APPROXIMATE ANALYSIS OF THE OPERATION OF THERMOELECTRIC

GENERATORS WITH TEMPERATURE DEPENDENT PARAMETERS

Jose M. Borrego+
(Received 1-22-6-3)
is necessary in order to obtain estimates of the order
of accuracy obtained in using approximate methods
in the analysis of the performance of the device.

Summary
An approximate analysis of the operation of
thermoelectric generators with temperature dependent parameters is presented. Expressions for the
optimum current and optimum area to length ratio
are obtained for the cases of maximum efficiency
and of maximum power output per unit volume.
The principal assumption made in the analysis is
that the temperature distribution along the legs of
the generator is determined, to the first order of
approximation, by the thermal conductivity of the
material. The equations derived in the analysis
are applied to a particular solvable case, and the
approximate results obtained from them are compared with the exact results.

It is the purpose of this paper to present a

'middle of the way" approach developed by the author

6, 7 and independently, by a Russian author. 8 This

approach consists of performing the analysis of the
operation of thermoelectric generators using an
approximate solution to the heat conduction equation.
The principal assumption of the analysis is that the

Introduction
The analysis of the performance of thermoelectric generators reported in the literature has
been carried on with the assumption of materials
with temperature independent parameters. 1 The
reason for making this assumption is that it is not
possible to solve, in closed form, the heat conduction equation for a thermoelectric material with
temperature dependent parameters when an electric
current flows through the material. 2 Since the
parameters of thermoelectric materials usually
show a strong temperature dependence, some authors
have taken either of the two following approaches in
order to account for such temperature dependence:

a) Use of the formulas derived for the

temperature independent parameter case with
appropriate average values for the material
parameters. 1, 3.

temperature distribution in the material is determined, to the first order of approximation, by the
thermal conductivity of the material. This assumption proves to be valid for thermoelectric generators
but not for thermoelectric coolers. An important
feature of this method of approach is that the derived
expressions reduce to the exact expression in the
case of temperature independent parameters.

The paper starts with a detailed analysis of the

performance of thermoelectric generators with legs
of similar materials, except for the sign of the
thermoelectric power. A discussion is given in
order to explain why the approximate solution reduces
to the exact expressions in the temperature independent parameter case. Next the case of thermoelectric generators with legs of dissimilar materials
is presented. Expressions are given for the optimum
current, maximum efficiency and maximum power
output per unit volume. In the last part of the paper,
the equations derived in the analysis are applied to
a particular solvable case and the approximate results
are compared with the exact results.
Thermoelectric Generator with Legs of Similar
Materials

b) Use of computers for an iterative

solution of the heat conduction equation. 4, 5.

Although approach a) can give results within

reasonable limits of accuracy, it has the drawback
that no analytical justification has been given of the
formulas used or of the "appropriate average values".
Approach b) has the disadvantage of not giving an
explicit dependence of the performance of the device
upon the relevant parameters. However, this approach

The configuration pertinent to the analysis is

shown in Fig. 1. For this particular case, where
both legs are of similar materials except for the
sign of the thermoelectric power, the efficiency of
the device is the same as the efficiency of one of its
legs:

17=
where
PO

*This work was carried out at the Energy Conversion and Semiconductor Laboratory, Department
of Electrical Engineering. M. I. T. This work
was supported by the Air Force Cambridge Research Laboratories (ARDC), U.S. Air Force,
Contract AF-19(604)-4153 and reported in AFCRL62-148, January 15, 1962.
This work forms part of a thesis submitted to the
Department of Electrical Engineering at the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology in partial
fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Science, September 8, 1961.
+Associate Member, Centro de Investigacion y
Estudios Avanzados del I. P. N. Mexico, D. F.
MEXICO.

t1

Po

power output = I

Qi

power input

= electric current.

Qh

= heat conducted at the hot end

(A dx

(2)

., dx

Ia(Th)Th + Qh

adT

(3)
by

one

of the legs.

T = absolute temperature.

The quantity of heat Qh is determined by the heat

conduction equation
d

-Px

d-

+ IT

T d-

(I)

with boundary conditions:

X=

T = Th I x

Th

OT aJO

I iaA

An interpretation of this assemption is that the effects

of the Joule heat, Thompson heat and distributed
Peltier heat upon the heat input are calculated using
the temperature distribution under no-load conditions.
This approximation is valid for thermoelectric
generators but not for thermoelectric coolers where
the Joule heat distorts to a large extent the no-load
temperature distribution.

(6)

Substitution of equation 1 1 into equation 9 gives:

ITfh

IJ

which can be written as follows:

1

Qh - TTh-Th dT

QO

(7)

TC

Tc

(C1)

v ( AJ a

f?h

Te (5)

Double integration of equation 4 and use of boundary

conditions of equation 5 give the heat Qh the
expression:
3

XI T

0=A

0t

cc T..

Th

+T

AT

Th

T-

4-

I
IdT

fh

1h- - C1 Th [-

( 12 )

where:
(13)

AT = Th -TC

where Q is defined as

Equation 12 is the first order approximation to the

efficiency of a thermoelectric generator with
temperature dependent parameters and has a form
which makes it possible to find the optimum
current for maximum efficiency. The results of
such optimization are as follows:

(R)

& AdT

Substitution of equations 2, 3 and 7 in equation I

results in the following expression for the efficiency of the device:

rTh
T

loI

a dT

Tc

(11

14~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~1
AT

flhT{Th

h
h XT
JT
dT

where use has been made of equation 8 and of the

identity:
|Td

aT

a(Th)Th

+ [

adT

Th

I__r__r,Th

(~~Th

r h

r
(Thr/Th

where:

(1o)

abT

Tb

'M2

Equation 9 is the expression for the efficiency of a

thermoelectric generator with temperature dependent
parameters. It is valid for the case of position
dependent parameters.

rITh

rT

PdT

J
c

(16)

The following changes in the order of integration:

In order to evaluate the efficiency by means of
equation 9 it is necessary to know Q as a function
of T and I. This dependence may be found at least
in principle, from the solution of the heat conduction
TTTb
fTb[J TT
T lT OdT
1 OdT =(Tb aTdT
1]
equation 4 and equation 8. Several authors 2 have
dT
studied the solubility conditions of equation 4 and
have concluded that, in the most general case, the
Tb
Th rT 1
(Th
,Thr(Th
solution cannot be represented in closed form. There-- T J,oI dT
T
dT
TJ9dT
iT
dTJ~&k
LdT
Jd
1T
U
T
C
C
fore, in order to carry the analysis any further withC
(17)
out restricting the temperature variation of the
parameters, it is necessary to introduce an approxitransform equations 15 and 16 into:
mation for the evaluation of the efficiency. The
simplest approximation is to assume Q as a constant:

Th[ Th ]

Th

Te

Th

Th

Th

&ma

--

TadT

(M iCTc

?(M+l)

fTIT h

Th

M2

JTh

M - I

dT,

Th '0LX

(Th23

Q dT,

I
iT

dT

oT,dT

T
Tc
- Th
f h
II J
px dT

adT

|at OQ

Th ~

(M-l)

Tc

These terms have the property that they vanish in

the temperature independent parameter case.
This property is shown as follows: Integration of
equation 8 gives:

(18)

Th

dT

=4

(24)

(Io)

Equations 14, 18, and 19 are similar in form to the

equations obtained with temperature independent
parameters. The expression

Taking the derivative on both sides of the above

equation with respect to I, we obtain:

tha dT)2
Tc

&T J

'h

p9 dT

(2n)

Tc

play s the role of figur e of

,Th

{Th
2

me rit and

TadT

Tc

Tc

{Th
TC

a dT

This last equation is valid for any

K independent of T we obtain:

the expre ssion

adT)2

Tc

where the indicated

dT

rTh

J pl(dT

(21 )

TC

From the above equation it follows that the expression in equation 23 vanish in the temperature
independent parameter case.

THERMOELECTRIC GENERATOR WITH LEGS OF

DISSIMILAR MATERIALS

Th

ET| VD dT

dependence of

T/AAdT

plays the role of average temperature. A simple

interpretation may be given to equation 20 by multiplying both numerator and denominator by T:
T'h

(25)

dT =

J Lc P/(dT

AT
fv

(22)

averages are averages

with

respect to temperature. This figure of merit using

but
average parameters was suggested by loffe
without any justification. It should be pointed out
that there is not a priori justification to consider
expression 20 as the figure of merit for the temperature dependent parameter case since the so-called
"average temperature" depends also upon the
material parameters. The only justification in this
analysis is the similarity of the expression 20 to
the figure of merit for the case of temperature
independent parameter. A more complete argument
has been given in Reference 7.

It is a surprising result that equations 14, 18

and 19, which are obtained by means of an approximation, give the right expressions for the temperature independent parameter case. This "anomaly"
in our results can be explained as follows. One of
the consequences of the approximation expressed
by equation 11 is to neglect the dependence of Q
upon the current I. If we take this dependence into
account in the evaluation of the derivative of
equation 9 with respect to the current I we find
that the neglected terms contain either of the
following quantities as factors:

The configuration pertinent to the analysis is

shown in Figure 2. We choose, without any loss
in generality, leg 1 an n-type semiconductor rod
and leg 2 a p-type semiconductor rod. Many of
the steps of the analysis presented here are omitted
since the development follows along the same lines
as the one presented in the previous paragraph.

The efficiency of the device, that is, the ratio

of the power output is given by:

IJ (a +a )dT -I2 [Jf O

2hTb

dTCQ1fdTC

JT~~~~
T~~

AT

Th

(,P4)2

JTCEJdTJThadT
[fTh
c

dT +

2fT

aEr

~')

rwT 1h
ah dT
dT'T

TTh h
~

+1

(27)

where Q

and Q2

defined

are

as:

-- /( AT AdT
x1

(28)

Expression 34 reaches a minimum when

The numerator of equation 27 is the power output

of the device and the denominator is the power
input. Introducing the simplifying approximations

020

f h

010

it!

Tb

;~-Q

IdT

FJ

= -

Tc

2
o

Tc

'r

P20=2

2 O =

rc

A/2dT

("I

Substitution of equation 28 into equation 35 gives

the optimum ratio between the areas and lengths
of the legs:

and maximizing the efficiency with respect to the

current I, we obtain:
h

<;

max

Th

(aI+

Irh
, 'c

I h

fTh

I
02dT

Substitution of the optimum ratio (equation 35)

into equations 30, 31, and 33 gives:

M - I

fJ

T(a1+2)dT
Tf

JTC (a

fT0

TM1dT+

T(

fT
Thr h

TCT

+a

(61

Tc

/%) dT

a2)d

~Po(IdT *

T
pK
fTh

TTc

AI

21

Th

I=

( 35)

(T
Jh
(pAt)dT

Th

IT

T.ox)2dT

{Th

-2c
{h

Tf

JTC

(a,

a2)dT

7)
(37

TC

(31)
h

where:

h?

max ?\;

M2

I +

C,

T(PAk)dT + zi2

(P/(

T(,OPA2dT

fT Th

C
c

dT + z
f2h /(pAd'
C~I12

T,/2dT

(32)
1

I
f

We assume that the expression:

ITTh

V J

dT

(33)

T
h

(POdT

2(

fTh

fh (p(ld

f(bI)IdT

2~

M2 -1+

T
Jh

TC

T+

]O)d
-(P't)2dT

02

C) (Ak)

&Q

I
T

Th

tt)2dT

TC

I1+

AT

represents the figure of merit for this case. This

choice is based upon the similarity between expression 33 and the expression obtained for the
temperature independent parameter case. Expression 33 can be maximized by a proper choice
of the ratio Q to Q20. Expanding the denominator in expression 33, we obtain:

fT h

TT
A) 2dT

AT(Q1,+g2 )

T
C

T|

fP(
h1
T

h(PK)

IT

[c

1+

tdT|

1,)d

T)d

Th
(39)

The maximum value of the above quantity is obtained when the areas fulfill the relation:

fT ( 01"f2 )dT2]
Figure

of

Merit

AT

JT

fT

A12

AI1

[(*al)

[4Ftl;)

fw5;t ]

(al

The above expression does not allow any further

optimization. Equations 36 and 45 indicate that
it is possible to choose the areas and lengths as
to satisfy simultaneously the conditions of maximum efficiency and maximum power output per
unit volume. However this will make the lengths
of the segments different, which may be a disadvantage for constructional simplicity.

Th
'~~~~A2|2

Te

fd

The last point in our analysis of the efficiency

of the rmoelectric generators with temperature
dependent parameters is to apply our equations
to a particular solvable case. In this way, we
may obtain an estimate of the accuracy of our results. Here, we take one of their cases and compare the exact results given by those authors with
the results obtained by our approximate analysis.
The material parameters of the example to consider are given in Table I.

('42)

Tc

The maximum power ouput Pm delivered by the

generator to an external load occurs when the resistance of the load is equal to the internal resistance of the generator. Under this matched condition, the value of Pm is:

Tab] e

Materlal Paraimeters
" p

SY/'C )

leg

(S -cu)

T2 = a

TcC

C,
) Tc

dT
T

-a= I(A11+2e2)

Tc

(al+a2)dT

(witt/em0)

~~~~~~~~~~A
(cm)

(cm2)

200

temperature In 0Telyimn.

The cold and hot temperature of the device are

400K and 15000K respectively. The tabulation
of the results obtained by means of equations 35,
37, 38, 39 and 40 is given in Table II together with
the exact values reported in Reference 4.

More important than the power output is the power

output per unit volume. This quantity is given by:

Tb

(45)

d1
K IdT

(141)

a2)dT

Th

Th

Mmlx

The value Rin of t1le resistance is given by the

term multiplying I in the numerator of equation
27. Introducing the simplifying approximations
expressed by equation 29, the value of this internal resistance becomes:

TM
1d

Sk2(IT

2d

Tc

If the above relation is satisfied, the power output per unit volume has the maximum value of:

The electrical behavior of a thermoelectrig

generator is represented, under steady state conditions, by a voltage source in series with a resistance. The value VO of the voltage source is equal
to the sum of the Seebeck voltage of the materials:

Tc

Equations 35, 37, 38,and 39 are the equations to

the first order of approximations for the optimum
current, maximum efficiency and optimum areas
to lengths ratio of a generator with temperature
dependent parameters.

VO
=

{Th

) I dT

fl2 h (A,

(YavV ]

av

TTh

Tuible II
Comparison between #,xact and approximAte values

(414)

Quantity

A,,(cM2)
amps)

I0p

'7 (o/O)
LMax

Our

Resuilts
4.47

52.5
27.6

Reference

('4)

4.5o
55.0
26.n

F,rror o/o

-n.7

o0o

-5 0/0
+6 o/o

The calculated values are in good agreement with

the reported exact values. The temperature distribution along the n and p arms calculated from
equation 29 and the temperature distribution reported in Reference 4 are shown in figure 3. It is
concluded that the flow of current distorts in a
small measure the temperature distribution under'
no load conditions.

//////I//////I

TTh

L //////G

N
TYPE

P
TYPE
/

TC

MATERIAL PARAMETERS
OF THERMO-

=ABSOLUTE VALUE
EL.ECTRIC POWER

p ELECTRIC RESISTIVITY
K e THERMAL CO N DU C TIVIT Y
CROSS SECTIONAL AREA -A-

CONCLUSIONS

Figure 1. Thermoelectric Generator with

Legs of Similar Materials

A complete analysis of the performance of thermoelectric generators with temperature dependent

parameters cannot be carried out without introducing some approximations. A very simple and
useful approximation is to assume that the temperature distribution in the material is the same
as the temperature distribution under no load
conditions.

////// M///

TYPE

X21

LEG I

With this simplifying approximation, the optimum

current, maximum efficiency and maximum power
output per unit weight can be obtained for the case
of temperature dependent parameters. An important feature of this method of analysis is that the
formulas obtained reduced to the exact expressions in the temperature independent parameter
case. Furthermore, the derived expressions seem
to give results within the limits of accuracy to
which the parameters are known.

,/ ///

,// Tc

/ 1t
CROSS SECTIONAL
AREA

AI

MATERIAL

_7

TPE
YPE
LEG 2

Tc

t2

PARAMETERS

ffi t -IABSOLUTE VALUE OF

THERMOELECTRIC POWER
K TERACNUTVT
ELECTRIC RESISTIVITY
Kt K 2z THERMAL CO)NDUCT IV IT Y
~~~~~X.

CROSS SECTIONAL
AREA A2

Figure 2. Thermoelectric Generator with

Legs of Dissimilar Materials

REFERENCES
1.

Ioffe, A. F., "Semiconductor Thermoelements

and Thermoelectric Cooling" (Infosearch Ltd.
London), 1957.

2.

Burshtein, A., "An investigation of the Steady

State Heat Flow through a Current Carrying
Conductor, " Soviet Physics - Tech. Phys. 2,
1937, (1957).

3.

Heikes, R. R. and Ure, R. W. Jr., Thermoelectricity: Science and Engineering (Interscience Publishers, New York), 1961.

4.

w
w

LLJ

cr
Q)

Sherman B., Heikes, R. R. and Ure, R. W. Jr.,

"Computation of Efficiency of Thermoelectric
Devices, " Scientific Paper 431FD410-P3,
Westinghouse Research Laboratories, March
1959.

5.

Sherman, G., Heikes, R. R. and Ure, R. W. Jr.

"Calculation of Efficiency of Thermoelectric
Devices, " J. of App. Physics, 31, (1960).

6.

Borrego, J.M., Lyden, H.A., Blair, J., "The

Efficiency of Thermoelectric Generators, "
WADC Technical Note 58-200, Project 6058,
M. I. T. DSP 7672, September 1958.

7.

Borrego, J. M., "Optimum Impurity Concentration in Semiconductor Thermoelements,

Sc. D. Thesis, Massachusetts Institute of
Technology, September 1961.

8.

Moizhes, B. Ya., "The Influence of the

Temperature Dependence of Physical Parameters on the Efficiency of Thermoelectric
Generators and Refrigerators, " Soviet Physics
Solid State, 4, 671, (1960).

w
a

1-

a-

NORMALIZED DISTANCE X

Figure 3. Temperature Distribution in the

Legs of the Thermoelectric Generator
9