire. Renewing his brother's
agrarianlaw, he planned to distribute the remainingpubliclands
the poor.
He adopted,too, the policyof establishing
mercial
comamong
and manufacturingcolonies at Tarentum, Capua, and other
placesalong the Italian coasts, to restore to Italythe prosperity
which Roman
capitalismhad destroyed. Passing beyond Italy,
he attempted to plant a colony near
the site of Carthage. The
the provinceswith Roman
citizens was
idea of colonizing
altogether
of
the
became
which
the
kind
centre
from
a
new.
Every colony
.Latin language and civilization extended
In the
to the natives.
of centuries this process led to the grant of Roman
course
citizenship
For the immediate
future the whole colonial
to the provincials.
the restoration of commercial
policyof Gaius, so far as carried out, meant
and industrial prosperity
to Italyand the empire,and the
the rural districts and the
dispersionof the Roman
poor among
small towns, where they could find an opportunityto earn
a living.
lished
Shortlybefore the tribunate of Gaius,courts began to be estabfor the trial of specialclasses of crimes.1
for
One was
the trial of cases
of extortion committed
by officials in Italyand
the provinces
for the trial of murder.
These courts
was
; another
consisted of a praetor as judge and a largejury of senators.
In
459.
Other
of
cases
therefore
of Gaius.
Reforms
extortion
the
accused
"
officials were
senators, and
were
corrupt than
more
did
therefore,
Gaius
attended
"
" 446.
not
senate
prove
built roads3 in
to be stored
He
the
as
been.
beneficial
as
This
of
measure
Gaius,
hoped.
in which
granaries,
peopleat a reduced
he had
Italy,and erected
the publicgrainfor sale to the
personallyto all these undertakings.
His
house
was
rate.
be-
444-
Those
only
were
who
eligible
had
had
centuriata.
in the
eighteen
Aims
looked with
of
crowds
at the
amazement
empire.
himself,seeinghim
man
"
The
people
attended
by
artisans,
ambassadors, magistrates,
building-contractors,
and learned
soldiers,
While
415
for the
of administration
the bureau
came
of the Gracchi
his behavior
to
he
dignity,
his
he maintained
all of whom
to
men,
was
efficient administrator
well
as
as
easy of access.
affable to all,
and adapted
great
was
he
Thus
individual."1
every
he
showed
and
orator
himself
an
reformer.
to the
citizenship
Lastly Gaius proposed to give the full Roman
Latins, and the Latin rightsto the Italians. The inhabitants of
for their excluof citizenship
sive
Rome, who wanted all the privileges
enjoyment, would have nothing to do with this measure.
Angered by the proposal,they turned againsthim and defeated
the senate
When
him in his candidacyfor a third time as tribune.
from
tried to prevent him
plantinga colony at Carthage, both
consul O-pim'i-us,
The
armed
by the
partiesresorted to violence.
the popular party, and
absolute
with
senate
power,2 overthrew
killed
these
with
Gracchus
with
men,
put
460. Estimate
of
carried
and
of his
thousand
mob
Gaius, perishedby
and
condemned
three
the
great
one
death
to
violence;
without
by Opimius
Gracchi.
measure
"
Tiberius
of reform.
of
supporters. Some
others
trial.
Gracchus
The
were
aim
proposed
of Gaius
was
commercial
lifewhich
to these
colonies he wished
Rome
had
ends.
His
to reestablish
from
the corn
Rome, made
away
and rendered
slavery,
Italyprosperous.
bringabout
Plutarch, Gaius
In the Second
time
martial
see
that the
law;
state
that of dictator.
;
these reforms
Gracchus,
Punic
of economic
sources
poor
To
the
War
he wished
were
means
drawn
the
limited
unnecessary,
of the tribunate
to make
6.
the
by Sulla.
had
dictatorship
Meanwhile
the senate
found
new
way
of
some
ing
proclaim-
Opimius
was
"
477.
authorityfrom
the
ate
sen-
Revolution
The
4i 6
the office of
ministry,like
The
ministers
should
the
name
in the time
Athens
general at
candidates
of Pericles.1
for the
higher
to
long
vast
the
as
of the
to
were
power,
is due
support
statesmanlike
other
which
people in
Gracchi
relied for
the head
become
their tribal
to
ignorantand
to
were
from
assembly
too
were
to
year
willed.
citizens
were
year
The
so
failure
whom
they
uphold broad,
vote
cheap grain and
againstGaius when
on
selfish to
ready
themselves, but
They
government.
continue
to
was
policy. They
advantages
of the
to
turned
II. THE
RESTORED
SUPREMACY
121-87
461. Gaius
death
Marius;
of Gaius
the
Gracchus
OF
SENATE
B.C.
Jugurthine War
restored
THE
the
(111-105B.C.).
misrule
"
of the
senate.
The
For
the
government
This
man
moderate
1
"
was
born
to
his
among
circumstances.
As
225.
Gaius Ma'ri-us.
successor,
the hills of Latium
in a family of
a
boy
he
2
learned
not
only to
plutarch,Gaius Gracchus,
18.
work
War
hard, but
to
sober
be
and
with
Jugurtha
obedient.
At
an
417
earlyage he entered
the plebs,and afterward
tribune of
militaryofficer,
propraetor of Farther Spain,he showed himself honest and
from Spain he married
able.
On his return
Julia,of the patrician
Soon
afterward he found employment for
family of the Caesars.
his militarygeniusin Numidia.
Ju-gur'tha,grandson of Masinissa,1 after killingthe rightful
heirs,had himself usurped the throne of Numidia.
Though the
senate
after another.
intervened,he bought off its embassies
one
made
Rome
When
war
him, he bribed the first commander
upon
from Africa ; and by corruptingthe officers of the secto withdraw
ond,
of the army
he compelledthe surrender
and sent it under the
he had visited Rome
his conduct
fore
beto justify
yoke. Meanwhile
there he brought about the murder
the senate.
While he was
who might have contested his rightto the Numidian
throne.
of a man
he could no longerremain
in Rome.
parting
While deAfter the murder
he is said to have exclaimed, A cityfor sale and doomed
the state
!"
Such was
to speedy ruin,if only a purchaserappears
of energy, took command
of affairs when
(109B.C.).
Metellus,a man
Marius
lieutenant.
With the help of Marius,
him
went
With
as
Then
he occupied a
the dissolute soldiers to order.
he reduced
whole
Jugurtha by force or to
year in a vain attempt to conquer
lus
take him captiveby stratagem (108 B.C.). The next year Meteldefeated him; but he soon
forces,and seemed
gathered new
Metellus
Then Marius, elected consul,superseded
stronger than ever.
in the command.
He rapidlybesiegedand
hold
captured one strongof the enemy
after another, and defeated Jugurtha twice in
battle.
FinallyLucius Cor-ne'li-us Sulla,a young aristocrat who
was
quaestor under him, capturedJugurtha by treachery. After
gracingthe triumph of Marius, the African king died in prison.
remained
With diminished
Numidia
a dependentkingdom.
territory,
The war, with the events
which
preceded it,showed clearlythe
incompetenceand the moral degradationof the senate.
and the Teutones
with the Cimbri
(ii3-ioi'B.c.).
462. The War
of territory
The Romans
had acquireda strip
along the southern
of Gaul, and had made a provinceof it under the nameNar-bocoast
the
army.
As
"
"
432.
The
4i 8
Revolution
valleyof
tribe,invaded
consul
Rome
the Danube.
the
the time
About
of this
B.C.). North
the
hastened to defend
army
defeated by the
he was
in that region,
Carbo
with
some
an
Celtic allies of
invaders,and barely
threatened
them
With
Narbonensis.
were
the
authorities,
According to some
Celts. When
according to others they were
tones.
now
latter
Germans;
were
the Romans
came
to
consular armies in
four more
overthrew
the rescue, these barbarians
succession.
They threatened to invade Italy,but a delay of three
years gave the Romans
busied
after year, Marius
When
at
army.
into Italy,
he met
time
himself
lengththe
them
to
at
Reflected
prepare.
with reorganizing
and
Teutones
were
ready to
Aq'uae Sex'ti-ae in
consul
year
the
training
cross
southern
the
Alps
Gaul, and
he and his
(102 B.C.). In like manner
Catulus in the following
the Cimbri
at
colleague
year slaughtered
in northern
Ver-cel'lae,
Italy,after they had succeeded in crossing
the Alps.
The army which gainedthese great victories had a new
character.
Before the time of Marius
it was
who waged
a
militia; the men
Rome's
had lands and families at home, and thought of themselves
wars
annihilated
as
citizens.
the economic
But
this middle
died out in
Rule
himself
Nobility
had
been
reality
have
saved
the army
it clear that
to
419
overthrow
the
republic.
considerations
would
the
used
later generals
loyal,
These
in
of
make
the
lacked
the
the creation of a soldier class which
necessary
aided the establishment of
loyaltyof the citizens and which willingly
made
militarygovernment
The
463.
senate
and
Rule
held
in
placeof
the
republic.
sat in
Nobility. The nobles,who
had resorted to violence
higheroffices,
of the
all the
"
the
and
of the Gracchi.
After
stoppingthe reform movement
the murder
of Gaius, they proceededto undo
the good work he had
accomplishedthrough the foundingof colonies and the distribution
of lands.
They repealedhis law for the colonization of Carthage,
it possiblefor the
and
then the agrarianlaw; and
they made
wealthy,by purchaseor by force,to gatherup into their hands the
The dissmall farms held by the peasants under the agrarianlaw.
tributio
of cheap grain,
however, which Gaius had introduced as a
of
they continued,and they used it as a means
temporary expedient,
The respect in which the senate
maintainingthemselves in power.
had once
been held was
now
nearlygone ; it could keep its position
of the state in no other way
than by cateringto the mob.
as head
In the Jugurthinewar
worthless
themselves
the nobles had shown
and corrupt ; afterward
from the common
the rise of a man
people
bloodshed
for
had
saved
alone
the supremacy
barbarian
of the nobles
seemed
revolutionaryundercurrent,in Rome
was
Italians,
rapidlygainingvolume
itself.
the senate and the republic
invasion.
to
be
wardly
out-
fullyrestored,a
the Latins
and
among
in
time
it
;
While
was
and
to overwhelm
Soon
afterward
Saturninus, and
another
riot broke
Glaucia
out
between
"
the rabble
and
the
Revolution
The
420
"
office."x
In
than
lot with
castinghis
with
his
nobles,who
were
the reformers,Marius
friends,
better would
Far
the
it have
been
his
made
enemies, rather
grave
mistake.
had
he seized
world
465. Drusus
by
or
on
enemies
hostile. At the
secretly
the point of rebellion.
time
same
found
now
all openly
oppressedItalians
conditions
These
itselfsurrounded
led
of the
some
were
more
to
wished
Rome
the
to
vote
exercise
at
of that
think
of
; for most
function.
1
But
of them
they
lived too
needed
far away
the
for
protection
Revolution
The
422
tor of the
The
Jugurthinewar.
latter,
patrician
though poor,
was
diplomacy,and politics.
His eyes were
an
piercingblue,which the
it was
as
color of his face rendered stillmore
terrible,
spottedwith
a
mulberry
rough, red blotches interspersedwith white,
l
with meal."
Success as a generalin the Social War
besprinkled
in 88 B.C.
brought him the consulship
for Rome
to send an army
In this year it was
against
necessary
who
the powerfulking of Pontus,
was
Mith-ri-da'tes,2
threatening
in the East.
Rome's
mand
possessions
Ordinarilyso important a comwas
givenby the senate to a consul,who, after the expiration
in duty under the title of proconsul. In this
of the year, continued
with
endowed
remarkable
"
...
case
the conduct
of the
war
intrusted
was
to Sulla as
consul.
A vote
of the
In a conto Marius.
flict
assembly,however,gave the command
of this kind the assembly,embodying the sovereignty
of the
people,had the superiorconstitutional right. But Sulla led his
settled the questionwith the sword.
Marius
to Rome, and
army
escapedto Africa. This was the first time the army appeared in
in the history,
of the republic. We are
politics a critical moment
that the revolution begun by the Gracchi stillwent
to bear in mind
on
no
longer tribunes,but generals.
; its leaders,however, were
After restoring
the authorityof the senate
and givingit complete
the tribunes,
Sulla proceededwith his army
to the war
over
power
againstMithridates.
"
III.
THE
OVERTHROW
RESTORATION
AND
87-79
B.C.).
"
out
No
between
sooner
the
had
(87B.C.); the
left Italythan an
consuls,Octavius
RULE
B.C.
of Marius
Sulla
SENATORIAL
OF
and
Rule
of Cinna
armed
Cinna, over
(87-84
conflict broke
the enrolment
this
of
Plutarch,Sulla,2.
In
" 469.
Democratic
the
example
from
an
of
Sulla,marched
exile which
had
been
Rule
423
Marius
againstRome.
to
him
returned
series of adventures
and
of
"
"
country
on
the senate
when
Pontus
came
enemy
Great.
He
and
the
to
south
be filled by
was
This
Some
Appian,
of his adventures
was
with
man
the time
About
Jugurtha,the
who
Mithridates
throne
to prove
was
VI,
are
many
related in
heroic
gerous
dan-
styledthe
personality,
tion,
educa-
traits,
cunning,unscrupu-
Botsford,Story of Rome,
of
often
attractive
giganticstrength,
genuineOriental polishedby Greek
genius. A
remained, in spiteof
young
Sea.
of
man
brilliant
he
Black
trouble
have
began to
to Rome.
of the
shore
p. 177 f.
*
" 435.
The
424
Revolution
this time
At
her
Rome
as
the whole
body
deliverer from
threatened
was
of the Adriatic.
east
possessions
in Asia roused
him
welcomed
inhabitants
whose
the
But
Roman
of Italians
massacre
pression
op-
with
of
necessity
mediate
im-
action.
On
Sulla hastened
takingcommand,
The
five
Greece with
to
legions.
the enemy
two
victoriesover
Asia
from Europe.
Meanwhile
and
siege,
capture of Athens
by
in battle,drove the king'sforces
forced to
Minor
disaffected by the king'scruelties.
He
was
was
make
at the
peace and to give up all the conquests he had made
and her allies,
includingthe kingdoms of Bithynia
expense of Rome
and Cap-pa-do'ci-a.But no one
break
could doubt that he would
the treaty as soon
as
an
opportunityoffered itself.
First Civil War
(84-82 B.C.). After patchingup this
470. The
hastytreaty,Sulla returned to Italywith a victorious army devoted
The
to him.
in power,
resisted his return, and a
democrats,now
civil war
broke
them
and
Their
between
Sulla.
out
principal
"
leaders
Carbo
were
Marius.
These
Lucanians,who
submitted.
The
In
fierce
had
taken
details
crushed
in this battle
his
men
need
war
fought outside
was
struggleSulla
When
latter
was
of the famous
son
alreadyfled to Africa.
neste.
The
supported chiefly
by the Samnites
were
decisive battle
a
Marius.
men
The
taken
had
and
were
were
not
massacred
forced
had
to
be
had
at
Thousands
in cold
the
not
yet
here.
described
his enemies.
Marius
and
and
Rome.
of
yield,Marius
died
by
oners
pris-
Carbo
blood.
Prae-
his
own
Sulla's
Legislation
425
massacred.
Soon
all Italy
hand, and the survivinggarrison was
The
brave
Samnites
lay prostrate at the feet of the conqueror.
were
nearlyexterminated.
By the wholesale destruction of property
and life,
the Social and Civil wars
the
ruin
of
nearlycompleted
Italy,which had long been decliningin wealth and population.
When
(82-79 B.C.); his Constitution.
471. Sulla in Power
of the government, he proceededwith
Sulla had made himself master
reckless butchery to destroythe opponents of his party. Day by
day he posted a list of his victims (" the proscribed"),whom
any
and
receive
therefor
The
of
the
one
a reward.
might slay
goods
scribed
pro"
confiscated,and
were
number
thus
of persons
their
murdered
disfranchised.
children
at Rome
amounted
The
nearlyfive
to
to the work
number
normal
number
law
of senators
till it
ordered
of
further
was
that
the consent
of the Hortensian
law of
(3) Next
he enacted
should
others of
of Rome
be
back
that
to
the
senate
who
one
had
held
before
any
statute, a repeal
the
trol
completeconearlyrepublic.
nate
plebeiantribu-
-it was
condition
in
more
than
two
hundred
arrangements,
were
more
(4) He
office
to
regularstepping-stone
This
of the senate.
it had
no
brought
the
other
(2) An-
Caesar.
by
be
remained
and
higheroffice. By these measures,
character,Sulla attempted to set the government
to
eligible
similar
should
287 B.C.,1
gave the
which
legislation
This
increased
measure
no
assembly without
of
to be six hundred.
was
of
the senate.
"
393-
Eight
were
to be
this
em-
Revolution
The
426
praetor before
in
not
was
mitted
per-
to
of
he
consul,and
When
life.
Soon
splendorsuch
as
he
afterward
nations
died,and
buried
was
his
when
with
kings.
to totter.3
began
government
and
pomp
of their
in honor
rarelydisplayeven
not
was
ten
remained
He
office within
same
Suggestive Questions
i.
prevented
What
which
Licinius
and
Gracchi
the
tribunes
other
justifythe methods
begin
trie
Gracchi
revolution?
of the
what
3. In
conservative?
4.
adopting
from
of earlier time
Gracchi?
respect
Throughout
the
the government
tended
become
to
xxxvn,
Gracchi
contribute
this
end
What
did
?
to.
causes
of discontent
had
had
Did
2.
What
or
stances
circum-
the senate
agrarianpolicy of the
by chs. xxxvi,
period
monarchical.
Marius
illiberal in
did
What
contribute?
Italians
Are
better
there
state
is your
estimate
of the character
and
7. What
did he contribute
to the growth of monarchy
(cf 4) ?
the
5. What
the time
from
bestowing
aliens?
on
Did
used ?
Tiberius
covered
the
growing among
leadership to their revolt ?
founded
of reform
the
was
been
under
Roman
they came
for believing that they would
have
did Rome
6. Why
and more
more
grow
methods
the
any
reasons
than
Rome?
the
citizenship
policyof Sulla?
"" 444,
3
459.
For
summary
of this
periodwith
that of the
see
following,
"
492.
"
4S9"
Constitutional
Changes
Note-book
I.
The
first
of
means
II.
Heitland,
III.
on
i.
Plutarch,
Marius,
and
etc.),
of
Tiberius
various
the
and
the
Gracchus.
histories
second
of
part
Rome
will
be
Gracchus.
Story
ch.
the
Rome,
ch.
Statesmen,
view
of
f., 167-171;
159
Greenidge
iii
tarch,
Plu-
Greenidge,
with
that
of
xxxviii.
Botsford,
Marius;
Sulla,
of
Roman
Compare
ii.
Law
the
in
Land,
Seven
iv.
of Rome,
History
Marius.
Gracchi,
ch.
and
studied
Agrarian,
Oman,
Gracchus;
Rome,
to
be
Botsford,
"
of
is
Tiberius
Gracchus.
"
Beesly,
topic
Topics
Romans
the
(see
chapters
Gaius
Gains
History
of
this
Indices
the
the
in
found
of
part
"
by
Lands
Public
The
427
chs.
iv-x.
Story
of
Rome,
ch.
vii;
XXXVII
CHAPTER
(II)
REVOLUTION:
THE
MILITARY
THE
WITH
THE
POMPEY,
CICERO,
Pompey
will upon
(to
the state
70
by
B.C.).
the
of
CAESAR
AND
Sulla
"
means
the
was
hands
the
fell
of the
the
Among
heir
of
young
war
the
After
the
of the
rebellion
in
to
had
good
Spain,
Sulla's
POMPEY
THE
(National Museum,
GREAT
Naples)
to
champion
been
find
able
no
Pompey,
ernment.
gov-
was
now
senate,
cording
ac-
should
proconsul
consul.
person
man
But
with
as
this
gave
the
proconsulship
had
not
filled
who
office of quaestor.
428
the
down
the
against
and
already
it
qualification,
"
patron, Pompey
general
as
had
Great."
arrangements,
thither
sent
it could
"
and
the
as
of his
the civil
needed
who
"
still
officer that
an
still further
have
While
joined in
able
him
death
democratic
into
fitted to be
democrats,
proved himself
litical
po-
of the army
policy.
so
hailed
the
more
most
was
he had
himself
Sulla
and
risingofficers
man
shown
time
his
generals.
Sulla's
upon
enforce
to
his
more
Pom'pey
Gnaeus
the
first
After
army.
power
CONFLICT
B.C.
79-44
472.
IN
B.C.
79-31
I.
POWER
REPUBLIC
even
the
his
made
of
persons
command
under
an
Slaves, criminals,and
Vesuvius.
Mount
to
escape
discontented
had
Revolution
The
43"
class
every
of
army
more
flocked
than
to
his
hundred
armies
years he defeated Roman
Licinius
the praetor Marcus
side
till he
thousand
led
by praetors and
with eight
Cras'sus,
consuls. Then
At the
defeated and killed him and dispersedhis army.
legions,
aided by Pompey, who had just
Crassus
last moment
was
slightly
returned from Spain.
Consul
as
(70 B.C.); as Commander
against the
474. Pompey
ship
Pirates
(67 B.C.). These two generalswere
eager for the consulthe ground that Pompey had
; and as the senate hesitated on
not
yet been' quaestor or praetor, they turned for support to the
people,promisingthem the repealof Sulla's laws. Elected consuls
of the tribunes and took from the
in 70 B.C., they restored the power
the aristocratic
the authoritySulla had given it. Thus
senate
overthrown
by the
government, after standingbut ten years, was
had
its founder
This was
man
a
styled the Great."
victory,
of the democracy as of the army
when
tribunes
not so much
for
the
;
restored began to attach themselves to the service of the great military
For two
men.
"
"
leaders.
For
had
years pirates
Sea.
They seized
been
terranean
swarming over the whole Medicities,
nobles,whom
capturedRoman
ened
theyheld for ransom, and by cuttingoff the grainsupplythey threatwith
Rome
As
famine.
the senate
seemed
powerless to
check the evil,Ga-bin'i-us,
for
a tribune,proposed to give Pompey
three years absolute command
of the Mediterranean, togetherwith
of its coast, fifty
miles wide, as far as the Roman
a strip
empire
extended.
He was
to have a vast
and a
of shipsand men
number
large-sum of money.
Though the senate opposed the law because
it gave
some
so
much
Within
cleared the
made
The
successor
man,
fortydays
of pirates.He
sea
country
Second
"After
63 B.C.).
his
one
the
people carried
of that
475.
to
power
to
and
the
destroyedtheir
province.
Roman
Third
Sulla had
was
Wars
made
command
1
with
it with enthusiasm.
ready,Pompey
Mithridates
(83-82,74-
84 B.C.,
peace with Mithridates,1
in the East provoked the king of
" 469.
Mithridates
Pontus
to
second
war.
Peace
was
431
soon
restored
by
order of
Sulla.
While
Rome
fightingSertorius
in
Spain,Mithridates made
He allied himself with the powerfulking of
war.
ready for a new
tribes along the
to his support the barbarian
Armenia, and won
northern
of the Black Sea.
coast
In 74 B.C., the king of Bithynia
It was
made
at once
died,leavinghis realm as a legacyto Rome.
a
This
the
event
of
he
Pontus
to
province.
provoked
king
war, as
himself coveted that territory.Mithridates
commanded
a powerful
but
fleet and
him
the
consul
Lucius
Luwas
opposed to
army,
a
cul'lus,
remarkably skilful general,at the head of five legions.
first expelled the enemy's forces from
Lucullus
the provincesof
Asia and Bithynia,and then invaded
Pontus.
With little fighting
he drove Mithridates from his kingdom. The fugitive
took refuge
with his son-in-law Ti-gra'nes,
king of Armenia.
marched
and
With a few troops Lucullus
boldly into Armenia
force of Tigranes. He might have condefeated a greatlysuperior
quered
the kingdom; but his troops mutinied
and compelled him
Mithridates
returned
to
to retreat.
Pontus, and Lucullus lost
he had gained (66 B.C.).
nearlyall the territory
476. Pompey in the East (66-62B.C.); End of the Third War with
Had
the Romans
Mithridates.
supported Lvcullus, he would
doubtless
have overthrown
Mithridates.
But many
soon
thought
this great enemy.
The
able to conquer
Pompey the only man
tribune Manilius, accordingly,
carried a law which gave the command
he already
in the East to Pompey in addition to the power
had.
He
easilydrove the king from Pontus, the most of which
he joinedto the new
ward
provinceof Bithynia. Mithridates was afterkilled,at his own
request, by a Gallic mercenary.
of
received
the submission
and
Pompey then invaded Armenia
Tigranes. The latter had conquered Syria and other neighboring
now
countries,but was
obligedto give up everythingoutside his
native kingdom. In 64 B.C.
Pompey entered Syria and jnade a
provinceof it. This was the end of the Seleucid Empire. As the
Jews were
unwillingto submit, he besiegedJerusalem, and after
three months
took it while the inhabitants
bath.
were
keeping the Sabwithin the "Holy of Holies,"a
In the temple he intruded
was
"
Revolution
The
432
shrine which
but
none
the
high priestcould
But
enter.
he
left
he respectedthe native
and in other ways
temple unpillaged,
religion.Jerusalem retained its self-governmentunder a high
priestwho was friendlyto Rome.
of the East.
to the organization
Pompey attended conscientiously
The new
Cilicia,
provincesthus far mentioned were
Bithynia,and
a
province. A few small kingdoms
Syria. Crete, too, became
remained in and about Asia Minor; their rulers,
though allies
in name,
were
reallyvassals of Rome.
With the great Parthian empirebeyond
the Euphrates he made
a
treaty of
friendship.These arrangements were
all admirable.
her dependent
With
her provinces,Rome
allies and
now
occupied the entire circuit of the
the
Mediterranean.
B.C.).
"
The
477.
In the absence
events
Rome.
(Vatican Museum,
portant
Pompey imtaking place at
Cic'e-ro became
consul
in 6^
?
Rome)
Though
B.C.
cipium* and
were
of
man
of moderate
means,
he
was
his brilliant
from
muni-
ministra
oratory and ad-
offices at Rome.
In his
for him the highest
won
ability
time had been formingon a
which for some
a conspiracy,
consulship
The
vast
leader,
scale,threatened to destroy the government.
but
Lucius Cat'i-line,
of highbirth and of splendid
a man
was
talents,
vicious and depraved. He
drew to himself the most
desperate
in
of
civil
and
renewal
men
war
Italy,includingall who wished a
well as debtors,gamblers,and assassins. While the
as
massacres,
head of the conspiracy
extended throughat Rome, its members
was
out
the peninsula. When
these anarchists had their plans well
the
laid for killing
the magistratesand the nobles and for seizing
consul discovered their plotand denounced
government, the vigilant
Catiline before the senate.
The arch-conspirator
fled to the army
he had been preparingin Etruria,where
he was
afterward
soon
1
"
405.
Though
the members
of
them
municipia were
as
inferior.
Roman
the inhabitants
citizens,
The
eminent
him
their leader.
as
form
thoughhe
and
of
He
of Catiline's chief
condemned
were
Cicero
for
people saluted
in fact had
ciates
asso-
by
the
man,"
new
Father
the senators
recognized
the
to
republican
him
to
the condition
of his
were
whelming.
over-
publicaffairs
dwarfed
and
that the statesman, however
grand,appears strangely
had come;
the only
out of place; for the age of generals
theywere
It was- in
and managed the politicians
as their puppets.
strong men
that Cicero hoped to make
vain,therefore,
Pompey a defender of
the republican
constitution.
Such
478.
The
First
(60B.C.).
All
"
the East.
feared he
by
both
nobles
of his army,
alone would
means
led him
citizen.
He
to disband
and
Sulla had
bring him
his army
as
It
aid.
The
and
him,
make
himself
done.
honor
and
to Rome
tator
dic-
power
as
he
private
senate, which
had
arrangements in
his
sanction
himself
some
But
come
from
Pompey
claimed
and
all the
Crassus
in politics
helpless
as
had been.
happened,however,that
One
other
democrats
bitterly
disappointed.The
was
and
of
return
the government
as
of
Caesar, Pompey,
"
anxiouslyawaitingthe
might overthrow
his influence
needed
Triumvirate
were
While
become
him
stronglyattached
the forces opposed
was
But
government.
made
"
was
433
to death.1
state
The
in Rome.
man
Country ;
saving the
in
success
few
city. They
put them
the consul
senate, and
His
in the
remained
who
Triumvirate
Cicero arrested
killed.
defeated and
First
Crassus, whose
was
was
was
patrician,
Gaius
needed
politicians
eminent
great wealth
gave
Cae'sar.
Ju'li-us
leader
Crassus,desired
two
of
the
This young
democratic
party.
his
him
influence.
man,
though a
He, as well as
which Pompey had
like that
command
military
held. SeeingPompey cast off by the senate, they came
to him with
a proposalthat
they three should act togetherfor their common
is called
interests. This union of the three men, though unofficial,
1
Cicero had
received
from
the senate
make
absolute
the senate
asserted
2
accordinglythat Cicero
" 392.
2F
had
to
power
deal with
for
responsible
senate
put these
men
to
to
act
the
conspirators
their punishment.
as
death
court
without
in such
a
trial.
The
case,
Revolution
The
434
the
peoplethe
tool of the
triumvirs,or
received the
Clo'di-us carried
recalled
peoplesoon
put
from
the
As the
arrangements.
the
protection,
tribune
of Cicero
ground
their
he had
consulship
that in his
The
at least under
secured
return
citizens to death
the
on
without
restored
of Gaul
Proconsul
(58-50 B.C.).
479. Caesar
his term
Caesar as proconsulreceived for five years
"
trial.1
him
to honor.
At
the
the
government
close of
held the
CisalpineGaul, Narbonensis, and Illyricum. He now
for which he had long been striving
kind of position
give
; it would
make
himself
he
the greatest
him an
might
through which
army
Before the end of his periodof government the
power in the state.
of
Caesar
their alliance..
renewed
triumvirs
to
was
have
five
more
this way
In
empire.
these
men
divided
among
them
the
world.
480. The
Roman
Condition
provinceof
of Gaul.
Narbonensis
north
has been
Mention
"
on
the southern
made
of the
of Gaul
coast
and
of the
with
in the
Germans..
The
north
the
Belgians,who
Aquitanianswere
the
"
"462.
"
modern
4
477,
n.
form
Of the
of
these
three
i.
The
130.
the
civilized,
most
the most
and warlike.
barbarous
Each
Bel'gi-ans
comprised several independenttribes.
groups
2
Celts mixed
were
Greek
form
of the
name
form
Marseilles.
same
race
as
Iberia).
Massilia,and the
Gaul
of the Rhine
East
A
crisis in Rome's
like that
at
hand,
powerful German
crossed
the Rhine
movement
the
tribe
under
barbarous,half-nomadic Germans.
relation with these Northern
peoples was now
with which
Marius
had successfully
grappled.
and
but
was
if unchecked
were
would
435
had
the
the
seized
thrown
ROMAN
some
beginningof
have
Gaul
SOLDIERS
This
German
migration,which
commotion, and might
into
MARCHING
have
481.
time
The
had
in the mountains
fertile lands
more
Gaul.
Conquest
had
confronted
by
with
which
he
as
great
and
little
enormous
overcame
master
of Gaul
"
everythingin
of the art
of
war.
who
found
But
him
at
this
himself
the
at
ease
once
rapidityhe
Revolution
The
436
legions,and
gatheredhis widely scattered forces,enrolled new
recruits with the courage and devotion of veterans.
his raw
inspired
immediately defeated
He
In the
summer
same
Helvetians
of their host
the remnant
drove
and
the
he
won
back
with
to
great slaughter,
their former
the
great victoryover
home.
Germans,
and
In the followingyear, as
the Rhine.
compelled them to recross
the Belgiansthreatened to give him trouble,he resolved to subdue
little opposition
In the invasion of their country he met
them.
warlike and the most powerthe most
ful
tillhe came
to the Ner'vi-i,
of the Belgictribes. These peoplewould have nothingof Roman
for they wished to keep their
traders in wine and other luxuries,
proachin
strengthintact and their martial fire alive. While Caesar was apform
that he could neither
they fell upon him so fiercely
left to his own
Each soldier was
his line nor give orders.
judgment.
of the comand the heroism
mander
But the cool courage of the legionaries
As
Nervii survived.
a
the desperatefight. Few
won
Next
Gaul submitted.
result of the campaign all northern
year
coast.
who occupieda stripof the western
he attacked the Ven'e-ti,
A maritime
people,they built their towns on headlands protectedon
selves
all sides by tide-waters too shallow for Roman
ships. They themput to sea in clumsy flat-bottomed boats with leathern sails.
till his small,lightfleet
Caesar made
little progress againstthem
A happy thought occurred
their bulky navy in the open sea.
met
With scythesfastened to long polesthey cut the
to the Romans.
enemy's tackle so as to disable his ships. Victorywas then easy ;
the Veneti
In the
horde
with
of his command
remainingyears
of Germans
country.
As
aid of their
them
; to
check
their inroads
the
Britons,who were
in Gaul, Caesar
kinsmen
in their
own
home
in order
he
twice
largelyCeltic,came
found
to make
their
invaded
to
the
it necessary
to attack
them
stop sending aid
his enemies.
received
poor
and
the
submission
the
booty scant.
of several
The
tribes.
Britons gave
But
the
country
was
hostagesand promised
senate
from
Revolution
The
438
These
Caesar
ordered
senate
ceased
leaders
two
to
friends.
be
in 49
Then,
his command
to lay down
protection
people.
on
B.C., the
pain of being
the tribunes,
When
Mark
publicenemy.
Antony and
Quintus Cassius,vetoed this decree,they were harshlytreated,and
The mistreatment
of the tribunes
fled thereuponto Caesar's camp.
to Rome
to protect the
gave him a pretext for bringinghis army
declared
sacred office.1
484. Second
at
hesitated
like
crossing,
to
enemy
hurried
over
to follow.
he
while
discussed
with
The
his friends
invader,into Italyand
an
his
"
country;
then
of thus
the
Italy,Caesar
himself
die is cast!"
his
summoned
be
of
consequences
making
exclaiming,"The
the
of the Rubicon
Rubicon, which
the
(49-45 B.C.).
Civil War
true, the
and
in the
an
he
troops
crossing
history
violation of
Pompey, with the consuls and many senators, retired to the East,
where
he expected his great influence to bring him abundance
of
for war.
Caesar immediately secured
supporters and of resources
control of Italyand Spain. His gentleness
to opponents and his
moderation
in relieving
distressed debtors
and in protectingproperty
made
the hearts of all quiet citizens,
and
won
even
many
followers of Pompey suspect that they had taken the wrong
side.
After setting
up a government at Rome, Caesar crossed to Greece
and met his rival at Phar-sa'lus,
in Thessaly. Although in appearance
issue
the
the
real
at
was
Pompey championed
senate,
question
which
of the two
commanders
should
world.
Pom-
of
the enemy
resources
pey'sarmy outnumbered
; but the mental
Caesar,together with the superiormanliness of the troops from
the day. Pompey fled to Egypt ; and when
western
Europe, won
Caesar reached Alexandria
in pursuit,a would-be
friend brought
him the head of his murdered
rival. It was
welcome
no
giftto
the noble victor.
1
" 382.
The
World
Roman
439
But
Egypt King Ptolemy had deposed his sister Cle-o-pa'tra.
Caesar, siding with the charming queen, established her as sole
monarch.
while passing through Syria and Asia Minor
Then
he
battle crushed Phar'and in one
settled the affairs of the provinces,
of Mithridates,thus puttingan end to a
and successor
son
na-ces,
After the victoryhe sent
this brief
to Rome
dangerous enemy.
(Icame, I saw, I conquered). Another
despatch, Veni,vidi,mci
the senatorial army
One
at Thap'sus in Africa.
year he defeated
in that region was
of the aristocratic commanders
Tionest,
Cato,
and stubborn,yet narrow-minded
been his great-grandas had
father,
loyal,
censor.1 In despairof the republiche killed
the famous
himself.
the victoryat Mun'da
in Spain destroyed
Soon afterward
the last oppositionto Caesar
(45 B.C.).
In
"
"
"
485. The
the Roman
and
Condition
of the Roman
empire extended
included
the
It consisted
from
from
of
World.
Euphrates River
which
multitude
"
bordered
of
on
to
tic,
the Atlan-
the Mediterranean.
states, whose
condition
complete subjectionupward
"
449-
Revolution
The
440
givethe
of the reformer
Roman
world
better
as
could
in that of their
take
communities.
own
inquirewhat
"^J^H
It is necessary
Caesar
as
to
now
accomplishedin
these
directions.
(49-44B.C.).
"
time
the
He
held at
offices of
one
consul
and
Reforms
and
the
and
same
dictator,
for
grantedhim for longperiodsand finally
he was
life. As pontifexmaximus
head of
him
the state religion.These officesmade
received,too, for
lifethe title Im-pe-ra'tor
("general"),from
king in
which
all but
He
name.
the word
Caesar
is derived.
emperor
wished
make
to
dently
Evi-
his power
nearer
hereditary
heirs,
; and as he had no
he adopted as a son his grandnephew Octalent.
tavius,a youth of remarkable
Caesar
allowed
the
little
assemblies
JULIUS CAESAR
the senate
power, and made
council.
Sulla had doubled
senators
; Caesar
even
to make
In
some
half-barbarous
a mere
advisory
the number
of
dred
increased it to nine huninferior
also many
wished
Probably he
empire.
Gauls.
the
citizens,
in time
JCh.
xxxv.
"
444.
"
519.
Caesar's
vated
and
Achievements
441
improved, no
"
"
when
character.
to have
Neither
entertained
Caesar
nor
the idea of
the government
any
other
Roman
came
to have
statesman
creatinginstitutions by
that
seems
means
of
Revolution
The
442
which
empire, dispensingwith
the
of
inhabitants
the
paternal
interests.
The
grant of
despotism,could safeguard their own
of representatives
and the admission
to the provincials
citizenship
would
have been a great benefit ; yet
of the provincesto the senate
of this kind might not have prevented the ultimate
a measure
even
decline of the empire.
have accomplished,had he lived,
Caesar would
be
What
cannot
known.
His murder
was
a
mistake, as it plunged
great political
the world again into desolating
In this strugglethe question
war.
of government
at issue was
to be adopted ; it
not as to the form
what generalshould succeed to the power
of Caesar.1
was
II. THE
STRUGGLE
FOR
B.C.
44-31
Fearingthe
SUCCESSION
THE
Civil War
"
In
the
few
next
against him
known
as
months
Cicero
series of
the
powerful speeches,
semblance
Philippicsfrom their re-
to
againstPhilipof Macedon.2
had
ceased
Henceforth
delivered
to
be
issues
a
were
But
force
to
in
be
eloquence
the
world.
decided
by
armies.
OCTAVIANUS
(At
The
Octavius
about
years
bust is modern.
Museum, Rome)
1
On
"
of
Vatican
Illyricumwhen
uncle's death.
the character of
307-
pursuing
was
his
studies
in
age
Caesar, see
news
He
came
sailed at
Botsford,Story of Rome,
of
once
his
for
ch. viii.
great-
Italy,
Octavianus
takingthe
and
Gaius
name
443
he came
Oc-ta-vi-a'nus,
JuliusCaesar
almost
sided
the
with
Cicero
simplicity,
for the republic. In
frank
all
for any
enthusiasm
at
Second
The
490.
declared
for
by
time
he
his show
of
the young
Octavianus
was
fact this youth of nineteen years had no
cunning he
capital.
(43);
Triumvirate
outmatched
Overthrow
even
the
of the Liberators
he had raised,Octavianus
army
Antony. The senate, now feeling
secure,
"
helpedwin
soon
that
; in cool
cause
of the
veterans
political
Deceived
againstAntony.
senate
he
But
to
an
victoryover
cast off the boy. Immediately he came
to an
understandingwith
Caesar's master
of horse,who
Antony, his rival,and with Lep'i-dus,
These three men
stillheld an importantcommand.
made
of themselves
the State,"
Triumvirs
for Reestablishing
office they
an
to hold five years, with power
to disposeof all magistracies
were
a
"
"
at
will and
They
to
issue decrees
filled Rome
the hatred
Each
of the others.
should
their troops,and
with
of Sulla.1
which
have
Among
force of law.
the hideous
and
the victims of
of the ancient
the
renewed
sacrificed friends
"
kinsmen
even
Antony
was
scription
proto
Cicero,
world.
the
to meet
Antony and Octavianus led their armies to Macedonia
republicanforces which Cassius and Brutus had collected there.
which was
After the first,
battles were
Two
fought near Phi-lip'pi.
Cassius killed himself in despair. Brutus, beaten in the
indecisive,
second engagement, followed the example of his mate ; the republican
scholar
could
not
live under
War
between
Antony
and
Octavianus
"
" 471.
Cf.
Scene
i.
The
444
Revolution
The
off Ac'ti-um
on
the west
coast
of Greece
the ships of
able general,commanded
an
(31 B.C.). A-grip'pa,
patra.
Octavianus
againstthe combined squadrons of Antony and CleoIn the earlypart of the fightthis infatuated
pair sailed
defeated
leaving their fleet to take care of itself. It was
away,
rendered.
and taken by Agrippa. After the battle,Antony's land force sursuicide in
he and Cleopatracommitted
At last,when
Alexandria,Octavianus was master of the empire.
tory
of the most
The battle of Actium
was
one
importantin ancient hisOriental influence ;
; it saved European civilization from undue
of Caesar ; and
it ended the longanarchy which followed the murder
it placedthe destinyof the empirein the hands of an able statesman.
of the Change from
(i)
Republic to Empire.
492. Summary
and wealth to a few of the
Conquest brought excessive power
"
Romans,
while
it reduced
the bulk
of the
citizens to
poverty and
of wealth,
these men
(2) The senate, representing
became
and weak ; it could neither maintain
corrupt, oppressive,
order in Rome
nor
protect the provinces. (3) Tiberius Gracchus
Gaius
began a reform, which the senate stopped by violence.
Gracchus
force,through
organizedthe citymob, a revolutionary
in the army,
But
of
which he set aside the authority the senate.
(4)
could find
reformed
afterward by Marius, an ambitious man
as
soon
for overthrowing the senate
reliable and effective weapon
a far more
and for making himself master
of the government.
(5) Sulla first
used this militaryinstrument
for political
(6) It was
purposes.
the work of Pompey in his war
and with Mithridates
with the pirates
wretchedness.
to
show
how
beneficial to
the
Roman
world
rule of
the
one
man
monarchy,
had too powerful enemies
to be lasting. (8) After his
death the senate
failed to recover
and the civil wars
its authority,
followingdecided that Octavianus,his heir,should be master of the
empire.
might be.
though it
(7) The
government
of Caesar
was
real
The
446
Revolution
equalitywith themselves.
intimatelythan
Through his writingswe know his character more
tell us that he was
words
His own
vain,
that of any other Roman.
he
these
in
but
was
often
respects
ably
proband in politics
wavering;
His
of
his
tastes were
than any
contemporaries.
no
worse
weaknesses
he could
and intellectual ; and in spiteof small
literary
always be found, in great issues,on the side he believed to be right.
like those of any political
His Orations,
speaker,must be critically
exclusive
ever, had
as
sifted in order
to
to admit
determine
him
what
to
an
statements
in them
be used
may
his Letters to
trustworthy are
In fact,
candidly of passing events.
edge
knowlthis correspondence
givesus a remarkably full and accurate
of the time.
conditions
of the social,moral, and political
His many
philosophicworks are a presentationof Greek ideas in
of his character and his desire
the Latin language. The soundness
evinced
standard
of the readingpublic are
to raise the moral
by
in
choice of the nobler ideals of philosophy
his constant
preference
In his Republiche suggestedthe
to the merely useful and material.
like the Roman
idea that a state,when
distracted by internal strife,
empire of his time,needed the paternalcare of its leadingcitizen
prin'ceps.The task of the princepswould be to hold the various
another
and
offices and powers
of the state in harmony with one
their several duties. It is
to requireall to perform effectively
of Augustus, which
remarkable
fact that the government
we
a
shall soon
But the greatness of
Cicero's idea.
examine,1embodied
artist of surpassCicero lies chiefly
in the fact that he was
a
literary
ing
for
sixteen
remained
"He
created
which
a
genius.
language
centuries that of the civilized world,and used that language to form
Before
a
stylewhich nineteen centuries have not replaced.
his time Latin prose was, from a wide point of view, but one
among
local
become
ancient
had
dialects.
left
his
it
a
As
it
hands,
many
universal language,one which had definitely
supersededall others,
Greek included,as the type of civilized expression."
work
On the
a poet of the age,
a
Lu-cre'ti-us,
composed in verse
Nature ofthe World, in which he tried by means
of science to dispel
from
from the mind all fear of death and of the gods,
to free men
Far
for historical purposes.
friends,in which he speaks
more
"
"
" 496.
Education
superstition.It
at the
lived
of love
is
work
of remarkable
time,wrote
life,and some
same
and
447
who
genius. Ca-tul'lus,
beautiful lyrics
and elegies
on
subjects
bitter lampoons. On
the whole, the
494.
he
in which
"
learned
After
boy
the
that
of the
following.
an
elementaryschool,
metic.
reading,writing,and arith-
first attended
rudiments
of
pleting
com-
he
this course,
higher
school,keptby a gramwho
mat'i-cus,
taught
entered
Greek
him
and
literature.
the
Latin
the
were
Naevius
the
Latin
Among
books
read
of
poems
and
Ennius,
comedies
Plautus,1and
translation
of
Latin
of Homer.
History,oratory, and
the
Laws
Twelve
also
of
the
Tables2
studied.
were
There
schools,too, for
girls,though less is
were
known
the
of them.
Often
A
wealthy educated
their
(Mosaic, Museum
children
at
Capua)
at
home,
as
in the
SCHOOL
"
precedingperiod,with
450
and
n.
i.
the
" 387.
Revolution
The
448
ties of the mind
neglectedby
Doubtless
decay.
father
many
the
; but
wished
to
Rome
the
growth
of
their slave
the
were
teachers.
develop a strong
youth were no longer
son
MAXIMA
to
his
see
of
surroundings
CLOACA
favorable
The
pampered by
character
moral
left to
were
the
influence.
From
photograph)
had
made
great.
495.
Public
in the
Works
art, as
ence
(to31 B.C.). Though the chief influin the literature of the Romans, was
Hellenic,
merely, but whatever
they learned of others
works
Art
"
own
"
way
to their
of their hands
are
own
most
needs.
famous
Next
ness
to useful-
grandeur and
character ; but they
for
of their
qualities
to achieve
their ideals partly because
of the excellent
were
buildingmaterial in and about Rome, and partlythrough the use of
able
the round
in
of
arch.
This
form
of architecture
" 366.
Public
which
form
of
buildingat Rome
of
large,oblong structure, consisting
The
by galleries.
The
plan was
latter rested
adopted from
TOMB
OF
CAECILIA
From
times
modern
in
basilica at Rome
of the Forum
after him
and
the
was
Caesar
built
were
Julia.
used
the
Cato
by
erected
Basilica
basilicas
of
form
one
ME
a
paratively
com-
or
has
TELL
republic.A
the ba-sil'i-ca. It
was
columns
on
Greece,and
(Appian Way.
Roman
449
stillexists,
belongsto the later part of the
new
was
Works
on
photograph)
Christian
church.
the Elder.
On
The
the south
largebuildingof
the
Its
still exist.
foundations
for mercantile
and
first
side
kind, named
The
banking business,
families which
2G
had
Caesar, is the
While
we
not
must
we
Cae-ciri-a
of
That
to
appreciatethe progress of
lose sightof the fact that
Her
was
empire
Had
2.
what
In
have
Caesar
respect
resigned
happened
crossing the
him
to
Rubicon
and
3.
of
in
the
age
sound
had
morals
been
at
making
respect
given
way
the
shadow;
mere
by
barbarians.
Questions
war
the
the
as
order
upon
the
of
successor
of the
justified from
he
Was
intelligence,
other
nearly every
regard Pompey
his command
?
and
a
long
without
by anarchy,
we
may
in
once
Suggestive
i.
literature
had
within
threatened
was
Me-tel'la,built
sides of
impressive.
most
rapidlydecaying.
vice; republican freedom
Rome
line both
great tombs
of these
ruins
the
Revolution
The
45"
senate,
what
of
point
any
senate?
Why
4.
Sulla?
would
view
was
in
the
world
than
oppressive to the Roman
is
torically
histhe aristocracy had
been?
far
Julius
Caesar
How
Shakspere's
5.
bias?
it
show
6.
true?
Does
What
a
partisan
provinces did
in what
Rome
acquire in the period of the revolution, 133-31
B.C., and
order
Describe
Basilica
?
the
of
the
structure
(map. p. 410)
Julia (opp.
7.
the
school
children
of the
8. Describe
pictured on
p. 449).
appearance
rule
p.
of
one
like
man,
What
447.
Metella
throw
is
Julius Caesar,
mosaic?
the
on
less
What
9.
character
pairs of gladiatorsrepresented
does
as
10.
family?
doing in the picture,p.
The
of Caecilia
tomb
the
What
Note-book
I.
light
of her
429
are
the
various
Topics
Conspiracy of Catiline.
Botsford, Story of Rome, 194-198 ; Saland
lust, Conspiracy of Catiline; How
Leigh, History of Rome, ch. xlvii ;
Sihler,Caesar, ch. v; Strachan-Davidson, Cicero, ch. v; Heitland, History
of Rome, iii. ch. li.
II.
"
Cicero
in
especially chs.
Cicero
III.
Roman
IV.
and
his
Cicero
Politics.
iv-viii ;
Friends, 22-78.
as
an
Literature,
Caesar's
Orator.
159-174;
Government.
"
Mackail,
Duff,
"
Latin
Literature, 62-68
Literary History
Abbott,
Roman
of Rome,
Political
Cruttwell,
349-397.
Institutions,
CYcero, ch. xii;
The
452
on
him
Founding of
the
Principate;the
without
Julian
Princes
and marked
him as a chamhis person sacred,1
pion
made
authority
of the people. Through it also he had a share in the government
with
and
h
e
of Rome
took
undera colleague,
Italy. Sometimes,
and
when
the duties of the censor;
Lepidus, the pontifex
maximus, died,Augustus acceptedfor life an appointment to the
him head
of the state religion.Augustus
latter office. It made
also imperator. In his time the title still meant
General
was
;
after
his
did
than a century
death
it come
not tillmore
to signify
held by Augustus
Emperor." In estimatingthe positionfinally
the same
let us
notice that his military
that
as
authoritywas
of the President
of the United
far
States; his civil authoritywas
less. All the old republican
stillexisted,
and continued
magistrates
functions
gustus
Auto exercise the same
before.
as
Constitutionally
In honor and in personal
the consuls.
a level with
on
was
all the other officials. He
influence,however, he overshadowed
for the various
of candidates
was
alwaysconsulted on the suitability
offices and on
other matter;
and
his policy was
usually
every
This
"
"
"
carried out.
but
magistrate,
with the
position
a
of his power
politicalboss." The
"
as
was
not
exercised,
Romans
as
his
dignified
"
title princeps,
"
"
"
appointed
annual
2
governors.
"493.
This
division of
"5I2.
Longitude
\Q"
ROHAN
THE
EMPIRE
.FROM:
AUGUSTUS
to
SCALE
OF
DIOCLETIAN
MILES
100
50
100
^^"^^^
Boundary
Beyond
Aurelius.
at Death
this the
.Italics,-Barbarian
appear
300
200
later
races
in the
400
of
500
Augustus;
additions.
Provinces
power
two
carried
was
exercised
powers
supervision
over
and
more
through
On
whole
certain control
the senate's
efficient.
of the
the
government.
the other.
over
Each
The
of the
prince's
provinces made
the other
princein two
453
hand,
the governors
juster
the senate
checked
the authority
"
"
"
" 476.
Galatia,however,
was
converted
into
province in
25
B.C.
The
454
Princes
was
499.
source
The
of endless
trouble between
Frontier.
Southern
the
two
this
to
commanded
who
person
with
Egypt suppliedRome
"
in wealth
during a third of the year. It abounded
of commerce,
still a great centre
Alexandria
was
great powers.
the
of every
the
grain
kind.
industry,and
of
resources
of it,always
Augustus cleverlyretained the direct management
the
personal friend among
appointed to its government some
to visit the Nile valley
knights,and permitted no senator even
One
without
his special
consent.
legionwas enough to guard its
southern border againstthe Nubians.
needed to protect the frontier
of Egypt stillfewer troops were
West
the district
from the sparse tribes of the desert.
Cy-re-na'i-ca,
Farther
to the provinceof Crete.
west of Egypt, had been annexed
west
was
Africa,which since the time of JuliusCaesar included
the former kingdom of Numidia.
West of Africa was
Mauretania,
which
still a dependent kingdom. In Africa the Phoenician
was
have
would
language still prevailedin everyday life,
yet Rome
nothingb.utLatin for officialuse.
Carthage had been restored by
JuliusCaesar,and was alreadya flourishing
city. From the province
of Africa,
Rome
drew a great part of her supply of grainand
fruit.
Northern
Frontier
500. The
The
protectionof the northern
(i) the
Danube
frontier
presentedthe
and
the
Alps.
most
"
cult
diffi-
the
conquest
of the
country
west
of Moesia
and
north of
" 346.
456
The
pieces. Varus
killed
himself;the
Princes
barbarians
"
"
From
the general's tent,
prae-to'ri-um,
the pretorianguard
from the guard which protected the general's
headquarters.
"
was
an
outgrowth
Works
Public
Arch
457
of Titus.
Temple
of the Capitoline
Trajau'8 Column.
For
details ofthu
and
Vicinity,
see
plan of
the Sacred
Forum
Wav.
MAP
part of his
to
own
immense
OF
IMPERIAL
fortune
to
ROME
the current
administration
and
publicimprovements.
503.
many
Public
colonies
Improvements
both
in
Italy and
THE
Augustus planted
provinces. His aim was
; Architecture.
SACRED
in the
WAY
"
The
458
not
only to
so as
districts,
vacant
to increase
Princes
Julian
the
of
prosperity
the
to
settle
re-
country.
self
He himbeginsthe great
tellsus of his publicworks :
The Capitol1 and the Pompeian theatre I have repairedat
of age,
Aqueducts which, by reason
enormous
expense.
With
architecture.
age of Roman
him
"
"
...
THE
The
TEMPLE
OF
MARS
THE
AVENGER
on
the
From
nortii.
photograph)
and have
crumblingin many
places,I have restored
between
the
finished the JulianForum
and the basilica which
was
temple of Castor and the temple of Saturn,works begun and almost
basilica was
sumed
concompleted by my father 2 ; and when that same
scribing
I began its reconstruction
on
an
by fire,
enlargedscale,init with the names
of my sons.
If I do not live to complete
ance
it,I have givenorders that it be finished by my heirs. In accordwere
with
1
2
decree
of the
Capitolinetemple of Jupiter.
I.e. JuliusCaesar, the adoptivefather of Augustus.
for the
sixth
time,
Julia,see
" 495.
The
On
the Basilica
Temples
459
which
two temples of*the gods,passingover
none
eightyI [re]
seventh consulship
at that time in need of repair. In my
was
built the Flaminian
Way to Ariminum, and all the bridgesexcept
I restored
and
Mulvian
the
the Minucian.
peace of the
The
Pantheon,
the
empire.
which
divine,"
of
"
the
means
the
was
all-
work
ablest
minister.
In
it
worshipped Mars
and Venus, the chief gods
of the Julianfamily. It
afterward rebuilt by
was
The
Hadrian.
activity
of Augustus wrought a
complete change in the
men
of Rome.
appearance
the close
pate
he
he could
had
of
his
of
princi-
boast
found
brick, but
At
the
that
city
left it of
marble.
One
of
the
works
age was
of Peace
spiritof
of
FLAMINES
markable
re-
the
Museum
of the
great Altar
erected
disturbances
most
in
peace
the suppression
of
by the senate to commemorate
Spain and Gaul, and more
generallyto express the
for which
the
empire
now
stood.
It
was
richly
is an
of the achievements
of
account
Augustus, Deeds, xx, xxi. This document
It is preserved in an
Augustus, composed by himself.
to scholars
inscription known
the Monumentum
as
An-cy-ra'num, from Ancyra, the placewhere it was found.
1
"
The
460
adorned
and
senators, magistrates,
The
reliefs of persons
are
GARLAND
flowers
504.
known
and
are
beautiful
most
statues
aided
the
of the
chiselled with
art
Literature
as
OF
FRUIT
of the
and
Golden
men.
literary
only
AND
(From
Princes
the
imperialfamily,
but also plants and garlands.
priests,
real portraits,
influenced, like
doubtless
not
reliefs representing
with
Julian
FLOWERS
; Museum
time, by Greek
wonderful
idealism.1
accuracy
and
fruit
The
taste
"
the
imperialage.
principateof Augustus is
He
literature.
encouraged
Age of Roman
he
aimed
to purify
their
works
Through
Religion.
"
"
The
345.
Literature
and
the
ennoble
Livy, the
past.
historyof
in
Rome
earlier writers
the
true
hundred
and
He
of annals.1
the
vivid, and
and
of law
loved
story of Rome,
right. The
and
he
But
of Rome.
historian
truth,but
relied
lacking,too, in
was
knowledge of militaryaffairs
in that
to
author
eminent
most
this work
on
461
what
which
he
essential
was
believed
he tells it,is
as
chiefly
depth and
be
to
always lively,
interesting.
several
ways
of his poem.
Horace,
author
of Odes
Snatch
And
and
gayly
away
the
every
the future
Leave
and
to
the
wine,
in summer,
pleasant friends,and
life.
After
the
of
in
Epistles
sense, who
common
bade
verse,
was
his friends
"
shall bring,
joys which the moment
2
and perplexityfling."
care
shady nook
some
Satires and
free from
make
care
the world
stormy end of the republic,
ideal
an
needed
such
lesson.
In the later
morals.
which
republic,Roman
Augustus
restored
ancient
to the old
had
made
and
this
1
and
religion
the
to
450,
n.
i.
the
worship,
peopleback
attempted
who
simple life of the ancestors
Juliushad been deified after his death,
the pure,
citygreat.
followed
example was
"
of
ceremonies
to lead
lost its
in the
case
of many
2
other
princes.
Qdes, iii.8.
The
462
Julian
Princes
The
image
an
idea
as
the
Hence
to
was
of
of the Genius
Genius
Augustus
his Genius
make
of the father
willingnessto
which
among
the centre
was
sacrifice to
these
Lares.
The
of
publicworship,just
centre of the familyreligion.2
of the prince
guardian spirit
the
the
be
to
the
test
of
"
"
1
2
The
protectingdeity of
a
" 368.
" soo" n"
the house
Iw
was
4
Tiberius
463
"
"
trivial offences.
men
506. Capri;
the
Character
The
Cap'ri,a lovelyisland
in
and
off the
of Tiberius
Death
(37A.D.).
"
he stillwatched
over
and
grew more
mob.
Not that he
Tiberius
more
hateful
to
the
nobilityand
to the
was
"
ruler.
Qaligula,son
of Germanicus
and
successor
to
Tiberius,seems
principate(37-41A.D.)is unimportant.
Octavius, afterward
Augustus, had been
adopted by JuUus
Caesar into the Julian gens.
Augustus had adopted Tiberius,
who
therefore by
adopted Caligula. The first three princeswere
adoption Julian. Having also been adopted into the family of
After Caligulathe principate
all called Caesar.
Caesar, they were
Caesar
was
passed to another gens and family,1but the name
to have
retained
1
The
In the
been
as
name
Julian gens
insane.
His
title.
JuliusCaesar, Juliusdesignatesthe
was
followed
by the Claudian.
gens
and
the
of
Founding
The
464
Write
words
own
principate
the
was
lost
of
Caesar.
the
of
temple
picture?
9.
Jupiter
of
10.
the
the
the
to
Guardian
with
Augustus.
translation
in
Firth,
II.
"
Augustus,
the
of
Book
Principate.
Greenidge,
Life,
the
on
in
that
of
Augustus?
Augustan
of
Jupiter
age
Capitoline
left
the
of
the
proportion.
143-148
especially
achievements
Rome,
Roman
Jones,
ch.
Empire,
Institutions,
of
Outlines
233-241
ix-xii.
chs.
Political
Pelham,
x;
of
Story
his
of
account
Botsford,
Roman
ch.
the
Parthenon
own
Augustus,
Abbott,
"
Public
Roman
History,
Shuckburgh,
Augustus;
The
(his
appendix)
Roman
with
the
Topics
Deeds
Shuckburgh,
Source
Munro,
i;
"
of
or
of
growth
under
art
tration
concen-
unmixed
Augustus
and
classes,
or
the
an
the
architecture
of
Note-book
I.
of
literature
former
be
survived
order
temple
the
Compare
try
government
the
is
What
4.
check
to
Can
your
respects
class,
individual
institutions
why
reasons
golden.
in
what
What
Give
2.
In
3.
gained
an
senate
the
republican
Princes
444.
p.
republic
of
the
not
Compare
6.
What
7.
did
on
classes
hands
the
that
principate."
the
on
What
in
Why
5.
Enumerate
called
republic
power
power?
prince's
is
of
political
good?
lasting
8.
fall
the
by
"
of
improvement
an
the
like
chapter
definition
clear
brief,
this
of
summary
Julian
Questions
Suggestive
i.
the
Principate;
266-288;
Roman
History,
398-469.
Vergil.
III.
of Rome,
IV.
Livy.
i.
V.
Early
Tiberius
Mackail,
"
432-495
"
Mackail,
Latin
Tyrrell,
pp.
Literature,
Latin
Poetry,
Duff,
145-155;
Duff,
91"105;
ch.
Literary
tory
His-
v.
Simcox,
625-663;
Latin
ature,
Liter-
384-415.
Tiberius.
the
Botsford,
"
Principate,
chs.
Tyrant.
viii-x;
241-253
Duruy,
Jones,
History
42-52
of Rome,
Allcroft
iv.
and
401-494;
Haydon,
Tarver,
XXXIX
CHAPTER
PRINCIPATE
FROM
MONARCHY
TO
FLAVIAN
it
had
have
would
the
nominee
Their
youth
had
he
in
Grotesque
find
him
.a
with
the
the
appointing
thank
burdens
duty
of his
of
Mingled
punishing
and
with
For
nearly
I
this
offenders
with
but
southern
of
he
history
these
he
Thus
new
fields.
was
erally
gen-
thank
and
the
Roman
the
process
"
with
and
wisdom,
and
the
me
ness
firm-
was
the
frontiers.
made
of it
One
Roman
remained
Britain
not
fulfil your
if you
you
Do
say,
share
to
in
And,
Rome.
to
protecting
years
era.
b^gan
used
Britain
bestowed
call you
hundred
in
early
of
surprised, therefore, to
are
generosity
in
From
balance, he
mental
he
prince.
new
study
works
Italy
shall
and
four
of
Augustus,
favor,
the
to
beginning
provinces,
no
you
shows
kindly temper
Thus
slaves
began
Nero
the
from
being
adopted
2H
the
rule
into
the
the
son
name
itself in
cruel
in Rome.
adopted
stepson
and
I do
well."
aged
Nero,
of
government;
famine
1
the
while
part
empire.
His
and
We
provincials.
generals conquered
of the
fool.
provinces equal
for
province.
in
policy
upon
of
in
principate
governors
me,
great
made
Caligula.
zeal
senate
line ; but
Julian
of
number
lacking
learned
making
making
published
the
uncle
with
himself
and
citizenship.
-freely
of
pretorians
manners
his
Breaking
the
Claudius,1
The
"
situation
had
considered
A.D.).
with
applied
science, and
and
(41-54
Claudius
end
was
THE
A.D.
principate
the
discussing
was
of
Principate
The
AND
PRINCES
41-96
507.
CLAUDIAN
THE
To
of the
of the
the
supply
gens.
family.
For
Nero.
465
in
city with
princes.
The
the
for
and
treatment,
Claudian
Claudian
law
There
father,
as
his
pure
but
were
well
convenience
as
we
of sick
protection
the
efforts
to
vent
pre-
water,
he
built
two,
son,
call the
Claudius
was
father
and
Claudius
Claudius
Principateto Monarchy
From
466
REMNANT
OF
CLAUDIAN
THE
(From
who
soldiers,
AQUEDUCT
photograph)
of the senate.
waited
Thus
his
the balance
princewas
words, the principate
was
Principate of
years
between
of the latter.
In
other
"
more
years of age, and showed
for officialwork, the government
of his administration
and
the senate
developinginto a monarchy.
was
Nero
(54-68A.D.). His successor
A-grip-pi'na
by a former marriage. As
able
table,and
of power
turningdecidedlyin favor
the
508. The
on
was
in the hands
Bur'rus,pretorianprefect. Both
men.
"
519.
were
of
From
468
considered
them
sect
Principateto Monarchy
of
at last his
But
society. Nero's
which
outburst
of ferocity
he
stood
begged,but
about
him.
"
Some
obeyed.
senate had declared him a publicenemy,
of approachinghorses.
Pity that such
no
The
one
.show
one
end
said,as he stabbed
The
509.
followed
Principate
by O'tho,and
of
governor
fled from the city,
freedman.
how
me
to
was
drawing near.
and
he heard
"
he
did not
Gal'ba,a
attendants
they
persecution,
class of
Hither
and
because
an
few
die,"
The
the
tramp
artist should
die ! "
himself.
of
(69-79 A-D0-
Vespasian
Otho
Vi-terii-us.
by
togetherruled
by violence in
was
three
about
and
He
their gens,
These
princes
a year.
perished
civil
a
war
concerningthe
Then
Ves-pa'si-anbecame
succession.
prince.
Galba
"
his
All
sons
are
after
called,
Flavian
princes. Though a
was
plebeianby
broad-minded,
able, and experiencedin public affairs.
difficulties he had to
Among the many
his accession,
the most
meet
serious
on
revolt of the Jews. His son
Titus
was
a
besiegedJerusalem,their stronglyfortified
capital.As they refused to accept any
offered them, no quarter was
after
thereterms
The
given. It was a war to death.
Jews believed that God would protect His
holy temple, and that at the critical
birth,he
VESPASIAN
Museum
Terme, Rome)
of
the
moment
His
the
Mes-si'ah
would
come
to
them
rulers
people from the oppressor and to make
world.
They fought therefore with fanatic zeal, and as
famine threatened they even
flesh. When
ate
human
after a
five months' siege,
the Romans
stormed
the cityand the temple,the
Jews killed their wives,their children,
and then one
another,as the
lot determined,so that the victors found
nothing but flames and
save
of
the
Vespasian
death.
not
than
More
of
million
thousand
hundred
arch
were
Titus, finished
469
destroyedduringthe siege;
taken captive (70A.D.). The triumphal
by Domitian, still stands as a monument
Jews
were
of this
As
the
victory.
nobles and knightswere
new
families from
STORMING
"
CITY
best and
taxes.
the most
But
with
for the
new
he
careful management
help of unfortunate
famous
buildings.The most
had
cities in the
of
his
cation,
left for edu-
money
and
provinces,
works
is
an
for
immense
From
47"
Principateto Monarchy
THE
road, to
the
of the Forum.
ROMAN
(Carrying the
"
Seven
Golden
SACRED
Notice
of Titus.
SOLDIERS
Candlesticks
To
WAY
the
the
ancient
TRIUMPHAL
IN
"
and
pavement.
At
the
highestpoint of
Hill.)
other
PROCESSION
Titus
THE
COLOSSEUM
OR
(Present appearance
and
it
savage
beasts.
finished
was
by
As
AMPHITHEATRE
FLAVIAN
; from
photograph)
before
Vespasiandied
completingthe work,
Titus.
510.
Principate of Titus
"
"
"
task
more
The
chief
suVi-us.
1
The
found
on
difficult.
For
statement
in his administration
event
careful measurement
to
be
had
been
it could
seat
an
eighty-seventhousand
great exaggeration.
people is
Principateto Monarchy
From
472
panians had
INTERIOR
(Showing combats
ture, and
tools,make
OF
real to
COLOSSEUM
THE
us
restoration by C. Nispi-Landi)
the
civilization of the
life and
ancients.
Principate of Domitian
"
Domitian
them
favorable
which
was
and
frontier,
of the
the
him.
under
terms
the
Domitian
473
An
firm
Able
ruler.
commanded
men
the
on
government
put the
to
beneath
senate
him.
The
covery
dis-
in which
senators
conspiracy,
shared,inflamed
many
that time to his death he was
From
him againstthem.
terror
a
to the nobility.But at last a plotdevelopedin his own
household.
His wife Domitia, fearingfor her own
induced some
safety,
ants
servand pretorians
him.
to murder
Like
their god Janus, the Roman
have a double
emperors
face."
In estimatingtheir character we
bear in mind
that
must
the one
hateful to the nobility
often the most
most
was
justand
merciful
with
Domitian.
protector of the provinces. So it was
of
"
The
aristocratic historian
nations
could
has branded
him
ject
tyrant ; if the sub-
speak,they would
Growth
of Monarchy
512. The
The
Augustan government was a
Domitian.
"
century A.D., he
limited
commander
The
by
him
to make
above
people to
every
needed
On
word
real
aided
monarch,
in the
and
of the
him
the
ordinarymagistrates.
prince'sauthoritywas the
to
improvement, in
of emperor.
worshipof the
sense
by religion. The
call upon
stillsomewhat
ing
meanimperator,originally
to be used
the senate
the
came
reason
of
disposition
and
The
senate.
in war, then
of his power
was
growth
princeexalted
Another
the
to be
came
their wrongs
such way
the
as
rightall
some
" 528.
Principateto Monarchy
From
474
the United
and
inclined to
depend
either
the President.
Readily accepting such invitations,
upon
through interest in the publicwelfare or from love of popularity,
the prince generally accomplished the desired improvement to
he continually
the satisfaction of all. In this way
acquirednew
peopleof
duties and
new
States
are
more
more
power.
however
without a
able,can rule as a monarch
magistrate,
of trained,loyalhelpers. Augustus found no
one
large number
acquaintedwith the duties of administration outside the senate. The
knightscollected the tribute throughout the empire,and sat in the
All
juriesat Rome, but had no other part in the administration.
the highercivil and militaryoffices in Italyand the provincesfor
had to be filled as before by senators, who remained on
a long time
the whole loyalto the republic. Some
less important duties connected
share in the government Augustus intrusted
with the prince's
to his more
slaves,his freedmen, and his personalfriends
intelligent
the knights. In the course
of a few generations
there grew
among
and devoted to
up a class of knightswell trained in administration
the prince,as they depended on him alone for political
ment.
advanceMeantime
beginning under Claudius, the various public
duties
duties above mentioned
and new
were
developinginto offices,
cials
The
were
constantlyundertaken.
growth of this system of offito monarchy.
helpedchange the government from principate
Frontier
From
and
the Provinces.
Augustus to
513. The
Domitian
the frontier policyhad been one
of peace.
Generally
came
beMauretania
for
defence.
and
were
wars
waged merely
Judea
but no important change of boundary took place
provinces,
either on the east or on the south.
the Romans
Along the Danube
with difficulty
held their own.
On the upper Rhine they drove the
Germans
back from the rightbank and began to settle the district
thus made
It was
but became
vacant.
not organizedas a province,
under the name
Tithe Lands.
tributary
Along its eastern border
the princes began to build a line of strong fortifications,
which
No
"
"
when
finished extended
of Britain has been
Roman
civilization
from
"
the Rhine
mentioned.
began to take
thoroughlyRomanized
as
Spain or
to
In the south
root, but
southern
The
the Danube.
it
Gaul.
of that
never
quest
con-
province
became
so
Principateto Monarchy
Prom
476
alreadyhighlycivilized were
the
and
Europe
in western
As
of cities.
all these
In
country.
result of this
many
along the
to be
came
"
"
to
an
it.
assessment
magistratesto
As
community.
fillthe
curia
to
there
not
"
cu-ri-a'les
"
the
wealthy
more
and
made
tired
enough renumber, usuallya
were
its normal
and
census
the
vate
pridistinguished
brated
rich or celecommunity, and sometimes even
now
are
studying there was
strangers. In the period we
spirited
rivalryfor office. On the walls of Pompeii may be found
The barbers wish to
written in largeletters l such expressions
as,
have
fruit-sellers unanimously
The
Tre'bi-us as aedile
; and
citizens of the
"
"
"
one
wrote,
516. Public
salary;
"
All the
in fact
nominate
sleepymen
To
"
ridicule
Vatia
a
as
candidate
aedile."
magistrate received no
becoming a curialis he had
The
enteringoffice or on
for
to pay a fee fixed by law.
Public life gave him little opportunity
illegal
gains. On the contrary,the peopleexpectedhim, in addition
to the requiredpayment,
in entertaining
to expend his own
money
them
with feasts and shows
and in building or repairing
public
1
on
These
writingsare
Graffiti.
Public
works.
cities
It
tribute
whatever.
without
In
same
due
to
ancient
far toward
as
a
municipality
heavy debts, the
must
expenses,
world
interest
be
people.
communities
state
IN
a
paid by
taxes
was
from
which
photograph)
in addition
on
can
empire and
motive
taxes
no
POMPEII
which,
on
most
all their
levied
defrayingexpenses, whereas a
rule has no productive
wealth,but
account
for
that
Many a city
producing the
STREET
(From
and
477
taxation.
endowment
Such
in rentable
or
to
an
Rome.
general the
in money
resort
source
mere
the Cities
annual
went
in
was
necessary
expenses,
received
from the
either
Life
to
modern
state
is burdened
other
or
with
enormous
the citizens.
we
Only by taking
appreciatethe prosperity
patriotismof the wealthy
the generous
often unselfish ; but
sometimes
it Was
the
desire of
the
had
not
seen
before.
We
read
of it in the books
written
at
Principateto Monarchy
From
517.
and
Life in Rome
Private
appearance
discover
we
the towns
much
were
the Towns
the
Dwelling.
In
"
in size.
streets
than
narrower
those
are
times,and
modern
with
of
paved
were
like
stones
far
were
country
roads.
life
Private
from
both
on
with
no
floor.
(Mosaic from
Museum,
in
house
Naples
; from
Pompeii ; National
photograph)
The
door.
the first
on
years
these
of
one
bule,
first to the vesti-
oaken
court
entrance
narrow
which
heavy
CANEM
who
Pompeii
plain walls
thousand
came
from
CAVE
windows
visitor at
than
of
sides
Two
ago a
houses
cluded
se-
traveller
the streets
walks
sees
more
publicview
The
is.
ours
was
hall led to
As
door.
the
the
from
in
nap
his
place of
represented
in
dog growled, or
the
"
the floor.
fountain
Often
; and
this basin
the
with
beautiful
marble
entire atrium
and
pillars,
statues, paintings,
fine mosaics.
adorned
was
was
Dwelling
The
DINING
from
(Restoration
PERISTYLE
OF
ROOM
at Pompeii)
wall-painting
HOUSE
IN
a
POMPEII
photograph)
479
Adjoiningthe
Three
atrium
termed
dining rooms
sides of the
luxurious
A
Principateto Monarchy
From
480
board
Romans
on
and
in various
each containingat
tri-clin'i-a,
table were
occupiedby couches
reclined while
(From Pompeii
proprietor;and
works
least
on
HOUSE
the
costlyvases
and
were
table.
one
which
the
repasts.
curiosities of
FURNITURE
National Museum,
the whole
Naples
room
; from
was
photograph)
lavishlyadorned
with
of art.
The
"
" 368.
Principateto Monarchy
From
482
Amusements.
520. Social Life and
like that of any noble,depended on
In the
men.
friends.
and
courtiers,
who
their clients,
the
In
if poor
the
dinner.
the
nobles
Candidates
rich man's
the streets
accordingly,
freed-
magistrates,senators,
manner
of the
to
same
"
likewise
of slaves and
were
five
prince'shousehold,
the labor
princereceived
the
morning
The
"
received
of
twenty-
influence.
thronged with
Every
these crowds
were
morning,
the master
afternoon
of a house entertained
of earlycallers. In the
his friends at dinner,or perhaps accepted an invitation to dine out.
The banquet of the Romans
resembled that of the Greeks, but was
far more
magnificentand expensive. Though the wealthy Romans
attended
the theatres,
occasionally
they preferredto spend their
time in the publicbaths,or at the races
in the Circus Maximus, or
at the gladiatorial
In the hot season
all
fightsin the Colosseum.
who could afford it forsook the city,
for their villas,
others for
some
the
seaside
in the
resorts, the
cities
like that
was
famous
most
of the
of which
Bai'ae.
was
capital,though
on
Life
smaller
scale.
Suggestive Questions
Write
i.
did the
humane
of
principate
Can
in this
give
period?
What
evidences
3.
growth.
you
of the Christians
supposed
of this
summary
make
Enumerate
of
the
all the
brutalitydo
persecution of
on
epoch
an
why
reasons
any
like that
chapter
Claudius
Romans
find?
you
their
you
growing
religion
pire?
emmore
find of such
can
Nero's
Was
4.
or
spects
re-
historyof the
were
evidence
what
In
2.
p. 444.
in the
punishment
ment
treat-
for
crime?
were
improvements in law and administration
5. What
adopted during Nero's principate
?
Would
whole
that
it
the
was
on
you
say
a
period of progress
the
or
view.
for your
opposite? Give
reasons
6. What
to the provinces under
improvements came
the
Claudian,
Julian,
and
a
Flavian
prince who
In the
of
that
they
are
the
travel, commerce,
Point
out
the
dressed and
of
Way,
various
what
early republic?
and
buildings.
tell how
differ from
correspondence
facing p.
classes
they
How
our
best
Compare
with
476, describe
of persons
doing.
are
do
8.
10.
our
the
the
own.
ous
vari-
represented, and
illustration,
In the
country
roads
compare
Social
Life
Note-book
Rome
of
Burning
The
I.
Rome,
483
Topics
and
the
Christians.
Botsford,
"
The
Ramsay,
267-270;
Church
in
the
Roman
Story
ch.
Empire,
xi;
of
Duruy,
1-16.
v,
Botsford,
Vesuvius.
"
(Pliny,
275-278
Destruction
the
Empire,
Roman
Jones,
and
War
Jewish
The
f.;
273
of
Eruption
II.
III.
of
Capes,
106-111;
Letters),
Jerusalem.
Botsford,
"
152-156;
Duruy,
v.
108-
133-
ii
""
75
V.
f.
ii
Scene
Callus,
and
Guhl
Life
its
Pompeii,
Mau,
Schools
'Dodge,
Books.
and
and
Preston
Private
Koner,
Life
Pt.
Art,
Caesars,
Rome,
at
ch.
Callus,
ix;
Scene
ch.
vi;
Church,
iii,
and
Inge,
pp.
Roman
Excursus,
ii
of
the
Greeks
in
i-iii.
pp.
Thomas,
the
Days
the
ch.
Romans,
and
Romans,
Houses).
(Pompeian
172-178;
Life
Life
of
Dodge,
and
"
Life
Becker,
and
Preston
"
Becker,
Social
the
House.
The
IV.
58-66
Roman
of
Cicero,
Fowler,
Life
chs.
under
i, ii;
XL
CHAPTER
EMPERORS
GOOD
FIVE
THE
MONARCHY
LIMITED
THE
96-180
As
the
senate
as
soon
(96-98 A.D.).
of its
it appointed as prince one
of Domitian,
the death
about
named
Ner'va, who
was
sixty-fiveyears old, and
Nerva
521.
of
heard
members
have
had
speak
followed.
The
share
perator
The
title
became
reconciled
resulted
in
put
He
pretorians,
Tra'jan,
522.
then
followed
then
In
of
adopted
as
his
law
son
wars
1
should
now
example
freedom
word
"
The
emperors.
five successive
Domitian
which
himself
and
unable
the
successor
control
to
in
wrongs
to be
amiable
too
senate
concord
This
through
was
im-
general," 1
as
treason,
limited
the
as
was
just
the
general
able
in
Upper Germany.2
(98-117 A.D.) ; his
Emperor
he subdued
we
government.
of
he
found
his
self
him-
Titus,
he
as
lasted
He
born
was
In
in
contrast,
were
two
like
When
by Trajan.
the
to
advised
But,
first provincial
emperor.
who
form
new
end
an
commander
Trajan
princes
made
senate
well
as
emperor
good feelingwhich
happy present.
vigorous ruler.
he
"
had
became
but
used;
"
of the
the
to
therefore
still
was
the
succession
his
But
guaranteed
which
signify
speak
of
era
revived.
the
and
an
Nerva
reigns.
had
to
prince
him,
monarchy.
Emperors
of
Domitian
resembled
absolute
an
first
the
was
Emperors.
government,
henceforth
may
He
successors
Good
began
now
Good
his
of
the
in
monarchy.
blameless.
Had
to
and
"
the
as
monarch.
we
been
known
of rulers
not
Emperor
life had
whose
A.D.
Dacia,
Spain,
and
too, with
was
Nerva
"
therefore
was
the
ambitious
great country
Wars.
north
earlier
the
princes,
for
conquest.
of the
Danube,
484
was
"
SQI.
Trajan
and
converted
The
work
it into
of settlement
Roman
485
provincea
followed
thousand
rapidlyupon
miles in circuit.
the conquest.
While
COLUMN
THE
(From
built
and workmen
architects,
iron and gold in the mountains.
Roman
as
memorial
in character.
of this
TRAJAN
OF
photograph)
roads
and
The
fortresses.
Miners
province soon
became
Trajan'scolumn
conquest.
stillstands
found
oughly
thor-
in Rome
The
486
Five
Good
Emperors
set up
them
drove
He
thians.
Trajan
himself
from
province,he
TigrisRiver.
he followed
Then
the
field
against the
Par-
through the
marched
took
Parthian
the river
far
empire as
the
to
the
as
Persian
Gulf.
the
Meantime
Tigrisand
him.
against
march,
in
His
which
the
rose
return
he
tended
pre-
the revolt,
suppress
in fact a disastrous
to
was
He
retreat.
his way
on
died
to Rome.
His
523.
We
"
in Cilicia
tion.
Administra-
shall
turn
now
to his administration.
Nerva's
lowing
Fol-
policy,he
as
his
granted
them
than
power
under
less actual
they had
Augustus.
joyed
en-
The
reduced
PLOTINA, WIFE
OF
(Vatican Museum,
This
increasing
power
provinces,as
well
as
TRAJAN
Rome)
importance,as their
been
had
gradually
to
two
The
monarchy
growing at the
months.
was
still
of
expense
the republican institutions.
of the emperor
appeared in
in Rome.
When
the finances of
Italyand
a
town
in the
fellinto
disorder,
Trajan sent it an agent to control its accounts.
Such an
officer
imperial
graduallyusurped authority,
until,after a century
or
he
two,
deprivedthe town of self-government.In Trajan's
Hadrian
487
the interest to
have
for the
avowed
the
Though
children.
poor
the
use
objectwas
we
to
see
administration
in her husband's
was
had
;
no
of
soldiers for
rear
in it
and just. He
energetic
to punish evil-doers ; he repealed
oppressivetaxes
and
his public buildings,he laid
his wars
were
his people. His wife Plo-ti'na was
as
on
frugaland as thriftyas he. Like Livia,
she was
the emperor's able helper,and
when
he died, her tact brought to the
who
had
the man
stood highest
throne
His
education
support and
signof
the
the
strength
and, costlyas
new
burdens
favor.
(117-138 A.D.).
The heir was
Ha'dri-an,a generaland
of great ability,
and a
provincial
governor
of his reignhe spent
scholar. Two-thirds
in travelling
through the provinces. His
first objectwas
with
to cultivate friendship
524.
Hadrian
Emperor
the
border
without
nations.
the
increasing
necessary
maintain
To
to, abandon
army,
all his
conquests, exceptingDacia
Another
object was
peace
he found it
HADRIAN
predecessor's
and
(Vatican Museum,
Rome)
Arabia.
"
Under
that
him
the
armies
were
so
well
exercised
and
trained
The
488
ened
by
works
Good
Five
Emperors
Equally important
still exist.
defences between
the
Rhine
and
the
HADRIAN'S
(From
was
Ruins
of these
camps.
his completion of the
Danube.
By such
fortinca-
WALL
photograph)
tions,as
well
as
"
visitor who
emblem
stands
of the vast
durable power
1
"
503-
cannot
of Rome.
fail to
The
see
in it
tomb
an
Ha-
The
49"
Five
and
justice
he
Especially
legislation.
ter, who
loved
Good
peace.
Emperors
reignis noted for humane
rightof the master to torture
His
limited the
PANTHEON
(Interior,
present
appearance
; from
photograph)
civilized
endowment
for
whom
he called
orphan girls,
his wife Faus-ti'na.
His
marked
long reign,unand happy.
prosperous
Marcus
Aurelius Emperor (161-180A.D.). When
527.
he died
the imperialpowers
his adopted
passed to Marcus
Au-re'li-us,
This emperor
son.
associated with himself as colleagueLucius
Ve'rus,his brother by adoption; so that Rome was ruled for a time
by two Augusti. Verus sought only pleasure; Aurelius was a Stoic
whose chief aim was
philosopher,
to do his duty toward
his fellowBut
he had little time
men.
to give to books
and meditation;
for the easy disposition
of his predecessorhad left him a great legacy
"
Marcus
and
northern
effeminate
his
On
of troubles.
eastern
to
resist
Aurelius
accession,he
found
THE
TOMB
appearance
were
put
the
licentious
and
troops
on
restored
war
HADRIAN
OF
he
491
coarse
; from
of whom
Roman
photograph)
was
A-vid'i-us
type of severity,
obedient,
the disrations,burned
defeated the Parthians,overran
He
discipline.
their country, and compelled them
for peace.
to sue
Rome
retained a part of Mes-o-po-ta'mi-a.
Meantime
fearful pestilencewas
a
ragingin the East; and as
the troops returned
from the war, they spread the disease over
the
eastern
half of the
and
army;
in
in
some
empire
places,as
over
Italy itself.
Italy,it
carried
off
It weakened
the
perhaps half
the
yond
the
frontier
Good
Five
The
492
when
scarcelyover
tribes,which
full of restless
was
Emperors
The
Mediterranean.
they
into
broke
the
Parthian
the
The
farthest
leaders
man'ni,
powerful
German
and
the
field,
in
Aurelius
the
tinued
con-
After
alone.
he
fighting,
honorable
an
engaged
revolt
the
the
died
of hard
peace, which,
broken
while he
however, was
a
their
gave
took
war
years
was
southern
war.
following year,
won
in
who
emperors
when
Verus
seven
Italy
Mar-co-
Both
and
tinuous
con-
limits of Dacia.
lived
to the
the
nation, who
name
war
northern
were
Germany,
in
empire
line from
to
threatened
East.
in
putting down
of Avidius
As
soon
in
Cassius
as
he
had
to
URN
(Vatican Museum,
make
their
provincewhen
Rome)
He
was
about
country into
death
cut
short
his work.
'
528. The
Silver
commonly
a
described
of Literature.
Age
called
"
"
"
As
golden,"the
age
Augustan period
which
followed
is
of Augustus
principate
Most
a
writers,considering
simplestyleinsipid,
attention
by rhetorical bombast, far-fetched
as
silver."
the
After
the
sought to attract
metaphors,and other unnatural devices.
after
Seneca, the philosopher,
shared with his age the striving
in language. Nevertheless
of the
he gives evidence
brilliancy
broader,deeper thought which the provinces were
bringingRome.
A great improvement in this direction came
with
the Flavian
who
princes,
fresh life from
patronized literature and introduced
Literature
493
and
Latin
The
age
classic
1
the
writers.
death
brief treatise
of
on
Britain,and
of
institutions
militaryand
Lifeand
he
wrote
Character
statesman
gave
He
events.
political
him
was
understanding of
conscientious,
too, and we
a
his statement
trust
may
larger works,
the conqueror
of Agricola,
and
the character
on
another, the Ger-ma'ni-a,
His experienceas
of his time.
the Germans
an
the
officer and
army
these
Besides
of Domitian.
clear
known
were
the
to
publicat
strictest
from
Tiberius
Nero
and
if we
Lives
Of
powerfuland
about
of the
we
study
torian,
his-
dramatic.
In
Caesars
have
Bks.
the
the manners,
nephew
of the elder
Pliny,
of the
from
i-iv,parts of
to
for the
the Annals
beginning and
and
he
as
of information
valuable
princes
under
societyof Rome
Domitian, to discover in it nothing but hideous vice.
shall find his writings
allow for his gross exaggeration,
we
of the age.
The
Letters of
The
all the
upon
and
tyrants. Hence
usurpers
Like the
motives
of these rulers.
Domitian
in
storehouse
are
looked
judging the
Juvenal,author of Satires,was
he looked back
of Tacitus
spirit
the
to
their
who
aristocrats,
circle of
unfair
was
But
of
time
of books
and
vi, and
xi-xvi, with
; of the Histories
gaps
there remain
at
Bks.
the
i-iv
Five
The
494
secretary, is
Hadrian's
Aurelius
of Marcus
is
foolish
one
ripestfruit
the
It contains
of books.
noblest
Emperors
chaotic mixture
Meditations
gossip. The
Good
of
Greco-Roman
philosophy.
authors
A revival of Hellenic literature in this age produced some
of unusual merit.
Ap'pi-anof Alexandria wrote a narrative History
of that country.
perhaps the
author
wrote
most
known
all Plutarch
Above
the world."
to
the
While
neglect science.
literature,
they did not
Marcus
Aurelius,wrote
works
his immortal
attractive
the earth
for
of
the centre
as
and
than
more
on
of the universe.
thousand
His
Co-per'ni-cus
(1473-1543A.D.).
From
the time of Augustus
529. Art.
"
centre
of the world.
of Greece
the
of the
of
he
views
medicine.
represented
accepted
superseded by those
Rome
were
was
the artistic
and painters
greatest architects,
sculptors,
gathered there,to
princeor
power
The
book
by one
Greeks were
producing
a
Galen,
physicianof
anatomy
Ptol'e-mypublisheda system of astronomy, in which
many
Lives,
find
wealthy citizens.
princes it
was
in the
employment
With
natural
service
that
of
and
their
palaces,temples,
should be planned on
and
artistic value
From
the time
of Hadrian
the
of
buildings
rapidlydeclined.
In the column
of Trajan we find a new
idea in sculpture. Around
it from base to summit
winds a spiralband of reliefs,3
ing
representthe successive events
in his Dacian
his marches,
campaigns
t
he
battles,
sieges, buildingof camps, the burning of towns, and
the care
of the wounded.
of these
account
Though Trajan'sown
has
been
wars
lost,this chiselled picture-book givesus valuable
knowledge,not only of the campaigns,but of the militaryhabits of
"
"
Murray,
Ancient
Greek
3
On
Literature,
395 f.
the meaning of the
"
word
see
"
175.
"
5O7"
535.
Sculpture
the Romans
reliefs
are
and
cut
remarkable
is similar to that of
forms
Greek
"
the
; from
taste.
of his German
DACIAN
The
these
column
campaigns,
in artistic merit.
TOWN
periodwere
active,too,
in
making statues.
copiesof .the great
of deities and
masters.
figuresin
are
such
originality,
however, in
copies." The period showed
portraitbusts and statues of the princesand their kinsfolk
Roman
its
of
sculptors
and
Trajan,though inferior
BURNING
The
accuracy
Aurelius,in commemoration
of Marcus
The
neighbors. The
of their northern
with
495
The
Five
Good
Emperors
of
discover
530. Condition
this period the
Euphrates the
and
marked
north
of
of the
empire
Romans
the
of art
as
BRIDGE
(Builtby Trajan
for
they
AT
retained
ALCANTARA,
; from
time
as
in all others.
Century,
continued
Danube
well
to hold
Dacia.
A.D.
East
"
of
In
the
Mesopotamia,
profound
The
SPAIN
scarcelydisturbed by wars
the distant frontiers or
on
by occasional tumults in the capital. The emperor, lookingupon
himself as the father of the
made
their welfare his
provincials,
chief object. As many
had received the Latin rights3 or the full
Roman
the political
citizenship,
distinction between Italyand the
provincesnearlydisappeared.
peace
was
1P'468.
"p.487.
3"4o6.
that
declined
so
Five
The
498
Good
Emperors
slaves and
PROCESS
militaryservice.1
had
But
OF
compelled to
enlist
frontier.
duced,
intro-
been
had
Aurelius
Marcus
of the
Germans
on
He
in
largescale
BUILDING
Museum,
Rome)
he
preciousmetals were
disappearing,
to debase
the silver coinagewith thirtyper cent of copper.
these symptoms
of decay passed unnoticed at the time.
As
the
Suggestive Questions
i.
Write
of all the
summary
of this
chapter
important acquisitionsof
giving date
and
location of each
like that
Rome
on
(cf.the maps).
1
" 556.
p. 444.
between
241
3.
B.C.
What
2.
Make
and
117
countries
list
A.D.,
were
Decline
civilized
before
they
What
kind
What
4.
Why
5.
Italy?
and
What
7.
of
with
these
art
two
more
in
with
Vespasian
History,
under
of
of
this
age?
an's
Hadri-
Compare
reference
Antonines.
the
to
ism
real-
of
degree
ch.
Ixxiv.
Botsford,
"
Capes,
179-185;
of
of
the
of
of
Duruy
or
Rome,
295-299
Antonines,
55-62;
Roman
i.
Empire,
Gibbon
Story
Book
Roman
examination
either
of
Age
the
careful
A
than
Source
Munro,
Fall
and
prosperity
less
Travels.
Empire,
Roman
period?
Rome
Topics
Decline
vi.
Rome,
existence
Hadrian's
II.
the
Gibbon,
History
the
in
"
"
217-237
Duruy,
shows
in
types.
Provinces
The
(96-180)
than
appearing
this
ans?
barbari-
period
provinces
were
introduced
this
of
the
decline
Note-book
I.
in
barous?
bar-
were
conquered
the
feeling
good
of
was
of
that
the
countries
What
give
Rome
interest
evidences
form
new
did
of
causes
take
What
6.
portrait
in
the
were
rule?
Roman
civilization
of
Hadrian
did
under
came
499
ii;
ch.
conditions
supposed.
Jones,
Duruy,
v.
344-390.
ix
Architecture.
Roman
III.
"
ix-xiii
Sturgis,
ch.
Sculpture
Topics
xiii
from
III,
Gardner,
are
of
to
not
and
Greece
i.
and
Marquand
"
Augustus
IV
of
Architecture,
Handbook
of
History
Architecture
of
History
Sculpture.
Roman
IV.
Spiers,
and
Anderson
Hamlin,
bk.
v.
chs.
to
special
viii,
chs.
iii-v.
History
ch.
Constantine.
restricted
chs.
especially
Rome,
Frothingham,
Sculpture,
Greek
Architecture,
period.
vi
Strong,
of Sculpture,
Roman
CHAPTER
XLI
CENTURY
OF
REVOLUTION
SOLDIER
THE
EMPERORS
180-284
Commodus;
531.
A.D.). Com'mo-dus,
"
the
Rule
the
A.D.
the
of
and
son
of
successor
weak-minded
the
empire visibly
disciplinealong
for
their
of the
mercy
under
longer
no
of
weak
and
their
lost
and
they
ROMAN
(Relief
on
Trajan's
Schreiber, Atlas
Column;
of Classical
was
They
of
into
Gradually
at
once
their
troops
haughty
the
overawed
Rome;
murdered
the vacant
1
"
502.
500
his successor,
and
office to the
ate;
sen-
the
pered
Pam-
mercy.
and
the
ing
discover-
these
became
tablished
es-
large
especiallyby Commodus,
from
ties)
Antiqui-
at
security
terrorized
was
emperor
LEGIONARY
twelve
Commodus
grown
discipline,and
violent.
were
After
importance,
own
at
pretorian guard,
now
army.
were
capital was
pretorians,who
the
for
standing
the
government,
The
prince,1 had
respect
provinces
savage,
murdered.
the
soldiers
their
control.
such
years
fought
The
with
The
and
misgoverned,
he
amphitheatre,
lost
the
and
declined.
ruler.
While
pleasures
in
beasts
was
led
easilymis-
man,
companions.
base
pursued
wild
Aurelius,
young
vile
by
(180-193
Guard
Pretorian
then
they
sold
highest bidder.
Septimius Severus
reached
the
event
the soldiers on
disgraceful
them
it made
indignant,for the emperor was their general,
frontier,
the primary source
of his power.
and they were
Accordinglythe
the Danube, and in Britain
nominated
their
armies in Syria,on
When
of this
news
commanders
own
the
to
each
and
office of emperor,
Danube
Rome,
the
won
prize.
Septimius
532.
to
nearest
Severus
(193-211);Caracalla (211was
a,
217 A.D.). Severus
who
firm,clear-headed man
"
knew
empire.
in
the
well
He
restored
order
conquered
Rome,
killed
of the
needs
his
rivals
throne,and
for
and
the
humbled
foreign
enemies.
As his authority
the armies,he
rested upon
the
did not hesitate to slight
fore,
Under him, theresenate.
SEVERUS
SEPTIMIUS
of
this body lost much
Rome)
(CapitolineMuseum,
the influence it had enjoyed
in the precedingperiod; in fact,his reign marks
an_iniportant
His
policy was
monarchy.
step in the direction of absolute
supported by the lawyers who formed his council. Pa-pin'i-an,
lived at this time,and held the office of
the ablest of Roman
jurists,
Through
scarcelyless eminent.
pretorianprefect. Ul'pi-anwas
velopment
reached
law
the
associates
Roman
them
their
and
height of deThe
for
benefited
of these great jurists
legislation
before
even
Roman
aimed
the death
place the
most
of the
empire ;
were
provincials
This emperor
of Roman
law.
protection
provinceson a level with Italy. JuliusCaesar
citizens under
to
of Severus
the whole
the
502
had
Century of Revolution
inferior to
zealouslyfollowed
Italy,Claudius
TRIUMPHAL
ARCH
(From
SEPTIMIUS
OF
a
in the
footstepsof
SEVERUS
photograph)
policytill,
of Severus, few non-citizens remained.
at the death
Car-a-cal'la,
and successor
of Severus,completed the work
of centuries by
son
1
making all the freemen of good standingin the empire Romans
(212 A.D.). Under Severus,however, militaryservice and special
taxes
citizens had grown
Carawhom
on
oppressive
; and the men
Julius. The
Those
excluded from
the benefit
were
continued
his liberal
rendered"),
dediticii (the "sur-
having surrendered
crime.
had
been
settled
Alexander
calla made
in
citizenship
the benefit
reform
had
Romans
addition
offset
was
cared
only
brutal.
He,
"Passing by
two
Severus,
those
an
themselves
upon
they had borne as
emperors
amiable
in his attention
He
was
weak, however,
too
was
defend
subjects. Thus
author
all others
also in his
he
of the
was
lessly
reck-
cation,
patronage of edu-
to the needs
Alexander
justice,
of
the burdens
by disadvantages. In fact,the
Severus
Alexander
533.
503
take
to
to
Severus
to maintain
in his mildness
good
discipline
among
emperors.
the soldiers
the
empire.
world arose
in the East.
reigna new danger to the Roman
the time of Trajan the Parthian
The
From
empire had declined.
Persians,still a vigorousrace, asserted their independence,and in
the Parthian
their king,overthrew
monarch
227 A.D. Ar-tax-erx'es,
and made
the empire Persian.
He was
eager for conquests, and
his talent for organization
a
militarypower which the
gave him
East had not possessedfor many
generations.Ordered to give up
Severus went
his Asiatic provincesto this haughty king, Alexander
Henceforth
the Persian embeaten.
to war, but was
pire
disgracefully
the northern
it compelled her to weaken
threatened Rome;
defences in order to mass
troops on the Euphrates,at a time when
the German
races
were
threateninginvasion.
took the field againstthe
After his conflict with Persia,Alexander
he was
murdered
There
the Rhine.
Germans
on
by his soldiers.
The pretorianguard had alreadykilled Ulpian,their prefect,
and
the government as well as the residents of Rome.
were
terrorizing
Thus a reign,
in some
respects happy, ended in failure, a pleasant
before a period of gloom.
twilight
534. Drifting into Anarchy (235-284 A.D.). During the halfor
to
In his
"
"
century which
suffered
Sometimes
more
followed
of
Alexander,
the
government
violence, as
rivals
frequently,
1
death
an"d fell.
rapidly rose
emperors
shared in harmony the imperialoffice ;
colleagues
continual
two
the
Ma-cri'nus
involved
the
empire in
(217-218)and El-a-gab'a-lus
(218-222 B.C.\
civil
war
Century of Revolution
504
;
rarelydid
the middle
the
of confusion
of this .period
fragments; each
and these
highestoffice,
to
"
the
misnamed
purpledie
of the
wearer
death.
empire seemed
About
ing
to be fall-
its commander
nominated
army
rival
natural
to
the
and
pretenders,
wrongly numbered
world to
Thirty Tyrants," brought the Roman
anarchy.
civil war
While
wasted
the
empire and
drew
the
Decius
found
an
(268-270A.D.),who drove
invadinghost of Goths.
535.
Aurelian
withdrew
li-an,
Emperor
able
ruler in Marcus
back
Aurelius
the Alemanni
(270-275A.D.).
"
the last
and
His
Claudius
destroyed the
from Dacia,
garrisons
to the Vis'i-goths and brought the boundary once
to the
more
Danube.
This was
the first territory
lost to the empire. As the
barbarians
he surrounded
it
began to threaten the capitalitself,
with a wall,which
is still standing, a magnificentwork, yet a
of the weakness
monument
and decay of Rome.
Two
ments
great fraghad recentlybroken from the empire : in the East, Queen
from
her splendid court
in Pal-my'ra, ruled Syria,
Ze-no'bi-a,
In the West, the senator
Egypt, and a largepart of Asia Minor.
Tet'ri-cus was
of Gaul, Britain,and northern Spain. Aurelian
emperor
and
conquered
destroyedPalmyra, and took Zenobia captive.
"
"
"
Afterward
the
unity
empire ;
Rhine
and
and
by
of Tetricus.
wars
the Danube
1
" 556.
with
as
the
Thus
the
Germans
northern
he restored
he
tablished
rees-
boundary,
506
The
assassin.
an
been
had
who
one
honored
people
ruler.
worthy
which
reigns,
short
several
and
army
Revolution
of
Century
require
him
His
death
special
no
after
his
death
as
followed
was
notice
by
here.
Summary
hidden
The
(i)
imperial
office, together
brought
the
German
invasions.
and
the
(2)
(4)
Aurelian
What
i.
from
the
earliest
this
period?
with
the
tendencies,
Describe
8.
Compare
to
the
period
the
the
the
the
or
Wall
the
confusion
in
unity
the
period
store
re-
of
the
the
army,
increased
was
the
to
weakness
barbarians
Good
from
of
of
the
of
the
by
empire,
each.
Aurelian
Septimius
(p. 505)
from
Severus
legionary
Roman
with
of
the
in
this
of
this
that
of
the
tions
rela-
to
relian.
Au-
Hadrian.
period
so-called
in
ter
chap-
the
Augustus
with
of
r^al
explaining
account
an
this
be
to
came
treated
senate
the
was
principate,
to
by
citizenship
What
What
Give
5.
the
covered
Roman
3.
revolution
republic
and
of
of
Emperors?
of
century
in
extension
Caracalla.
of
the
portrait
of
the
emperor,
equipment
the
of
results
and
of
edict
the
prince,
Compare
The
added
were
of revolution
century
of
but
to
came
attempted
Questions
history
times
methods,
6.
brief
Compare
4.
between
7.
in
Rome
at
power
Write
decline
of
causes
new
2.
(3)
reestablished
Suggestive
chapter?
Aurelius
Severus
reform.
to
way
army
enlistment
the
Marcus
Septimius
the
anarchy.
(5)
under
empire
son.
with
into
empire
pointed
the
strengthening
chiefly by
order
his
of
reign
the
light during
of
weakness
(p. 500).
Servian
Wall
(P- 354).
Note-book
I.
Septimius
Decline
476-S77J
II.
and
Severus.
Fall
see
Zenobia.
of
the
Indices
"
Roman
of
See
"
other
Indices
Jones,
Empire,
Topics
Roman
i. ch.
Empire,
v
236-254;
Duruy,
History
histories.
of
the
larger
histories
of
Rome.
Gibbon,
of Rome,
vi.
THE
CHAPTER
XLII
ABSOLUTE
MONARCHY
284-375
I.
Di-o-cle'ti-an
"
full of martial
as
genius
and
For
purposes
the
Roman
as
of
before
the
head
of the
We
army
office
by
was
the
spiritof
each
though
past
had
to
exposed
most
four
Later
the
of
be
and
whole
frontier
and
any^general intrusted
was
emperor
he
was
an
emperor
far
to
sure
already
by
and
aids
had
posts
extended
with
become
colleague
causes
or
one
at
rival
and
heir.
violence
or
"
527-
507
enemy
In
the
of the
real
Con-
Augusti.
assigned
Each
of
lieutenant.
first
to
distance
Furthermore,
had
and
were
as
had
as
the
frontier.
commander
great army
an
they
is clear.
for
on
empire,
one
of the
heirs
the
meant
act
Augustus,
pretorian prefect
arrangement
too
natural
as
difficult
most
this
remained
experienced generals, as
the
was
Diocletian
and
East
Caesars, Ga-le'ri-us
two
appointed
the title
bore
Aurelius,1
magistrates
great
object
colleague
the
but
was
divided
they
that
suppose
soldier.
able
taking
There
empires.
Marcus
Chlo'rus, were
to
but
defence
military
not
are
separate
government.
Caesars
The
the
achievement
rough
Diocletian
them,
West.
under
case
stan'ti-us
these
province
imperial
the
empire
Pretorian
entered
his great
of the
and
between
of two
; and
been
the
way
statesman
administration
world
creation
The
he
the
to
colleague Max-im'i-an,
as
colleague the
the
As
Dalmatia,
freedman,
his
organization
new
first chose
He
of
of
and
of revolution.
century
his
native
made
of will.
force
in
HISTORY
son
soldier, and
embody
to
was
The
spirit.
common
POLITICAL
536. Diocletian
Prefects.
A.D.
place,
defend;
from
the
latter,unless
the
death
of
frequently plunged
The
508
the
the
Under
kill
world
Roman
Monarchy
civil
among
war
without
an
emperor
The
new
or
537.
into
Absolute
be
never
Thus
the
throne.
left headless
temptation to
Augustus had
or
greater provincesinto two
Prefectures.
"
begun
the
served
as
check
538. The
on
their power.
Bureaucratic
System.
"
The
civil service,
brought to
cletian
high degreeof perfection
by Hadrian,2 continued to expand. Dioand Constantine
of offices. Every
multipliedthe number
from the lowest provincial
had
to the emperor,
magistrate,
governor
his body of officials,
who
another
in dignityand
differed from one
rank.
The
of an Augustus comprised a great host of such
court
officers. He needed, too, an army
of imperialagents to keep the
central power
in touch
with
of many
system, consisting
to
another, is
worked
smoothly,even
emperor
made
""
507,
525.
of
intricate
one
officers,
ordinate
sub-
chinery
bureaucracy. This official mawell that the government
so
on
generallywent
under
weak
vicious emperors.
or
Through it the
himself absolute
independentof all other powers
called
"
Some
time after the death of Constantine
four prefectures,
each governed by a prefect.
2
ranks
An
the dioceses
were
grouped in
definitely
THE
DIOCLETIAN
ROMAN
EMPIRE
and
SCALE
OF
CONSTANTINE
MILES
The
510
Monarchy
Absolute
Maximian,
three
or
created
Augustus by the
gether
Augusti arose, and alto-
was
other
the government
In 312
againstMaxentius, and
marched
Maxentius
leaving
at the Milvian
In
drowned
was
Constantine
Constantine
the battle
in the
Tiber,
of
master
the
Galerius had
West.
died,and in 3 13 a
became
sole Augustus
certain Licinius
in the
East.
Constantine
few
went
to
afterward
years
war
against his
reignwas
marked
by two
publicrecognition
the
importantevents
of Christianity,
and the selection
of Byzantium as
the capitalof the
empire. The growth of Christianity
from its originto the death of Constantine
"
will be reviewed
section of this
chapter.
CONSTANTINE
(Lateran Museum,
to be
the
Byzantium
after himself.
was
much
It
was
than Rome
nearer
as
had
wars
of the third
ceased
practically
the emperors
the frontier.
as
capital,
Rome)
to live in camp
chose
in the second
on
his
stantine
Con-
it Constantinople
commerce,
to
had
and
and the
Euphrates,which especially
needed defence.
The Latin West and
the Hellenic East were
drifting
apart. The eastern half of the
empire was still richer and more
denselypeopled than the other.
The change of capital
looked to the preservation
of the East at the
expense
of the West.
540. From
the Death
(337-375
A-D.).
~
of Constantine
Constantine
though Christian in
massacred
nearlyall
name,
followed
was
were
to the Death
by
treacherous
their kinsmen
to
of Valentinian
rid themselves
of
who,
They
possible
of Constantine
Successors
brother's
; another
to
invaded
Athens, took
studies at
another.
One
killed
was
by
by
theology,the
the empire. His
himself
511
Ju'li-an,
leavinghis philosophic
cousin
and
injGaul,
command
routed
the Alemanni
in
great battle
this
For
at
he
reason
is called
however,
failed.
old world
campaign
his mild
He
the
adapted to
in temper,
command
the
the
Through the
hard-pressedfrontiers
the
Rhine
most
to
killed
an
made
of the
arrow
Val-en-tin'i-an
just,he
of whom
most
brilliant
defender.
and
gods
secution,
perof the
well
was
were
now
eleven
chastise the
of his time
by
from
after
when,
man
imperialtroops,
the
restore
barbarians.
spent
efforts to
still a young
was
againstthe Persians,he was
In him
enemy.
and
refrained
apostate. He
an
Alemanni
in the
West,
his brother
Va'lens,a
Valentinian
lived,the empire
man
in their
whereas
of little worth.
remained
own
the East
As
intact.
He
country.
was
ruled
long,however,
After
his death
by
as
its
II. HISTORY
541.
of
OF
Origin and
CHRISTIANITY
Character
is to be learned
Christianity
TO
of
DEATH
OF
Christianity.
"
from
The
book
THE
the books
The
of the
CONSTANTINE
earlyhistory
New
Christ.
ment.1
TestaThe
those
teachingsof
him, and
of the
letters written
appointedto
he
whom
originof
by
Monarchy
Absolute
The
512
after
Epistlesare
churches
to
and
explainChristianity
to
and
St. Paul
The
earliest churches.
the
his work
continue
the
to
up
accept it
to
men
encourage
and
live
the
Everywhere
classes welcomed
which
the
lower
religion
the
esteemed
slave
faith.
equal
of
soul
that
to
of
ther
the emperor.
It taughtfurthat in Christ man
was
united
so
God
with
and
wisdom
him
receive from
strengthfor meeting
become
MARY
(About
200
Child.
AND
A.D.
"
INFANT
THE
earliest
of St. Priscilla;
pen
new
Madonna
star.
drawing by
and
Catacombs
Miss
Katherine
Fuertes)
During the
gods
reason
more
peace
as
to
Christianity
firstcentury of
littleattention.
of all
of
The
our
the
and
were
and
eternal
Persecutions.
of Christ attracted
ship
protectedthe publicworof their
empire and adopted many
powerful,it was
with
the
century,
felt to be
Jews.
as
that
For
disturbance
to
the
tians
Chris-
the
and exceedingly
religion,
to
Empire
numerous
to
which
government,
peopleswithin
the
the followers
era
heir
had
the world.
upon
542. Relation
he
were
JESUS
known
an
his sins
that
forgiven and
every
liever
be-
The
of life.
emergency
felt that
to
as
for
of
they
were
As
associate with
the
Romans,
under
command
others in such
pleas-
Causes
of
Persecution
513
ures,
"
"
the world.
543.
only
the
in
state.
elders
and
but
spirit,
or
who
"
The
Church
was
strong
not
organization
; in this feature it imitated
dependen
inIn the beginningeach societyof worshipperswas
cared for the poor ;
It had its officers : deacons,who
instructed the congregation
in religion,
who
presbyters,
also in
in council
looked
an
overseer
or
2L
"
504-
Absolute
The
5 14
Monarchy
small
ones.
the age
some
differences
of many
of Constantine
the bishopsof
among
of rank and of influence
Again,
gained control
of Constantine
unity under
qualityhere
monarchy.
Official
544.
to
freemen
After
Recognition of Christianity.
"
several
the
years
edict of complete toleration for the
of
an
in that
and
even
the
extending through
issued
democratic
might rise
slaves
was
severe
persecution
Galerius
emperor
containing
Christians,
(311). In some
parts
in his behalf
the
Constantius
empire, however, persecutionscontinued.
Chlorus,though a pagan, had treated the Christians under his rule
with great mildness,
and his son
Constantine
was
equallyfavorable
to them.
In fact,Christian ideas were
creepinginto Constantine's
and minglingwith his paganism.
religion
Faith in the supernaturalhad greatlyincreased since the time of
Augustus. In the fourth century all people,whether pagan or
believed in the direct interference of supernatural
Christian,
powers
in human
affairs. Constantine
noticed
that
the
Christians
had
Bridge,2to put
soldiers. It
The
and
to
word
common
was
the monogram
a
pieceof magic
"
539-
to
secure
"g
on
the
the
shields
help of
the
of his
mighty
pope
of Christ
The
The
of the Christians.
God
hope.
To
became
himself
assure
on
Nicaea
of the
experimentsurpassedall
from
victor
future,the
same
churches
515
taxation
and
to
to
was
grant them
port
supthis
he
In
ity
Christianplaced
imperialtreasury.
way
other
of
forms
level with the
worship recognizedby the
the
bring about
To
state.
of
result of the
One
Christian.
Council
the
edict of Galerius.1
was
he stillbelieved
of the Christians
toleration
practical
in the existence
favored
it
of the old
While
than
more
it
Con-
paganism,
continued
gods,and
to
through divination.
of Nicaea
Council
a Christian
(325A.D.). Meantime
545. The
theologywas growing up. The teachingsof Christ are simple,as
will find who
reads the Gospels. They contain no creed.
every one
For a time after his death his followers thought and spoke mainly
their Saviour.
Not
of the personal tie which
them
to
bound
satisfied merely with believing,
of them
some
attempted to explainconsult
them
"
the relation of
the nature
part of it
one
to
other.
an-
who had
philosophers
accepted the faith. In their effort to explain and systematize
Christianity
they brought their philosophyinto it. Many ideas,
law.
introduced from Roman
They graduallybuilt upon
too, were
tions
the original
simple faith an intricate theology,full of fine distincThis
which
is
none
view
own
who
those
the
to
differed
time
and
be the
was
Ath-an-a'si-us
Scholars
at
now
a
edict
was
was
no
"
that
by
under
sect
one
two
of
he
was
nature
believed
of God.
chief
officials of Egypt
church
the
the Son
of
Christ.
Arius
tained
main-
nature
of
God,
necessary.
Athanabeen
as
to
Christianity. Scholars
of Milan"
In
theologies
The
another.
"Edict
his
salvation,whereas
the wrath
and
concerning
later time.
was
Each
already elaborate
were
between
A-ri'us
admitted
there
between
that
and
both
Although
invented
heretics and
were
Differingfrom
understand.
differences
controversy
Greek
opposing doctrines.
created
of Constantine
wide
could
themselves
but
another, they
one
of the
true
especially
are
order
In
Father.
and
Son
council of
a
Ni-cae'a,
cityin
and
the
Asia
down
come
the
to
the East
widespreadin
first
entire Christian
world.
was
to meet
Church
The
in its
readilyaccepted
and
Church
but
in this
and
demanded,
conflict with paganism.
of
continued
The
council
of
professedto represent
the
institution
added
manner
to most
Arianism
the Germans.
among
occasion
as
to-day;
at
orthodox, whereas
West
called;
gatheringwhich
the
Nicaea
of
and
it
Catholic
Roman
denominations
the Protestant
is
meet
disputes
By adopting
accept.
The
heresy.
to
settle the
to
made
council
the
this decision
as
Minor,
all should
which
creed
Creed,
the Nicene
it has
northwestern
opponent became
that of his
all
Athanasius,
of
view
as
bishopsfrom
decide upon
to
to
this
uniformityof belief on
called
equalitybetween the
strengthenthe Church by securing
well as on other points,Constantine
other
the
sius,on
Monarchy
Absolute
The
5i 6
of such
general council,
of the
Suggestive Questions
i.
2.
Write
summaries
Give four
five
of the two
why
it,was too simple to meet the needs
of Diocletian's despotism?
justification
or
the government
reasons
found
in
the
disadvantages of
the
real
bureaucracy?
St. Peter
the
8.
and
Roman
Why
had
St. Paul?
Who
Empire
favored
the
Christians
Were
the
what
respects did
Christians
the
blameworthy
the
Christians
and
Christianity
the
the
and
system,
new
violate
or
Semites?
than
the
and
advantages
7. What
acceptance of
in this respect,
be said
can
of his officials?
religious tolerance
Note-book
I.
are
What
the
Apostles?
extension
less
3.
the
among
the
were
4.
What
on
p. 444.
Diocletian
empire, as
of the time.
5. Under
the mercy
ruler,
at
was
emperor
other religions,
besides Christianity,
arose
he
or
of the
the
was
6. What
Who
were
conditions
in
Christianity?
the
Romans?
contrary?
9.
In
long-establishedcustom?
Topics
Empire.
Source-Book
of Roman
"
Constantine.
Causes
518
than
"
is,they have
higherstandard
of
than
living
"
of the
try.
coun-
and at
children,
an
early age they are put to work, so that they actuallybecome
the citythe cost of bringingthem
up is far
profitable
; whereas in
For
greater, and there is little opportunityfor them to work.
these reasons
citypeopleare less inclined to marry and to bringup
largefamilies than those of the country. To the inhabitants of
destructive
than
the Roman
even
empire this cause proved more
pestilence.
hastened by slavery. During the great
The depopulationwas
sold as slaves,so that they came
to be
conquests captiveswere
and knightsbought up vast
of land
tracts
very cheap. Senators
"broad
estates
"),which they worked by slave
(Latinlat-i-fund'i-a,
The
labor.
unable to compete, sold their
peasant proprietors,
ing
small farms or were
forcibly
ejectedby wealthy neighbors. Comthese country people could find littlework, for
into the cities,
carried on mostly by slaves.
The
the skilled industries,
too, were
mercantile
and other business was
largelyin the hands of knights
and
freedmen.
Being,therefore,without a livelihood,the poor
could not support families to supply the state with soldiers and
citizens. In the later empire,as we shall soon
learn in more
detail,
to misery and
oppressive taxation reduced the masses
despair.
Again
There
in the
is evidence
country it
little to
those
costs
two
centuries of
548.
there
The
Collapse of
the
Money
rear
System.
than
was
"
one
our
half.
era
the
less
Doubt-
considerably
greater.
Under
the principate
littlemining of
of
preciousmetals, so that the amount
gold and silver in the empire was
not
materiallyincreased. On
the other hand the preciousmetals were
constantlybeing used in
the arts, stored up as offerings
in temples,and hoarded by private
A greater drain on the
caused by the conpersons.
stant
was
currency
of
to Arabia,India, and
exportation vast sums
China in exwas
^ Through
recent
sanitaryimprovements,however, citiesare
now
generallyfree
from
Economic
Causes
other luxuries.
spices,
perfumes,and
change for silks,
gold and silver sent to the Far East
of
coins
and
lighter,
of
with
that metal.
The
that
in the middle
once
been
cents
baser
value
lower
piecewhich
to
came
that
of the third
were
metal,when
than
circulation ; for
of
allows
was
not
use
It is
cent.
one
in unlimited
coined
market,
will not
pay
drives
debt
well-known
of this want
is still more
of money
on
remarkable.
Diocletian
all other
in
We
Diocletian
increase
in the
as
it had
number
been
notice
must
had
become
under
of soldiers
and
from
metals
The
the
result
circulation of
of
one
The
"
will
cent
effect
throughit on society,
first that
many
Augustus:
and
at
Constantine.
the government,
and
fact
and
quantities,
under
copper
rapidly
so
the
A.D.
silver money.
But coins of the value
suffice for the business of an empire.
Taxation
549.
the
making
increased
gold and
alone
The
year.
pieceswhich had
still so in name,
had come
to be nearly
in the time of Augustus was
worth forty
of the
man
law
all
the
that
result
piecesby mixing
alloywas
century
about
be worth
silver
of
amount
As
smaller every
than that of
remedy
debasing the
and
silver,
all copper.
other
no
Little of the
returned.
ever
in circulation became
of money
princescould think
the amount
519
in their
the
times
cost
as
(i)because
pay;
and
of
great
of
an
more
shirk the
to
of the
Decline
of taxes.
But
Causes
520
payment
worse
organizedin
We
"
was
Empire
peasant became
are
in
now
positionto
empire societycame
system of hereditaryclasses,which
and
minds
it
how
understand
the
owner.
550.
of
thus
and
to
enslaved
completed the
be
the
wreck
afterward
Constantinopleas well,
The peoplewho attended
the
to this work were
with food.
chiefly
and swine-dealers.
bakers,cattle-dealers,
They
grain-merchants,
which were
to attract
as
were
given privileges
organizedin guilds,
as
plenty of merchants tillDiocletian
possible.There were
many
long been
had
to take
ordered them
of all
this
and
seemed
the state.
duty
to
than
such
an
For
similar
reasons
The
be
Nothing
The
to
made
The
the
as
curiales,
due
needs
of their
came
guildsbedo their
liberty
association
without
ing
shirk-
tyranny of guildrule
Civil Service.
of the
was
"
hereditarymust
above,1 were
wealthy
the
made
emperor
their
their
them
they
good
in providburden
ing
heavy enough.
city.
imposed,they had
But
the system
How
curia
stated
from
it,
despoticking.
and
membership
amount
in
to
of the
that he bore
for
responsible
all the
destructive
more
see
Curiales; Military
continue
to
jealouseyes
burden.
explained.The
To
be
As
tried to forsake
might be compelledto
could
member
common
than
galling
of taxation
men.
them
their members
each
always upon
551.
next
ordered
arrangement.
he
tion
transporta-
in kind.
taxes
bear, many
to
great
after them.
sons
that
hereditary
were
too
the
pay
property, includingthe
whereupon
occupation,
their
without
themselves
upon
government
burden
new
their
supply Rome,
to
In
case
to make
community was
this additional load was
When, therefore,
placedon their shoulders,
wished to retire into privatelife. The
then made
many
emperor
the positionhereditary,
and requiredall who owned
above
twentyfive acres
to accept and
retain the place for life. If a man
went
to another city,
he was
liable to curial service in both.
The office
own
"I.sis-
Social Classes
521
made
to the character or
as
inquirywas now
had
once
a
man
occupation of proposed members; and when
entered,nothing short of bankruptcy could relieve his family of
The condition
load.
of the curiales was
the oppressive
even
more
lost all
honor, for
unenviable
than
no
of the tradesmen.
that
induced
552.
let
us
the
those
the vocations
of soldiers to follow
sons
how
the
condition
Slaves
Serfs.
become
and
of tenants
of their fathers.
"
Lastly
of peasant
prietors
pro-
was
the
watched
government.
Hence
it
that
was
the
government
each individual.
It had
over
carefully
often happened that slaves escaped taxation by being sold from
That the government might keep a stricter
estate
to another.
one
of rural slaves,
account
ordered that they should not
Constantine
be sold off the estate on which they were
born or given their liberty.
By this act they ceased to be slaves and became serfs,so attached
to the soil as to be bought and sold along with it. The
tenants
co-lo'ni
about
free to move
as
were
once
they wished, and to
land of any
rent
lord with whom
satisfactory
they could make
But
when
terms.
heavy taxes rendered their lot hard, many
deserted the farms they had taken in rental,either to seek more
into the cities. To put a stop to this
indulgentlords or to swarm
Constantine
evil,which would soon haye destroyedthe population,
more
and
more
"
"
bound
the
the
tenant
and
his descendants
findingtheir
they also
with
taxes
serfs.
too
their descendants
In
forever
like
manner
heavy, tried
were
bound
to
the
soil. Thus
the small
holders,
free-
escape, whereupon
forever to the soil by
to
Causes
522
The
Large
of
work
thus
was
Landowners
the
Most
largelandowners.
Though many were
throughoutthe empire were senators.
few ever
sat in
actual duty or retired,
on
civil officers,
or
word senator
either at Rome
or at Constantinople.The
to
denote
rather than
no
to
obligation
post
on
in
but
also to
screen
from
his tenants
the senate
had
had
come
few burdens
The
field laborers.
of his
shirk much
military
of the class
Men
and
curiales,
become
positionnot only to
was
function.
or
duty
to
lord
the state,
sometimes
and
injustice,
of them
of the
made
rank
under
were
been
has
Mention
of
even
The
government
bestowal
of benefices.
extensive
of
Middle
as
to
to
Through
powerful,tillthey were
more
so
tried in vain
check
them
almost
commendations
which
feudalism,
was
to reach
This
its full
and
more
rulingover
sovereigns,
seem
the
and
estates
the
was
ning
begin-
development in
the
Ages.
Suggestive Questions
Write
to
mental
and
p. 444.
did
the
2.
Why
empire
Roman
had
did the
the
Greek
Beginnings
city-states?
Which
4.
life
agricultural
probably
world
Would
6.
7.
Would
were
empire?
extent
land
for
the
was
of
Causes
Decline.
Davis,
"
viii.
Rome,
Empire,
Western
of
the
Middle
Dill,
364-377;
bk.
iii
Ages
Bury,
usually
if
all
evil
their
prevented
or
in
any
of
far
late
the
control?
to
power
way
How
10.
condition
been
Topic
Roman
Later
wretched
cient
an-
empire?
one
were
uncultivated?
beyond
Empire,
Roman
begin
which
the
had
retarded
decline
lying
the
in
inhabitants
the
ance,
endur-
of
united
have
of
Note-book
of
become
not
declined
causes
responsible
what
it
and
strength
civilization
the
government
the
much
so
Would
5.
had
523
physical
greater
have
all
was
emperors
To
declined,
probably
Why
9.
the
life?
Mention
8.
economic.
the
factory
representative
decline?
the
produces
have
empire
the
free?
or
Feudalism
of
Roman
with
the
study
Last
i.
Empire,
a
Duruy,
142-150;
in
Society
of
the
ch.
History
Century
iii.
decline.
The
of
the
ries
histo-
XLIV
CHAPTER
INVASIONS
GERMANIC
THE
376-476
I.
Europe,
of the
east
CHARACTER
AND
People.
and
Country
554.
with
LIFE
Rhine
forests, interrupted
The
who
The
describes
inhabited
here
and
GERMAN
historian
Roman
the
under
country
the
and
influence
of the
there
the
in
Rome
and
of
growth
of
by
bristled
Danube,
damp,
as
they
in
unwholesome
were
in
severe
civilization.
climate
The
mans,
Ger-
composed
Christianity.
524
and
surface
region, lived
its inhabitants
upper
central
empire
of the
time
VILLAGE
rude
to
this
the
north
was
altogether unfavorable
"
come
country
In
"
GERMANS
THE
or
and
marshes.1
A.D.
at
that
about
100
A.D.
time, before
in
(" 528),
they
had
with
all continue
nations
or
the Romans.
build
to
the Romans.
Germans
same
did not
those
far
as
ever, the tribes
empire remained as barbarous
along the border rapidlylearned to imitate the life of
extensively,
They began to cultivate the fields more
comfortable
more
homes,
dress
to
better,and
Christian
more
The
"
the
from
away
Invasions
Germanic
The
526
weapons.
tribe known
make
to
missionaries
carried
Vis'i-goths
(West Goths),
from Bishop UTS-las,
north of the Danube, acceptedChristianity
who translated the Bible into their speech. In Christian doctrine
follower of Arius,whose
Arian
form of belief
Ulfilas was
a
an
The Goths therefore
was
explainedin the chapteron Christianity.1
became
tianity
Arians,as did all other barbarians who acceptedChrisbefore invading the empire. This fact was
to have
an
importanteffect on history.2
As the Romans
continuallyweaker, while the Germans
grew
and other northern
tribes increased in numbers
and
strength,it
the
them
Gospel.
The
as
the
"
inevitable
was
should become
to the
menace
breaking through
nations
nearest
to
tribes on
them
should
only
the frontier
their
want
was
to
outer
were
question of
harassed by
border,it was
settle within
the
grand
scale.
The
depopulation.
It
these
was
to weaken
that many
barbarians
and
of
vast
Aurelius
Marcus
the enemy
barous
bar-
more
to
on
check
to watch
necessary for the government
carefullyover
settlers. In assigning
them to vacant
lands it forbade
was
new
"
'
effect
the
the
As
as
empire,especially
began
assaults.5
time.
but natural
tracts of land
the
in hard
545-
"
5
"
"
"
501.
527.
547.
The
them
Visigoths
527
leave their
II. THE
The
557.
Invasion
INVASIONS
of the
and
more
Goths
Dacia
With
people.
the
Os'tro-goths
"
"
by
savages,
who
River.
the Don
and
lived north
Suddenly
this
life,
they became
kinsmen, the
faces.
East
Sea, between
peaceful life
dark, dwarfish
of the Huns, a
appearance
little eyes and scarred,beardless
of the Black
the
with
as
of settled
progress
distinct from their less civilized
more
about
"
On
was
race
turbed
disof
horseback
their wives
and
children,about
of the
two
hundred
and
Danube,
thousand
implored
for safetyfrom their frightful
the Romans
to let them
cross
suers.
purhave alreadyheard,2
The weak-minded
we
Valens, of whom
render
granted their petitionon the understandingthat they should surtheir arms
and give their children as hostages. These were
needless conditions; for with their arms
they would, in grateful
have helped him defend the empire.
loyalty,
in
all,gathered on
""
534
".
"
540.
The
528
Invasions
Germanic
many
558. The
dosius,the successor
Thrace, while those
settled
empire were
of the
and
Romans,
This
of
Reign
Theodosius
"
remained
ruler
there had
the
earned
been
for
two
or
Augusti.
more
taken
into
After
"
the
When
another
Ho-no'ri-us,
partnership.
his
sons
continued
some
Theodosius
time
to
came
self
Ar-ca'di-us as Augustus with him-
son
afterward
his death
Great.'''
For
to
rule the
in the West.
Augusti were
1
"
son,
545.
was
in like
empire.
manner
Arcadius
In all such
supposed to
rule
cases
con-
jointlyover
merely for
the whole
Alaric and
Stilicho
empire,and
to
make
529
a
rough division
of it
convenience.
a
Al'a-ric,
promising of their young nobles, named
upon
their custom
in electinga chieftain. Under
his
shield,as was
leadership
theyravaged Greece tillthe minister of Arcadius bought
his friendship,
givinghim an office in Illyricum.In this position
he suppliedhis men
with good arms;
that in a few years he
so
was
ready for a more
important undertaking, the invasion of
idea of the value of civilization ; and it was
Italy. He had some
most
"
his wish
It is
to find
a
country in which
remarkable
only the
but
soldiers,
common
the best
mans.
Gergeneralsand ministers of the empire,were
now
Such was
fair and statelyVandal, who
had
a
Stil'i-cho,
married
a niece of Theodosius,and
at this time guardianand
was
chief general of the worthless
in the West.
Honorius, emperor
even
Stilicho and
men;
But
both
Alaric
were
Stilicho had
were
brave
well matched.
Both
born
were
leaders of
and
and
lands
For
two
years he
to obtain
The
530
but
and
as
Christian he
Alaric
done.
was
respectedRome,
of the Church.
mankind
astonished
capture of Rome
The
Invasions
Germanic
supposed
and
cityinviolable,
St.
Augustine,the
in 354
After
A.D.
Manichaeans,
in her fall
of the
famous
most
life he
years of
later
many
wayward
accepted the
somewhat
and
born in Africa
heretical
joined the
orthodox
Christian
of
sect
faith.
pointed
Ap-
bishopof Hippo,
The
Goths
his followers
to
labors he died
before he could
561. The
"
but
as
rich
saw
southward.
for
country.
him.
This
of existence and
his followers
life,he recognizedthe
in
Spain.
had
man
once
to substitute
slow
value
in
"
wished
the Goths
for order
of these
climate
"
brother-in-law,
His
to
blot
in their
adapting themselves
of Rome
At
transporting
In the midst
we
Visigothic Kingdom
out
he
began the
Africa,still a
Ataulf, succeeded
Romans
citynear
left the
soon
Alaric
Rhegium
and
the
place;
to settled
civilization.
The
Vandals
531
state.
at
its
"
German
invasion
their
lengthon
for that
; and
wanderingsand
on
movements
562. The
another
"
Vandals
in the
we
reason
have
dwelt
we
shall follow
at
Rome.
more
some
The
rapidly.
Van'dals,
race,
received
southward.
Thus
had been
driven about
from
placeto place.
under whom
Now, however,they found their hero-kingin Gai'ser-ic,
they,too, were to appear as a conqueringnation. In contrast with
the majestictype of the German
short and
leader,Gaiseric was
limping. He had, however, a cunning,nimble mind, and he was
and bold.
In addition
to his desire to find
grasping,persistent,
lands for his men
and a kingdom for himself,he sought to humble
church.
Rome, and, as an Arian Christian,to destroythe Orthodox
The Vandal
chief found his opportunity in a quarrelbetween
two
Roman
dia
A-e'ti-us
officers,
was
and
" 579.
Bon'i-face.
At this time
Galla Placi-
to work
2
" 561.
upon
her
53
Invasions
Germanic
The
Boniface, the
on
for revenge
his provinces. The
turned
as
the
to Rome
Ordered
of his
remnant
the
to
in
of treason, the
groundlesssuspicion
invited
Vandals, and
barbarians
Gaiseric became
as
soon
commander
accepted the
them
offer.
chief,he crossed
to
vade
in-
ingly,
Accord-
to Africa
with
face
penitentBonito be swayed
not the man
tried to send him back ; Gaiseric was
Africa was
him
officers. To
a
tempting prize. Its
by Roman
with
fertile estates worked
by serfs had long suppliedRome
large,
grain. The richest of its many cities was Carthage. The Vandals
desolated the fields and took the fortifiedplacesby siegeor treachery.
Rome
Meantime
a treaty with
recognizedtheir kingdom in Africa.
when
few invading
have been the Roman
weak must
How
so
army
barbarians
could seize the fairest provincesof the empire !
Sack of Rome
(455A.D.). But Gaiseric's
563. Vandalism
; The
followers were
No
had
not so peacefulas those of Alaric.
sooner
they gained the seaports than they built shipsand took to piracy.
Thus they harassed Italyand all the neighboring
shores.
Whither
shall we
sail?
the pilotis said to have asked
his chief at the
beginningof one of these expeditions. To the dwellingsof those
God
is angry," Gaiseric replied. From
with whom
their piracy,
of the Orthodox
but more
from their pillage
churches,wherever they
found them, the word vandalism, derived from the name
of their
destruction
of
to signifythe aimless,wanton
tribe,has come
persons,
and
women
including
In vain
children.
the
"
"
"
"
property.
Rome
Deprived of her food supplyby these pirates,
and
to see the destroyers
was
in her own
soon
famine,
emperor
at this time
throne and
become
had
was
forced
his wife.
certain
Maximus,
the
Eu-dox'i-a,
She then
widow
requested Gaiseric
who
suffered from
streets.
The
usurped the
to
predecessor,2
had
of his
to avenge
her wrong
The Vandals
by plunderingRome.
gladlyacceptedthe invitation.
For a fortnight
the cityand stored their vessels with
they pillaged
valuable property. Their
leader,however, had promised Leo,
bishop of Rome, to refrain from bloodshed and from burning the
1
A count
Valentinian III.
was
brought the
of his wrath
storm
his
happy
of
omen
Attila at
path.
to
swelled
and
Theodoric
Europe.
to
which
the brook
torrent
from
the blood
told that
are
the
fell,but
Theodoric
field of battle.
Aetius
met
fiercest
flicts
con-
With
vast.
the thousands
through the
flowed
Hun
was
routed.
was
Had
to
taken years, possiblycenturies,
which he,
desolation and the barbarism
he
in
country
common
of the
in one
Cha-lons',
history(451 A.D.). The slaughterwas
we
poeticexaggeration
of wounds
of their
distance from
some
known
Wasted
fields and
Gaul.
upon
At this tryingtime, the union of
in defence
Romans
and
Germans
Invasions
Germanic
The
Though
Attila withdrew
Italyon
his errand
and
sword.
refugeesfrom
the Adriatic
other
shore.
Attila's
came
their wretched
In time
to
was
Turks.
he
year
cluster of islands
along
became
settlement
threatened
Huns
persuadedhim
next
the
the
As
the
was
appeared
visited Aq-ui-lei'a
with fire
the population,
joinedby
kinsmen, the
BishopLeo
of
remnant
famous
the
He
of destruction.
miserable
The
Gaul,
from
Such
continent.
the
it is difficultto
the
to spare
city.2
else induced
what
see
Rome,
566. Relation
of
understandingthe
must
the
take
the
relation
into account
method
German
of
Invaders
the
"
the
to
invaders
"
Empire.
to
the
had
come
For
"
empire
about
we
in
of
The
supportingthe armies.
system of taxes in
kind3 had proved too costlyand cumbersome, and had broken
down
by its own
weight. Especiallythe roads had fallen out of
in ruins,and wagons
and beasts of burden
repair,the bridgeswere
failed through the general impoverishment of the Romans.
It
was
necessary
1
Three
years
great commander
in time
of peace
to
bring
the
soldiers
near
to
the
2 This
three years
was
before Gaiseric's plunder of Rome,
tried to prevent, but could only soften.
"
which
*
the
"
549"
same
Leo
German
The
of
source
Soldiers
supply. They
The
first
province or
other
of
the
Emperor
quartered accordinglyon
were
The
assignan
to
was
soldiers
then
were
535
the inhabitants.
army
to
distributed
to
this
in war;
the
in the
Each
empire.
the
"
soldier
included
was
"
quartered
essaries
nec-
on
the
habitan
in-
time
before.
as
applied to
now
was
nations
Germanic
family of
all
cities retained
system
for
but
provinces and
This
and
food, clothing,
thus
army,
its officers and commander
had
the
with
The
arrangement.
as
The
his estate.
from
in
provide them
to
which
was
settled
an
army
ing
differ-
soldiers
German
the
of
owners
did
not
come
be-
land; they
to
the
state
of
payment
was
were
"
substitute
often
they were
The
system
German
soldiers
taxes.
oppressive
; the
violent
neither
for the
and
brutal ; but
enemies
nor
querors.
con-
Their
once
commander was at
cording
"king" of his followers,acto their native
GERMAN
(With Roman
from
custom, and
SOLDIER
the weakness
Such was
of
now
militaryofficer of the emperor.
the imperialgovernment, however, that these German
kingsfinally
the
districts
in
civil
their
addition
to 'their
over
acquired
power
Taking possessionof the public lands, they
militarycommands.
and assignedthe rest to their favorites
use
kept a part for their own
and
followers.
Private
land
remained
in
the
hands
of former
ence,
stronglyinclined to independtheir sovereign,
and
as
emperor
in his cause.
at criticaltimes to fight
stillwilling
were
Races.
Pursuing our study
Blending of the Two
owners.
of them
some
567.
The
"
Germans,
the
reduced
or
support
or
reference
their property
considered
slavery,
to
stillfurther,
Romans
deprived of
not
were
alike,without
All
other
natives
the
find that
and
Germans
the
relations between
of the
we
Invasions
Germanic
The
536
to
in any
paid
race,
taxes
to
way
or
by
ferior.
in-
gave
of their land.
and eligible
to office. In fact,
militaryservice,
for a time unable
to read or write,and were
were
as the Germans
king filled his civil offices
ignorantof administration,the German
All
liable to
were
with
of
side
by
into
blended
German
one.
Forgettingtheir own
of
The
religion
speak Latin.
that
was
the church
of
the invaders
Catholic,as
Germans
added
in these
centuries
whom
a
the natives
at
also
prevailed. It
Catholic
Roman
"
whereas
"
the
the
t
or
confusion,violence,and
decay
it
me
brought
brutality
the
of civilization and
new-
"
into
vitality
reignof
and
family life,
better
armies"
by
the
the
of the Germans
For
long
presence
time
here
under
consideration
were
^lifecontinued almost
come
we
foreigners.When
life emerging from the
a new
Roman
of these
to the
old ;
former
gave way
learned
language,the Germans
Rome
greatlyto
handful.
untouched
existed
laws
Roman
two
influence
more
population. Much
directions was
exercised,however, by those who had for
been coming quietlyinto the empire,in comparison with
the
mere
the
and
came
pagans ; but all eventuallybeThe
explainedbelow.
coming of the
will be
of
either Arians
were
and
tillthe
respectively,
races
to the latter.
to
ness
of the busi-
positionsmanaged most
were
Intermarriages
common,
government.
soon
races
in these
who
Romans,
the mediaeval
world
was
hand.
568. Dissolution
of the
Empire
in
the
West.
"
In
the
of
sovereignty
the emperor,
they were
latter
had
their
inreally
The
dependent,and
was
therefore,
these
Such
it
master
was
patrician.This
officer of highestrank.
whom
"
little
him
drove
Orestes
title
submission
After
Nepos
the death
end,
alone
over
fell
"
of
and
in
all.
No
in that
the East
bore
gave
own
son
ulus,
Rom-
accordinglynicknamed
Augustulus
under
the boy had ruled a few months
latter was
killed by the soldiers in a mutiny.
"
of these
But
rebellious
troops, ousted
ulus
Rom-
not
Nepos
Nepos
theory
assassinated
was
in
exile,and
for law
In
as
of her
in
the
part of
of
events
the
empire
of the emperors
in
had
left in
Rome
which
central
and
saw
fact, no
want
well
as
time
continuance
degree a
some
of the barbarians
longingfor
the
livingat
one
satisfied in
the hearts
stand
troops and
his puppets.
as
the
make
emperor
for their
an
and
them
Under
ruler of
was
With
soldiers,
his (476),
and offered
rightfully
at Constantinople.While
granting
of Italy,
Zeno insisted on recognizing
patrician
Augustus.
as
Odoacer
to
to
now
this
which was
office,
Zeno, emperor
the title of
Odoacer
At
out
of his
Italy,
soldiers
the
emperor."
from
than
more
commander,
to
easy for the general-in-chief
the title
but
537
German.
were
of the emperors,
and to treat
who
commanded
was
O-res'tes,
master
the West
file up to the
circumstances
himself
in
Emperor
the rank
from
Last
native
of
citizens, a
chaos, should
"
Accordingly,most
in the West, whatever
their race
men
or
condition,thought of the
Eastern
their own.
The German
as
kings respectedhim,
emperor
and gladlyreceived the offices and honors he bestowed.
But they
limited their obedience
interests and pleasures. The
by their own
*"
2
The
579.
The
importance of the
year
substitution
of
one
emperor
for two
was
historians.
no
means
strange event.
the
fact
had
cessation
This
Italy ceased
the
became
West,
succeeded
pope
the
Suggestive
Write
i.
(i) with
Germany
with
improvement?
the
7.
Give
376
A.D.
of
it necessary
colonists
as
bad
history
the
and
effects, if
to
had
any,
10.
Were
the
11.
What
is the
German
German
in
which
the
of
Life
Duruy,
History
Middle
II.
of the
Ages,
Sack
Destruction
ch.
ch.
of
xxxi
323-3""
Gibbon
and
;
of Rome,
v
(German
Rome
by
of Rome,
iv.
Goths
Germans.
vi.
see
(by
5-7;
chs.
the
the
of
entered
Robinson,
vi ;
have
greater
the
to
into
year
the
why?
9.
by
barbarians?
pire
em-
What
really
invaders?
Name
them.
nations?
Topics
Tacitus,
"
xcv.
xxxvi
Decline
(by
her
exaggerated
39-46.
the
455
410,
Fall
and
Vandals),
Invaders,
the
Civilization
5-27
the
during
civilization).
Vandals,
Gibbon,
especially
Germania,
Adams,
;
to
and
Italy and
Readings,
empire
of
barbarians?
Marius
so,
tion
civiliza-
the
the
empire
the
in
Germans
If
the
Romance
"
Goths
Goths),
Hodgkin,
Hodgkin
armies?
for
capacity
was
of
of
the
Germans
government
Which
time
Contrast
early
the
6.
admit
contributions
the
v,
ch.
the
Augusti.
progress
hostility
to
her
term
Primitive
slower
from
Note-book
I.
Rome
in
2.
444.
greater
Compare
the
colonization
hordes
of
the
the
the
Greeks.
or
Rome
them
the
meaning
early
wars
for
enlist
5.
p.
Compare
make
Germans
decay
on
showed
Romans?
of the
that
8.
Was
the
the
that
3.
Which
internal
empire,
the
to
did
and
with
Germans
early
danger
Greeks
like
Greece.
Indians.
Why
4.
the
than
of
As
Questions
chapter
(2) with
Egypt,
American
North
the
this
of
summary
complished
ac-
empire.
person
throne
vacant
an
Church.
bishop
influential
most
the
to
the
to
of the
the
upon
emperors,
and
respected
most
the
"
of
home
the
be
to
half
western
effect
important
an
therefore
Italy points
of the
dissolution
the
"
in
Augusti
of
line
the
of
cessation
Invasions
Germanic
The
538
i.
of
A.D.
the
Bury's
792-803;
destructiveness
Lanciani,
"
Roman
pire,
Em-
edition,
ii.
iii.
283-286.
especially
of
the
CHAPTER
THE
NEW
XLV
GERMAN
STATES
476-774
569. The
the
line
of
the
and
Gaul
touched
who
by
of
only
not
were
life.
Italy,
his
quartered
as
each
"
against Roman,
the
various
one
religion,and
Extending
the border.
the
shore
farther
Fris'i-ans,
share
p.
Slavs.
showing
were
"All
a
frontier
the
other, German
Arian
of their
Sea
heels
olic.
Cath-
against
order, and
to
way
in
ization,
civil-
one
and
tribes,like
to
Rhine
the
and
and
crossed
Elbe
brethren
press
west
and
Oman,
were
Eastward
Alemanni.
their
empire."
empire,
had
the
Gep'i-dae
"
the
who
kinsmen
the
between
general tendency
in the
stances
circum-
in confusion
was
gave
ways
these
the
on
Thu-rin'gi-ans
these
Roman
finallyharmonized
Ru'gi-ans, Lombards,
the
and
to
yet
till Odoacer
the
against
have
empire.
one
the
West
gradually
of the North
south
were
the
were
them,
Under
race
chaos
pressed upon
races
On
her
conflictingforces
line of barbarous
the
how
of
little
Sax'ons,
the
we
Roman
all the
barous,
bar-
more
and
whom
land.
life and
still pagan,
continued
against Christian,
see
now
settled
were
of
especially
more
An'gles
and
when
still in
was
remained
Franks
why
invading
pagan
shall
We
on
understand
to
and
Africa
time
West
wholly ignorant
seen,
soldiers
the
toward
The
but
have
German
conflict,
how
the
of Rome.
pagans,
we
it is easy
and
of
were
hear,
Gaul
civilization
entire
progress
Vandals
in Northern
the
the
Burgundians,
some
The
orderly government.
while
the
making
At
"
Italy ceased,
Spain
Visigoths, were
(476 A.D.).
Europe
in
emperors
In
chaps.
of
Condition
A.D.
in
order, and
who
had
gone
south, and
take
European
tory,
His-
6.
570.
The
Ostrogoths;
The
first of the
was
the
East-
great
Gothic
Theodoric
forces
nation.
which
When
539
the
Great
helped bring
Attila
(476-526 A.D.).
-
about
died,
this
it threw
change
off
the
The
540
CHURCH
OF
SAN
States
German
New
APOLLINARE
Nuovo,
RAVENNA
(Builtby Theodoric)
Hunnish
was
much
The
trouble,which
ended
and
migration to Italy.
the great,
as
Theodoric, known
in their
was
at
the emperor
there
the emperor
allyof
The
542
to reduce
him
the orthodox
Italywas
she had
than
an
civilization;
this way
to order and
the various classes of his subjects
Arian,he tolerated
Under
and
law
of Roman
the value
yet appreciated
he
States
German
New
been
from
secure
for centuries.
In
Catholics.
invasion,and
The
more
he aimed
harmony.
prosperous
repair
king's
now
Among the
decayedpublicworks and erect new ones.
beautiful church in the
his capital,
a
was
inJRa-ven'na,
buildings
which is still standing.
styleof a basilica,
felt outside of Italy: on the one
tinued
His influence was
hand, he conin Constantinople
the
to the emperor
; on
subjectin name
other,he connected himself by marriagesof his relatives with most
he brought the
of the German
By such means
kingsof the West.
degree of friendly
warring races of the broken empire into some
the present state-system of
which crudelyforeshadowed
relation,
their
Europe.
In his later years, however, there were
to rid
intrigues
the emperor.
and
the Goths
to bring the country under
led Theodoric
death
Italyof
This
charge of conspiracy
eminent
the renowned
the two most
of his court,
men
Bo-e'thi-us,
scholar.
and Sym'ma-chus,also a noted
Suspecting
philosopher,
where
he soon
the pope of disloyalty,
the king threw him into prison,
Thus
died.
Theodoric
himself did not long survive his victims.
a
gloriousreignended in sadness; and no one after Theodoric was
trouble
to
put
to
on
"
able to carry
his
great work.
571.
Theodoric's
Though
to
on
death
"
became
Jus-tin'i-an
his ancestors
were
rude
emperor
peasants, he
In the year
at
after
Constantinople.
received,in addition
which
the Eastern
capital
afforded.
His
ambition
"
"
the
was
for
restore
competent
to
specialservice.
of remarkable
In
Bel-
genius,
dued
qualifiedto lead in the work of conquest. This general subthe Vandals of Africa in one
short campaign (533-534A.D.);
after the death of Gaiseric they had declined,and the Romans
Justinian
country welcomed
of that
the army
543
of the East
as
deliverer from
oppression.
Next
Belisarius attacked
the
Ostrogothickingdom, which
well as Italy. He met with little opposition
included Sicily
as
till
he had entered Rome.
There the Goths besiegedhim for a year ;
their king, cut off the water
meantime
Wit'i-gis,
supply,so that
lacked pure water
Rome
tillsome
of the aqueducts were
restored a
thousand
When
the siegewas
at length raised,
years afterward.
his
found
it difficultto take the strong cities of
on
Belisarius,
part,
northern
Italy. By negotiation,
however, he finallysecured possession
of the king and of the entire country. As the Roman
rule
the Goths immediatelyrevolted ; but after a long,
was
oppressive,
fierce struggle(540-553 A.D.)the remnant
of their number
bade
farewell to Italy and dispersedamong
various
barbarian
tribes.
The peninsulacame
wholly under the emperor, and was governed
for him by an
officer termed
whose
ex'arch,
capitalwas Ravenna.
Still later,
Justiniangained a foothold in southeastern
Spain,but
failed to conquer the entire West-Gothic
kingdom.
While
the emperor
he was
to prowas
subduing Italy,
struggling
tect
the empire from
the Persians,who were
as
as
ever.
mighty
More
than once
he had to purchasepeace by the payment of tribute.
It was
well for Europe, however, that he was
able to accomplish
that ; and we
lose sightof the fact that the Gershould never
even
man
nations were
free to work out the destinyof the continent only
because the empire formed
their bulwark
againstthe powers of
year
Asia.
Justinian's Internal
572.
Roman
and
"
Like
a
great builder
Justinianwas
The
aqueducts, and other publicworks.
emperors,
his many
now
Improvements.
churches
was
the dome-covered
cathedral
the
earlier
of
cations,
roads, fortifi-
most
splendidof
St. Sophia
of
"
Mohammedan
aries
In his reigntwo Christian missionmosque.
from China
to Constantinople,
brought eggs of the silkworm
merce,
taught the Europeans the culture of silk. Agriculture,com-
and
pire
throughoutthe emto support the oppressiveChurch, State,
; but the producewent
and army.
Justinianis most noted, however, as the emperor who
codified the Roman
law. Under his authority
finally
Tri-bo'ni-an,
an
aided by
jurist,
eminent
containingtwelve
the
summarized
legaldecisions
they added
of law
principles
drew
several associates,
of statutes, and
books
these
States
German
New
The
544
second
learned
lawyers.
treatise
a
third work, the Institutes,
for the
of students.
use
To
the
on
writingstogether
These
(From
form
most
photograph)
preciousgiftof
Rome
to
the modern
world.
In
order
the Western
and
too,
further
The
Lombards
in the
in
the minds
with
of the
Roman
Germans
civilization,
that
they,
empire.
Italy (568-774A.D.). The
"
rule of
the
dured
too burdensome
to be long enhowever,was financially
For
twelve years after its conquest the peninsula
Italy.
provemen
whose
governed by Nar'ses,an ambitious
public imman,
came
weighed heavily upon the taxpayers. Then
emperors,
in
was
impressedupon
included
were
573.
nations
Lombards
545
"
"
; and
conquerors
kinsmen,
their
the
example
Angles and
and
Romanized
who
survived
pushed
2N
were
was
followed
the
Saxons, who
back
by
their
in time
reduced
to
more
The
ous
numer-
subdued
Britons
serfdom, so
that
littletrace
of them
conquest;
on
Celtic. The
England
which
resulted from
leaders of the
invadingbands
subdued.
district he had
small
of the
is left in the
the other
States
German
New
The
546
Ireland
arose
mained
re-
kings,each
became
In time
the
states,
seven
united in one
Heptarchy, which finally
kingdom.
As the Angles and the Saxons, before the conquest, had lived in
from the empire,they knew
northern Germany, far away
nothing
of Roman
civilization. Under
of Christianity
or
them, therefore,
barbarous
and pagan.
The invaders brought
Britain againbecame
the so-called
"
their
to
institutions which
from
fatherland,and
which
ancl
been
had
English people of
law, little influenced by
the
As
been
Christianized.
Irish and
there
As
so
the
acknowledging
pope
little gain to the
no
Britain
her
as
cause
forever broken
was
was
difference
some
Roman
triumphed;
was
and
manners
to-dayhave
was
the
home
new
theirs in the
Rome.
"
the
between
Rome
at
Roman
length
church,
authority. It
spiritual
supreme
to Rome.
Suggestive Questions
i.
Write
other
is the
were
of this
summary
made
was
progress
3. What
Why
not
by
the
the
barbarians
to the time
Germans?
assimilated
State
what
to
the
natives
of
Britain,as
in
and
elements
of Roman
government
5. What
introduced
of Charlemagne, and what
elements
were
What
in mediaeval
is the
relative
importance
of these
two
life?
Note-book
Year
2.
p. 444.
classes of elements
The
on
in this
societysurvived
Topic
476 A.D.
Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman
Empire,
(near end) ; Emerton, Introduction to the Middle
Ages, ch. vi. " i ;
Oman, Europe, 476-918, ch. i; Bury, Later Roman
Empire, bk. iii.ch. v.
Earlier writers,as Gibbon, attach
greater importance to the date than is
warranted
by the scholarshipof to-day.
xxxvi
"
CHAPTER
OF
GROWTH
THE
XLVI
POWER
PAPAL
THE
OF
AND
FRANKISH
THE
POWER
To
and
Saints
575.
the
creed.1
After
his
One
of
change.
rapid growth,
the
God
grew
the saints
lives, were
pure
Images
set
that
saints
in
up
the
of such
use
hold
on
churches,
simple
people
Christian
from
the
hermits
them
formed
possessing
passed
was
called
in
a
lives
monastery.
nuns,
and
the
the
and
all
in
this
to
attain
such
East
other
way
who
monks,
adopted
institution
was
in
'""
in
in
property
were
the
543-545.
547
separate
the
was
prayers.
were
the
By
themselves
lived
as
of
number
who
their
community
form
of life were
same
nunnery
West
common.
and
help
essential.
often
however,
Sometimes,
pecially
es-
life of holiness
persons
of
retain
seemed
to
to
living together
Women
their
effort
the
mother
get and
to
There
lived
prayed.
symbol
it necessary
desert.
community,
land
their
In
able
outward
their
his
faithful
was
their
to
and
Christ
finite
in-
the
intercession
through
was
answer
the
Church
thought
world.
It
its
In
directly.
the
for
other
an-
for
felt that
to
pray
an
of
them
some
In
God.
and
to
the
"
men
alone
and
whom
576. Monasteries.
some
saints
means
to
to
receive
to
form
uni-
mankind.
of
pagans
distant
with
now
of the
statues
or
of
hoped
men
growth
reason
needs
the
to
practice of praying
great and
certain
"
viewed
re-
establish
to
and
merits,
converted
too
the
Church,
have
we
Christianity undergoing
find
adaptability
many
chapter
attempt
its greatest
the
accordingly
Christian
we
great and
too
earlier
an
the
time
faith
new
was
up
of the
its
was
A.D.
Constantine's
belief,and
in
In
"
of
organization
differences
accepting
Images.
814
or
convent.
The
and
of the Papal
Growth
The
548
laid down
He
the Prankish
Powers
the
and obedience.
poverty,chastity,
rules of
which
members
The
them
remain
to
that
compelledthem
of
abbot.
The
this rule
obedience
to submit
to the
married;
un-
reservedly
un-
will of their
belief
underlying
that
the sion
possesof property, marriageand
was
and independfamilyrelations,
ence
of thought or action were
sinful.
were
and
the
Members
monasteries
rule
of the order
of the Benedictine
established
were
western
affordinga
throughout
Europe. While
refuge from the
barbarism
ST. PETER
standard
was
of moral
superiorto that
577. Beginnings of
between
on
and
the East
In
Christianity.
thoughtand
of the
the
the West
East
deeplythe influence
"
The
exercised
there
felt more
world.
Papal Power.
and
the
outside
difference in civilization
a
continued
profound influence
to
be
much
whereas
Western
spirit,
of law, impressedupon
free
gians
theolothem
by
to differ from
as it came
that of the East,
doctrine,
less subtle,
was
but more
simple,systematic,and reasonable.
They
taught that God had aided the growth of the empireas a preparation
Rome.
Their
The
550
Growth
of
the
Papal
and
the Prankish
Powers
strong enough
the way
establish
to
here described.
Gregory did not limit his influence to Italy. The rulers and
Europe consulted him by letter on their own
bishopsof western
their reverence
and his wise, helpfuladvice increased
for
affairs,
the papal office. Himself a monk,1 Gregory encouraged the growth
of that class of the clergy. Many
of them
he employed as missionaries.
Thus the conversion
of Britain to Catholic Christianity
due chiefly
to him.2
was
In addition to letters,
Gregory wrote Dialoguesand other works
all on
and
moral
religious
subjects. He believed that miracles
were
that the souls of those
constantlybeing wrought by saints,
who had died in sin could be saved by the saying of masses,
and
that the best kind of life was
In his time, and
that of the monk.
Catholic Church became
partlythroughhim, the Roman
a powerful,
ter
independentorganization. Only by takingupon itself this characcould it accomplishthe work
for which
it was
created.
That
But
"
work
was
the
to save
the wreck
of ancient
Christian
tion
civiliza-
"
'"576.
"574.
Clovis
One
of these
him
Near
Gaul ;
Clo'vis.
was
petty sovereigns
founding of a
togetherwith
Frankish
united
a
part
were
the
who
Romans,
dwelt
His
life-work
kingdom, embracing
Germany.
of western
to the southeast
551
stillheld
of
most
the
was
Gaul,
district in northern
the
Europe
at
this time.
and
battle at Soissons
Germans
In
the Roman
himself
of his warriors
orthodox
throne
was
and
future
barbarian
he remained
as
had
the maker
win
helped him
It
were
This
was
was
arid the
have
to
history.
; though nominally converted
and
persuaded
and
church
the orthodox
treacherous
of
later,he
battle,he
somewhat
when,
heretical Arians.
were
effect upon
Clovis
; and
Catholic that he
who
Visigoths,
the Frankish
church
three thousand
an
nation.
belong to
as
great Frankish
the
he
But
into the
an
to
portant
im-
tianity,
Chris-
less,
Neverthea
priceless
service to civilization.
580. The
Merovingians
to the Death
of
Dagobert (511-638A.D.).
His
prospered,and
several
German
nations
submitted
to
them.
Then
The
552
their
Growth
conquests ceased
to
the
the Prankish
Powers
of
; instead
of Clovis
country in civil
war.
Their
crueltyfills nearly a
kingdom.
The
"
581. Charles
the
feeble,
Martel.
steward
As
these
rulers
grew
termed
of the royalhousehold,
"
Mayor
and
more
of the Palace,
"
the management
of
more
The
had
the satisfaction of
in zeal for
his
Under
soon
successors
faith
new
the
"
Asia.
in
Roman
empire in
them.
On
the
of the seventh
course
of Gi-brartar.
when
the
of believers
army
farther eastward
and
they
tried
the
conquer
Constantinoplewithstood
Mediterranean, however, they
and
Fierce
to
walls of
of the
little resistance.
with
united
and
idolatry
called.
was
Persia,and
But
shore
south
free from
"
East, the
the
553
Caliphs
northeastward
met
seeingall Arabia
the
Is'lam,as
Mohammedans
enthusiasm
religious
to
coast
in
the
the Strait
swept them
impatiently
on.
Early in the eighthcentury they crossed to Spain,and readily
Their empire now
the decayed kingdom of the Visigoths.1
overran
in a stupendouscrescent, whose
horns
lay along the Mediterranean
threatened
Christian Europe east and west.
tianity
When
they invaded France, at firstwith their usual success, Chrisseemed
2
Saracens
had
but
doomed;
not reckoned,
fresh,manly
the
"
with
existed
power
which
nation
the
of Franks
At his call,thousands
of
Mayor Charles.
hosts met
in
stalwart warriors gathered to repel the danger. The
All day the lightcavalry
Poitiers (Pwa-te-a/)
in 73 2. 3
battle near
ranks
of
of the invaders
dashed in vain againstthe immovable
latelyunited
under
infantry. The
Frankish
their
Mohammedans
commander.
able
lost great
They
saw
at
that
once
cluding
in-
numbers,
they had
name
their
Martel
crushed
"
the Hammer
in remembrance
"
of his blows
which
all enemies.
succeeded
methods
by
his
son
Pip'pin.
Charles
Father
and
died
son
in
741,
and
pursued
the
was
same
the power
of the Franks
need not
; and we
here.
Outlying provinces which had revolted
of-buildingup
" 561.
"
another
cityin
the
vicinity.
into
of the realm
churches
they
of the Papal
Growth
The
554
subordinate
held
to
one
the Prankish
and
Powers
religious
system, which, however,
with
the
aid of
religion
to
of the pope.
Thus he ascended the throne with the consent
usage.
the papal see and the Prankish
throne
In fact,the relations between
had
been
the
from
friendly
Charles
close alliance.
days of Clovis,and
Martel
had
been
asked
now
for
ripenedinto a
helpagainstthe
another
When
besiegingthe pope in Rome.
by the Lombards, he called on Pippin
pope found himself threatened
for aid.
Thereupon the king of the Franks twice invaded Italy,
Lombards,
took from
they had
the
to
who
were
the Lombards
wrested
by
country about
from
rightful
owner,
lands,henceforth
the
the emperor,
he placedit under
and
"
known
as
the
"
Ravenna,
instead
"
of
territory
it
restoring
States
of the
Church,"
These
grew
in
later
It was
their ruler that the pope
as
acquisitions.
became
a great temporalprince.1
and
584. Charlemagne
(768-814 A.D.). The
son
successor
of Pippinwas
Charles the Great,or, as he is more
commonly called,
3
He
is
his
described
Charlemagne.2
Large
by
secretary as
and robust,of commanding stature
excellent
for
and
proportions,
it appears that he measured
times the lengthof his own
foot.
seven
The top of his head was
round, his eyes were
largeand animated,
and his nose
somewhat
was
long. He had a fine head of gray hair,
and his face was
brightand pleasant; so that whether standingor
he showed great presence and dignity." Majesticin form
sitting,
and tireless in action,
beneficent statesman,
a great general and
a
he left an enduringimpressionof himself
all western
Europe.
upon
Most of his long reign(768-814),
he occupiedin conquests and
in puttingdown
revolts.
The
kingdom of the Franks had grown
extent
"
"
"
1
2
For
the
the Great.
It must
be borne
was
not
Charles
speech.
126.
in
Growth
The
556
From
Powers
been
regularly
a
dition
conruling simultaneouslyin the East and West
renewed.
Charlemagne regarded himself accordingly
now
Like the emperors
of Augustus and Constantine.
successor
and defender
head of the Church
Constantine, he was a Christian,
a German, and
of the faith. Unlike them, however, he was
"
emperors
as
since
two
he ruled
an
one.
to
the two
domain
had
races
State,and
586.
His
went
into
presented
more
Church
one
and
far toward
and
Assemblies
blended
Councils.
Once
"
of his
or
The
twice each
year
in
gathering the
people.
generalassembly
called
Maifeld
(Mayfield).Not only the
May was
had the
and abbots,but even
freemen
the common
counts, bishops,
of attending. It was
continuation
of the old German
a
privilege
assemblymentioned in an earlier chapter.1 If the subjectof a new
to be brought up, the fighting
war
men
was
were
requiredto come
armed
to begin the campaign immediately after the adjournso as
ment
of the meeting. Such
assemblies also discussed questions
In that case
and the Church.
to religion
posed
relating
they were commainly or wholy of clergymen,and may therefore be termed
councils.
But Charlemagne always presided. Several times their
decisions of religious
questionsdiffered widely from the judgments
of the popes.
He also considered
it a part of his work to appoint
From
these facts
bishops,leaving their consecration to the pope.
he
held
of
month
we
may
Church
It is
to
the
infer that
government
he
considered
and
clear,however, that
approve
As
of
this
the pope
in the
even
the
inferior to
of
interpretation
authorities of the
interference,
though they
were
Church
at
the
himself
in
doctrine.
did not
time
able
un-
resist it.
many
of the
clergyhad
independentbecause of
that
organization,Charlemagne saw
subjectto a neighboringbishop,and
become
"
555.
too
Education
557
"
CATHEDRAL
(Only
the
part covered
by the
OF
dome
AIX-LA-CHAPELLE
belongs to
the time
of
Charlemagne)
ceased.
None
the Prankish
and
of the Papal
Growth
The
558
the
but
were
classics
in
ones
the
as
word
Greek
class
of
or
the
Latin
books
new
were
mainly religious
the late Prankish
kings,
magne
Charlemade; and now
were
use
than
not
lost; scarcelyany
old
few
the
they
even
of
Most
repeat.
to
destroyed or
were
written; and
rather
had
he
services
Latin
Powers
however,
some
of the
and
might
learn
dared
not
read.
to
the
favor
growth
of
Other
in
German
course.
had
statesmen
Romanism
could
not
idolatry,
Christianity,
meant
government.
Charlemagne
buildingand
of the churches
From
arts.
at
these
have
once
had
sciences,
entered
era
a
new
upon
his empire remained
588. General
Summary.
"
have
We
world
seen
the
drawn
firstgreat cultural
we
may
and
millennium
and
later
Greece,were
period,which
B.C.
Oriental,reached its heightin Crete, 2200-1500
came
stagnation,decay, and weakness, which exposed
civilized world
year 1000
Then
doubtless
term
Afterward
the
The
decorative
civilization of the
5000
Asia
Minor
same
tation
ornamen-
in the arts
B.C.
The
meant
manner
literature.
strong central
chosen
sympathy
German
Germanism
was
of the serfs
even
were
native
issue
and
freemen
common
to
find
barbarian
invasions.
When
we
reach
the
old culture
was
we
saved, and
the
new
after
improvements
made
were
The
civilization declined.
into
introduced
Periods
Great
Three
of Culture
but in others
directions,
Oriental
was
institution,
the Great, and
wards
afterwas
in certain
empire, an
Europe by
559
Alexander
extended
so
other
various
Christian
energy,
also
religion,
but
proved an
it
was
potent
from
society
as
A.D.
"
cause
The
of decline.
the
Orient,contained
and
then constituted,
When
of decline.
cause
centuries
as
introduced
hostile to
additional
seventh
and
it acted
ways
the border
we
come
field between
great
hence
to the sixth
ancient
and
relapse of
completed the second
and
nearly the whole civilized world into ignorance,superstition,
this condition humanity has slowlyrecovered,
From
barbarism.
in its third cultural period.
and is now
History proves that there is no law of progress which compels
will and effort. In our
to improve againstits own
the human
race
the conditions
study thus far we have learned unmistakably that among
mediaeval
history
"
which
find
we
contribute
most
to
are
community,
the injuryof rural
excessive government, the growth
life,neglect of the cultivation of the nobler mental faculties by
of literature,
means
art, pure science,patriotism,righteousness,
and the
of the mind
and lastlythe commercialization
and religion,
narrowing of the objectsof life to the pursuitof wealth, comfort,
and
Upon the ceaseless effort of individuals
self-gratification.
in resistance to these destructive forces,and
and of communities
in cultivation of the physical,
mental, and moral health of humanity
depends the future progress of the world.
the loss of freedom
of the individual
and
of the local
of cities to
Suggestive Questions
do the
When
2.
chapter like that on p. 444.
it
date?
Is
exact
set
right to
an
Middle
possible to
3.
Ages begin?
benefits did Islam
bring to the
call Mohammed
an
impostor?
4. What
successful
in war?
Mohammedans
the
so
Arabia?
were
5. Why
people of
in
at
Italy?
Constantinople to territory
6. What
right had the emperor
wanted
should
have
to be
not
there
Charlemagne
Is
reason
why
any
7.
i.
Write
summary
of this
Is it
crowned
of
of
the
by
emperor
"
Romans?
the
did
Why
pope
was
Saracen
Civilization.
"
Poole,
S.
Source
Book
"
III.
i68ff.
of
Art
Charles
Education
of
the
the
Charlemagne
II.
under
Lane,
When
Saracens
History,
while
called
Roman?
did
the
chs.
Saracens,
in
Man.
Powers
"
emperor
9.
the
Why
decline
West
had
begin?
into
sank
barism?
bar-
Topics
Gilman,
"
Mediaeval
empire
civilization,
its
Prankish
Charlemagne
was
his
Note-book
I.
the
Charlemagne?
retain
East
Why
8.
respects
before
the
and
Papal
the
what
In
declined
education
10.
Growth
The
560
xxxvi,
xxxvii,
xli
Egypt.
Robinson,
Readings,
Davis,
108-114;
i.
126-128;
Charlemagne,
Ogg,
see
Index
Great."
the
in
Charlemagne's
Time.
"
Robinson,
i.
144-146
Davis,
CHIEF
(The
great
EVENTS
periods
in italics.
IN
are
Most
dates
ORIENT
THE
HISTORY
ANCIENT
before
1000
B.C.
are
more
GREECE
B.C.
or
less approximate.)
ROME
B.C.
B.C.
Early
5000-3400
ization.
civil-
Egyptian
3500-1917
City-King-
doms
lonia.
Babyof
3400-2100
Old
dom
King-
in
Egypt.
Early
3500-2200
zation.
civili-
Aegean
2500
of
Migrations
Hellenes
Great
2200-1500
Middle
2160-1788
age
of Crete.
Kingdom
in
Egypt.
2000
Indo-Europeans
invade
2000
First
1917-1250
of
supremacy
Babylon.
1580-945
New
dom
Kingtian
Egyp-
Empire.
1500-
Phoenician
col-
1250-606
1000
an
Israelites
Assyrian
Kingdom
Israel
20
Age;
period
in-
First
of Greek
colonization.
Palestine.
vade
Mycenae-
1500-1000
onization.
1400-
Indo-Europeans
invade
Iran.
supremacy.
of
1000-700
Epic Age.
lished.
estab-
561
Italy.
Events
562
ORIENT
THE
GREECE
ROME
B.C.
B.C.
945-
B.C.
under
Egypt
foreignrule.
(?) Founding
of
Rome.
.
753(?)-5Q9
722-536 Captivity
and
of
Second
750-550
of
restoration
riod
pe-
seven
zation.
coloni-
The
kings of
Rome.
Israel.
Draco.
621
606-550 Median
Empire.
606-538 Second
premacy
su-
of
Babylon.
604-562 Nebuchad-
nezzar.
5560-510
Cyrus.
Solon.
594
Tyranny
at
Athens.
153-529
head
Sparta
550
of
Peloponnese.
499-494
Ionic revolt.
5o8 Cleisthenes.
Great war
between
492-479
Battle of Marathon.
490
480
Battle
of
and
Rome
Persia.
becomes
in
supreme
Italy.
Thermopylae,of Artemisium, of
Salamis, and
479
Greece
of Himera.
Battle of Plataea
and
Mycale.
of
47 7-454
acy
(?) Confederof
Delos.
cles.
461-431 Age of Peri-
(?) -404
454
nian
Athe-
Empire.
445
451-449
virs.
Decem-
Thirty Years'
Truce.
431-404
443
Peloponnesian War.
421
The
Peace
415-413
of Nicias.
Sicilian
pedition.
Ex-
First
censors.
Events
564
ROME
Samnite
Third
298-290
281-272
War
264-133
Second
264-241
First Punic
218-201
Second
War.
between
'
and
Rome
Tarentum.
Punic
War.
Trasimene.
217
Battle of Lake
216
Battle of Cannae.
207
Battle
202
Battle of Zama.
201
Peace
of the Metaurus.
between
and
Rome
GREECE
Carthage.
AND
ROME
Battle of
Cynoscephalae.
Magnesia.
Battle of Pydna.
The Romans
destroyCarthage and Corinth.
197
Battle
189
1
outside
68
146
of
ROME
J33~27
Third
133
Tiberius Gracchus
123-122
Gaius
90-88
82-79
63
58-50
The
48
Battle
31
Battle of Actium.
27 B.C.
tribune of the
tribune of the
plebs.
plebs.
Social War.
Sulla dictator.
-41
27 B.C.-I4
A.D.
A.D.
conspiracyof Catiline.
of Pharsalus.
Julian
Principateof Augustus.
A.D.
9
J4~37
41-96
41-54
54-68
Overthrow
of Varus
by
Principateof Tiberius.
The
Claudian
the Germans.
and Flavian
Principateof Claudius.
Principateof Nero.
to monarchy.
princes; from principate
Events
79
Principateof Vespasian.
Eruption of Vesuvius.
96-180
The Good
69-79
Trajan
98-1 1 7
117-138
138-161
Antoninus
161-180
Marcus
180-284
From
212
Edict
limited
Emperors;
monarchy.
emperor.
Hadrian
emperor.
Pius
emperor.
Aurelius
Antoninus
Commodus
to
of Caracalla
emperor.
freemen
most
of the
empire become
Roman
citizens.
284-337
Diocletian
and
284-305
306-337
Diocletian emperor
Constantine emperor.
325
The
council of Nicaea.
337-476
The
invasions
in the West.
376
The
410
Alaric
429
The
Vandals
449
The
Saxons
45i
476
Romulus
Africa.
Britain.
invades
"Augustulus"
in
the
West.
476-800
The
493-453
496
527-565
568
Ostrogothickingdom in Italy.
Clovis accepts Christianity.
JustinianI emperor.
invade Italy.
The Lombards
622
Mohammed
711
The
732
Battle
768-800
Charles
800
The
date
Mohammedans
German
new
flees from
Mohammedans
of Poitiers
of the
reckon
the Great
Hegira
time.
"
Mecca
invade
to
Medina
magne.
empire of Charle-
(theHegira1).
Spain.
(Tours).
king of the Franks.
crowned
of the Romans.
emperor
flight of Mohammed
"
is the
point
from
which
the
UsefulBooks
5 66
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as
Greeks and
Romans
tellit.
millan.
Mac-
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($1.00.)
Fling,F. M., A Source Book of Greek History. Heath.
lan.
Church
Illustrative
Writers
Selections
History. Macmilof
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D.
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History. Heath.
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Munro,
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Aristophanes(select
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567
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INDEX
(The
Ab'a-cus,
numbers
refer
548,
41
Ab'sa-lom,
43.
395
f.
Ag-a-mem'non,
A'gis,
A-car-na'ni-a,
A-chae'a,
64
ally of Athens,
conquered
379;
A-chai'a,
Achaean
with
by Rome,
in myth,
A-chae'ans,
192
relations
300-4;
A-grip'pa,
392-4.
Ac'ra-gas
A'lans,
(Ag-ri-gen'tum),
f. ;
107
stroyed,
deAl'ba
93
Pisistratus,
of,
shows,
Sea,
15,
19;
;
area,
48,
of
Athens,
battle
of,
Ae'qui-ans,
Aes-cu-la'
A-e'ti-us,
myth,
in Delian
352
Aes'chy-lus,
sides
with
191
237.
(son)
f.
391
213
91.
confederacy,
62
Aetolian
Rome,
Writing.
379.
299
Augustus,
198
oracle,
16;
council,
89
381.
281.
;
decree
of,
273-
Am-phip'o-lis,
A-mu'li-us,
300,
88
Am-phic'ty-on-y,
304,
302
387,
393
relations
An-ab'a-sis,
An'cus
569
223
f., 103.
seized
324.
286.
255,
An-ax-ag'o-ras,
215.
Mar'ti-us,
454;
f.
by Hannibal,
crossed
temple,
Am-phic'ty-on-ic
184.
f.
ally of Rome,
League,
in Attica,
Alphabet,
312
estimate,
ff
307-9.
age,
see
511.
population,
under
of the, 354.
Am'mon,
f., 534.
531
229;
307-9;
f. ;
f. ;
283
296
Al'li-a, battle
f.
176,
ian
Sicil-
279-83;
conquests,
281
Aliens, resident
Julian,
with
war
279;
Alexandrian
f.
pi-us, 368.
Ae-to'li-a,
504;
successors,
culture,
324.
in
deserts,
f., 191.
128
Al-ex-an'dri-a,
Alps,
Ae-o'li-ans, 81
f ;
284
u,
geography,
57;
by Athens,
(father), 384;
Ae-ne'as,
Egypt,
133;
conquered
f. ; in
224
227-9;
imperial organization,
with
civilization, 68-80.
Ae-gos-pot'a-mi,
with
Al-e-man'ni,
give
375.
cultural
Persia, 163
Ae'o-lis,
curule, 348;
342;
region,
career,
recalled, 233-6.
of, 528.
contact
Ae-mil'i-us
317.
Al-ex-an'der,
Ae-gi'na, rival
stroyed,
de-
324;
154.
Alc-me-on'i-dae,
islands,
early
459.
founded,
317;
expedition,
402.
Ae-ge'an
Mt.,
Al-cae'us,
312.
plebs,
Ae-ga'ti-an
65
in
135;
Periclean
444.
A-dri-a-no'ple, battle
Ae'diles, of
Pantheon,
f.
529
Al-ci-bi'a-des, early
battle
Ad-ri-at'ic
builds
Lon'ga,
Alban
by Cylon,
seized
207-12.
Ac'ti-um,
414.
325.
A-crop'o-lisof Athens,
age,
Gracchus,
f.
530
Al'a-"ic,
f.
by
Gracchus,
f ; Licin-
Ti.
472.
444
246.
128;
378
Ag-rip-pi'na, 466.
91.
304.
A-chil'les, 95
f. ; C.
410
454.
f., 260.
f ; Flaminius,
Ag-ric'o-la,
Rome,
ince,
prov-
95.
255
Law,
ius, 347
League,
ff ; Roman
Numidia,
230.
Agrarian
62.
24.
in, 6
includes
A-ges-i-la'us,
288.
Ac'cad,
pages.)
557.
A'bra-ham,
Academy,
the
Af'ri-ca, civilization
146.
Abbots,
to
325.
by Philip, 269.
Index
570
An'dro-cles,233 f
An'gles,539, 545 *"
.
An-tal'ci-das,
256 f.
An-ti'o-chus III, 298, 390 f
An-to-ni'nus Pius,489 f.
An'to-ny, Mark, tribune,438 ; consul,441
tyrannical,
442 ; triumvir,443 f.
.
A-ri-o-vis'tus,
435.
160 f.
Ar-is-tag'o-ras,
with
identified
Venus, Ar-is-tei'des,
171 ; generalat Plataea, 178 ;
acy,
at Byzantium,
184; organizes confeder333f.
184
A'pis,50.
150.
87; oracle,87 f.; ancestral,98, A-ris'ti-on,
A-pol'lo,
nian,
Ar-is-toc'ra-cy,
Greek, 101 f ; LacedaemoDelian, 185; Belvedere, 307;
100, 200;
f.
Athenian, 125
117;
; Roman,
Sibylof,326 ; in Rome, 333.
Ap'en-nines,
312
87;
Aph-ro-di'te,
f.
Ap'pi-an,494.
Appian acqueduct,367 ;
A-pu'li-a,
315.
339
f
"
Ar-is-to-gei'ton,
137.
Ar-is-toph'a-nes,227, 241.
battle of,418.
Ar'is-tot-le,
289 f.
Aq'uae Sex'ti-ae,
Aqueduct, Athenian, 136; Appian, 367; A-ri'us,515 f.
Ar-me'ni-a, traversed by Ten Thousand,
Claudian,466.
in time of
Aq-ui-lei'a,
254 f. ; allyof Pontus, 431;
534.
Roman
Augustus, 454 ;
province,486.
province,437.
Aq-ui-ta'ni-a,
434 ; Roman
of Semites, 23 ; Roman
Ar-min'i-us,455 f.
A-ra'bi-a,home
Assyrian, 26;
Army, Egyptian, n,
province,486; accepts Islam,552 f.
15;
A-ra'tus,300 f.,303.
Mycenaean, 78, 115 ; Spartan, 115 f.,
143 ;
defective, 256; early Athenian,
Ar-be'la,battle of, 281 f.
proves
Ar-ca'di-a,60, 64.
Hellenic,
125 f.; after Cleisthenes,143;
colonize
allies
of
Arcadians,
Cyprus, 82;
164; training for, at Athens, 204 f. ;
early
Sparta, 119 f.; form league,263 f.
Theban, 260; Macedonian, 273;
Ar-ca'di-us,emperor, 528.
Servian, 336 f.; Italian,
Roman, 330;
Ar-chi-da'mus, 188.
363 f ; from phalanx to legion,365 f ;
of Hannibal, 381 f. ; Marian
reform,
Ar-chi-me'des,385.
Architecture,Egyptian,16-8; Babylonian,
418 f.,456; Augustan, 456; mutiny of,
Persian, 52-4;
Cretan, 70-2;
33-5;
462 ; under Hadrian, 488 ; Diocletian,
Mycenaean, 74-6; early Greek, 144-9;
invasions,534 f
509 ; in German
Peri clean, 207-13 ; fourth century, 290Ar'nus R., 383.
f.; Roman
republican, Art, Egyptian, 16-8; Babylonian, 33-5;
2; Etruscan, 320
448-50 ; Augustan, 458 f ; under Good
Persian,51-4 ; Cretan, 70"2 ; Mycenaean,
Emperors, 488 f.,494, 497;
Periclean,
early Greek, 144-50;
Justinian, 74-7;
during Pelop. war,
543 ; Charlemagne, 558.
;
239-41
;
207-13
in fourth
Ar'chi-trave,
147.
century, 290-5 ; Hellenistic,
lican,
repubAr'chons,125, 127 ; in Solon's system, 132 ;
Etruscan, 320 f.; Roman
305-7;
in Cleisthenean,
appointed by lot,
139;
448-50 ; Augustan, 458-60; under
Good
196.
170; decline,
Emperors, 494-6.
council of, Ar-ta-pher'nes,167.
A-re-op'a-gus,
situation,124;
timocracy,127; court of Ar-tax-erx'es,253 f.,256 f 265 ; (inthird
124 f ; under
homicide, 129; in Solonian system, 132;
century A.D.),503.
in Cleisthenean,
Ar'te-mis,87.
139 ; deprived of power,
189, n. i, 195.
Ar-te-mis'i-um,battle of,173 f.
A'res,87.
Aryan, see Indo-European.
battle of, 236 f.
Ar-gi-nu'sae,
As (Roman coin),366, 482.
367.
way,
.,
Index
572
Car-o-lin'gi-ans,
552.
Bo-e'thi-us,
542.
with Greeks,
Car'thage, founded, 40; war
Bon'i-face,531 f.
Great
f.
Power, 297; empire, 370
179 f.;
Books, Athenian, 202
; Alexandrian, 308.
f ; first war
with Rome, 371-6; second,
Bras'i-das,223.
381-7 ; third, 394 f ; with mercenaries,
Brit/am, invaded by Caesar,436 f.; Roman
province,465 ; enlarged, 472 ; fortified, 371 f.; destroyed,395; restored,454; in
late empire,532 ; New, 386.
487 ; settled by Angles and Saxons, 545 f
Cas-san'der,
296 f.
Brotherhood, see Mess, Phratry.
f 352 ; the liberator,
Cas'si-us,
Spurius,
Brut'ti-um, 315.
342
f.
L.
A-vid'i-us,
Junius, 326; Marcus, 441, 443.
Bru'tus,
441, 443;
491
Cas'tor,temple of,458.
Bu-reau'cra-cy,508 f.
Bur-gun'di-ans,533 ; conquered by Clovis, Cat'a-na, 229.
f.
Cat'i-line,
432
55iM.
f.
Ca'to,
Bur'rus,466
Por'ci-us,
394 f.,405 f. ; builds
his
besieged,184;
basilica,
By-zan'ti-um, 109;
capital
great-grandson, 439.
449 ;
of empire, 510;
see
"a-tul'lus,447.
Constantinople.
league
colCat'u-lus,consul in Punic war, 375;
of Marius, 418.
Cad-me'a, 257.
Cau-cas'i-an race, 4.
Cad'mus, 93.
Cae-cil'i-a Me-tel'la,tomb of,450.
Cau'dine
Pass, 357 f.
Cae'li-an Mt., 318.
Cella, 148.
in
Cae're,357, 361.
Celts, habitation,
418; in Gaul, 434;
f
Gauls.
Cae'sar, Gaius Ju'li-us,
triumvir,433
Britain,436 ; see
;
Gaul, 434-7 ; war with Pompey,
Censors, 346; supervise morals, 368.
conquers
438 f.; government, 439-41
Census, Athenian, 126 f.,131 f ; Roman,
; estimate
of,441 f ; as writer,445 ; deified,
336 f 346.
461 ;
a title,
in army, 337 ; in assembly,340 f.
463, 507.
Centuries,
Ca-la'bri-a,
Ce-phis'sus,
315.
63.
.
.,
.,
Cal-e-do'ni-a,
472.
Calendar, Babylonian, 33.
Ca-lig'u-la,
463.
Chae-ro-ne'a,battle of,
Ca'liphs,553.
Chal-cid'i-ce,
colonized, 108
Cam-bu'ni-an
Mts.,
Cer'be-rus,86.
Ce'res,temple of, 497.
274
f.
f. ; in Delian
Cam-by'ses,13, 50 f.,159.
Ca-rmTlus, 353 f., 255; militaryreform,
366.
Cam-pa'ni-a,315
319;
becomes
Cam'pus Mar'ti-us,341.
Ca'naan,
37.
Char-le-magne',554-8;
Charles Mar-tel',
552 f.
Cha'ron,
emperor,
555
f.
86.
160.
Cher-so-nese',
Chickens,sacred,374
f.
Index
recognizedby Constantine,
514
f ; theology,
.
of Goths, 526;
f ; conversion
of Germans, 536; of
of Vandals, 531;
515
comes
Anglo-Saxons, 546; of Franks, 551; beintolerant,528.
Christians,persecuted, 467 f., 512 f.
Church, Christian, organization, 513 f ;
first council of, 515 f ; Roman
Catholic,
573
Mycenaean, 74-8;
ff ; general Greek,
early Spartan, 112
144-56; Peri clean, 198-217; in Pelop.
.
war,
239-45
Hellenistic,305-9;
Etruscan, 319-21;
early Roman, 328-38; early republican,
366-9 ; in Spain, 397 ; in Punic wars,
gustan,
Au399-408; in late republic,445-50;
ff ;
Claudian
and Flavian,
536 ; centralized under
457-62;
pope,
547
under
States
of, 554;
Charlemagne,
Emperors, 492-8 ;
475-82 ; under Good
decline of ancient,517-21 ; great periods
556 f.
consul,43 2 f.; exiled
Cic'e-ro,M. Tul'li-us,
of,558 f.
and restored,434 ; killed,
man
Classes, census,
126, 131;
Roman, 336
443 ; as statesand writer,445 f.
f ; social, Egyptian, 14-6;
nian,
BabyloCi-li'ci-a,
28; Cretan, 72; Mycenaean, 78;
430.
Cim'bri,
epic Greek, 84; Lacedaemonian, 112-6;
410.
Ci-min'i-an Hill,354, 356.
Athenian, 125, 130, 138, 198 ff.; early
f. ; republican, 340
ff ;
Ci'mon, at Byzantium, 184 ; expands DeRoman,
330
lian league,186 f. ; ostracized,1 89 ; Cypin Punic wars, 401 f.; in time of Gracchi,
rian
f ; in towns
of empire,476 ; in late
expedition, 193 ; levels Acropolis,
409
empire, 520-2.
207.
Claudian
Cin-cin-na'tus,
aqueduct, 466.
353.
Cin'e-as,360.
Clau'di-us,Ap'pi-us,
decemvir, 343 f ; CaeC.
Cin'na, 422 f.
cus, 360, 367 ; Publius, 374 f ; Gaius
Circus, Flaminian, 379;
Maximus, 482;
Nero, 386; prince,465 f ; M. Aurelius,
.
Ci-thae'ron
Mt., 62.
5"4-
Index
574
377.
Athenian, 141 f ; founded by Alexander, Cor'si-ca,
aristocracy,
Council, epic, 84 f ; creates
by Seleucus, 298; Latin, 357,
283;
of Areopagus, 125,
101
; Spartan, 117;
363; in Spain, 397;
363, 385; Roman,
fall of, 189, n. i, 195;
of
127, 132, 139;
of C. Gracchus, 414 f.; Augustan, 457.
Four
126
Hundred
and
Four
dred,
HunOne,
;
Col-os-se'um,471.
cen132, 234 f.; Five Hundred, 140, 196
Co-mi'ti-a,cu-ri-a'ta,
332, 341, 349;
f ; of Hellenes,173;
of Delian
f 348 ff 402, 403 ; trileague,
tu-ri-a'ta,
340
of
Pelop. league, 220;
185;
German,
bu'ta,343, 345, 348 ff.,403.
of Nicaea, 515 f ; under
magne,
Charle525;
Co-mi'ti-um, 336.
556; see Senate.
Ten, 42.
Commandments,
Count, 569.
Commendation, 522.
lonian, Courts, at Athens, 131, 132 ; under Pericles,
Commerce,
Egyptian, n, 12, 15; Babyat Rome, 400, 414 ; reguPhoenician, 39 f.,84; epic
!95~7 ,' special
lated
29;
by Sulla,426 ; assemblies as, 403.
Greek, 84; Ionian, 109, 157; Massalian,
with
Cras'sus,430; triumvir,433; killed,437 f.
Athenian, 184, 191, 199;
no;
with Egypt, 69 f ; enters
India, 283 ; after Alexander, 297 ; early Crete, contact
historical area, 48 ; civilization,
69-74 ,'
475.
Roman, 328, 338; under principate,
Roman
province, 432.
Com'mo-dus, 500.
Egyptian, 14 ff ; Babylonian, Cri-mi'sus R., battle of the,250.
Commons,
28 f.; Cretan, 72;
epic Greek, 84; in Crit'i-as,
252 f.
f. ; Croe'sus, 30, 157 f.
city-state,
101-3
; Lacedaemonian, 112
Cro'ton, 107.
Athenian, 125 ff.,130 ff.; Roman,
330;
with Rome, 326.
during Punic wars, 401, 407 ; in time of Cu'mae, 107; connected
Gracchi, 409 f 41 2-6 ; see Plebeians.
Cu-nax'a, battle of,254.
Co'mo, 497.
Cunc-ta'tor,383.
Cu'ne-i-form
Companionship (Com-i-ta'tus),525.
writing,23.
in cities of empire,476,
Confederacy of Delos, 184-7 ; changes to Cu'ri-a (council),
empire, 186 f.,194 f.; second Athenian,
520 f.
Curiae,329 f.; assembly of,332, 341.
259Co'non, 237, 256.
Cu-ri-a'les,
476; oppressed,520 f.
Con'stan-tine the Great, 509 f ; recognizes Cu'rule chair,331 f. ; magistrates, 339, n.
Christianity,
510, 514 f. ; taxation under,
2, 348.
of, 510 f.
Cyb'e-le,406.
519 f.; sons
Con-stan-ti-no'ple,
capitalof empire, 510;
Cyc'la-des,65.
.
.,
.,
.,
sole
capital,
537.
Con-stan'ti-us
Cy-clo'pes,
74.
Chlo'rus,507,
Cy'lon,
509.
128.
Government.
battle of,389 f.
Constitution,
see
Cyn-os-ceph'a-lae,
Consuls, early functions, 339;
regulated Cy-nu'ri-a,
121.
by Sulla,426; under Augustus, 451 f.; Cy'prus, contact with Babylon, 24;
Trajan, 486.
Co-pa'is,
L., 62.
Cor-cy'ra,120, 219.
Cor-fin'i-um,
421.
Cor'inth,city-state,
101
by Greeks,
Persia, 193.
82 ;
revolts
nized
colo-
against
120.
Cyp'se-lus,
to Crete, 454.
Cy-re-na'i-ca,annexed
quers
Cy'rus, the Great, 50; tomb of, 52; con120
at, 172 f. ; called by Philip,
; congress
Ionia,158 f.; the Younger, 235 f
with Athens, 191;
trouble
275 f. ; war
expedition of, 253 f.
with Coreyra, 219 f.; war
with Sparta, Cy-the'ra, 121.
25S-7;
destroyed,392 f ; Corinthian
Cyz'i-cus,battle of, 235.
;
under
tyranny,
war,
255-7.
Cor-ne'li-a,
409.
Cornice,147.
504-
Index
Dag'o-bert,552.
Dal-ma'ti-a,507.
Danube
R., frontier,
454 f.
Scythians,
Da-ri'us,I, 51 ; attacks
51,
Ionic revolt,161 f ;
f.; suppresses
tries to conquer
Greece, 166 ff ; II, aids
159
575
i.
early Roman,
406.
to,
280
ff.
Dy'nas-ties,
Egyptian, 14.
Da'tis,167.
David, 43.
Dec'ar-chies,252.
Dec-e-le'a,230.
De-cem'virs, 343 f.
De'ci-us,emperor,
504.
De-la' tors, 463.
De'los, confederacyof, 184-7; changes to
empire, 186 f.,194 f.
Del'phi,oracle at, 62, 87 f.; plundered by
Gauls, 299.
Demes,
138 f.
E-chi'nus, 146.
Ec'no-mus, battle of,373.
Education, Egyptian, 15 f.; Spartan,
nian,
136 ; Athe113 f.; favored by Pisistratus,
early Roman, 368; more
200-5;
406 ; in Cicero's time, 447 f ;
common,
.
under
Charlemagne,
557
f.
6-20 ;
2 ; history,
E'gypt, earliest civilized,
geography, 6 f.; politicalevents, 8-14;
with Aegean
civilization,
14-20
; contact
area,
15, 69; revolts against Persia,
n,
under
IQ3 5 yields to Alexander, 281 ;
Ptolemies,298 f.,307-9;
allyof Rome,
364,397; prefecture,
452 ; suppliesRome
with grain, 454; under Mohammedans,
306.
224.
fluenced
Den-ta'tus, Manius
Curius, 358, 360; inEmperors, definition,440, 452, 473 ; the
lute,
Good, 484-99; "Soldier," 500-6; absoCato, 405.
ff
end
of
in
536-8.
Di-cas-te'ri-um,
West,
196, n. i.
507
;
Dic-ta'tor,
Empire, Egyptian, n f.; Accadian, 24;
339 ; example of,353 ; Sulla as,
Old Babylonian, 25-7 ; Second Babylonian,
425 ; Caesar, 440.
f.
f.
of
Digest
Justinian,
27
; Median, 49
; Lydian, 50,
544.
with
Di'o-ce-ses,
508.
157 f.; Persian, 50-6, 58; at war
with
f.
Athens, 232-9;
Greece, 158-78;
Di-o-cle'ti-an,
507-9 ; taxation under, 519
with Lacedaemon, 253-7 ; conquered by
Di-o-nys'i-us,
246-9; supports Sparta, 257.
in
Alexander, 279-84; Athenian, i86f.,194
Di-o-ny'sus,152; god of drama, 290;
f.; dissolved,238 f. ; Spartan (supremacy),
Rome, 406.
252-62 ; Macedonian, 279-84.
Divination,Babylonian, 31 ; Greek, 151 ;
Empire, Roman,
place in history,311 f ;
Etruscan, 321 ; Roman, 334.
influence
f.; first
Do-mi'ti-a,473.
geographical
on,
313
under
cracy,
plutoperiod of growth, 370-98;
Do-mi'ti-an,472 f.
Do'ri-ans,migration,74, 80, n. i ; situation,
399-408 ; from Gracchi to Caesar,
82 : in myth, 91 ; in Italy and Sicily,
;
409-39
; condition under Caesar, 439-42
under
condition,
108.
principate, 451-83;
Doric order of architecture,145 f.; Parthenon,
474-83 ; under Good Emperors, 484-99 ;
condition,496-8 ; in revolution to abso209.
.
Index
576
lutism, 500-6; under absolute rulers, Feudalism, in late empire, 522 ; effect of
companionship, 525.
of, 517507 ff.;decline,497 f ; causes
f.
of East, Fla'mi-nes,
333
23 ; dissolution in West, 536-8 ;
Flaminian
378, 459.
way,
537, 542-4, 556 ; of Charlemagne, 555-8.
Flam-i-ni'nus,389 f.
En'ni-us,406, n. i, 447.
Fla-min'i-us,Gaius, 378 f.,383.
tion,
Ep-am-in-on'das,258; in peace convenFla'vi-an princes,468-73 ; literatureunder,
259 f.; at Leuctra, 260 f. ; in Pelo492 f.
264 f.; as admiral, 265 ; at
ponnese,
Fo'rum, Roman, 336 ; Julian,458 ; Augustan,
Mantinea, 265 f ; estimate of,266 f
.
E-pei'rus,61 f.
459.
Eph'e-sus,battle near,
1 88 f.
Eph-i-al'tes,
Eph'ors, 117.
Epic, Babylonian,
Hundred, oligarchyof,234 f
Franks, 504 ; war with Huns, 533 f ; kingdom,
empire, 555-8.
550-5;
Freedmen, under Claudius,466 ; in society,
481.
Fren-ta'ni,315.
Frescoes,Cretan, 71.
Frieze,denned, 147 f.; of Parthenon,210 f.
Frontiers, under Augustus, 453-6; from
Augustus to Domitian, 474 f.; under
Hadrian, 487 f.; M. Aurelius,
491 f.
Frumentarian
(corn) law, 413.
Four
162.
Greek, 83;
32;
Age,
83-5.
Ep-i-dam'nus, 219.
Eq'ui-tes,see Knights.
Erc'te,Mt., 375.
E-rech-the'um, 239.
E-rech'theus,239.
161 ; destroyed,
E-re'tri-a,
167 f.
E'ryx, Mt., 375128.
Es'qui-line
Mt., 318.
Fu'ries,
Ethics, 242.'
cans
E-tru'ri-a,
in,316; EtrusGa-bin'i-us,law of,430.
315 ; Umbrians
invaded
in, 319-22;
by Gauls, Gai'se-ric,
531-3.
in "Roman state, 356 f.
Roman
Ga-la'ti-a,
province,453.
354;
300;
debt
to
E-trus'cans,319-22
Babylon, 35 ; Gal'ba, 468.
;
influence on Rome, 325 f.,332 ff 336 f ; Ga'len,494.
with Rome, 353 f.,358.
war
Ga-le'ri-us,
507, 509 ; edict of toleration,
Eu-boe'a, 61, 65.
514Eu-dox'i-a,532.
Gal'la Pla-cid'i-a,
530 f
Eu'pat-rids,125; in Periclean age, 191.
Gal'li-a Cis-al-pi'na,
province,
315 ; Roman
Eu-phra'tesR., basin of,21 ff.
378.
.,
Eu-rip'i-des,
241.
Eu-ro'pa, 93.
Eu-ro'tas R., 64.
Eu-ry-bi'a-des,
173.
Eu-rym'e-don,battle
Evans'
excavations
of
in
the,186.
Crete,69.
Ex'arch,543.
Fa'bi-us,
383
Cunc-ta'tor,
f.
462.
329.
Index
577
Ge-nu'ci-an
law,348, n. 2.
Grae'ci-a,
Mag'na, 108, 315.
Geography, 307.
Gram-mat'i-cus, 447.
Gra-ni'cus R., battle of the, 279 f.
Ger-man'i-cus,462.
Germans, first invade empire, 418, 526; Greece, defined, 59;
geography, 59-67;
climate
threaten Gaul, 435 ; defeated by Caesar,
and
products, 60 f. ; effect
of country on
habitants
people, 66 f ; earliest in436; in time of Augustus, 455 f.,.526;
of Marcus
vice
Aurelius,491 f.,526; in ser69; settlement of, 73 f.; in
roads, Mycenaean
of empire, 498; third century inage, 74-80; condition about
504 ; in Illyricum,505 ; threaten
500 B.C., 142 f.; about 490 B.C., 163 f.;
sions
word
conquered by Rome, 303 f.; see
imperialoffice,509 ; life,5 24-7 ; invaand settlements,527-34;
relation
below.
to Romans,
534-8 ; New States,539-46 ; Greeks, in Egypt, 13, 20; debt to Babylonia,
Clovis
to
from
Charlemagne, 550-8;
35 ; influence Persian art, 52 ; first
see
Alemanni, Marcomanni,
Franks,
period of colonization,81 f ; second,
learn science of Egypt, no;
tellectua
inGoths, etc.
105-11;
awakening, 144-56; in Asia
Germany, invaded by Caesar, 436 ; Upper
and Lower, 455 ; in time of Augustus,
with Persia,
Minor, 157-62, 184 f.; war
166-78; with Carthage, 179 f ; from
455 f.; described,524 f.
Persian to Pelop.war, 182-218; inPelop.
Gi'zeh, 10.
with Rome, 429 f ;
Glad'i-a-tors,
407 ; war
J under Dionysiusand Timowar, 219-45
in army,
leon,246-51 ; under Spartan supremacy,
497.
during rise
Theban, 263-7;
Glau'ci-a,419 f.
252-62;
of Macedon,
Gods, see Religion.
268-78; in Alexander's
empire, 283 ; in Alexandria, 299, 307-9 ;
Gor'go, 161.
fluence
incontribution
to
civilization,
Gor'gons, 91.
309;
tions
Rome, 322, 326 f.,494, 496 ; relaGoths, invade empire,504 ; see Ostrogoths,
with Rome, 379, 390 ; conquered by
Visigoths.
brew,
Rome, 392 f.; welcome Mithridates,424.
Government, Egyptian,9 f.,15 f.,57; He42 f.; Oriental,57 ; Cretan, 72 f.; Gregory the Great, 546, 549 f
epic Greek, 84 f.; Lacedaemonian, 116 f.; Guilds in late empire,520.
tocracyGymnastics,Athenian, 203.
under
Athens
at
kings, 124 f ; arisand timocracy,125-7;
Solon's,
Cleisthenean
f.; tyranny, 135-8;
Ha'des, 86 f.; and Persephone, 151 f.
131
Periclean,
democracy, 138-41;
195-8; Ha'dri-an,487-9.
of Four Hundred, 234 f.; of Thirty, 252
Ha-mil'car,king,179 f.,246 ; Bar'ca,375 f.,
der's
f ; of early Macedon, 268 ; of Alexan380.
empire, 283 ; of federal leagues, Ham'ites, 4.
Ham-mu-ra'bi, 25, 29.
publican,
kings,331 f.; earlyre301-3
; of Roman
famous
general,
f.
in
Punic
; Han'ni-bal, king, 246;
;
wars,
339-51
402
f.
modified
380-7.
Gracchan, 415
by Sulla,
;
425 f.; of Caesar, 440-2 ; of Augustus, Har-mo'di-us, 137.
f.; Har'most, 252.
ff.; change to monarchy, 473
451
of
Hannibal,
f
Has'dru-bal,380 ; brother
of Good Emperors, 484, 486, 488
olution
; rev.
2P
Index
578
379,
migrations,73 f-J Il-lyr'i-cum,
Hel-le'nes,defined,59;
see
Greeks.
3, 397
n.
; furnishes
perors,
em-
505.
He'lots,ii2f.
Hel-ve'ti-ans,
435 f.
He-phaes'tus,87.
Hep'tar-chy,546.
He'ra, 87.
Her-a-cle'a,battle of,359 f.
Her-a-clei'dae,
92.
Her'a-cles,Her'cu-les,92.
Her'mae, mutilation of, 228.
Her'mes, 87, 228; of Praxiteles,294.
Her'od, 453.
He-ro'des At'ti-cus,
497.
He-rod'o-tus,215, 242.
Heroes, defined,91.
Hes'i-od,90, 153.
Hes'ti-a (Vesta),87.
Im'bros,
257.
Im-pe-ra'tor,general,440,
becomes
452;
473, 484.
emperor,
Im-pe'ri-um, 331 ; sanctioned,341.
In'di-a,invaded by Alexander, 283.
vade
Indo-Europeans, 4 f ; defined,48 f ; inIran, 49; Greece, 73; Italy, 315.
Industry, Egyptian, 14 f.,16 f.,18; Babylonian,
.
29 ;
126,
133,
in late
Phoenician,38
f ;
Athenian,
empire,520.
Intellectual
awakening,
Greek,
144-56;
decline,
517.
In-ter-reg'num,In'ter-rex,
332.
I'on, 91.
82 ; conquered by Lydians, 157 f ;
I-o'ni-a,
in
by Cyrus, 158 f.; revolt, 160-2;
Delian Confederacy, 184 f.
Ionic order of architecture,
146 f.; best
.
example, 239.
Ip'sus,battle of,296.
I-ran',48-56.
Hi'e-ron,373, 384.
138.
Him'e-ra, battle of, 179 f ; destroyed,246. I-sag'o-ras,
Hi-mil'con,248.
I-soc'ra-tes,
287.
Hip-par'chus, 136 f.
Is'sus,battle of, 280.
Hip'pi-as, 136-8; plots return, 142, 161; Isth'mus, of Corinth, 63; fortified,
173.
guides Persians,168.
I-tal'i-ans,
315-8; allies of Rome, 363 f.;
8.
Hi'e-ro-glyphs,
160.
His-ti-ae'us,
win
Roman
f ; writing of, in
Periclean age, 215 ; in Pelop.war, 241 f.;
fourth century, 286 f.; in Rome, 406;
History, explained,
citizenship,
420
f ; 422
f.
Il-lyr'i-a,
313,
379;
Illyrian
wars,
379,
Jo-se'phus,46.
Index
580
Medicine,practiceof,308.
Med-i-ter-ra'ne-an
.,
united
3;
threatened
Me'don,
under
by barbarians,
492.
124.
Me-don'ti-dae,123
f.
141 ;
in Periclean
127, 139;
age,
197
f. ;
province, 491,
Mes-o-po-ta'mi-a,Roman
f.,
f.; republican,
496.
339
Punic
in
f
Mess
(Brotherhood), Spartan, 114.
wars,
346
348,
349
;
342, 344,
under
f
tus,
Augus1
deposition
o
f,
Mes-sa'pi-ans,
;
322.
;
41
402
Mes-se'ne
(Peloponnese), 264 f.; Mes-sa'452.
battle of,298, 390 f
na
founded, 107 ; destroyed by
(Zan'cle),
Mag-ne'si-a,
Ma'go, 382.
Carthage, 248; seized by Mamertines,
Ma-har'bal, 384.
372 ; allyof Rome, 376.
Mam'er-tines, 372.
Mes-se'ni-a,65; conquered by Sparta, 118
f ; revolts, 188; gains freedom, 264;
Man'e-tho, 14.
188.
law of,431.
Messenian
Ma-nil'i-us,
1 18 f
wars,
Man'i-ples,366, 386.
Mes-si'ah,468.
second, Me^tau'rus, battle of the,386.
Man-ti-ne'a,first battle of, 224;
Me-tel'lus (earlier),conquers
Macedon,
265 f.
62
battle
Ma'ra-thon,
fightsJugurtha,417.
of, 168-70.
;
392 ; (later)
Mar-co-man'ni, 492.
Met'o-pe, 147; of Parthenon, 210.
Mar-do'ni-us, 166, 177 f.
Met-ro-po'li-tans,
514.
Ma'ri-us, Gaius, 416-20, 421-3;
(son) Mi-le'tus,82 ; colonizingstate, 109 ; under
424.
tyranny, 1 60 f.; destroyed, 162.
f.
Marriage, Athenian,205
Mil-ti'a-des,160, 162; at Marathon, 167328.
; Roman,
the
Mars, 324, 333;
Avenger, 459.
9; disgraced,170.
Mil' vi-an Bridge, battle at the, 510, 514.
Mas-i-nis'sa,
387, 394.
Mas-sa'li-a, Mas-sil'i-a (Marseilles),
Mi-ner'va, 333.
no;
civilizesnatives,434.
Mi'nos, 94.
with Rome,
Maturity of Greek mind, 286-95.
Mith-ri-da'tes,422 ; first war
and third,430 f
dependent kingdom, 454;
Mau-re-ta'ni-a,
423 f ; second
province,474.
Moe'si-a,Roman
province,454 ; Ostrogoths
Max-en'ti-us,emperor, 509 f
in, 540.
Max-im'i-an,507-9.
Mo-ham'med, Mo-ham'me-dans, 531, 552 f.
Mec'ca, 552.
Monarchy, growth from Augustus to Domition
Me-de'a, 95.
tian, 473 f ; limited, 484-99 ; revoluMedes, besiegeNineveh, 26 f.; origin,48
to absolutism, 500-6 ; absolute, 507
f. ; empire, 49 f.
ff ; see Kingship.
Media, situation,
48 ; empire,49 f.
Monasteries, 547 f.
earlyRoman,
331
.,
.,
Index
Money,
Spartan,
earliest Roman,
Athenian,
113;
366
133
f.;
imperial,debased,
581
Nip'pur, 23.
Nobles, Egyptian, 16; epic Greek, 84 f.;
f ; give way
acquire supremacy,
to
101
tyranny, 102 f.; Spartan, 117; Athenian,
f., 130;
f ;
early Roman,
125
330
"new," 348; motives to conquest, 371;
Nar'ses,544.
54i-
Nau'cra-ries,126.
O-dys'seus,96.
no.
Nau'cra-tis,
Od'ys-sey,83.
Oed'i-pus,93.
Oe-noph'y-ta, battle of,192.
f.;
Ol'i-garchs,conspire at Athens, 233
form decarchies,252;
moral inferiority,
253 ; protected by Alexander, 280.
Ol'i-gar-chy,denned, 102 ; supported by
Sparta, 120; of Four Hundred, 234 f.,
Nau-pac'tus, 192.
186.
Nax'os, 81 f.; revolts,
Ne-ar'chus, 283.
Negro race, 4.
Ne'me-a, games
at, 89.
Ne'pos, Cornelius,
445 ; emperor,
Nero, 466-8.
Ner'va, 484.
Ner'vi-i,
436.
Neus'tri-a,
552.
537.
253-
Olympia, games
at, 89 f.
O-lym'pi-ads, 90, n. 2.
New
O-lym'pi-as,277.
Learning, 239-45.
Ni-cae'a, council of, 515 f
O-lym'pus, Mt., 59 ; gods of, 87.
Nic'i-as,
negotiatespeace, 223 f. ; in Sicilian OlynthiacOrations,272.
O-lyn'thus, threatened
by Philip, 270
expedition, 228-32.
Ni'ke Ap'te-ros,212.
destroyed, 272.
Nile R., 6 f.
O-pim'i-us,415.
Nin'e-veh,27,
49.
Op-ti-ma'tes,
402
see
Nobles.
f.;
Index
582
Pa-sar'ga-dae,
52.
Patriarchal government,
42.
Patriarch,church
official,
514.
officialtitle,
Patrician,
537.
f ; in early republic,
Pa-tri'ci-ans,
330
340 ;
lose privileges,
348.
granted to new
citizens,
337.
of Lysias and Isocrates, 287 ; of Cicero, Patriciate,
Patrons,
f331.
445
Pa'trum
auc-tor'i-tas,
332.
patrician,
O-res'tes,
537.
Orient, history,6-56; cultural character, Paul, St.,512.
Pau'lus, L. Aemilius, 391 f.
of civilization,
20, 35, 46, 57
57 f.; source
at Plataea,178;
Pau-sa'ni-as,commander
f.
Alexander,
by
conquered
558
f.,3ii"
;
at Byzantium, 184; author, 494.
296-9, 307270-85 ; under his successors,
Peace, altar to Augustan, 459 f.
under Augustus, 453.
9;
Pediment, defined,148.
Os'sa Mt., 60.
Pei-rae'us,harbors, 163; fortified,184;
Os'ti-a,325.
alien residents in,199;
Os'tra-cism, 140 f.; of tyrannists,170;
prosperous,
219;
Macedonian
of
of Aristeides,
garrison
in,
Themistocles,
188;
299.
171 ;
of Cimon, 189.
Pe-las'gi-ans,
69; in Crete, 82.
frees Thebes, 257-9;
at LeucPe-lop'i-das,
Os'tra-kon,140.
261
266.
at
Susa,
killed,
Os'tro-goths,527, 539-43265
tra,
;
;
60 ; countries
Pel-o-pon-nese',
Pel-o-pon-ne'sus,
O'tho, prince,468.
with Athens, 191 f.,
of, 64 f.; war
202.
anarchy in, 263 f.; PeloponnePae-da'go-gos,
219"39;
sian
f ; aggressive, 141;
League, 120
Pae-o'ni-us,
241.
includes
f.
Hebrew, 43
Athens, 142 ; Great
Power,
Palace,Assyrian,33-35;
;
with
Persian, 52-4;
compared
Cretan, 70-2;
TirynPersia, 164;
143;
becomes
Athens
draws
withthian,74 f.
Hellenic,173;
f ;
from, 189; resources
of, 220
Pal-aes'tra,
203.
ff.
Pal'a-tine,
Mt., 318, 325, 335disrupted,263
Pal'es-tine,
Peloponnesian war, causes, 219 f.; to peace
37, 41-7.
Pal'las A-the'na, 87 ; see Athena.
of Nicias,219-24;
middle period,224 f.;
from
Sicilian expeditionto end, 226-39;
Pal-my'ra,504.
.
Pan-ath-e-na'ic
210.
festival,
terms
of peace,
238 f
Pe'lops,64.
Pan-no'ni-a,
455.
Pan'the-on,459, 488 f.
Papal power, growth of,547 "
Pa-pin'i-an,
501.
Pa-py'rus,19 ; in Athens, 202
Par'a-lus,
237.
Pe-na'tes,328.
Pe-ne'us R., 60.
Pen-tel'i-cus Mt., 61,
Par-me'ni-on, 282.
Par-nas'sus Mt., 60.
Par'nes Mt., 253.
Pa'ros,marble, 61 ; attacked
f.
Per'ga-mum,
empire,
; in time
390
300,
Per'i-cles,
age
; art
in,306.
of, 191-218;
imperialism,
195-8; law as to
government,
adorned
Athens, 207citizenship,
200;
character, 215-7;
troubles, 217 f.;
13;
by Miltiades,
in Pelop. war,
Per-i-oe'ci,
113,
;
394
191-5;
Par'the-non,207-12.
432
of, 207,
Per-i-an'der,120.
170.
Parthian
62 ; marble
209.
treaty with
Rome,
invades,486 ; declines,503.
defeat Crassus, 437;
Par'thi-ans,
Syria,491.
invade
Per'i-style,
149
Persecution
219-21.
116.
;
of Roman
Per-seph'o-ne,151 f.
Per-sep'o-lis,53 ; taken
282.
house, 480.
of Christians,467 f.,512
by
f.
Alexander,
Index
Per'seus, 91 f.; on temple metope, 150;
king of Macedon, 391 f.
Persians,Indo-Europeans, 5 ; country, 48 ;
empire, 50-6, 58; civilization,
51-6, 58;
Ionia, 158 f.; invade Europe,
conquer
quer
i5pf.; in Ionic revolt,160"5 ; try to conwith
Greece, 166-78; further war
help
Greece, 184-6, 193;
peace,
194;
Sparta against Athens, 232 ff ; civil
583
Pla-tae'a,
helps Athens
Marathon, 168;
at
Pla'to,288 f.
Plau'tus,406, 447.
Ple-be'ians,
f.,332 ; win rights,
330
339-51.
Plebs,330, n. 2 ; see word above.
Plin'y, the Elder, 493;
Younger, 493,
497-
Plo-ti'na,
487.
with LacedaePlu'tarch,494.
of conquering, Plu-toc'ra-cy,
399-408.
.
war
mon,
255"7
f ;
2^3
among,
war
Greek
idea
"
Persian
empire, 503
f ;
.
war
with
Po
R., 312
319;
invaded
Phy'le, 253-
424.
Physiology,308.
Pi-ce'num, 315.
Picts,545.
Pi'la,365.
Pin'dar, 154.
Pip'pin, 553 f.
Pirates, Rome
at
376, 402 ;
Prae'tors,348 ; govern provinces,
increased
to
in
specialcourts, 414 ;
judge
regulated,426.
eight, 425;
Prax-it'e-les,
292-4.
466, 507 f
Prefect,of town, 362 ; pretorian,
after
Constantine,
508.
362 ;
Pre'fec-tures,
Prehistoric age, denned, 2.
Pre-to'ri-an guard, 456 ; abuses power, 500.
.
war
Pi-sis'tra-tus,
135
f.
with,430.
Index
5^4
Priests,Egyptian,
31,
335
Roman,
16
f. ;
333
f.
Prin'ceps,Prince,446, 452;
473
arch,
mon-
f-
state, 100;
Pro-py-lae'a,212.
Proscriptions,of Sulla,425
of Greek
colony,106;
120,
political
objects,
Oriental
461 f
see
influence,406 ; Augustan,
Myth.
Christianity,
378 f. ; plutocratic,
399-408
;
under
Re'mus, 324 f.
Republic, of Plato, 289; of Cicero, 446;
ment,
earlyRoman, 339-51 ; democratic move-
426.
colonies near,
Pro-pon'tis,
Pro-prae'tors,
377, 402.
Babylonian,
30-2
of triumvirs,
443-
Persian, 51;
Provinces, Assyrian, 26;
of
Roman,
376 f.,394, 396; summary
early,397 ; misgoverned, 399 f ; under
rius,
Caesar, 440 f.; Augustus, 452-6; Tibe462 f ; Claudius,465 ; Nero, 467 ;
Vespasian,469; Domitian, 472 f.; Good
Emperors, 486-8, 496-8 ; Diocletian,508.
Pryt'a-nes,140.
Psam-met'i-chus, 13.
.
sition
; tran-
principate,
409-444.
to
sacrorum,
340.
Rae'ti-a,
455.
Ra-me'ses,II, 12.
Ra-ven'na,542, 554;
Reg'u-lus,
373 f.
Relief,147, 149 f.
399"408
exarch
of,543.
in revolution
from
Gracchi
to
Index
under
585
absolute
rulers, 507-16;
Scip'i-o,Publius (father),382, 385; (son)
f.; Gnae'us, 385 ; Lucius,
causes
captured by
385 f., 403
Goths, 529 f. ; by Vandals, 532 f ; end
Ae-mil-i-a'nus,
390;
395 f.,407, 412.
of emperors
in,537 f ; under Pope Gregory,
Sculpture, Egyptian, 17;
Babylonian,
f.; Charlemagne
crowned
in,
549
33-35 5 Persian, 53 f.; early Greek, 149
f.; of Parthenon, 209-12;
in Pelop.
555Rom'u-lus, 324 f ; a god, 327;
Auguswar,
230-41
; in fourth century, 292-5 ;
f.;
tulus, 537.
Hellenistic,305-7;
Etruscan, 320
Ro-set'ta stone, 7 f.,23.
Augustan, 459 f.; later,494-6.
Ru'bi-con
R., northern boundary of Ita"ly, Scy'ros,257.
attacked
Scyth'i-ans,49;
by Darius, 51,
360, 364, 421 ; crossed by Caesar, 438.
500-6;
of decline,517-23;
159 f-
Secession
Sa-bel'li-ans,
317.
Sa-bi'na,315; Sa'bines,
352.
Sacred Mount,
342,
344.
Sacred
470.
Sa-gun'tum, 381.
Saints,547.
Sa'is,13.
Sal'a-mis,battle of, 175-7.
Sa'mos, 65; revolts,194;
n.
344.
later loyalty,
lessened
in Punic
wars,
by Gracchi,
415
402
f.;
f ;
.
stored,
re-
and restoration,
416-22 ; overthrow
; enlarged to six hundred, 425 ;
under Augustus,
to nine hundred, 440;
Claudius, 466 ; to Domitian, 473
451-3;
Good
f. ; under
Emperors, 484, 486;
in late empire,
loses power,
501, 505;
422-7
233-
Sar'gon, of
plebs,342,
233-
Samuel, 42.
Sa'por, 504.
Sap'pho, 154.
Sar'dis,burned
of
Se-ges'ta,226 f.,246.
with
Se-leu'ci-dae,empire of, 298; war
Rome, 390 f.; end of,431.
Se-leu'cus,296, 298.
Se-li'nus,temple at, 150;
quarrels with
Segesta, 227 ; destroyed, 246.
Semites, 4; country, 21 f.; origin, 23;
of Babylonia, 23-5, 27 f ; of Assyria, 2528-35 ; of Syria,37-47.
7; civilization,
early republican,
Senate, early Roman,
332;
Accad,
24;
of
Assyria, 34,
522.
i.
Sa'trap,51, 283.
Sa'tra-pies,Assyrian, 26; Persian,
under Alexander, 283.
Sat-ur-ni'nus,419 f.
Sam'ni-um, 317; Samnite wars, 355-9.
Saul, 42 f.
Sar-din'i-a,
377.
Savagery, i f.
Sax'ons, 539, 545 f.
Scaev'o-la,
410,
51;
Sep'tu-a-gint,
309.
Serfs in late empire, 521 f.
Ser-to'ri-us,
429.
383.
Ser-vil'i-us,
Ser'vi-us,Tul'li-us,325 f ; wall of, 326,
327 ; reforms, 336 f.,340.
Seven Hills of Rome, 318, 338.
Se-ve'rus,Sep-tim'i-us,
501 f.; Alexander.
.
503-
412.
Sib'yl,326.
excavations, 68.
Sic'els,
Scholarship,Alexandrian, 308 f
247.
Sicilianexpedition,
226-32.
Schools, Egyptian, 15 f.; Athenian, 202;
with Carthage, 179 f.;
Sicily,107 f. ; war
Roman, 406 ; in late republic,
447 f
thaginians,
invaded
by Athenians, 226-32; -by CarScience,Egyptian, 18 f.,no;
Babylonian,
under
Diony246-8, 250;
early Greek, no,
33;
154 f. ; in Perif.;
clean age, 215; in Pelop. War,
sius,246-9 ; Timoleon, 249 f ; Pyrrhus
242
man
in,371-6; Roin fourth century, 288-90; Hellenistic,
in, 360, 370; Punic war
f.
province,376
307-9.
Schlie'mann's
Index
586
Stoic philosophy,467.
in Achaean
Sic'y-cm,allyof Sparta, 120;
Sty'lus,202.
league,303.
Sue-to'ni-us,493 f.
Si'don,38.
Sueves, 530 f.
Si'nai,Mt., 42.
Babylonian, 28; Sul'la,L. Cornelius, 417, 421-6;
Slaves, Egyptian, 15;
425 f
for debt in Athens, 130 ; in Periclean age,
crease,
inSu-me'ri-ans,23.
treatment
of, 369 ;
198 f ; Roman
f.; as
Surgery, 308.
401 ; revolt in Italy,429
teachers, 447 f.; improved condition, Susa, 51 ; Alexander in,282.
toninus,
Syb'a-ris,
481 ; An107.
465, 467 ; under principate,
his
stitution,
con-
490;
in army,
497;
cline,Syb'o-ta,219,
de-
cause
n.
i.
Sym'ma-chus, 542.
518; become serfs,521.
with Carthage, 179
war
Syr-a-cuse',
107;
Smer'dis, 50 f.
f.
besieged by Athenians, 229-32;
Social War, Athenian, 269 ; Roman, 420.
;
under Dionysius,246-9; Timoleon, 249
Society,Egyptian,14-6 ; Babylonian,29 f ;
f. ; in firstPunic war, 370, 372 f. ; second,
Hebrew, 46; Cretan, 71 f.; Mycenaean,
nian,
384 f. ; allyof Rome, 376 ; sacked, 385.
76, 80 f.; Lacedaemonian, 112-6; Athe198-207 ; Alexandrian, 299 ; early Syr'i-a,trade with Egypt, 1 1 ; situation,
with Babylon, 24, 35;
contact
Roman,
328-31 ; under principate,
47621, 37;
82 ; in late empire, 520-2.
history,37-47 ; civilization,
39~4i,
45~7
kingdom, 298, 391 ; losingindependence,
by Xenophon,
Soc'ra-tes,243-5 ; Memoirs
.
',
286.
Roman
397;
Sog-di-a'na,283.
as
So'lon,130-5;
poet, 153.
Sophia,St.,cathedral,543.
Sophists,215, 242 f.
Soph'o-cles,214.
Spain, colonized by Phoenicians, 39 f 1 10 ;
by Greeks, no;
Carthaginian province,
380 f.; conquered by Rome, 385 f ; two
provinces, 396 f.; Seneca
from, 467;
Trajan from, 484 ; Visigothickingdom in,
Vandals
in, 531 ; Justinian
530 f.,553;
gains part of, 543 ; Saracens
conquer,
.,
553-
province,431;
under
gustus,
Au-
453.
Tac'i-tus,493.
Talent, Babylonian,
185, n.
value
33;
of Attic,
2.
Tal'mud, 46.
TanVgra, battle of,192.
with
Ta-ren'tum, 107 ; war
revolts,384.
Rome,
359
f ;
.
Tar-quin'i-i,
325.
Tar'quins, 325 f.; improve city,336 ; Tarquin the Proud," 326.
Pris'cus,Lucius, 325 f.
Tar-quin'i-us
"
Index
588
Tyr-rhe'ni-an
Tyr-tae'us,
Rome,
SIO.
312,
sea.
551
3*7"
315,
Vol'sci-ans,
Ur,
with
dans,
Mohamme-
by
468.
f.
352
41.
24,
U'ti-ca,
395-
Walls,
Va'lens,
Val-en-tin'i-an,
Va-le'ri-us,
and
Van'dals,
Wit'i-gis,
531-3
345.
conquered
by
Hebrew,
Belisarius,
76
542.
f.;
Spartan,
in
built,
re-
f.
Worship
436.
Writing
Age,
205
f. ;
29
Mycenaean,
71;
under
115;
Periclean
Roman,
455.
353
238;
Babylonian,
14;
Cretan,
46;
134;
Va'rus,
destroyed,
543.
Egyptian,
Women,
504.
Ho-ra'ti-us,
f.
193
256.
511.
emperor,
Long,
527
511,
emperor,
Va-le'ri-an,
Vei'i,
conquered
prince,
Vi-tel'li-us,
Um'bri-a,
543
553.
503.
501,
Spain,
in
Justinian,
Franks,
Ul'pi-an,
kingdom
with
war
f.
529
ture
530
iS3"
119,
Solon's
laws,
f., 218;
early
329.
of
dead,
86
Athens,
at
201
.
Ven'e-ti,
Ve-ne'ti-a,
315,
322.
22
Egyptian,
f
39
f.,
Phoenician,
19;
40
Babylonian,
f. ;
Greek,
41,
.,
Ven'ice,
534.
Ve'nus,
90;
333.
324,
Ver'gil,
461.
Ve'rus,
490,
Vestal
of
temple,
Mt.,
Xer'xes,
eruption
of,
345
general,
Athenian
373.
254
f.,
286
Yoke,
passing
under,
battle
of, 386
358.
508.
temple
Vim'i-nal
Vis'i-goths,
Hill,
take
526;
of,
212;
Paeonius,
of
241.
Dacia,
Za'ma,
Ze'no,
318.
invade
f.
172-8.
f.
471
504
empire,
accept
527-9;
tianity,
Chriscap-
537-
Ze-no'bi-a,
Zoology,
Roman,
Etruscan,
72;
148.
356;
f-
Vi-ca'ri-i,
Victory,
334.
324,
Ve-su'vi-us,
Veto,
326
Xen'o-phon,
Virgins,
152
504.
308.
319
f. ;
f.
Lacedaemonian,
333.
Vestibule
Cretan,
327;
Xan-thiprpus,
468-71.
of,
use
Roman,
492.
Ves-pa'si-an,
Ves'ta,
41,
of, 418.
battle
Ver-cel'lae,
increasing
f.
170,
191;
HE
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