WaterIndicatorsinSirenumTerraandaroundtheArgyreImpactBasin,Mars

JoshuaG.Stern
MontgomeryBlairHighSchool
November15,2003
GeodynamicsBranch,Code921,NASAGSFC
Mentor:Dr.HerbertV.Frey

WaterIndicatorsinSirenumTerraandaroundArgyreBasin,Mars
Introduction
DespiteMarsrelativelycold,dry,andairlessenvironment,evidenceofancientandrecentwater
activity[1,2,3]suggeststhepossibilityoflifeonthatplanet.Thisstudyexaminesthe
occurrenceandpossibleinterrelationshipsofthreetemporallydistinctindicatorsofwateron
Mars:rampartcratersorcraterswithfluidizedejecta,gulliesinsidethosecraters,andabundance
ofnearsurfacehydrogen.

Impactcratersarecircularbasinsideally
outlinedbyraisedrims.Acraterforms
whenameteoriteorotherbolidestrikesthe
surfaceandexcavatesmaterial[4].
RampartcratersareuniquetoMars:they
haveouterridges,termedramparts,
encirclingtheirrims(Figure1).These
cratershaverimdiametersbetween2km
and50km[5].M.H.Carr,etal.,argued
thatmanyrampartcratersarecausedby

Figure1:ArampartcraterviewedwithMOLAdataat23
N42W.Warmercolorsmeanhigherelevations.Arrows
indicateramparts.Thecrateris~12kmindiameter[6].

subsurfacevolatilessuchaswaterinthe
preimpactterrain[6].If,uponcraterformation,theejectawasfluidizedbecauseofsuspended
volatiles,itwouldtendtoflowalongthegroundandaroundobstacles,leavingbehindcontinuous
andsinuousblankets.ThefluidizedcraterejectaonMarswouldalsotendtocoverwiderareas

thannonfluidizedcraterejectaonMercury,sinceejectaconfigurationcontrolledbyprimarily
ballistics[6],andnotsubsurfacevolatiles,wouldbesimilaramongplanetswithsimilargravity
fields.ExpectedoutcomesofthesubsurfacevolatileconditionareindeedobservedonMars[6],
howeverinteractionbetweentheatmosphereandvaryingsizesofdryejectahasalsobeen
suggestedasanalternativemechanismbehindthedistinctmorphologyoftheseMartiancraters
[7].Inthecasethatarampartcrateriscausedbysubsurfacevolatiles,observationofsucha
cratertodaydoesnotinitself
implythecontemporarypresence
ofsubsurfacevolatiles.Arampart
craterrathersuggeststhepresence
ofsubsurfacevolatilesatthetime
ofimpact,whichcouldhave
occurredbillionsofyearsago[8].

GulliesonMarsaredeepincisions
lessthan1kminlengththatoccur
onslopespolewardof30latitude
[2].Typically,Martiangulliesare
comprisedofawidealcovenear
thetopoftheslope,becominga
narrowerchannel,throughwhich
rockandotherdetrituspossibly

Figure2:Gulliesonthenorthinnerwallofa10.7kmdiameter
crater,at37.4S183.5W.MOCImage#M17/01035[15].

flowedandaccumulatedatthebottomoftheslopeasanapron[2](Figure2).Terrestrialgullies
arethoughttohaveavarietyofcauses,oneofwhichisknownasgroundwatersapping[29].Soil
pipes,orsubsurfacecavitiesfacilitatingwaterflow,exemplifysapping[29].Pipescanbe
producedonEarthbybiologicalfactorssuchasburrowinganimalsortreeroots[30].The
developmentandcollapseofsoilpipes[29]couldcausethesteepheadcutsorscarps[29]
characteristicofmanyterrestrialgullies[29]andanalogoustothedeeplyincised,chaoticalcove
componentofmanygulliesonMars.Indeed,manyMartiangulliescloselyresembledebrisflows
inEastGreenland[9].AMartiananalogtoterrestrialsoilpipesandotherinstancesof
groundwatersappingandseepageseemspossiblegivenasolubleterrainloosenedbyheavy
cratering.

WatererosionasacauseofMartiangulliesisfurthersupportedbytheargumentthattheonly
placesonMarswherethedailymeantemperaturehasbeenabovethemeltingpointofwaterare
locationswheremostgullieshavebeenobserved[9].Thisobservationissuggestedbymodelsof
theMartianclimateatpastobliquitieshigherthanthoseoftoday.Obliquityistheanglebetween
thespinaxisandthenormaltotheorbitplane[10],andonMarsitoscillatesoverperiodsof
hundredsofthousandsofyears[10].Thisrelativelyshortobliquityperiod,coupledwithalmost
nonexistentcrateringandotherdegradationofobservedgullies[2],suggeststhatgulliesare
geologicallyyoung.

Interactions involving cosmic rays and atomic nuclei produce gamma radiation and neutrons of
varying energies that provide insight into the elemental composition near the Martian surface [3,
11, 12]. One of these elements, hydrogen, is of interest to this study. Hydrogen distribution
(Figure 3) is frequently interchangeable with H2O distribution because of a strong subsurface

Figure3:Epithermalneutronfluxmap[24]duringthelatesouthernsummer,whentheOdysseysatellite
collecteditsfirstdata.Areasexaminedinthisstudyareoutlinedinred;filledareaswerenotsurveyed.

hydrogen signal on Mars, where it is not obscured by CO2, essentially everywhere ice is expected
to be stable [12]. However, it has also been suggested that hydrogen abundance and variation at
the middle and low latitudes can be explained by variation in regional micro-geology, such as
sand grain size [3].

Mars distribution of near-surface hydrogen is indicated by planetary neutron flux and gamma
ray measurements, which are possible because of cosmic ray bombardment. When this radiation
strikes nuclei of atoms in the Martian regolith, it causes them to emit high-energy neutrons [11,
12]. Some of these neutrons interact with other nuclei, causing them to emit gamma rays [11,

12]. Other high-energy neutrons encounter hydrogen atoms, and interact uniquely with them.
Since a hydrogen atom and a neutron essentially have the same atomic mass, the two collide
elastically, each emerging from the collision with energy that is about half of the neutrons initial
energy [11]. This energy is related to the neutron flux. In near-surface hydrogen-rich areas the
neutron flux is lower, while in near-surface hydrogen-poor areas, which lack the hydrogen
necessary to substantially moderate high-energy neutrons, the neutron flux is higher. The neutron
flux as an indicator of hydrogen abundance is a contemporary measure of near-surface water ice
on Mars [23].

Thisstudyfindsanassociationbetweengullypresenceandlargescalegeologicfeatures,in
additiontouniquedepth/diameterratiosforgulliedcratersinSirenumTerra(Figure3).
Numericalcomparisonsoffluidizedandnonfluidized,gulliedandnongulliedcraterssuggest
thattheArgyreregioncouldhavehadawatertablethatrecededbeforerecenttimes,while
SirenumTerramayhavesignsofanancientwatertablethatpersiststothisday.

MaterialsandProcedures
1.FindingCratersandtheirGullies
TheregionsaroundSirenumTerra(150195W,2560S)andArgyrebasin(1560W,
2560S)(Figure3)weresystematicallysurveyedforallcraters3kmorlargerindiameter
[22].ThesecraterswerephotographedbytheNarrowAngleMarsObserverCamera(MOCNA)
aboardtheMarsGlobalSurveyor(MGS)satellite,bytheVikingorbitercamera,orbythe
ThermalEmissionImagingSystemVisibleCamera(THEMISVIS)aboardtheMarsOdyssey
7

satellite.Afteracraterwasverifiedtohavephotographiccoverage,itwassurveyedforgullies.
Occasionally,poorimagecontrastobscuredpotentialgulliesandmadeadjustmentnecessary
withtheprocessingsoftwareImageJ[16].Becausemostsurveyedcratersdonothavefull
photographiccoverage,someuncertaintyisassociatedwiththisgullyidentificationprocess.
Cratersidentifiedinthisstudyasnongulliedarenotnecessarilyfreeofgullies,sincegullies
mightexistinareasnotphotographed.

MOCNADataretrieval(Cameraresolution:~1.4meters/pixel[17])
CratersforthisstudywerefoundwiththeUnitedStatesGeologicalSurvey(USGS)interactive
MGSMOCdatabase[13].Specifically,theappropriate15by15quadranglewasfirstselected
onthewebsitesclickablephotomosaicmapoftheMartianglobe.Afterthisselectionwas
made,thewebsitedisplayedthequadrangleenlargedasanotherclickablemap,withapointfor
everylocationwhereanNAphotographexisted.Everyimagenearacraterwasexamined,andif
theimagecoveredatleastpartofthecraterrim,itwasevaluatedasevidenceinfavorofor
againstthepresenceofgulliesinthecrater.AlthoughMOCNAimageswereselectedwiththe
USGSwebsite,theywereretrievedfromtheMOCNAimagedatabasemaintainedbyMalin
SpaceScienceSystems[15].

VikingContextImages(Cameraresolution:150to300meters/pixel[18])
TheUSGSdatabaseprovideslowerresolutioncontextphotographsforeveryMOCNAimage.
Contextimageswereexaminedtohelpcharacterizeejectamorphology,butoccasionallythey
resolvedfeaturesinterpretedtobelargegullies[19].

THEMISVISDataRetrieval(Cameraresolution:18to72meters/pixel[20]]
ArizonaStateUniversitymaintainsaninteractivedatabaseofTHEMISdata[21].Itutilizesa
clickablemapverysimilartothatoftheUSGSwebsites.CraterswerefoundwithTHEMISdata
inmuchthesamewayastheywerewithMOCNAdata.

2.CraterDiameter,Depth,andEjecta
ThecraterswerethenlocatedinMarsOrbiterLaserAltimetry(MOLA)data,usingthe
visualizationsoftwareGridview[14].MOLAdatawereusedtofindeachcraterscoordinates
(N,W),diameter(km),anddepth(km)(sincecraterfloorscanbehighlyuneven,depthis
definedhereasthedifferencebetweenthehighestpointontherimandthelowestpointinthe
bowl).MOLAdatawerealsousedinconjunctionwiththeVikingorbiterscontextimagesto
characterizeejectamorphology.

3.NearSurfaceHydrogen
Tofindthehydrogenabundancearoundacrater,theepithermalneutronfluxdatafromthe
NeutronSpectrometer(NS)aboardtheOdysseysatellitewasaccessedwithGridview.TheNS
collectedepithermaldatausedinthisstudyoveraperiodof25.7daysfrom20Marchto18April
2002[3,27].Thecoordinatesofeachcraterwerefoundintheepithermaldata,andthecraters
fluxvalue(numberofneutrons/second)wasrecorded.

4.CompilationofData
Allnumericalanddescriptivedataweretabulated.Usingtheseobservationsofejecta
morphologyandslopefeatures,eachcraterwascategorizedaseithergulliedornongullied,and
fluidized,maybefluidized,ornonfluidized.

Thecriterionforacratertobegulliedisobservationofatleasttwoofthethreecomponentsof
agully(alcove,channel,andapron).

Foracratertobefluidized,itmusthaveadistinctedgetocontinuousejecta,withthe
approximateextentofcontinuousejectaatleast3/4ofthecraterdiameter.Atleastonethirdof
theblanketedgemustbesinuous,oratleastonethirdoftheedgemusthavearidge.

Foracratertobemaybefluidized,itmusthaveanedgethatishardlyvisibleinMOLAdata
butpartiallyvisibleinthecontextphoto.Theejectaextentisabnormal,andtheejectablanket
hasanabruptdropoffbutisnotsinuous.

10

DiscussionofData
1.Hydrogen
Acomparisonofcraterhydrogenhistograms(Figure4)showsthatbothoftheArgyreneutron
fluxdatasetsareskewedleftwhilebothoftheSirenumneutronfluxdatasetsareskewedright.
ThesedistributionsconfirmthathydrogenabundanceisappreciablyhigherintheSirenum
samplethanitisintheArgyresample,sincehigherhydrogenabundanceisassociatedwithlower
neutronflux.

11

Epithermal Neutron Flux Histogram

35
30
25
Frequency

2.

20
15
10
5
0
4.925

5.470

Argyre - Fluidized & Maybe

6.014

6.559

7.104

7.649

Sirenum - Fluidized & Maybe

8.193

8.738

9.283
9.828

Argyre - Non fluidized

10.372
More

Sirenum - Non Fluidized

Figure4:Neutronfluxdistributionsfordifferentejectamorphologiesandcraterlocations.

GeographicPatterns

12

IntheArgyreregion(Figure5),clustersofgulliedcratersareseenimmediatelynorthwest,north,
andeastofthebasin;anadditionalclusterresidesslightlyfarthernortheast.Inadditiontothis
apparentpreferenceforArgyrescircumference,gulliedcratersarefoundinhighest
concentrationbetween35Sand40S.Concentrationsofcraterswithfluidizedandmaybe
fluidizedejectaareoutlinedinred.

As
in

Figure5:Distributionofsurveyedcraterssuperimposedonageologicmap[25]oftheArgyreregion.

Argyre,gulliedcratersfoundinSirenumterraconcentratebetween35Sand40S(Figure6).
Inadditiontotheobservedgullylatitudinaldependence,cratersthathavebothgulliesand
fluidizedejectaseemtoconcentratemostbetween35Sand40S.LikeinArgyre,someother

13

areas(outlinedinred)havehigherthanaverageconcentrationoffluidizedandmaybefluidized
craters.AlsopresentintheselatitudesaretheSirenumFossae.

Figure6:DistributionofsurveyedcratersintheSirenumregion.Sirenumfossaearesuperimposedinwhite[25].

Fossaearelongnarrowdepressionsapproximatelylessthan1kminwidthanduptohundredsof

14

kilometersinlength.MostfossaeonMarsemanateradiallyfromtheTharsisMountains[25]and
arethoughttobecausedbystressesfromthatregionsformation.
3.NumericalComparison
CraterType
CratersinArgyre(lessH)(108) CratersinSirenum(moreH)(159)
Fluidized
11(10%)
27(17%)
1(9%)
10(37%)
With Gullies
10(91%)
17(63%)
WithoutGullies
Maybe
9(8%)
21(13%)
0(0%)
6(29%)
With Gullies
9(100%)
15(71%)
Without Gullies
NonFluidized
88(81%)
111(70%)
24(27%)
28(25%)
WithGullies
64(73%)
83(75%)
WithoutGullies
Table1showsbothafluidizedcraterandagullydependencebasedontheregion.Sirenum
Terra,whichhasahigherpresentdaynearsurfacehydrogendistributionthanArgyre,is
observedtohaveahigherpercentageoffluidizedcratersandmaybefluidizedcratersthanthe
Argyreregion.Sirenumalsohasasubstantiallyhigherpercentageofgulliedfluidizedand
maybefluidizedcratersthanArgyre((10+6)/(27+21)=33%versus(1+0)/(11+9)=5%).Both
regions,however,havesimilargullyingfractionsfortheirnonfluidizedcraters(27%and25%),
Table1:Numbersofcratersbygullypresence,withrespecttogeographicarea.

consistentwithanoverallgullyingfrequencyofabout26%.Comparedwiththenonfluidized
cratersineacharea,thefluidizedcratersinSirenumhaveahigherpercentageofgullies,andthe
fluidizedcratersinArgyrehaveamuchlowerpercentageofgullies.

15

4.DepthandDiameter

Argyre Maybe &

Fluidized
Argyre Nonfluidized
Sirenum Nonfluidized
Sirenum Maybe
& fluidized

3.5

Region & Ejecta, Depth v. Diameter

Depth (km)

2.5

1.5

0.5

0
0

20

40

60

80

100

Diameter (km)
Figure7:Diameterversusdepthbrokenupbyregionandejectamorphology.

Figure7showsthatinArgyretherearemorelarge,shallownonfluidizedcratersthanin
Sirenum,whileSirenumsnonfluidizedcraterstendtobebothlargeandshallowandlargeand
deep.FluidizedcratersinSirenumtendtohavehigherdepth/diameterratiosthantheonesin
Argyre,althoughthedifferenceisnotaspronouncedasbetweennonfluidizedcraters.Inboth

16

regions,thedepthdiameterratiosfornonfluidizedcratersaremorevariablethanthe
depth/diameterratiosforfluidizedandmaybefluidizedcraters.

Gully Presence, Depth v. Diameter

4
No Gullies - Argyre
3.5

y = 0.05x

No Gullies - Sirenum
Gullied - Sirenum
Gullied - Argyre

Linear (Gully Line)

Depth (km)

2.5

1.5

0.5

0
0

20

40

60

Diameter (km)

80

100

Figure8:Diameterversusdepthbrokenupbygullypresenceandregion.

Figure8showsthatalmosteverysinglegulliedcratermeasuredinSirenumhasadepth/diameter
ratiogreaterthanorequalto0.05[28].Thisfindingisquitedistinctfromthebroaderrangeof
depth/diameterratiosforgulliedcratersinArgyreandnongulliedcratersinbothSirenumand
Argyre.

17

Conclusions
GulliedcratersinSirenumTerraandaroundtheArgyreimpactbasinhaveastronglatitudinal
dependence.ThesegulliedcratersalsotendtobeobservedneartheSirenumFossaeandalong
thecircumferenceoftheArgyreimpactbasin.Itispossiblethattheselargescalegeologic
featureshaveinfluencedtheformationsofthegulliespresentineachregion.
KoroshetzandBarlowhaveargued[31]thatancientlylocalizedwatericeisimpliedbygroupsof
fluidizedcraters.Theclusteringoffluidized,maybefluidized,andgulliedcratersobservedby
thisstudyisconsistentwiththeconceptofagenerallycontiguousandunbrokenareacontaining
arelativelyhighamountofancientorrecentgroundwater.
Thepresenceofarampartcraterindicatesthatwatermighthaveexistedintheancientpre
impactterrain,whilethepresenceofagullycouldsuggestmorerecentgroundwaterseepage.
Therefore,arelativelysmalleroccurrencerateofgulliesinArgyrefluidizedcratersmaysuggest
thatamoreextensivewatertableexistedwhenthesecraterswereexcavated,buthasdiminished
beforerecenttimes.
ArgyrenonfluidizedcratershavealargeroccurrencerateofgulliesthanArgyrefluidizedand
maybefluidizedcraters.Thisobservationsuggeststhegrowthofanearsurfacewatertableafter
craterformationinareasofArgyrewithnonfluidizedcraters.
ArelativelylargegullyoccurrencerateinSirenumfluidizedcraters,coupledwithabundant
nearsurfacehydrogeninthatregion,suggeststhatarelativelyextensivewatertablehaspersisted

18

fromwhenthecraterswereexcavatedthroughgullyformationtothisday.Thisstudys
conclusionsaboutgroundwaterpresencearespeculativeduelargelytothelackofknowledge
aboutabsolutecraterandgullyages.Arampartcratercouldbeahundredmillionyearsolder
thanthegulliesinsideit,leavingtimeforawatertableinthesurroundingareatogrowand
recederepeatedly.
Finally,thecratersobservedinbothSirenumandArgyreshowsimilarchangesindepth/diameter
ratiovariabilitybetweenfluidizedandnonfluidizedcraters.However,theunusual
depth/diameterratioforthegulliedcratersinSirenumisunexpectedandintriguing.Itmay
indicateuniquetargetmaterials[26].Uniquetargetpropertiesmaybeconsistentwiththeideaof
apervasivewatertableatthetimeofcraterformation,which,bytheearlierargument,mayhave
persisteduntilthepresent.
FutureWork
Comparisonofthedepthsatwhichgulliesform[32]withcraterdepthscouldfacilitate
understandingoftheapparentdependenceofgulliedcrateroccurrenceonejectamorphologyand
regionaswellastheuniquedepth/diameterratiosofgulliedcratersinSirenum.Factors
contributingtothisdependenceanduniqueratiomightalsoberevealedbyasurveyofcrater
wallandregionalslopes.Additionalresearchofpotentialrelationshipsbetweentheindicators
andgeologicunitsisalsoappropriate.ExtensionofthestudytoadditionalareasonMarswill
bettercharacterizethepossiblerelationshipsbetweenindicatorsofancient,recent,andpresent
nearsurfacewater.

19

Acknowledgments
I would like to thank my mentor, Dr. Herb Frey of NASA, for sharing a generous amount of time
and scientific expertise. Dr. Freys guidance was instrumental to this research. I'm also most
grateful for the assistance and support of these people: Mark Bulmer, Nadine Barlow, Erin Frey,
Steven Korpon, Scott Mest, Darius Mitchell, Mike Purucker, Jim Roark, Susan Sakimoto,
Richard Schneider, Nick Stone, Glenda Torrence, Stanley Wang, Jacob Yates, and finally, my
dad, Stanley Stern, my mom, Judith Gallant, and my sister, Anna Stern.

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