Food Control 48 (2015) 56e61

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Food Control
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/foodcont

Rapid analysis of glucose, fructose and sucrose contents of commercial

soft drinks using Raman spectroscopy
Kerem Ilaslan a, Ismail Hakki Boyaci a, b, *, Ali Topcu a, b
a
b

Hacettepe University, Faculty of Engineering, Department of Food Engineering, Beytepe Campus, 06800 Ankara, Turkey
Food Research Center, Hacettepe University, Beytepe, 06800 Ankara, Turkey

a r t i c l e i n f o

a b s t r a c t

Article history:
Received 19 August 2013
Received in revised form
2 January 2014
Accepted 2 January 2014
Available online 11 January 2014

The objective of this study was to quantify glucose, fructose, and sucrose in commercial soft drinks by
Raman spectroscopy as a fast and low-cost technique. For the calibration, dilutions in the range of 0e12%
(w/w) were prepared in water for each of glucose, fructose, and sucrose. The Raman spectrum for each
dilution was obtained. Calibration models were formed and curves were plotted by using the full
spectrum of Raman data. The partial least squares (PLS) regression method was used to carry out the
spectroscopic data analysis. The contents of the sugars in the soft drinks were predicted depending upon
the calibration models by PLS. The slope of regression values of glucose, fructose, and sucrose were 0.967,
0.992, and 1.008 and the coefcient of determination (R2) values were 0.913, 0.998 and 0.993 for validation, respectively. A high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) method was used to verify the
efciency of the Raman method. The coefcient of determination values between the HPLC and the
predicted values of glucose, fructose and sucrose were determined as 0.913, 0.968 and 0.910, respectively.
The results of this work provide a rapid method for evaluating the quantitative analysis of glucose,
fructose, and sucrose in soft drinks.
2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords:
Raman spectroscopy
HPLC
Glucose
Sucrose
Fructose
PLS

1. Introduction
Carbohydrates are main sources of energy for essential metabolic processes and are important constituents of cellular substances. Aside from the benecial features of carbohydrates, excess
consumption of carbohydrates causes health problems (Moros,
Inon, Garrigues, & de la Guardia, 2005). Taking into account this
fact, carbohydrate values, which are stated on the label of soft
drinks, increase in importance (Amendola, Iannilli, Restuccia,
Santini, & Vinci, 2004).
Carbohydrates (mono-, di and polysaccharides) are one of the
major class of organic compounds found in nature (Zhbankov,
Andrianov, & Marchewka, 1997). A number of analytical techniques, including high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)
and isotopic methods have been used for specifying the structure
and properties of carbohydrates (Gestal, et al., 2004). HPLC is a
common method used for analysing glucose in hydrolysates.
Chromatographic methods are inherently low-throughput techniques that require tedious sample preparation and a relatively

* Corresponding author. Food Research Center, Hacettepe University, Beytepe,

06800 Ankara, Turkey. Tel.: 90 312 297 61 46; fax: 90 312 299 21 23.
E-mail address: ihb@hacettepe.edu.tr (I.H. Boyaci).
0956-7135/$ e see front matter 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodcont.2014.01.001

long analysis time for each analysis. Enzymatic methods for sugar
analysis are specic, rapid, and reproducible; nevertheless they
require single determinations for each compound, which is timeconsuming and expensive. In contrast, vibrational methods are
non-destructive, easy to apply, rapid, and do not require sample
pre-treatment. Raman, mid-infared (MIR), and near-infrared (NIR)
spectrometry are novel and useful alternatives to the classical
methods mentioned above. (Gestal et al., 2004; Rodriguez-Saona,
Fry, McLaughlin, & Calvey, 2001; Shih & Smith, 2009).
In recent years, Raman spectroscopy, a branch of vibrational
spectroscopy, has risen in importance (Das & Agrawal, 2011).
Raman spectroscopy is a powerful tool for investigating the structure of mono- and disaccharides and is increasingly used in biology.
The Raman affect is described as inelastic scattering of incident
light from a sample and frequency shift by energy of its characteristic molecular vibrations. The scattered light is collected,
dispersed in a monochromator and then detected by a sensor. The
vibrational spectrum has the complimentary information as the
infrared (IR) vibrational spectrum, but they have a few important
distinctions. Raman scattering arises from the differences in the
polarisability or shape of the electron distribution in the molecule
as it vibrates, while infrared absorption requires a change of the
intrinsic dipole moment with the molecular vibration. Water has a
minor scattering effect and does not interfere with Raman

K. Ilaslan et al. / Food Control 48 (2015) 56e61

scattering from solutes in aqueous solutions such as soft drinks. For

these reasons, Raman spectroscopy is a suitable and reliable
method for quantitative analysis of soft drinks (Arboleda &
Loppnow, 2000; Beaten & Aparicio, 2000; Kneipp, Kneipp, Itzkan,
Dasari, & Feld, 1999).
Data-mining techniques such as chemometrics were used to
process data of raw spectra that were extracted from the vibrational
methods. The term chemometrics is generally used to indicate
the use of multivariate mathematical techniques and/or statistics to
derive chemical information from data. These techniques are used
to display the differences between apparently similar spectra by
using the correlation between the collected data and changes in the
variables of interest. Raw data acquired from Raman spectroscopy
needs to be pre-processed before processing data with chemometric methods. Pre-processing (i.e. signal processing) techniques
used on data to make an analysis more stable and/or accurate
include interrogation of simple band metrics (width, position, area,
etc.) and least-squares analyses for calibration curves and kinetic
studies (Ozbalci, Boyaci, Topcu, Kadilar, & Tamer, 2013; Shaver,
2001). Partial least-squares regression is one of the most
commonly used chemometric methods. A large amount of collected
data on a spectrum can be reduced to principle components that
reect the variance. The choice of proper spectral range and the
number of variables employed in the model are the main factors
that underlie the success of this method (Ozbalci et al., 2013).
In this work, we have focused on carbonated beverages in order
to measure the amount of carbohydrates: glucose, fructose and
sucrose by using HPLC and Raman spectroscopy with chemometric
methods. Although, the initial costs of Raman and HPLC equipments were expensive, the analysis of Raman spectrometer was
relatively cheaper than HPLC with an advantage of a short response
time without no sample pretreatment and the additional cost of
chemicals. The developed method as a fast and economic way to
detect the amount of glucose, fructose and sucrose in soft drinks by
using Raman spectroscopy and chemometric methods. The developed Raman method was also validated by the conventional
method, i.e. HPLC.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Chemicals and samples
High purity (99.5%) D-()-glucose and D-()-Fructose was provided by SigmaeAldrich (Steinheim, Germany). Biochemical grade
D-()-sucrose was purchased from Acros Organics (Geel, Belgium).
The chemicals were used without any further treatment. Seventeen
commercial soft-drink samples were analysed. The soft drink
samples (fruit-avoured mineral water, soda, orangeade and
schorle (made from diluting apple juice with carbonated water)
were purchased from local supermarkets in Turkey.
2.2. Instrumentation
The Raman measurements were carried out by a DeltaNu
Examiner Raman microscope (DeltaNu Inc., Laramie, WY, USA),
with a 785 nm laser source, motorized microscope with a stage
sample holder and a CCD detector. Each sample was manipulated
with the built-in automatic baseline correction functions of the
software.
The HPLC measurements were carried out by SpectraSystem
HPLC (ThermoFinnigan Inc., CA, USA) integrated with an autosampler including temperature control for the column (SpectraSystem AS3000), a degasser system (SpectraSystem SCM1000), a
quaternary gradient pump (SpectraSystem P4000) and a refractive
index detector (Shodex RI-101, Showa Denko, NY, USA). A personal

57

computer with a software package for system control and data

acquisition (ChromQuest 4.2.34) was used for the HPLC analyses.
2.3. Sample preparation and sugar analysis
In the Raman experiment, three different concentrations in the
range of 0e10% (w/w) of glucose, fructose, and sucrose were
prepared for the calibration of sugars under the room conditions.
Each set included 25 different dilutions. The ranges of sugar
contents were determined from the carbohydrate values on the
label of soft drinks. The soft drink samples were degassed in an
ultrasonic bath for 15 min. After the degassing process, the softdrink samples were analysed by Raman spectroscopy without
any dilution. The soft drink samples contain some additives such
as colour, aroma, citric acid etc. beside the sugars. To demonstrate
if any of these additives cause a matrix effect on the spectra of the
soft drink samples, plain mineral water samples with combinations of colour, aroma, and citric acid were also prepared and
analyzed by Raman spectroscopy at the same conditions. The
parameters of the Raman instrument were as follows: 75 mW
laser power, 30 s acquisition time, and 200 ml sample volume in a
glass Raman cuvette.
The soft-drink samples were also evaluated by SpectraSystem
HPLC (ThermoFinnigan Inc., CA, USA) for determining sugar contents. Before the HPLC experiment, the soft-drink samples were
diluted 20 times by mass to reach the desired concentration for
HPLC. The analysis of glucose, fructose, and sucrose were performed by HPLC with a refractive index detector (Shodex RI-101,
Showa Denko, NY, USA) isocratically at 0.6 ml/min ow rate at
80  C with a 300  7.8 mm i.d. cation exchange column (Rezex RCM
column, Ca2, 8 mm, Torrance, CA). For the HPLC column, deionised
water was used as the mobile phase and injection volume was
20 ml. The external standard method was used for quantication of
sugars. The experimental processes are shown in Fig. 1.
2.4. Chemometric data analysis
The full range (200e2000 cm1) of the Raman spectra was used
to form calibration and validation data sets of the PLS models.
Before forming the model, the data that was collected from Raman
measurements were pre-processed by baseline, rst derivative,
second derivative, normalization, smoothing, and mean centre
functions to achieve succeeding models. Among all the preprocessing operations applied, the baseline function was determined as suitable for our data set. From the 25 dilutions, 20 of them
were separated for calibration and ve of them (20% of all samples)
were used for validation. The Raman data were loaded to the x
component section and the concentrations were loaded to the y
component section for both calibration and validation. Venetian
blinds were chosen as a cross-validation method. This method was
simple and easy to implement, and generally safe to use if there
were relatively many objects in a random order. The calibration
curves were plotted. Root-Mean-Square Error of Cross-Validation
(RMSECV), Root-Mean-Square Error of Prediction (RMSEP), slope
of regression and coefcient of determination (R2) values were
calculated. The suitable latent variables (LVs) were determined
from the correlation between the number of latent variables with
RMSECV values in the PLS calibration model. The Raman spectroscopic data of the collected soft-drink samples was loaded to the x
component section of validation for prediction. The PLS analyses
were carried out by the PLS toolbox (Eigenvector Research, Inc.,
Wenatchee, Washington, USA) of MATLab R2010a (The MathWorks,
Inc., Natick, Massachusetts, USA). The accuracy and precision of the
method were determined. The students t-test was used on HPLC
and Raman data.

58

K. Ilaslan et al. / Food Control 48 (2015) 56e61

Fig. 1. A scheme of the experimental processes; (a) calibration and (b) soft drink experiments.

3. Results and discussion

3.1. Raman spectra of samples
Raman spectra of commercial soft drinks (mineral water,
schlore, orangeade and soda) and Aqueous solutions of glucose,
fructose and sucrose were collected and are shown in Fig. 2.
Glucose, fructose, and sucrose have strong bands that reect the
specic ngerprint spectra. The disaccharide sucrose is consisted of
glucose and fructose molecules so the Raman peaks are very close
to these monosaccharides but a little shifted. Structural changes of
the two monosaccharides in the sucrose molecule are the main
reason of the changes in the peaks (Soderholm, Roos, Meinander, &
Hotokka, 1999).
3.1.1. Glucose
In the range of 200e500 cm1, d(CeCeC), d(CeCeO), d(CeO)
and s(CeC) were the main skeletal vibrational motions of glucose
(Korolevich, Zhbankov, & Sivchik, 1990; Mathlouthi & Luu, 1980;

Wells & Atalla, 1990). The bands at 415 and 437 cm1 were d(C2e
C1eO1) bending vibration in a- and b-glucose, respectively. A
strong band at 523 cm1 showed the skeletal vibration of glucose
(Mathlouthi & Luu, 1980). The bands at 838 and 856 cm1 were
assigned to the n(CeC), and d(C1eH1) vibrations (Goodacre,
Radovic, & Anklam, 2002; Mathlouthi & Luu, 1980). Between the
bands of 820 and 950 cm1, n(CeO), d(CeCeH), n(CeC) and d(CeCe
O) vibrations were specic to glucose and fructose (Soderholm
et al., 1999). The 1106 cm1 band was assigned to the d(CeOeC)
angle-bending model (Kacurakova & Mathlouthi, 1996).
3.1.2. Fructose
The bands at 314 and 353 cm1 were assigned to the d(CeCeC)
ring vibration in the pyranoid and furanoid forms of fructose
(Mathlouthi & Luu, 1980). The strong band at 631 cm1 was related
to ring deformation. The band at 709 cm1 was related to the
skeletal vibration of fructose (Tipson, 1987). The band at 800 cm1
in fructopyranose could be attributed to the n(CeC) vibration. The
strong band at 870 cm1 was related to CeOeC cyclic alkyl ethers.
The bands at 1028 and 1054 cm1 could be assigned to the n(CeO)
vibration in the pyranoid and furanoid rings. The band at 1074 cm1
was CeOeC cyclic alkyl ethers (Goodacre et al., 2002; Mathlouthi &
Luu, 1980).
3.1.3. Sucrose
The band at 419 cm1 was related to the d(CeCeO) ring vibration in the pyranoid ring of fructose and dominated the spectral
range between 300 and 500 cm1 (Hineno, 1977; Mathlouthi & Luu,
1980). The band at 544 cm1 originated from the a-glycosidic bond
of C1 on the glucosyl subunit. The two bands at 744 and 800 cm1
were related to the n(CeC) vibration of fructopyranose and fructofuranose, respectively. These bands were shifted as a result of the
effect of glycosidic bond with a glucose ring (Mathlouthi & Luu,
1980). The band at 1127 cm1 originated from CeOH deformation
(Goodacre et al., 2002).

Fig. 2. The spectra of sugars and soft drinks; (a) schlore, (b) mineral water, (c) orangeade and (d) soda.

3.1.4. Soft drink

In this study, the main peaks of glucose, fructose, and sucrose
have seen on the spectra of the soft drinks. As described in Fig. 2,
the intense bands at 627, 707, 870, 819 and 1071 cm1 in the soft
drinks were related to the fructose molecule. The bands at 517, 849,
913 and 1124 cm1 originated from the glucose molecule. The

K. Ilaslan et al. / Food Control 48 (2015) 56e61

59

Fig. 3. The comparison of the actual and predicted sugar content of aqueous solutions. The calibration data: (a) glucose, (b) fructose and (c) sucrose; validation data: (d) glucose, (e)
fructose and (f) sucrose.

bands at 745 and 796 cm1 were specic for the sucrose molecule.
The sugar content of the soft drinks could be easily followed on the
specic peaks of the Raman spectroscopy.
The soft drink samples may contain additives such as colour,
aroma, and citric acid etc. besides the sugars. Therefore, the spectra of
the samples (soda containing no sugar with combinations of colour,
aroma, and citric acid) were obtained to compare with the spectra of
aromatized soda with sugar to show if these additives cause a matrix

effect on the spectra of the soft drink samples. (Fig. S3). As shown in
Fig. S3, the main peaks of the aroma in soda with no sugar were 761
and 798 cm1; the citric acid was 752 and 900 cm1. The food colouring showed no signicant peak in this state of Raman spectrometer. When we looked at the spectrum of aromatized soda, the
main peaks of the aroma and citric acid had no distinct peak on the
spectra of soft drinks. It was deduced from these results, the matrix
effect of the soft drinks could be eliminated in this study.

60

K. Ilaslan et al. / Food Control 48 (2015) 56e61

Fig. 4. A comparison of the results of HPLC and predicted PLS values for real samples. (a) glucose, (b) fructose and (c) sucrose.

3.2. Data analysis

In the rst step of the work, the full spectra of glucose, fructose
and sucrose were obtained from the Raman spectroscopy. In order
to analyse the acquired Raman spectral data, we needed a more
sophisticated technique, such as chemometric methods, because
the Raman spectra included very extensive data and the dissimilarity of the Raman peaks were not distinct. For these reasons, PLS
regression was applied. Some of the pre-processing operations
were applied to the raw Raman spectral data. First and second order derivatives such as mean centre, smoothing and baseline
functions were tried individually or simultaneously. The baseline
function gave us the most accurate results, so this function was
applied as a pre-processing treatment. The coefcient of determination and the slope of regression equation of the calibration
graphs were higher after the baseline function than the other preprocessing operations. In Fig. S2, the raw data of Raman spectroscopy were plotted after some of the pre-processing operations
given as baseline, rst derivative, second derivative, normalization,
smoothing and mean centre.
RMSECV and RMSEP values were indicators that helped us to
choose the best tting latent variables. For glucose, fructose and
sucrose, separately the LVs were 13, 11 and 12. The RMSECV values
of glucose, fructose and sucrose were 0.290, 0.179 and 0.512, and
RMSEP values were 0.363, 0.162 and 0.303, respectively. The correlations between the numbers of latent variables and RMSECV

values are plotted in Fig. S1a, 1b and 3c. Calibration curves of the
sugar samples were plotted with the calibration and the validation
data of PLS. The slopes of regression equations of glucose, fructose
and sucrose were 0.997, 0997 and 0.998 for the calibration and
0.967, 0.992 and 1.008 for the validation, respectively. The coefcient of determination values of glucose, fructose and sucrose were
0.999 for the calibration and 0.913, 0.998 and 0.993 for the validation, respectively. The calibration curves of the sugar samples are
given for calibration data in Fig. 3aec, and for validation data in
Fig. 3def. The prediction results of the validation were comparable
to the measured values, and thus the R2 values were high enough,
as expected.
In the second step, the 17 soft-drink samples were analysed by
Raman spectroscopy and HPLC. The measured HPLC (x-axis) and
the predicted PLS (y-axis) results were plotted to achieve a linear
model (regression equation), of which the intercept value was zero.
The graphs were plotted for making a comparison between the
measured and predicted values of sugar samples. The plotted
graphs are given in Fig. 4aec. The slope of regression values of
glucose, fructose and sucrose were 0.993, 0.989 and 1.000,
respectively. The coefcient of determination values of glucose,
fructose and sucrose were 0.913, 0.968 and 0.910, respectively. The
relative standard deviation (RSD %) and bias were applied for the
precision and the accuracy of the method. RSD and bias of the
measured/predicted values of the method were found to be 1.077%
and 0.76, respectively. The limit of detection (LOD) and the limit of

K. Ilaslan et al. / Food Control 48 (2015) 56e61

20.0

The amount of carbohydrate on the label

The results of HPLC
The predicted values of Raman spectroscopy

Total Sugar Contents (g/100ml)

18.0
16.0
14.0

61

Acknowledgements
This study was nancially supported by Republic of Turkey,
Ministry of Science, Industry and Technology (SAN-TEZ PROJECT
NO: 01597.STZ.2012-2).

12.0
10.0

Appendix A. Supplementary data

8.0

Supplementary data related to this article can be found at http://

dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodcont.2014.01.001.

6.0
4.0
2.0

References

0.0
1

7
8
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
Soft Drink Samples

Fig. 5. A comparison between the concentration of carbohydrate (g/100 ml) for the
soft drink samples.

quantication (LOQ) were determined as 0.2 g/100 ml and 0.7 g/

100 ml, respectively. The soft drink samples were evaluated at
different days and no signicant difference is found (p < 0.05) thus,
the repeatability of the Raman method was high. We could infer
from these results that the PLS methods have a high prediction
capability. Fructose had higher R2 (0.968) than both glucose (0.913)
and sucrose (0.910) (Fig. 4), which was mainly caused by the specic and distinct peaks of fructose when compared with glucose
and sucrose.
The time taken for Raman analysis (30 s) was lower than that of
other chemical and enzymatic methods. The pre-processing step of
soft-drink samples did not include any chemical treatment or
destructive practices, so new samples could be analysed rapidly
with this method (Delno et al., 2011). The amount of carbohydrate
(g/100 ml) on the label was compared with the results of HPLC and
the predicted values of PLS to demonstrate the efciency of our
method, which is shown as a bar graph (Fig. 5). The predicted
values of PLS were relatively higher than the label values and the
HPLC results. The Students t-test demonstrated the accuracy of the
method, since there were no signicant differences (p > 0.05) when
compared with the results of HPLC and the values on the labels
(Fig. 5).
4. Conclusion
In this paper, our main purpose was to determine glucose, fructose and sucrose content in soft drinks. The milestone of this work
was to predict the amount of sugars by PLS method with the spectral
data of Raman spectroscopy and to demonstrate that the results
were in accord with the results of the HPLC method and the carbohydrate amounts indicated on the labels. We observed that the
Raman system with the PLS method is a faster and cheaper technique and showed higher performance than HPLC system which is
more time consuming. These advantages make Raman spectroscopy
combined with chemometric methods useful for the analysis of
sugar contents in soft drinks. In the literature, there were few Raman
studies about the quantitative analysis of sugars in soft drinks and no
studies for detecting more than one sugar in a single sample; hence
this study contributes to the literature in this respect.

Amendola, C., Iannilli, I., Restuccia, D., Santini, I., & Vinci, G. (2004). Multivariate
statistical analysis comparing sport and energy drinks. Innovative Food Science
and Emerging Technologies, 5, 263e267.
Arboleda, P. H., & Loppnow, G. R. (2000). Raman spectroscopy as a discovery tool in
carbohydrate chemistry. Analytical Chemistry, 72, 2093e2098.
Beaten, V., & Aparicio, R. (2000). Edible oils and fats authentication by Fourier
transform Raman spectrometry. Biotechnology, Agronomy, Society and Environment, 4, 196e203.
Das, R. S., & Agrawal, Y. K. (2011). Raman spectroscopy: recent advancements,
techniques and applications. Vibrational Spectroscopy, 57, 163e176.
Delno, I., Camerlingo, C., Portaccio, M., Della Ventura, B., Mita, L., Mita, D. G., et al.
(2011). Visible micro-Raman spectroscopy for determining glucose content in
beverage industry. Food Chemistry, 127(2), 735e742.
Gestal, M., Gomez-Carracedo, M. P., Andrade, J. M., Dorado, J., Fernandez, E.,
Prada, D., et al. (2004). Classication of apple beverages using articial neural
networks with previous variable selection. Analytica Chimica Acta, 524, 225e
234.
Goodacre, R., Radovic, B. S., & Anklam, E. (2002). Progress toward the rapid
nondestructive assessment of the oral origin of European honey using
dispersive Raman spectroscopy. Applied Spectroscopy, 56, 521e527.
Hineno, M. (1977). Ir-spectra and normal vibrations of beta-D-glucopyranose. Carbohydrate Research, 56, 219e227.
Kacurakova, M., & Mathlouthi, M. (1996). FTIR and laser-Raman spectra of oligosaccharides in water: characterization of the glycosidic bond. Carbohydrate
Research, 284, 145e157.
Korolevich, M. V., Zhbankov, R. G., & Sivchik, V. V. (1990). Calculation of absorptionband frequencies and intensities in the IR-spectrum of alpha-D-glucose in a
cluster. Journal of Molecular Structure, 220, 301e313.
Kneipp, K., Kneipp, H., Itzkan, I., Dasari, R. R., & Feld, M. S. (1999). Ultrasensitive
chemical analysis by Raman spectroscopy. Chemical Reviews, 99, 2957e2976.
Mathlouthi, M., & Luu, D. V. (1980). Laser-raman spectra of D-glucose and sucrose in
aqueous-solution. Carbohydrate Research, 81, 203e212.
Moros, J., Inon, F. A., Garrigues, S., & de la Guardia, M. (2005). Determination of the
energetic value of fruit and milk-based beverages through partial-least-squares
attenuated total reectance-Fourier transform infrared spectrometry. Analytica
Chimica Acta, 538, 181e193.
Ozbalci, B., Boyaci, I. H., Topcu, A., Kadilar, C., & Tamer, U. (2013). Rapid analysis of
sugars in honey by processing Raman spectrum using chemometric methods
and articial neural networks. Food Chemistry, 136, 1444e1452.
Rodriguez-Saona, L. E., Fry, F. S., McLaughlin, M. A., & Calvey, E. M. (2001). Rapid
analysis of sugars in fruit juices by FT-NIR spectroscopy. Carbohydrate Research,
336, 63e74.
Shaver, M. J. (2001). Chemometrics for Raman spectroscopy (Vol. 7). The United States
of America: Marcel Dekker Inc.
Shih, C. J., & Smith, E. A. (2009). Determination of glucose and ethanol after enzymatic hydrolysis and fermentation of biomass using Raman spectroscopy.
Analytica Chimica Acta, 653, 200e206.
Soderholm, S., Roos, Y. H., Meinander, N., & Hotokka, M. (1999). Raman spectra of
fructose and glucose in the amorphous and crystalline states. Journal of Raman
Spectroscopy, 30, 1009e1018.
Tipson, R. S. (1987). Advances in carbohydrate chemistry and biochemistry. In
R. S. Tipson, & D. Horton (Eds.), Vibrational spectra of carbohydrates (p. 77).
London: Academic Press, Inc.
Wells, H. A., & Atalla, R. H. (1990). An Investigation of the vibrational-spectra of
glucose, galactose and mannose. Journal of Molecular Structure, 224, 385e424.
Zhbankov, R. G., Andrianov, V. M., & Marchewka, M. K. (1997). Fourier transform IR
and Raman spectroscopy and structure of carbohydrates. Journal of Molecular
Structure, 437, 637e654.