Scand J Med Sci Sports 2011: 21: 465473

doi: 10.1111/j.1600-0838.2009.01068.x

& 2010 John Wiley & Sons A/S

Physical self-perception and motor performance in normal-weight,

overweight and obese children
M. Morano1,2, D. Colella1, C. Robazza3, L. Bortoli3, L. Capranica2
1

Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Foggia, Foggia, Italy, 2Department of Human Movement and Sport Science,
University Foro Italico, Rome, Italy, 3Department of Human Movement Science, University G. DAnnunzio, Chieti, Italy

Corresponding author: Milena Morano, Universita` di Foggia, Scienze delle Attivita` Motorie e Sportive, Laboratorio di
Didattica delle Attivita` Motorie, Viale Virgilio, Quartiere CEP, 71100 Foggia, Italy. Tel: 139 0881 309337, Fax: 139 0881
309346, E-mail: milenamorano@gmail.com
Accepted for publication 2 November 2009

The aim of this study was to examine the relationships

among physical self-perception, body image and motor
performance in Italian middle school students. Two hundred
and sixty children were categorized into normal-weight
(n 5 103), overweight (n 5 86) or obese (n 5 71) groups.
Perceived coordination, body fat and sports competence
were assessed using the Physical Self-Description Questionnaire, while body image was measured using Collins
Child Figure Drawings. Individuals perceptions of strength,
speed and agility were assessed using the Perceived Physical
Ability Scale. Tests involving the standing long jump, 2 kg
medicine-ball throw, 10  5 m shuttle-run and 20 and 30 m

sprints were also administered. Girls, when compared with

boys, and overweight and obese participants, when compared with normal-weight peers, reported lower perceived
and actual physical competence, higher perceived body fat
and greater body dissatisfaction. Body dissatisfaction
mediated all the associations between body mass index
(BMI) and the dierent aspects of physical self-perception
in boys, but not in girls. The same pattern of results was
found for physical self-perception as a mediator of the
relationship between BMI and body dissatisfaction. In
conclusion, obesity proved to have adverse eects on both
motor performance and physical self-perception.

Pediatric obesity has increased dramatically in the

European Union over the past three decades (Lobstein et al., 2004). In Italy, 30.9% of male and 19.8%
of female children aged 1013 years are overweight
or obese, with a higher incidence in the southern
regions (Gargiulo et al., 2004). Considering that
obese children are more likely to become obese adults
with negative medical and psychosocial consequences, the increased incidence of pediatric obesity
is a social concern (Reilly et al., 2003). Although the
detrimental eects on physical health of childhood
obesity are well established, the impact on psychological well-being is much less clear (Wardle &
Cooke, 2005).
Research showed that obese children exhibit
poorer performance on weight-bearing tasks (Deforche et al., 2003) and tend to be less active (Trost
et al., 2001) than their non-obese peers. Overweight
and obesity impact the physical self-perception of
children entering adolescence, especially girls (Franklin et al., 2006). Physical self-perception has been
identied as an important correlate of physical
activity, motor competence and performance in
childhood (Crocker et al., 2000; Raudsepp et al.,

2002; Southall et al., 2004). Several authors have

identied dierent components of physical selfperception within a multidimensional perspective of
self-concept (e.g., Fox, 1998; Marsh, 2002). It has
been suggested that physical self-perception plays a
crucial role during childhood and adolescence in the
development of personality (Harter, 1999). Marsh
and Craven (2006) have suggested the causal relationships between specic components of self-concept (such as perceived sport competence and
coordination) and performance in related areas to
be dynamic and reciprocal.
Perceived competence (i.e., the individuals perception of physical condition, sport and strength competence) is a main component of physical selfperception. It is thought to mediate the relationship
between childrens motor competence and subsequent adolescent physical activity (Southall et al.,
2004; Barnett et al., 2008). The mediating role of
perceived competence on physical activity is an
important, yet underestimated, causal mechanism
partially responsible for the physical inactivity and,
subsequently, for obesity (Stodden et al., 2008). The
link of perceived competence to physical activity

465

Morano et al.
seems to be related to gender, with boys being more
physically active and perceiving themselves to have
greater strength and sport competence than their
female counterparts (Crocker et al., 2000; Raudsepp
et al., 2002).
In addition to perceiving themselves as fatter, less
coordinated and competent in sport and exercise
(Sung et al., 2005), obese children tend to show
greater dissatisfaction with their body image than
leaner children (Newman et al., 2006). Body image
has been conceptualized as an individuals psychological experience of the appearance and function of
his or her own body and is one aspect of an
individuals mental representation of the self (Cash
& Prunzinsky, 1990). A growing body of literature
has attempted to validate the notion that physical
exercise and activity are positively related to body
image through physical tness changes (Martin &
Lichtenberger, 2004). However, Martin and Lichtenberger suggested that the eects of exercise on body
image should be mediated by individuals perceptions of their physical tness and competence. Thus,
subjective perceptions of ones competence may not
necessarily be related to actual physical performance,
because of varying levels of comfort with ones own
body or unrealistic and idealistic notions of ones
performance.
Much of the research on exercisebody image
relationship has been conducted in college-age and
older men and woman, and there are no similar
studies specically targeting children (Tanaka,
2006). Therefore, there is a need to better understand
the links among morphological characteristics, physical self-perception, body image and motor performance, because these factors have been thought to
inuence physical activity in children and adolescents
(Southall et al., 2004). The present investigation
aimed at determining the relationships among some
dimensions of physical self-perception, body image
and dierent aspects of motor performance in normal-weight, overweight and obese children, and also
considered gender dierences. Some of these relationships have been examined separately in previous
research. In our study, we adopted a multidimensional approach to examine several factors in an
attempt to attain a better understanding of the links
among morphological aspects, physical self-perception, body image and motor performance. It was
hypothesized that overweight and obese participants
would perceive themselves to have poorer coordination, sports competence and physical ability, and
would display greater body dissatisfaction and lower
performance levels on weight-bearing tasks than their
normal-weight peers. Furthermore, girls were expected to report lower sports competence and perceived physical ability (PPA) scores, and to be more
dissatised with body self-perception than boys.

466

An additional objective was to examine the eects

of overweight and obesity on body dissatisfaction
(considered as a discrepancy between perceived actual body shape and ideal body shape) and on
specic components of physical self-perception (i.e.,
coordination, sport competence, body fat and physical ability). Drawing on the reciprocal eect model
suggested by Marsh and Craven (2006), reciprocal
mediation eects were hypothesized to occur between body dissatisfaction and physical self-perception factors with respect to overweight and obesity. It
was expected that body dissatisfaction would mediate the association between obesity and other aspects of physical self-perception and, vice versa, that
physical self-perception components would mediate
the link between obesity and body dissatisfaction.
Materials and methods
Participants
The Life Sciences Research Committee of the University of
Foggia approved the research protocol. The criterion for
inclusion in the study was the childrens involvement in
mandatory Physical Education school programs consisting
of two 1-h lessons per week. Two hundred and sixty students
(140 boys and 120 girls) from sixth to eighth grade (age:
12.2  0.9 years; range: 1114 years) of three public schools in
a south-east region of Italy participated in this study. An
informed written consent was obtained from the students and
their parents.

Anthropometric evaluation
Standing height to the nearest 0.1 cm and body weight to the
nearest 0.1 kg were measured using a portable stadiometer
(Seca 220, GmbH & Co., Hamburg, Germany) and a balance
scale (Seca 761, GmbH & Co.), respectively. Measurements
were carried out in the morning at the school with the
participants wearing light indoor clothing and no shoes.
Height and weight measures were used to calculate the
students body mass index (BMI, kg/m2). According to the
International Obesity Task Force cut-o points (Cole et al.,
2000), children were categorized into normal-weight (n 5 103;
54 boys and 49 girls), overweight (n 5 86; 46 boys and 40 girls)
and obese (n 5 71; 40 boys and 31 girls) groups.

Evaluation of physical self-perception

Perceived physical self was assessed using two questionnaires.
The rst was the Physical Self-Description Questionnaire
(PSDQ; Marsh et al., 1994). The Italian version (Meleddu
et al., 2002) was validated in children ranging from 13 to 18 years
of age. To measure the specic components of the physical self
(i.e., coordination, body fat and sports competence), 18 items
rated on a six-point Likert scale (ranging from 1 5 false to
6 5 true) were used. These three components have been
assessed to determine the extent to which dierences among
non-overweight, overweight and obese children in self-perception of physical competence might be associated with those
emerging from physical performance tests. Higher scores on
coordination, body fat and sports competence are related to
higher self-perception of these characteristics. In this study,
the internal consistency coecients of the three subscales

Self-perception and performance in children

showed Cronbachs a values ranging from 0.86 to 0.93 on the
whole sample and from 0.80 to 0.92 for the three groups,
separately.
The second measure of physical self-perception was an
adapted version of the PPA subscale of the physical selfecacy scale developed by Ryckman et al. (1982). The scale
consists of 10 items aimed at assessing individuals perceptions
of strength, speed and agility. For each item, participants are
required to indicate their responses on a ve-point scale
anchored by 1 5 yes, very much and 5 5 no, not at all.
Items 1, 3, 5, 7 and 9 assess positive perception of physical
ability (i.e., quick reaction and action, strength, motor control). The other ve items highlight the perception of the
diculty of movement (i.e., lack of control, clumsiness and
muscle weakness) and their scores are reversed. Higher total
scores correspond to a better PPA. In an Italian version of the
scale administered to a large sample of 10- to 20-year-old
participants, the Cronbachs a value of the scores was 0.81
(Bortoli & Robazza, 1997). In the present study, reliability
values of the positive scale were 0.79 (they ranged from 0.69 to
0.82 on the three groups). In contrast, a low reliability (a
value 5 0.65) emerged for the negative scale, with coecients
not increasing after removing items. Because of its unsatisfactory reliability level, scores of the negative scale were not
considered in the analysis.

Evaluation of body image

Body image was measured by Collins Child Figure Drawings
(Collins, 1991), seven silhouette gures of boys and girls
progressing from very thin to obese. The participants were
asked to select two pictures representing their actual and ideal
body shapes. Body dissatisfaction was then calculated as the
selfideal discrepancy: a score of zero indicated body satisfaction, while negative and positive scores reected a desire to be
fatter and thinner, respectively. Collins (1991) reported 3-day
testretest reliability coecients of 0.71 and 0.59 for current
image and ideal image, respectively. Criterion-related validity
coecients were also established through correlation of pictorial self-selection with weight (0.36, Po0.05) and BMI (0.37,
Po0.05).
Assessment of physical self-perception and body image
took place individually under the supervision of an investigator. After ensuring the condentiality of the responses, students were assured that there were no right or wrong answers.

Statistics
To assess the internal consistency of the PSDQ and PPA
scales, Chronbachs a coecients were computed for the
whole sample and for each group, with values40.70 considered acceptable. A 2 (gender)  3 (group: normal-weight vs
overweight vs obese) analysis of variance was applied to each
dependent variable. When a signicant eect was obtained,
post hoc comparisons were performed by means of Schee
tests. Eect sizes (ES) were calculated for all signicant
ndings, with values (negative or positive) of 0.2, 0.6, 1.2
and 41.2 indicating trivial, small, moderate and large ES,
respectively (Hopkins, 2002). Pearsons productmoment correlations (r) were calculated to determine the extent and
direction of linear relationships of BMI and dierent aspects
of physical self-perception with motor performance tests.
The model of Baron and Kenny (1986) was used to test for
mediation. They provided a denition of mediator as a third
variable which represents the generative mechanism through
which the focal independent variable is able to inuence the
dependent variable of interest (p. 1173). In other words, a
mediator is a variable that transmits the eect of an independent variable on a dependent variable. BMI was the independent variable, while body dissatisfaction and self-perceptions
of coordination, body fat, sport competence and physical
ability were tested both as mediators and as dependent
variables, consistent with the reciprocal eects model under
analysis. Consequently, linear regression analyses were conducted to assess the eect of body dissatisfaction on the
relationships between BMI and physical self-perception aspects, and the eect of physical self-perception on the link
between BMI and body dissatisfaction. According to Baron
and Kennys (1986) recommendations, four analyses were
conducted to examine whether a variable functioned as a
mediator. The rst and the second analysis tested whether the
BMI was correlated with a specic dependent variable and the
hypothesized mediator, respectively. The third analysis tested
the association of the mediator variable with the dependent
variable. The last analysis included both the BMI and the
mediator variable as predictors of each dependent variable.
Furthermore, indirect eects of the BMI through the mediator
on the dependent variables were tested using the Sobel test (z),
with z value40.96 indicating a signicant eect at the
P  0.05 level (Preacher & Hayes, 2004). The data were
analyzed using the Statistical Package for the Social Science,
version 17.0 (SPSS, Chicago, Illinois, USA).

Evaluation of physical performance

Dierent aspects of motor performance were assessed, including the power of lower limbs, upper limb strength and sprint
ability, which were reported to be reliable and valid measures
in childhood and adolescence (Eurot, 1993; Morrow et al.,
2005). The power of lower limbs was assessed by means of a
standing long jump, requiring participants to jump as far as
possible from a standing position and recording the performance in centimeters. Upper limb strength was evaluated by
means of an overhead throw of a 2 kg medicine ball, from a
standing position with both feet together. The childrens sprint
ability was evaluated by means of 20 and 30 m sprints and a
10  5 m shuttle-run, with performances recorded to the
nearest 0.01 s. Participants were allowed two trials for each
test with a 5-min recovery period. The tests were administered
in the same order to all participants during their physical
education lesson, and verbal encouragement was provided.
The best performance (i.e., highest values in standing long
jump and medicine ball throw, and lowest sprint values) was
used for statistical analyses.

Results
Descriptive statistics for each variable by gender and
weight status are reported in Table 1 and Pearsons
productmoment correlations in Table 2. With regard to physical self-perception, the main eects of
gender were found in the perceived coordination
(F1,254 5 10.2, Po0.002, ES 5 0.4), sport competence
(F1,254 5 11.4, Po0.001, ES 5 0.4) and PPA
(F1,254 5 33.2, Po0.001, ES 5 0.7) scales, with boys
reporting higher scores than girls. Main eects
(Po0.001) were also obtained among groups, with
normal-weight children showing lower perceived
body fat (F2,254 5 109.1, ES 5 1.12.6) and higher
coordination (F2,254 5 35.7, ES 5 0.61.3), sport
competence (F2,254 5 22.1, ES 5 0.41.0) and PPA

467

Morano et al.
Table 1. Descriptive statistics by gender and weight

Variable

Anthropometric measures
Height (cm)
Weight (kg)
BMI (kg/m2)

Physical self-perception
Coordination
Body fat
Sports competence
Physical ability

Body image
Current body image
Ideal body image
Body dissatisfaction

Motor performance
Standing long jump (cm)
Medicine-ball throw (m)
20 m sprint (s)
30 m sprint (s)
10  5 m shuttle run (s)

Group

Boys (n 5 140)

Girls (n 5 120)

Mean  SD

MinimumMaximum

Mean  SD

MinimumMaximum

NW
OW
OB
NW
OW
OB
NW
OW
OB

155.7  11.0
156.9  7.7
160.7  10.4
45.3  8.7
57.6  7.3
75.0  12.5
18.5  1.7
23.3  1.4
28.8  2.0

134.1179.9
143.0173.0
134.9180.1
31.166.9
44.679.0
48.597.0
15.622.2
20.926.5
25.633.0

155.2  8.9
156.7  6.7
155.4  8.6
45.1  8.5
58.6  7.3
69.3  11.1
18.6  2.0
23.8  1.4
28.6  2.9

134.9173.1
143.2175.8
141.0174.0
30.064.2
45.179.9
51.299.8
15.323.0
20.826.7
25.436.8

NW
OW
OB
NW
OW
OB
NW
OW
OB
NW
OW
OB

32.5  3.9
29.5  4.9
24.0  6.4
7.5  3.3
14.8  7.7
24.1  7.2
30.7  4.9
28.0  6.2
22.7  7.3
20.8  3.2
18.5  3.7
17.0  3.4

20.036.0
20.036.0
7.036.0
6.024.0
6.034.0
6.036.0
10.036.0
11.036.0
6.036.0
11.025.0
11.025.0
11.025.0

29.9  4.8
25.5  6.5
24.0  7.2
9.6  4.8
17.0  8.5
23.1  8.0
27.5  5.9
23.2  7.2
22.4  7.7
17.6  3.2
15.7  3.2
15.8  3.4

17.036.0
9.035.0
10.035.0
6.027.0
6.036.0
7.036.0
10.036.0
8.036.0
6.034.0
12.025.0
10.024.0
10.023.0

NW
OW
OB
NW
OW
OB
NW
OW
OB

3.2  0.6
4.2  0.6
5.3  0.7
3.6  0.8
3.5  0.6
3.8  0.8
0.3  0.9
0.8  0.8
1.5  0.7

1.54.0
3.05.5
3.07.0
1.07.0
2.05.0
1.05.0
4.02.0
1.02.5
0.03.0

3.2  0.7
4.2  0.7
4.6  0.6
3.0  0.7
3.1  0.6
3.3  0.5
0.2  0.6
1.1  0.9
1.3  0.5

2.05.0
2.05.0
3.05.5
1.05.0
2.04.0
2.04.0
1.01.0
2.03.0
0.52.0

NW
OW
OB
NW
OW
OB
NW
OW
OB
NW
OW
OB
NW
OW
OB

177.0  18.3
148.6  21.6
134.1  27.4
4.9  1.2
4.8  1.0
5.7  1.5
3.8  0.3
4.1  0.5
4.3  0.5
5.4  0.4
5.9  0.5
6.2  0.8
20.7  1.2
22.6  1.8
23.0  1.3

153.0228.0
99.9197.1
90.2209.8
2.18.0
3.37.5
3.410.0
3.24.6
3.25.4
3.25.5
4.66.5
4.57.4
4.58.9
18.122.8
19.226.4
20.025.9

145.9  8.2
123.5  22.5
111.7  19.3
4.1  0.7
4.1  0.9
4.2  0.9
4.1  0.3
4.4  0.5
4.6  0.4
5.8  0.4
6.2  0.5
6.5  0.6
22.5  1.4
23.8  2.2
24.6  2.2

124.9162.1
77.3175.7
70.0150.0
2.96.0
2.36.5
2.86.2
3.55.1
3.56.6
3.45.3
5.06.9
4.87.5
5.18.0
19.226.9
19.428.2
21.130.9

SD, standard deviation; MinimumMaximum, range; NW, normal-weight; OW, overweight; OB, obese.

(F2,254 5 16.5, ES 5 0.60.8) scores than overweight

and obese peers.
For body dissatisfaction, signicant eects were
shown on gender (F1,254 5 4.7, P 5 0.031, ES 5 0.2),
group (F2,254 5 89.0, Po0.001, ES 5 0.62.0) and
their interaction (F2,254 5 4.7, Po0.01), with boys
presenting lower values than girls. Post hoc analysis
revealed dierences (Po0.001) between all the groups,
with obese children showing the highest values, over-

468

weight the intermediate and normal-weight the lowest values. Conversely, post hoc analysis for the
gender  group interaction maintained signicant
dierences (P 5 0.04) only for the group of normalweight individuals.
With regard to motor performances, main eects
(Po0.001) were consistently found for gender
(standing long jump: F1,254 5 107.3, ES 5 1.0; medicine ball-throw: F1,254 5 56.0, ES 5 0.9; 20 m sprint:

Self-perception and performance in children

Table 2. Pearson correlations of BMI and different aspects of physical self-perception with motor performance tests (boys: n 5 140; girls: n 5 120)

Variables

Gender

BMI

Boys
Girls
Boys
Girls
Boys
Girls
Boys
Girls
Boys
Girls
Boys
Girls

Coordination
Body fat
Sport competence
Perceived physical ability
Body dissatisfaction

SLJ
0.55w
0.63w
0.43w
0.47w
0.53w
0.56w
0.51w
0.45w
0.41w
0.40w
0.54w
0.52w

MBT
0.29w
0.14
0.08
0.03
0.18*
0.19*
0.02
0.03
0.01
0.03
0.15
0.07

20 m
0.37w
0.41w
0.42w
0.31w
0.49w
0.37w
0.41w
0.35w
0.41w
0.21*
0.40w
0.16

30 m
0.48w
0.50w
0.46w
0.41w
0.55w
0.40w
0.47w
0.40w
0.46w
0.26^
0.45w
0.36w

10  5 m
0.53w
0.39w
0.42w
0.33w
0.52w
0.38w
0.46w
0.35w
0.46w
0.27^
0.46w
0.38w

*Po0.05, ^Po0.01, wPo0.001; unmarked correlations were non-significant.

SLJ, standing long jump; MBT, medicine ball throw; BMI, body mass index.

F1,254 5 22.6, ES 5 0.5; 30 m sprint: F1,254 5 28.5,

ES 5 0.6; and shuttle run: F1,254 5 52.1, ES 5 0.8),
with boys showing best performances. Signicant
main eects (Po0.001) for groups emerged on all
motor tests, with normal-weight children showing
better performances in the standing long jump
ES 5 0.51.6),
shuttle
run
(F2,254 5 83.6,
(F2,254 5 40.4, ES 5 0.91.3) and 20 m (F2,254 5 28.9,
ES 5 0.41.2) and 30 m sprint (F2,254 5 49.1,
ES 5 0.51.4) than their overweight and obese peers.
Obese children, however, showed better throwing
performances (F2,254 5 5.5, ES 5 0.40.5) than normal-weight and overweight peers.
Body dissatisfaction and physical self-perception
dimensions met each of the conditions necessary to
be tested as a mediator in the analysis (Baron &
Kenny, 1986). In the male sample (Fig. 1), body
dissatisfaction was a signicant mediator of the eect
of BMI on all dependent variables. Regarding PPA,
the direct eect of BMI decreased to a non-signicant level, thereby showing a stronger mediation
eect of body dissatisfaction. Similarly, PPA and
the three physical self-perception aspects mediated
signicantly the eect of BMI on body dissatisfaction. For girls (Fig. 2), body dissatisfaction was a
signicant mediator of the eect of BMI on perceived
body fat, while perceived body fat was a mediator of
body dissatisfaction. Other signicant mediating effects did not emerge.

Discussion
This study included a multi-disciplinary approach to
the examination of the relationships among physical
self-perception and motor performance in sedentary
normal-weight, overweight and obese boys and girls.
Furthermore, because body image is one of the
aspects of psychological well-being more seriously

compromised in obesity (Wardle & Cooke, 2005), we

investigated the eect of BMI on body dissatisfaction
and physical self-perception components, as well as
the reciprocal mediation eects of the dependent
variables.
The results suggest that low perceived physical
competence and ability, poor motor performance
and body dissatisfaction might be important correlates of childhood obesity. Findings conrm that
obese children have a signicantly lower self-perception of their physical competence (Southall et al.,
2004; Sung et al., 2005), and perform poorly on eld
tests in which they are required to move more of their
heavier body mass against gravity than lean peers
(Deforche et al., 2003; Fogelholm et al., 2008). In
contrast with previous results suggesting the existence of a certain cut-o from which movement
diculties appear (DHondt et al., 2009), signicant
dierences on weight-bearing tasks were also found
between normal-weight and overweight children. In
addition, in this study, obese participants were more
procient in the throwing task than normal-weight
and overweight participants, consistent with previous
research on upper limb push and pull strength
(Riddiford-Harland et al., 2006).
According to DHondt et al. (2009), the reported
inverse relationship between weight-bearing tasks
and BMI should not be explained only from the
biomechanical point of view but also from the
inuence of other complementary mechanisms. Indeed, moving a heavier body mass against gravity, in
addition to poor self-perception of physical competence, might decrease the motivation of obese children to be involved in physical activity programs,
which in turn negatively inuences their motor performance. Stodden et al. (2008) suggest that children
with low actual and perceived motor skill competence will be drawn into a negative spiral of disengagement, resulting in lower physical activity levels.

469

Morano et al.

Fig. 1. Mediation analysis for the reciprocal eects between body mass index and dierent aspects of physical self-perception
in boys (n 5 140). Sobel values (z), standardized regression coecients (b) and square correlations values (R2) are reported,
with initial R2 in parentheses. *Po0.05,^Po0.01, wPo0.001, NS, non-signicant.

This will provide fewer opportunities for the further

development of motor skill competence and lead to
the development of lower perceived competence.
Across developmental years, the negative spiral
of disengagement increases, resulting in higher levels
of physical inactivity and obesity (Stodden et al.,
2008).
Although these ndings are supported by the
competence motivation theory (Harter, 1985), which
posits that perception of competence is related to
successful performance and is a critical determinant
of subsequent motivation to participate in physical
activity, in the present study, perceived physical
competence was moderately associated with motor
performance results. Therefore, poor perceived coordination, sports competence and physical ability in
children could also be associated with negative feelings about their bodies. Consistent with previous
research, the present ndings demonstrate that overweight and obese children are more dissatised with
their body image than their normal-weight peers, and
BMI is positively related to body dissatisfaction
(Wardle & Cooke, 2005; Newman et al., 2006).
Furthermore, body dissatisfaction mediated all the
associations between BMI and dierent aspects of
physical self-perception in boys but not in girls. The

470

same pattern of results was found for physical selfperception as a mediator of the relationship of BMI
with body dissatisfaction. Therefore, physical selfperception improvements, usually achieved through
physical activity and sport experiences, could reduce
body dissatisfaction of overweight and obese boys.
However, female body dissatisfaction might be
linked more to esthetic appearance than sport competence and physical ability. Thus, enhancing perception of competence and ability in obese girls
would not inuence their body dissatisfaction as
much as could happen in boys.
The gender dierences in body dissatisfaction may
reect the dierent sociocultural inuences on boys
and girls to conform to an idealized physique. In
particular, results showed that females reported
greater body dissatisfaction and higher perceived
body fat scores than males, probably indicating
relevant social pressures on girls to be thin, regardless of their weight status. In contrast, non-overweight boys reported a negative mean score of body
dissatisfaction, indicating a desire to be larger. However, it is not clear whether boys desire to look
bulkier or more muscular, and whether a relationship
with their BMI exists (Wardle & Cooke, 2005). This
argument was supported by the strong mediating

Self-perception and performance in children

Fig. 2. Mediation analysis for the reciprocal eects between body mass index and dierent aspects of physical self-perception
in girls (n 5 120). Sobel values (z), standardized regression coecients (b) and square correlations values (R2) are reported, with
initial R2 in parentheses. *Po0.05, ^Po0.01, wPo0.001, NS, non-signicant.

eect of body dissatisfaction on the link between

BMI and the individuals perception of strength,
speed and agility found in our study. Recent studies
reported that male adolescents desire a bigger
body in order to be stronger and tter, and to
increase their sport performance (e.g., Ricciardelli
et al., 2007). In particular, the pursuit of muscularity
was related to many male physical attributes including size, strength, speed and tness.
Additional gender dierences were found on all
motor tests and modes of physical self-perception.
Boys showed better motor performance and higher
perception of their coordination, sport competence
and physical ability than girls. These ndings are in
agreement with the gender-related dierences in
childrens physical and perceived competences reported in previous studies (Crocker et al., 2000;
Sung et al., 2005; Barnett et al., 2008), and support
Harters model (1985) that considers actual competence as a precursor of perceived competence.
Usually, boys engage in physical activities and sports
more frequently than girls (Physical Activity Guidelines Advisory Committee, 2008). The more frequent
opportunities to develop physical abilities and skills
lead to improved perception of competence, which in
turn inuences physical activity participation.

Compared with normal-weight peers, overweight

and obese participants demonstrated signicantly
lower actual and perceived physical competences,
which have been identied as correlates of physical
activity in children (Crocker et al., 2000; Raudsepp
et al., 2002; Southall et al., 2004; Barnett et al., 2008;
Stodden et al., 2008). Childhood obesity is likely to
have adverse eects on physical self-perception and
motor performance. It could be suggested that better
self-perception of overweight and obese children
might be attained not only through body weight
reduction resulting from healthy eating and increased
physical activity but also through the improvement
of physical abilities. According to the conceptual
model hypothesized by Stodden et al. (2008), successful experiences, measured in terms of increased skills
and abilities, are expected to enhance the perception
of competence and motivation to maximize childrens physical activity participation and challenge
the tendency to sedentary behaviors. Perceived competence is also proposed as a main construct within
dierent theoretical approaches to motivation toward sport and exercise, including achievement
goal theory (Nicholls, 1984) and self-ecacy (Bandura, 1997). From this viewpoint, the type of exercise
used, especially in the early stages of a program,

471

Morano et al.
appears to be important in helping obese children
establish lifelong physical activity patterns. Based on
the present ndings, throwing tasks should be included in exercise programs for obese children who
achieve better results than their leaner counterparts.
In contrast, at the initial phase of an intervention,
weight-bearing activities should be limited with obese
participants, considering that their poor performances may cause them to decrease their physical
activity and increase their sedentary behaviors.
One merit of the study was the adoption of a
multidimensional approach to investigate the links
among morphological aspects, physical self-perception, body image and motor performance, which
were not examined together in previous research.
Notwithstanding, the study is limited because it was
cross-sectional, and therefore the causal relationship
between variables can only be hypothesized. Experimental or longitudinal designs would be more informative about causality.

performance could help educators and trainers to

tailor exercise programs for obese children in order
to provide them with positive experiences gained
from physical activity, and thereby increase their
motivation. When working with physically inactive
obese children who show low physical self-perception
and condence in their capability, it seems reasonable to suggest that educators prioritize throwing
tasks over weight-bearing activities in order to bolster the participants perception of physical competence. This is especially important in the initial stages
of an exercise regime so as to enhance the childrens
adherence to the exercise program and decrease their
sedentary behaviors. From a public health perspective, the present ndings open up possibilities for
future longitudinal or intervention designs to establish the direction of the examined relationships, even
including t obese children.
Key words: body image, children, overweight, obesity,
physical self-perception.

Perspectives
The increase of obesity in children and youth highlights the urgent need for suitable interventions
designed to promote healthy active habits in young
individuals. An understanding of the relationships
between weight status, physical self-perception and

Acknowledgements
This study was supported by the Administration of Foggia
(0008285-III/3) and the University of Foggia (21794-II/5). We
express our gratitude to the headmasters, teachers, children
and their families for making this study possible.

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