Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Safa Kasap
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Chapter 1
1.2
11 December 2012
(a) Consider a traveling sinusoidal wave of the form Ex = Eo cos(tkz + o). The latter can also be
written as Ex = Eo cos[k(vtz) + o], where v = /k is the velocity. Show that this wave satisfies
Maxwell's wave equation, and show that v = (oor)1/2.
(b) Consider a traveling function of any shape, even a very short delta pulse, of the form Ex =
f[k(vtz)], where f is any function, which can be written is Ex = f(), = k(vtz). Show that this
traveling function satisfies Maxwell's wave equation. What is its velocity? What determines the form
of the function f?
Solution
(a)
Ex = Eo cos(tkz + o)
2 Ex
0
x 2
2 Ex
and
0
y 2
2 Ex
and
k 2 E0 cos(t kz 0 )
2
z
2 Ex
2 E0 cos(t kz 0 )
2
t
2E 2E 2E
2E
Substitute these into the wave equation
0 to find
o r o
x 2 y 2 z 2
t 2
k 2 E cos(t kz 0 ) o r o 2 E0 cos(t kz 0 ) 0
v ( o r o )
(b)
Let
o r o
( o r o )
Ex f [k (v t z )] f ( )
Take first and second derivatives with respect to x, y, z and t.
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Chapter 1
1.3
11 December 2012
2 Ex
0
x 2
2 Ex
0
y 2
Ex
df
k
z
d
2
2 Ex
2 d f
k
d 2
z 2
Ex
df
kv
t
d
2
2 Ex
2 2 d f
k v
d 2
t 2
k2
2E 2E 2E
2E
0 to find
o r o
x 2 y 2 z 2
t 2
2
d2 f
2 2 d f
v
0
k
o r o
d 2
d 2
v2
o r o
v ( o r o )
o
o r o
2
2
dz
t
t
Show that one possible solution is a plane wave whose amplitude decays exponentially with
propagation along z, that is E = Eoexp(z)exp[j(t kz)]. Here exp(z) causes the envelope of the
amplitude to decay with z (attenuation) and exp[j(t kz)] is the traveling wave portion. Show that in
a medium in whichis small, the wave velocity and the attenuation coefficient are given by
v
o o r
and
2 o cn
where n is the refractive index (n = r1/2). (Metals with high conductivities are excluded.)
Solution
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Chapter 1
1.4
11 December 2012
We can write E = Eoexp(z)exp[j(t kz)] as E = Eoexp[jt j(k j)z]. Substitute this into the
wave resonance condition
[ j(k j)]2Eoexp[jt j(k j)z] (joroEoexp[jt j(k j)z] =
jo Eoexp[jt j(k j)z]
(k j)2 oro = jo
k2 jk 2 + oro = jo
Rearrange into real and imaginary parts and then equating the real parts and imaginary parts
k2 2 + oro jk = jo
Real parts
k2 2 + oro = 0
Imaginary parts
k = o
c
o o o
Thus,
2k
k 2
2n
2 o n
where we have assumed /k = velocity = c/n (see below).
From the imaginary part
k 2 2 o o r 2
Consider the small case (otherwise the wave is totally attenuated with very little propagation). Then
k 2 2 o o r
and the velocity is
1
v
k
o o r
1.3 Point light source What is the irradiance measured at a distance of 1 m and 2 m from a 1 W
light point source?
Solution
Then the irradiance I at a distance r from O is
P
1W
I o2
= 8.0 W cm-2
2
4r
4 (1 m)
which drops by a factor of 4 at r = 2 m to become 2.0 W cm-2
1.4 Gaussian beam A particular HeNe laser beam at 633 nm has a spot size of 0.8 mm. Assuming a
Gaussian beam, what is the divergence of the beam? What are its Rayleigh range and beam width at 10
m?
Solution
Using Eq. (1.1.7), we find,
4
4(633 109 m)
2
= 0.79 m
(633 109 m)
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Chapter 1
1.5
11 December 2012
Figure 1.54 Two spherical mirrors reflect waves to and from each other. The optical cavity contains a
Gaussian beam. This particular optical cavity is symmetric and confocal; the two focal points coincide at F.
Solution
(a)
At z R / 2 we have R( z ) R . Substitute these into R(z) = z[1 + (zo/z)2] to find
R = (R/2)[1 + (2zo/R)2]
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Chapter 1
1.6
11 December 2012
2
(b)
Now use
2z
2 1 o
R
2 zo
1
R
L 2 zo
R = (R/2)[1 + (2zo/R)2]
2z
2 1 o
R
2 zo
1
R
zo = wo2/,
2wo2
1
R
2 wo
2 R
(c) Substitute = 633 nm, L = R = 50 cm into the above equation to find 2wo = 449 m or 0.449 mm.
At the mirror, z = R/2, and also zo = R/2 so that
1/ 2
z 2
2 w 2 wo 1
zo
1/ 2
R / 2 2
2 wo 1
R / 2
2 wo ( 21 / 2 ) = 0.635 mm
1.6 Cauchy dispersion equation Using the Cauchy coefficients and the general Cauchy equation,
calculate refractive index of a silicon crystal at 200 m and at 2 m, over two orders of magnitude
wavelength change. What is your conclusion?
Solution
At = 200m, the photon energy is
hc (6.62 1034 J s)(3 108 m s-1 )
1
6.2062 103 eV
6
19
-1
(200 10 m)
1.6. 10 J eV
Using the Cauchy dispersion relation for silicon with coefficients from Table 9.2,
n = n-2(h + n0 + n2(h2 + n4(h4
= (2.0410-8)( 6.2062 103 + 3.4189+ (10-2)( 6.2062 103
+ (10-2)( 6.2062 103
= 3.4184
At = 2m, the photon energy is
hc (6.62 1034 J s)(3 108 m s -1 )
1
0.6206eV
6
19
(2 10 m)
1.6 10 J eV -1
Using the Cauchy dispersion relation for silicon with coefficients from Table 9.2,
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Chapter 1
1.7
11 December 2012
= 3.4521
1.7 Sellmeier dispersion equation Using the Sellmeier equation and the coefficients, calculate the
refractive index of fused silica (SiO2) and germania GeO2 at 1550 nm. Which is larger, and why?
Solution
The Sellmeier dispersion relation for fused silica is
0.696749 2
0.408218 2
0.890815 2
n2 1 2
(1550 nm) 2 (69.0660 nm) 2 (1550 nm) 2 (115.662 nm) 2 (1550 nm) 2 (9900.559 nm) 2
so that
2
n = 1.4443
The Sellmeier dispersion relation for germania is
0.8068664 2
0.7181585 2
0.8541683 2
n2 1 2
(1550 nm) 2 (68.9726 nm) 2 (1550 nm) 2 (153.9661nm) 2 (1550 nm) 2 (11841.931nm) 2
2
so that n = 1.5871
1.8 Sellmeier dispersion equation The Sellmeier dispersion coefficient for pure silica (SiO2) and
86.5%SiO2-13.5 mol.% GeO2 re given in Table 1.2 Write a program on your computer or calculator,
or use a math software package or even a spread sheet program (e.g. Excel) to obtain the refractive
index n as a function of from 0.5 m to 1.8 m for both pure silica and 86.5%SiO2-13.5%GeO2.
Obtain the group index, Ng, vs. wavelength for both materials and plot it on the same graph. Find the
wavelength at which the material dispersion becomes zero in each material.
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Chapter 1
1.8
11 December 2012
Solution
Excel program to plot n and differentiate and find Ng
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Chapter 1
1.9
11 December 2012
Figure 1Q8-1 Refractive index n and the group index Ng of pure SiO2 (silica) glass as a function of wavelength (Excel).
The minimum in Ng is around 1.3 m. Note that the smooth line option used in Excel to pass a continuous smooth line
through the data points. Data points are exactly on the line and are not shown for clarity.
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Chapter 1
1.10
11 December 2012
Figure 1Q8-2 Refractive index n and the group index Ng of 86.5%SiO213.5%GeO as a function of wavelength (Excel).
The minimum in Ng is around 1.4 m. Note that the smooth line option used in Excel to pass a continuous smooth line
through the data points. Data points are exactly on the line and are not shown for clarity.
Material dispersion is proportional to derivative of group velocity over wavelength. The corresponding
values are close to 1.3 and 1.4 m.
1.9 The Cauchy dispersion relation for zinc selenide ZnSe is a II-VI semiconductor and a very
useful optical material used in various applications such as optical windows (especially high power
laser windows), lenses, prisms etc. It transmits over 0.50 to 19 m. n in the 1 11 m range described
by a Cauchy expression of the form
0.0485 0.0061
n 2.4365
0.0003 2
ZnSe dispersion relation
2
4
in which in m. What are the n-2, n0, n2 and n4 coefficients? What is ZnSe's refractive index n and
group index Ng at 5 m?
Solution
hc
h
hc (6.62 10 34 J s
1
1.6 10
19
J eV
-1
so that
0.0485
0.0061
(h ) 2
(h ) 4 0.0003(hc) 2 (h ) 2
2
4
(hc)
(hc)
Comparing with Cauchy dispersion equation in photon energy: n = n-2(h + n0 + n2(h2 + n4(h4
we have
n 2.4365
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Chapter 1
1.11
11 December 2012
n0 2.4365
n2
0.0485
0.0485
3.15 1010 eV -2
2
6 2
(hc)
(1.24 10 )
and
0.0061
0.0061
2.58 1021 eV -4
4
(hc)
(1.24 106 ) 4
At = 5 m
0.0485 0.0061
0.0003(5 m) 2
2
4
(5 m) (5 m)
0.0485 0.0061
2.4365
0.0003(25) 2.43
25
625
n 2.4365
dn
d
0.0485 0.0061
n 2.4365
0.0003 2
2
4
dn 2 0.0485 4 3 0.0061
2 0.0003
d
4
8
dn 0.097 0.0244
0.0006
d
3
5
Ng n
Group index
and
At = 5 m
dn 0.097 0.0244
0.0006 (5m)
d (5m)3 (5m)5
dn
0.003783m 1
d
dn
Ng n
2.43 5m (0.003783m 1 ) 2.45
d
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Chapter 1
1.12
11 December 2012
(d) What is the reflection coefficient and reflectance at normal incidence when a light beam
traveling in air is incident on an air/silica interface? How do these compare with part (c) and what is
your conclusion?
Solution
Figure 1.8 Refractive index n and the group index Ng of pure SiO2 (silica) glass as a function of wavelength.
(a) From Figure 1.8, at = 1300 nm, n = 1.447, Ng = 1.462, so that
The phase velocity is given by
v = c/n = (3108 m s-1)/(1.447) = 2.073108 m s-1.
The group velocity is given by
vg = c/Ng = (3108 ms-1)/(1.462) = 2.052108 m s-1.
The group velocity is about ~1% smaller than the phase velocity.
(b)
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Chapter 1
1.13
11 December 2012
At the Brewster angle of incidence i = p, the reflected light contains only field oscillations normal to
the plane of incidence (paper).
sin c
(c)
n2
1
0.691
n1 1.447
Given
n1 1.447
n2 1
n1 n2 1.447 1
0.1827
n1 n2 1.447 1
r/ / r
and
R R/ / r r/ / 0.0333
(d)
Given
n1 1
and
n2 1.447
n n 1 1.447
r/ / r 1 2
0.1827
n1 n2 1.447 1
R R/ / r r/ / 0.0333
2
Reflection coefficients are negative, which means that in external reflection at normal incidence there
is a phase shift of 180.
1.11 Snell's law and lateral beam displacement What is the displacement of a laser beam passing
through a glass plate of thickness 2 mm and refractive index 1.570 if the angle of incidence is 40? (See
Figure 1.14)
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Chapter 1
1.14
11 December 2012
Figure 1.14 Lateral displacement of light passing obliquely through a transparent plate
Solution
The problem is sketched in Figure 1Q12-1
Figure 1Q12-1 Light beam deflection through a glass plate of thickness L = 2 mm. The angle of
incidence is 40 and the glass has a refractive index of 1.570
d
cos i
sin i 1
L
( n / no ) 2 sin 2 i
cos 40
d
sin 40 1
L
0.7660
0.6428 1
0.2986
2.46 0.4132
d
0.2986
2 mm
d = 0.60 mm
This is a significant displacement that can be easily measured by using a photodiode array.
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Chapter 1
1.15
11 December 2012
1.12 Snell's law and lateral beam displacement An engineer wants to design a refractometer (an
instrument for measuring the refractive index) using the lateral displacement of light through a glass
plate. His initial experiments involve using a plate of thickness L, and measuring the displacement of
a laser beam when the angle of incidence i is changed, for example, by rotating (tilting) the sample.
For i = 40, he measures a displacement of 0.60 mm, and when i = 80 he measures 1.69 mm. Find
the refractive index of the plate and its thickness. (Note: You need to solve a nonlinear equation for n
numerically.)
Solution
Figure 1.14 shows the lateral beam deflection through a transparent plate.
Figure 1.14 Lateral displacement of light passing obliquely through a transparent plate
cos i
Apply d L sin i 1
n 2 sin 2 i
cos 40
cos 80
and
0.60 mm L sin 40 1
1.69 mm L sin 801
n 2 sin 2 40
n 2 sin 2 80
cos 40
cos 40
1
1
0.60 sin 40
0.60 sin 40
n 2 sin 2 40
n 2 sin 2 40
1.69 sin 80
1.69 sin 80
cos 80
cos 80
1
2
2
2
2
n sin 80
n sin 80
cos 40
1
0.60 sin 40
x 2 sin 2 40
Define y
1.69 sin 80
cos 80
1
x 2 sin 2 80
0.76606
1
2
x 0.41318
= f(x)
y 0.35503 0.6527
0.17365
1
x 2 0.96985
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Chapter 1
1.16
11 December 2012
We can plot y = f(x) vs. x, and find where f(x) cross the x-axis, which will give x = n
0.1
0.05
0
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
0.05
cos 40
0.60 mm L sin 401
1.5752 sin 2 40
Figure 1.55 A light beam is deflected by a prism through an angle . The angle of incidence is i. The
apex angle of the prism is .
Solution
(a)
Snell's law at interfaces at A:
sin i n
sin t 1
Snell's law at interfaces at B:
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Chapter 1
1.17
11 December 2012
sin i 1
sin t n
(b)
Consider the deflection angle
= 1 + 2 where 1 = i t and 2 = t i, i.e. = i t + t i. Now,
sin i
t arcsin
n
and from Figure 1.55
sin i
i 180 t t arcsin
n
so that
sin i
t arcsin n sin i arcsin n sin arcsin
sin i
sin i
sin i
arcsin n sin arcsin
i arcsin
arcsin
n
n
n
so that finally,
sin i
i arcsin n sin arcsin
Substituting the values, and keeping n as a variable, the deflection (n) as a function of n is
1
2n
1
2 (1.4634)
blue = 34.115
Similarly, yellow = 33.709
The separation of blue and yellow beams at the screes is
Lblue-yellow = L(blue blue) = (1m)(/180)( 34.115 33.709) = 7.08 mm
Table 1Q13-1 summarizes the results of the calculations for blue, yellow and red light.
Table 1Q13-1 Deflection of blue, yellow and red light through a prism with apex angle 60. The angle
of incidence is 45.
Blue
486.1 nm
Yellow
589.2 nm
Red
656.3 nm
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Chapter 1
1.18
11 December 2012
Deflection angle)
L between colors
L between blue and
rede
1.4634
0.5954 rad
34.115
1.4587
0.5883 rad
33.709
7.08 mm
1.4567
5853 rad
33.537
3.00 mm
10.1 mm
1.14 Fermat's principle of least time Fermat's principle of least time in simple terms states that
when light travels from one point to another it takes a path that has the shortest time. In going from a
point A in some medium with a refractive index n1 to a point B in a neighboring medium with
refractive index n2 as in Figure 1.56 the light path is AOB that involves refraction at O and satisfies
Snell's law. The time it takes to travel from A to B is minimum only for the path AOB such that the
incidence and refraction angles i and t satisfy Snell's law. Let's draw a straight line from A to B
cutting the x-axes at O. The line AOB will be our reference line and we will place the origin of x and
y coordinates at O. Without invoking Snell's law, we will vary point O along the x-axis (hence OO is
a variable labeled x), until the time it takes to travel AOB is minimum, and thereby derive Snell's law.
The time t it takes for light to travel from A to B through O is
AO
OB [( x1 x ) 2 y12 ]1 / 2 [( x 2 x ) 2 y 22 ]1 / 2
t
(1)
c / n1 c / n 2
c / n1
c / n2
The incidence and transmittance angles are given by
x1 x
( x2 x)
sin i
sin t
and
(2)
2
2 1/ 2
[( x1 x ) y1 ]
[( x2 x) 2 y22 ]1/2
Differentiate Eq. (1) with respect to x to find the condition for the "least time" and then use Eq. (2) in
this condition to derive Snell's law.
Figure 1.56 Consider a light wave traveling from point A (x1, y2) to B (x1, y2) through an arbitrary point O at a distance x
from O. The principle of least time from A to B requires that O is such that the incidence and refraction angles obey Snell's
law.
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Chapter 1
1.19
11 December 2012
Solution
Differentiate t with respect to x
dt 1/ 2 2( x1 x)[( x1 x) 2 y12 ]1/ 2 1/ 2 2( x2 x)[( x2 x) 2 y22 ]1/2
dx
c / n1
c / n2
The time should be minimum so
dt
0
condition for the "least time"
dx
( x1 x)[( x1 x) 2 y12 ]1/2 ( x2 x)[( x2 x) 2 y22 ]1/2
0
c / n1
c / n2
( x1 x)
( x2 x)
2
2 1/2
c / n1[( x1 x) y1 ]
c / n2 [( x1 x) 2 y12 ]1/2
Use Eq. (2) in the above expression to find
n1 sin i n2 sin t
sin i n2
sin t n1
Snell's law
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Chapter 1
1.20
11 December 2012
(a)
1 3
n1 n2 n1 n1n3 n1 n1n3
n1n3 n3
n1 n1n3 n3 n1n3
n1 n1n3 2n1n3 n3 n1n3
n2 n3
n1n3 n3
n1n3 n3 n1 n1n3
n1 n1n3 n3 n1n3
n1 n1n3 2n1n3 n3 n1n3
r12 r23
To reduce the reflected light, waves A and B must interfere destructively. To obtain a good degree of
destructive interference between waves A and B, the amplitudes of reflection coefficients must be
comparable. When n2 = (n1n3)1/2, then the reflection coefficient between the air and coating is equal to
that between the coating and the semiconductor. So the reflection is minimum.
(b)
We use n1 = 1 for air, n2 for the antireflection coefficient and n3 =3.5 for Si photodiode,
Rmin
n2 n n
22 1 3
n2 n1n3
1.52 1 3.5
Rmin (SiO 2 ) 2
0.047
1.5 1 3.5
For TiO2
n2 = 2.3
2
2.32 1 3.5
Rmin (TiO 2 ) 2
0.041
2.3 1 3.5
Rmin (TiO 2 ) Rmin (SiO 2 )
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Chapter 1
1.21
11 December 2012
n2 n n
R min 22 1 3
Single layer AR coating
n 2 n1n3
when the reflections A, B, all interfere as destructively as possible. Rmin = 0 when n2 = (n1n3)1/2. The
choice of materials may not always be the best for a single layer antireflection coating. Double layer
AR coatings, as shown in Figure 1.57(b) can achieve lower and sharper reflectance at a specified
wavelength as in Figure 1.57(c). To reduce the reflection of light at the n1/n4, interface, two layers n2
and n3, each quarter wavelength in the layer (/n2 and /n3) are interfaced between n1 and n4. The
reflections A, B and C for normal incidence result in a minimum reflectance given by
2
n 2 n n4 n 22
R min 32 1
Double layer AR coating
2
n3 n1 n4 n2
Double layer reflectance vs. wavelength behavior usually has V-shape, and they are called V-coatings.
(a)
Show that double layer reflectance vanishes when
Best double layer AR coating
(n2/n3)2 = n1/n4
(b)
Consider an InGaAs, a semiconductor crystal with an index 3.8, for use in a photodetector.
What is the reflectance without any AR coating?
(c)
What is the reflectance when InGaAs is coated with a thin AR layer of Si3N4? Which material
in the table would be ideal as an AR coating?
(d)
What two materials would you choose to obtain a V-coating? Note: The choice of an AR
coating also depends on the technology involved in depositing the AR coating and its effects on the
interface states between the AR layer and the semiconductor. Si1-xNx is a common AR coating on
devices inasmuch as it is a good passive dielectric layer, its deposition technology is well established
and changing its composition (x) changes its index.
A B
n1
n1
n2
n2
n3
n3
CBA
Reflectance
Double layer
Single
layer
n4
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 1.57(a) A single layer AR coating. (b) A double layer AR coating and its V-shaped reflectance
spectrum over a wavelength range.
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Chapter 1
1.22
11 December 2012
Solution
(a)
The minimum reflectance,
2
n 2 n n4 n22
Rmin 32 1
0
2
n
n
n
n
4 2
3 1
2
2
n3 n1 n4 n2 0
n32 n1 n4 n22
n1 n22
n4 n32
n1
n
( 2 )2
n4
n3
(b)
(c)
Take
R min
n22 n1n3
2
n 2 n1n3
Rmin
1.952 3.8
7
1.08 10
2
1.95 3.8
n2 1.9493
(n2 / n3 ) 2 n1 / n4
(n2 / n3 ) n1 / n4
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Chapter 1
1.23
11 December 2012
( n2 / n3 ) 1/ 3.8 0.51
This is the ratio we need. From the table MgF2 (n2 = 1.38) and CdS (n3 = 2.60) are the best two
1.38
0.53 .
materials for V-coating: (n2 / n3 )
2.60
The minimum reflectance would be
2
Rmin
0.001
2
2
2
n3 n1 n4 n2 2.60 3.8 1.38
Solution
Instructors choice of answers. Can be given out as a short project to students.
(b)
What is the phase change in the reflected wave when the angle of incidence i = 85 and when
i = 90?
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Chapter 1
1.24
11 December 2012
(c)
What is the penetration depth of the evanescent wave into medium 2 when i = 85 and when i
= 90?
(d) What is the reflection coefficient and reflectance at normal incidence (i = 0) when the light
beam traveling in the silica medium (n = 1.460) is incident on a silica/air interface?
(e)
What is the reflection coefficient and reflectance at normal incidence when a light beam
traveling in air is incident on an air/silica (n = 1.460) interface? How do these compare with part (d)
and what is your conclusion?
Solution
(a)
The critical angle c for TIR is given by
n
1.430
c sin 1 2 sin 1
78.36
1.460
n1
(b)
Since the incidence angle i > c, there is a phase shift in the reflected wave. The phase change
in Er, is given by . With n1 = 1.460, n2 = 1.430, and i = 85,
1/2
sin 2 i n 2
tan
cos i
= 2.08675
1
tan 2 2.08675
1
2
2
2
1.430
sin (85)
1.460
cos(85)
1/2
2 tan 1 (2.08673)=128.79
so that the phase change is 128.79 . For the Er,// component, the phase change is
1/2
sin 2 i n 2
1
1
tan 2 / / 2
n 2 cos i
so that
1
tan
n2
1
2
sin 2 i n 2
cos i
tan
2 tan 1 ()=180
tan
1
2
1
2
2
2
1.430
sin
(90
1.460
cos(90)
1/2
so that the phase change is 180 . For the Er,// component, the phase change is
1/2
sin 2 i n 2
1
1
tan 2 / / 2
n 2 cos i
so that
1
tan
n2
1
2
tan(1/2// 12 )=
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Chapter 1
1.25
11 December 2012
which gives
// = 2tan-1()
2n2 n1
2
sin 2 i 1
o n2
1/ 2
1/ 2
2 (1.430) 1.460
2
2
sin (85 ) 1
9
(850 10 ) 1.430
= 1.96106 m
2 (1.430) 1.460
2
2
sin (90 ) 1
9
(850 10 ) 1.430
= 2.175106 m
n1 n2 1.460 1
= 0.187
n1 n2 1.460 1
R// = R = r//2 = 0.035 or 3.5%
r// r
and
(e)
n1 n2 1 1.460
= 0.187
n1 n2 1 1.460
and
R// = R = r//2 = 0.035 or 3.5%
When r is a negative number, then there is a phase shift of 180 (or ) which is in agreement with
part (b).
r// r
1.19 Dielectric mirror Consider a dielectric mirror that is made up of quarter wave layers of GaAs
with nH = 3.382 and AlAs with nL = 2.912, both around 1500 nm. The GaAs-AlAs dielectric mirror is
inside a vertical cavity surface emitting laser diode operating at 1.5 m. The substrate is GaAs with n3
= nsubstrate = 3.382 . The light is incident on the mirror from another semiconductor that is GaAlAs with
an index n0 = 3.40. Calculate how many pairs of layers N would be needed to get a reflectance above
95%. What would be the bandwidth?
Solution
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Chapter 1
1.26
11 December 2012
2
2
n1 2 N n0
2 N n0 2 N
n
n
n n
1
n3 2
2
3
RN
2N
n0
n1
n12 N n0 n22 N
n2 n3
n3
Insert RN = 0.95 and solve,
n 1 RN
ln 0
n
1
R
1 3
N
=14.58 i.e. 15 pairs are needed
N
2
ln n1
n2
n n2
4
=0.095167
arcsin 1
0
n1 n2
n1
n
2
2N
n0
1 RN
n3 1 R
N
Apply
n2
n1
n1 1
with
n2 1.33
(b)
tan p
Given
and
n1 1.33
n2 1
c sin 1
n2
1
sin 1
48.75
1.33
n1
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Chapter 1
1.27
11 December 2012
(b) What is the Brewster angle (the polarization angle p) and the critical angle (c) for total internal
reflection for the wave in (a); the wave that is traveling in GaAs and incident on the GaAs/AlGaAs
interface.
(c)
What is the reflection coefficient and the phase change in the reflected wave when the angle of
incidence i = 79?
(d) What is the penetration depth of the evanescent wave into medium 2 when i = 79 and when i
= 89? What is your conclusion?
Solution
(a)
Given,
n1 3.60
n2 3.30
n1 n2 3.60 3.30
0.043
n1 n2 3.60 3.30
we have
r/ / r
R R/ / r r/ / 0.0018
2
2n1
3.60
2
1.043
3.60 3.30
n1 n2
4n1n2
4 3.60 3.30
T = T T/ /
0.998
2
(n1 n2 )
(3.60 3.30)2
t/ / t
and
(b)
Apply
n2
n1
n
sin c 2
n1
n1 3.60
tan p
and
Take
n2 3.30
(c)
Take
n2 3.30
0.9166
n1 3.60
then,
0.1908 0.3513 j
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Chapter 1
1.28
11 December 2012
0.1598
0.5444 0.8385 j
and
r 0.5444 j (0.8385)
r 0.9997exp( j 237 )
0.9997exp( j 57 ) 0.9997exp( j )
237
123
1/2
sin 2 i n 2
or
tan
cos i
122.98 = 123
Now the parallel component, r//,
1
2
1/2
cos(79)
0.3513 j 0.1603
r/ /
We know that
0.1491
0.6552 j 0.7552
r/ / 0.6552 j (0.7552)
r/ / 1.088 exp( j 49.05 )
r/ / | r // | exp( j // ) , thus
exp( j // ) exp( j 49.05 )
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Chapter 1
1.29
11 December 2012
/ / 49.05
or,
/ / 12
1
1
tan 12
tan
2
0.91662
n
1
1
( / / ) tan (2.1913) 65.47
2
tan
1
2
1
2
122.98 2.1913
/ / ) 130.94
/ / 130.94 180 49.05
(
(d)
The attenuation coefficient 2 for i =79 is
2
2n2 n1
2
sin 2 i 1
o n2
1/ 2
1/2
i.e.
2 (3.30) 3.60
2
2
sin
(79
)
1
8.92 106 m 1 .
2 (3.30) 3.60
2
2
sin
(89
)
1
1.01107 m 1
c sin 1
n2
3.40
sin 1
70.81
3.60
n1
i 80 c
Clearly,
So, this results in total internal reflection.
n
n2 3.40
0.9444
n1 3.60
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Chapter 1
1.30
11 December 2012
tan
1/2
sin 2 i n 2
cos i
1/2
cos(80)
1.6078
/ / 12
1
1
tan 12
tan
2
0.94442
n
1
1
( / / ) tan (1.8027) 60.98
2
tan
1
2
1
2
1
2
116.24 1.8027
/ / ) 121.96
/ / 121.96 180 58.04
(
n2 / n1 n
sin i n2
n
sin t n1
sin 2 t
sin 2 i
n2
Perpendicular component
r
Er 0,
Ei 0,
r
cos i n cos t cos i n[1 sin 2 t ]1/ 2
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Chapter 1
1.31
11 December 2012
sin 2 i 1/2
]
2
n
r
sin 2 i 1/2
cos i n[1
]
n2
cos i [n 2 sin 2 i ]1/2
r
cos i [n 2 sin 2 i ]1/2
cos i n[1
Parallel component
r/ /
2n1 cos i
2 cos i
2 cos i
2
1/2
sin 2 i 1/2
cos i n[1 sin t ]
cos i n[1
]
n2
2 cos i
t
cos i [n 2 sin 2 i ]1/ 2
E
2n1 cos i
2 cos i
2 cos i
t / / t 0,/ /
Ei 0,/ /
sin 2 i 1/2
[1
] n cos i
[1 sin 2 t ]1/2 n cos i
n2
r/ /
sin 2 i 1/2
[1 sin 2 t ]1/2 n cos i
[1
] n cos i
n2
[n 2 sin 2 i ]1/2 n 2 cos i
r/ / 2
[n sin 2 i ]1/2 n 2 cos i
Er 0,/ /
Et 0,
t//
2 cos i
cos t n cos i
2 cos i
t//
2n cos i
[n sin 2 i ]1/2 n 2 cos i
[1
sin i 1/2
] n cos i
n2
2
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Chapter 1
1.32
11 December 2012
2 cos i
cos i [n 2 sin 2 i ]1/ 2
r 1 t
r 1
1.24 Fresnel's equations Consider a light wave traveling in a glass medium with an index n1 = 1.440
and it is incident on the glass-air interface. Using Fresnel equations only i.e. Eqs (6a) and 6(b) in 1.6,
calculate the reflection coefficients r and r// and hence reflectances R and R// for (a) i = 25 and (b)
i = 50. In the case of i = 50, find the phase change and // from the reflection coefficients by
writing r = |r|exp(j). Compare and // from r and r// calculations with those calculated from Eqs
(11) and (12).
Solution
The above problem is solved using LiveMath and reproduced below. It should be relatively
straightforward to follow.
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1.25 Goos-Haenchen phase shift A ray of light which is traveling in a glass medium (1) of
refractive index n1 = 1.460 becomes incident on a less dense glass medium (2) of refractive index n2 =
1.430. Suppose that the free space wavelength of the light ray is 850nm. The angle of incidence i =
85. Estimate the lateral Goos-Haenchen shift in the reflected wave for the perpendicular field
component. Recalculate the Goos-Haenchen shift if the second medium has n2 = 1 (air). What is your
conclusion? Assume that the virtual reflection occurs from a virtual plane in medium B at a distance d
that is the same as the penetration depth. Note that d actually depends on the polarization, the direction
of the field, but we will ignore this dependence.
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Chapter 1
1.34
Solution
Figure 1.20 The reflected light beam in total internal reflection appears to have been laterally shifted by an amount z at the
interface. It appears as though it is reflected from a virtual plane at a depth d in the second medium from the interface.
2n2
n
1
2
sin i 1
2
o
n 2
7
The penetration depth is = 1/2 = 5.0910 m.
As an estimate, we can assume that d ~ so that the Goose-Haenchen shift is
z 2dtan = 2(5.0910-7 m)(tan85) = 11.610-6 m = 11.6 m
We can repeat the calculation using n2 = 1 (air), then we find = 1/2 = 1.2810-7 m, and z
2dtan = 2(1.2810-7 m)(tan85) = 2.9310-6 m = 2.93 m. The shift is small when the refractive index
difference is large. The wave penetrates more into the second medium when the refractive index
difference is smaller. Note: The use of d is a rough approximation to estimate z.
1.26 Evanescent wave Total internal reflection (TIR) of a plane wave from a boundary between a more
dense medium (1) n1 and a less dense medium (2) n2 is accompanied by an evanescent wave propagating
in medium 2 near the boundary. Find the functional form of this wave and discuss how its magnitude
varies with the distance into medium 2.
Solution
However, from Snell's law, when i > c, sint = (n1/n2)sini > 1 and cost = [1 sin2t] = jA2
is a purely imaginary number. Thus, taking cost = jA2
Et, = tEio,expj(t zktsint + jyktA2) = tEio,exp(yktA2)expj(t zktsint)
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Chapter 1
1.35
which has an amplitude that decays along y as exp(2y) where 2 = ktA2. Note that jA2 is ignored
because it implies a wave in medium 2 whose amplitude and hence intensity grows. Consider the
traveling wave part expj(t zktsint). Here, ktsint = kisini (by virtue of Snell's law). But kisini = kiz,
which is the wave vector along z, that is, along the boundary. Thus the evanescent wave propagates along
z at the same speed as the incident and reflected waves along z. Furthermore, for TIR we need sini >
n2/n1. This means that the transmission coefficient,
ni cos i
12
n 2
cos i 2 sin2 i
n1
t 0 exp j
must be a complex number as indicated by texp(j) in which t is a real number and is a phase
change. Note that t does not, however, change the general behavior of propagation along z and the
penetration along y.
1.27 TIR and FTIR
(a)
By considering the electric field component in medium in Figure 1.22(b), explain how you can
adjust the amount of transmitted light.
(b)
What is the critical angle at the hypotenuse face of a beam splitter cube (Figure 1.22 (b)) made
of glass with n1 = 1.6 and having a thin film of liquid with n2 =1.3. Can you use 45 prisms with
normal incidence?
(c)
Explain how a light beam can propagate along a layer of material between two different media
as shown in Figure 1.59 (a). Explain what the requirements are for the indices n1, n2, n3. Will there be
any losses at the reflections?
(d)
Consider the prism coupler arrangement in Figure 1.59(b). Explain how this arrangement
works for coupling an external light beam from a laser into a thin layer on the surface of a glass
substrate. Light is then propagated inside the thin layer along the surface of the substrate. What is the
purpose of the adjustable coupling gap?
Figure 1.22 (a) A light incident at the long face of a glass prism suffers TIR; the prism deflects the light. (b) Two prisms
separated by a thin low refractive index film forming a beam-splitter cube. The incident beam is split into two beams by FTIR.
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Chapter 1
1.36
Figure 1.59 (a) Light propagation along an optical guide. (b) Coupling of laser light into a thin layer - optical guide - using a
prism. The light propagates along the thin layer.
Solution
(a)
Consider the prism A when the neighboring prism C in Figure 1.22 (b) in far away. When the
light beam in prism A is incident on the A/B interface, hypotenuse face, it suffers TIR as i > c. There
is however an evanescent wave whose field decays exponentially with distance in medium B. When
we bring prism C close to A, the field in B will reach C and consequently penetrates C. (The tangential
field must be continuous from B to C). One cannot just use the field expression for the evanescent
wave because this was derived for a light beam incident at an interface between two media only; no
third medium. The transmitted light intensity from A to C depends on the thickness of B.
(b)
For the prism A in Figure 1.22 (b), n1 = 1.6 and n2 = 1.3 so that the critical angle for TIR at the
hypotenuse face is
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Chapter 1
1.37
and
so that i > 53.1 will satisfy TIR. There is no loss in TIR as the magnitude of the amplitude of the
reflected way is the same as that of the incident wave.
Note: There is an additional requirement that the waves entering the thin film interfere constructively,
otherwise the waves will interfere destructively to cancel each other. Thus there will be an additional
requirement, called the waveguide condition, which is discussed in Chapter 2.
(e)
The light ray entering the prism is deflected towards the base of the prism as shown in Figure
1.59 (b). There is a small gap between the prism and the thin layer. Although the light arriving at the
prism base/gap interface is reflected, because of the close proximity of the thin layer, some light is
coupled into the thin layer per discussion in Part (a) due to frustrated TIR. This arrangement is a much
more efficient way to couple the light into the thin layer because the incident light is received by the
large hypotenuse face compared with coupling the light directly into the thin layer.
1.28 Complex refractive index and dielectric constant The complex refractive index = n jK can
be defined in terms of the complex relative permittivity r = r1 jr2as
= n jK = r1/ 2 = r1 jr 2
where r1 and r2 are the real and imaginary parts of r. Show that
( 2 r22 )1 / 2 r1
n r1
1/ 2
( 2 2 )1/ 2 r1
K r1 r 2
and
1/ 2
Solution
Given
n jK r r1 j r 2
we have
n 2 2 jnK K 2 r1 j r 2
2nK r 2
and
n 2 K 2 r1
K r 2 / 2n
and substituting into the second equation above,
(1)
(2)
n r 2 r1
2n
n 4 n 2 r1 14 r22 0
n2
r1 r21 4( 14 r22 )
2
r1 r21 r22
2
It is apparent that n has two solutions. The negative sign has to be excluded because this would make
the numerator negative and lead to a complex number for n. By definition, n is a real number, and not
imaginary. Thus,
n2
r1 r21 r22
2
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Chapter 1
1.38
1/ 2
( 2 2 )1 / 2 r1
n r1 r 2
r2
K 2 r1
2
K
4
K K 2 r1 14 r22 0
2
2
( 2 2 )1 / 2 r1
K r1 r 2
( 2 2 )1 / 2 r1
n r1 r 2
1/ 2
4.653
Similarly
1/ 2
( 2 2 )1 / 2 r1
K r1 r 2
1/ 2
0.298
0.42 or 42%
R
( n 1) 2 K 2 (4.653 1) 2 0.2982
The absorption coefficient is 2k as in Eq. (1.8.67) so that
2(2 )hK
2(2 )(1.5 eV)(0.298)
= 4.5310-6 m-1
15
8
-1
hc
(4.136 10 eV s)(3 10 m s )
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Chapter 1
1.39
Solution
At 60 m:
K 1, and n 0.6, so that the corresponding free-space wave vector is
ko = 2/ = 2/(6010-6 m) = 1.05105 m-1.
The absorption coefficient is 2k as in Eq. (1.8.6) so that
( n 1) 2 K 2 (0.6 1) 2 12
= 0.32 or 32%
( n 1) 2 K 2 (0.6 1)2 12
At 80 m:
K 0.27, and n 4.5, so that the corresponding free-space wave vector is
ko = 2/ = 2/(8010-6 m) = 7.85104 m-1.
The absorption coefficient is 2k so that
( n 1) 2 K 2 (0.6 1)2 12
1.31 Refractive index and attenuation in the infrared region - Reststrahlen absorption Figure
1.26 shows the refractive index n and the attenuation (absorption) coefficient K as a function of
wavelength in the infrared for a CdTe crystal due to lattice absorption, called Reststrahlen
absorption. It results from the ionic polarization of the crystal induced by the optical field in the light
wave. The relative permittivity r due to positive (Cd2+) and negative (Te) ions being made to
oscillate by the optical field about their equilibrium positions is given in its simplest form by
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r r j r rH
Chapter 1
1.40
rH rL
(1)
1 j
T T
T
where rL and r are the relative permittivity at low (L) and high (H) frequencies, well below and
above the infrared peak, is a loss coefficient characterizing the rate of energy transfer from the EM
wave to lattice vibrations (phonons), and T is a transverse optical lattice vibration frequency that is
related to the nature of bonding between the ions in the crystal. Table 1.3 provides some typical values
for CdTe and GaAs. Eq. (1) can be used to obtain a reasonable approximation to the infrared refractive
index n and absorption K due to Reststrahlen absorption.
(a) Consider CdTe, and plot n and K vs. from 40 m to 90 m and compare with the experimental
results in Figure 1.26 in terms of the peak positions and the width of the absorption peak.
(b) Consider GaAs, and plot n and K vs. from 30 m to 50 m.
(c) Calculate n and K for GaAs at = 38.02 m and compare with the experimental values n = 7.55
and K = 0.629.
2
Figure 1.26 Optical properties of CdTe as a function of wavelength in the infrared region.
(c) Calculate n and K for GaAs at = 38.02 m and compare with the experimental values n = 7.55
and K = 0.629.
Solution
From Question 1.28
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Chapter 1
1.41
1
2
2
K n 2 r
r r r
2
which means that we can substitute the values of r and r from Eq. (1) into the above two equations and
plot n and K as a function of wavelength.
(a) CdTe
n
(b) GaAs
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Chapter 1
1.42
o
2
o
o
c
and
l c c t
o2
(b) Calculate for a lasing emission from a He-Ne laser that has o = 632.8 nm and 1.5
GHz. Find its coherence time and length.
Solution
(a)
See Example 1.9.3
(b)
Consider the width in wavelength,
= (2/c) =(1.5109 s-1 (632/810-9 m)2/(3108 m s-1 = 3.1610-6 m.
The coherence time is
t 1/ = 1/(1.5109 Hz) = 0.66610-9 s
The coherence length is
lc = ct = (3108 m s-1)(0.66610-9 s) = 0.20 m = 20 cm
1.34 Coherence lengths Find the coherence length of the following light sources
(a)
(b)
(c)
A quantum well semiconductor laser diode emitting at 1550 nm with a spectral with of 0.1 nm
(d)
(e)
A specially designed single mode and stabilized HeNe laser with a spectral width of 100 MHz
Solution
d
c
2
(a)
d
so that
= (c/2) =(15010-9 m)(3108 m s-1(155010-9 m)2 = 1.8731013 Hz
Thus, the coherence time is
t 1/ = 1/(1.8731013 Hz) = 5.3410-14 s
The coherence length is
lc = ct = 1.610-5 m or 16m
(b)
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Chapter 1
1.43
Apply
1
t
2L
2L
m 1 m
2L
(m 1) m
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Chapter 1
1.44
c
3 10 8
= 3108 Hz.
2L 2(0.5)
The wavelength separation of two consecutive modes is
2 (632.8 10 9 ) 2
= 4.00410-13 m or 0.400 pm.
m m
2L
2(0.5)
Finesse is
R 1 / 2
F
=103.1
1 R
Quality factor is
Q = m0F =1580278103.14 = 1.63108
m
or
1.36 Fabry-Perot optical cavity from a ruby crystal Consider a ruby crystal of diameter 1 cm and
length 10 cm. The refractive index is 1.78. The ends have been silvered and the reflectances are 0.99
and 0.95 each. What is the nearest mode number that corresponds to a radiation of wavelength 694.3
nm? What is the actual wavelength of the mode closest to 694.3 nm? What is the mode separation in
frequency and wavelength? What are the finesse F and Q-factors for the cavity?
Solution
Number mode nearest to the emission wavelength is
2L
=(210 cm)(1.78)/(694.3 nm) = 512746.65 i.e. i.e. m0 = 512746.
m
n
The actual wavelength of the mode closest to 694.3 nm is
2 Ln
0
=(210 cm) (1.78)/ (512746) = 694.3008819 nm
m0
The frequency separation m of two consecutive modes is
c
c
c
c
c
m m 1 m
= 8.43109 Hz.
2 Ln
m 1 m 2 Ln
2 Ln
(m 1)
m
The wavelength separation of two consecutive modes is
2m
= 0.00135408 nm = 1.35 pm
2 Ln
Average geometric reflectance is R = (R1R2)1/2=0.96979
R 1 / 2
= 102.42
Finesse, F
1 R
Quality factor, Q = m0F =1580278103.14= 5.25107
1.37 Fabry-Perot optical cavity spectral width Consider an optical cavity of length 40 cm. Assume
the refractive index is 1, and use Eq. (1.11.3) to plot the peak closest to 632.8 nm for 4 values of R =
0.99, 0.90, 0.75 and 0.6. For each case find the spectral width m,, the finesse F and Q. How accurate
is Eq.(1.11.5) in predicting m? (You may want to use a graphing software for this problem.)
Solution
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c
m m m f ;
2L
f = c/(2L)
Io
(1 R ) 4R sin 2 (kL)
Io
;
kmL = m
(1 R ) 2
I cavity
I max
Chapter 1
R 1 / 2
(2)
Cavity intensity
(3)
(4)
Spectral width
(5)
1 R
Resonant frequency m
Quality factor, Q
mF
Spectral width
m
F
1.45
(6)
Cavity fundamental mode is f = c/(2L) = 3.75108 Hz. The Graph below shows that the peak closest
to 632.8 nm is 632.80025 nm which corresponds to m = 4.74083251014 Hz.
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Chapter 1
1.46
, nm
exp, MHz
0.99
0.9
0.75
0.6
1.5000E-06
1.12
1.6750E-05
12.55
4.6000E-05
34.46
8.3000E-05
62.18
calc, MHz
1.20
12.58
34.46
61.64
Fcalculation
312.58
29.80
10.88
6.08
Fexperiment
333.70
29.88
10.88
6.03
4.219E+14
3.778E+13
1.376E+13
7.624E+12
Source
From Graph
From Graph
m
F
f
F
R 1 / 2
1 R
f
m
m
Q
m
F
1.38 Diffraction Suppose that a collimated beam of light of wavelength 600 nm is incident on a
circular aperture of diameter of 200 m. What is the divergence of the transmitted beam? What is the
diameter at a distance 10 m? What would be the divergence if the aperture were a single slit of width
200 m?
Solution
(a)
sin o 1.22
1.22
600 109
3.66 103
6
200 10
o 0.209
2 J ( )
I ( ) I o 1
where Io is the maximum intensity, = (1/2)kDsin is a variable quantity that represents the angular
position on the screen as well as the wavelength (k = 2) and the aperture diameter D. J1() can be
calculated from
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Chapter 1
J 1 ( )
1.47
cos( sin )d
Using numerical integration (or a suitable math software package), plot [J1()/ ] vs. for = 0 to 10
using suitable number of points, and then find the zeros. What are the first two that lead to dark
rings?
Solution
6.000E-01
5.000E-01
4.000E-01
3.000E-01
2.000E-01
1.000E-01
0.000E+00
-1.000E-01
-2.000E-01
-3.000E-01
-4.000E-01
0.4
0.2
Y
0
J ( )
1
0
=
= 0.017
J 1 (5.14)
5.14
Additional Problem
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Chapter 1
1.48
Consider an aperture that is 50 m in diameter and illuminated by a 550 nm green laser light beam. If
the screen is 2 m away, what are the radius of the first dark ring?The first dark ring occurs when
so that = (1/2)kDsin(1/2)(2)Dsin
= (1/2)kDsin(1/2)[2m(50 m) sin
gives
= 1.16o.
Let R be the distance from the aperture to the screen. If the radius of the dark ring is r then r/R = tan.
Thus substituting R = 2 m, and = 1.16o we find r = 0.024 m and 2r = 0.048 m.
1.40 Bragg diffraction Suppose that parallel grooves are etched on the surface of a semiconductor to
act as a reflection grating and that the periodicity (separation) of the grooves is 1 micron. If light of
wavelength 1.3 m is incident at an angle 89 to the normal, find the diffracted beams.
Solution
When the incident beam is not normal to the diffraction grating, then the diffraction angle m for the
m-th mode is given by,
d(sinm sini = m ; m = 0, 1, 2,
Solving these two equations, we find m = complex number for m = 1, and m = 17.5 for m = 1. m =
17.5 for m = 1, in fact, is the only solution.
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Chapter 1
1.49
Solution
Consider the transmission grating shown in Figure 1Q41-1 with normal incidence, i = 0
The grating equation for normal incidence with the grating in air is given by
dsin = m ; m = 0, 1, 2,
in which we need to set
d 2m
For 1.550m
2m sin m 1.550m
sin 0.775m
For m = 1
sin 1 (0.775) 50.08
For 1.540m
For m = 1
2m sin m 1.540m
sin 0.770 m
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Chapter 1
1.50
1
1
2d
sin 450 i
m
(a)
The equation shows that the largest may be achieved for m = 1 which is usually done in
monochromator. Substituting 400 and 10 into above formula we get the values of 123.3 nm and 982.4
nm that can be captured by the photodetector when we rotate the grating from i = 1 to 40.
(b)
At i=150 and m = 1 the above formula gives = 707.1 nm
Spectral resolution may be found by differentiating the above formula
s
2d cos45 i i 2d cos45 i
R
which gives = 2.45 nm
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Chapter 1
1.51
1.43 Thin film optics Consider light incident on a thin film on a substrate, and assume normal
incidence for simplicity.
(a)
Consider a thin soap film in air, n1 = n2 = 1, n2 = 1.40. If the soap thickness d = 1 m, plot the
reflectance vs. wavelengt from 0.35 to 0.75 m, which includes the visible range. What is your
conclusion?
(b)
MgF2 thin films are used on glass plates for the reduction of glare. Given that n1 = 1, n2 = 1.38
and n3 = 1.70. (n for glass depends on the type of glass but 1.6 is a reasonable value), plot the
reflectance as a function of wavelength from 0.35 to 0.75 m for a thin film of thickness 0.10 m.
What is your conclusion?
Solution
Substitute = 2dn2(2 in
r r e j
r r e j ( 4n2 d / )
r 1 2 j 1 2 j ( 4n2 d / )
1 r1r2 e
1 r1r2 e
2
and plot R = | r | as a function of wavelength from 0.35 to 0.75 m as in the figure. Clearly, certain
wavelengths, in this case, violet, green, orange-red are reflected more than others (blue and yellow).
(a)
Figure: Reflectance vs wavelength in the visible range for a MgF2 tin film coating on glass
The reflectance is lowered substantially by the thin film coating, and remains low over the visible
spectrum. Without the coating, the reflectance is 6.0%. With the coating, it is below 1%
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Chapter 1
1.52
Authors comment: The above are for normal incidence. Obviously reflections at other angles will have
R vs shifted in wavelength. This will affect the spectrum of the reflected light from the soap film but
the MgF2 coating will still result in a relatively low reflectance over the visible because the minimum
in the reflectance is very broad over the visible range.
1.44 Thin film optics Consider a glass substrate with n3 = 165 that has been coated with a
transparent optical film (a dielectric film) with n2 = 2.50, n1 = 1 (air). If the film thickness is 500 nm,
find the minimum and maximum reflectances and transmittances and their corresponding wavelengths
in the visible range for normal incidence. (Assume normal incidence.) Note that the thin n2-film is not
an AR coating, and for n1 < n3 < n2,
2
Rmax
n2 n n
n n
22 1 3 and Rmin 3 1
n2 n1n3
n3 n1
Solution
Minimum reflectance Rmin occurs at = 2 or multiples of 2 , and maximum reflectance Rmax occurs
at = or an odd integer multiple of 2 . The corresponding equations to Eq. (1.11.8) are
2
Rmin
n n 1.65 1
3 1
n3 n1 1.65 1
2
= 0.060or 6.0 %
2
n 2 n n 2.52 (1)(1.65)
= 0.34 or 34%
Rmax 22 1 3 2
and
n2 n1n3 2.5 (1)(1.65)
Corresponding transmittances are,
Tmax = 1 Rmin = 0.94 or 94%
and
Tmin = 1 Rmax = 0.66 or 66%.
Since n2 is not an intermediate index between n1 and n3, the n2-film does not reduce the reflection that
would have occurred at the n1-n3 interface had there been no n2-layer. Indeed R13 in the absence of n2,
is the same as Rmin and the n2-layer increases reflection
Since = 2dn2(2, and d = 500 nm, and the wavelengths for maximum reflectance are given
by the condition = (2m+1), m = 0, 1,2we can calculate the maximum reflectance wavelengths
max = 4dn2/ 4dn2/(2m+1)]
max
1
5000
3
1,667
5
1000
7
714
9
555
11
455
13
385
(nm)
1.45 Thin film optics Consider light incident on a thin film on a substrate, and assume normal
incidence for simplicity. Plot the reflectance R and transmittance as a function of the phase change
from = 4 to +4 for the following cases
(a)
Thin soap film in air, n1 = n2 = 1, n2 = 1.40. If the soap thickness d = 1 m, what are the
maxima and minima in the reflectance in the visible range?
(b)
A thin film of MgF2 on a glass plate for the reduction of glare, where that n1 = 1, n2 = 1.38 and
n3 = 1.70. (n for glass depends on the type of glass but 1.7 is a reasonable value). What should be the
thickness od MgF2 to for minimum reflection at 550 nm?
(c)
A thin film of semiconductor on glass where n1 = 1, n2 = 3.5 and n3 = 1.55.
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Chapter 1
1.53
Solution
1.46 Transmission through a plate Consider the transmittance of light through a partially
transparent glass plate of index n2 in which light experiences attenuation (either by absorption or
scattering). Suppose that the plate is in a medium of index n1,the reflectance at each n1-n2 interface is
R and the attenuation coefficient is .
(a)
Show that
Tplate
(1 R ) 2 e d
(1 R 2 )e 2d
(b) If T is transmittance of a glass plate of refractive index n in a medium of index no show that, in
the absence of any absorption in the glass plate,
n/no= T-1 + (T-2 1)1/2
if we neglect any losses in the glass plate.
(c)
If the transmittance of a glass plate in air has been measured to be 89.96%. What is its refractive
index? Do you think this is a good way to measure the refractive index?
Solution
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Chapter 1
1.54
Figure 1.47 Transmitted and reflected light through a slab of material in which there is no
interference.
(a) Consider a light beam of unit intensity that is passed through a thick plate of partially transparent
material of index n2 in a medium of index n1 as in Figure 1.47. The first transmitted light intensity into
the plate is (1R), and the first transmitted light out is (1R) (1R) e d = (1R)2 e d . However,
there are internal reflections as shown, so that the second transmitted light is (1R) e d R e d
R e d (1R) = R2(1R)2 e3 d so that the transmitted intensity through the plate is
3d
R2 e
+ R4
5d
+ R4(1R)2 e
+ = (1R)2 e d [1 +
e4d + ]
(1 R ) 2 e d
1 R 2 e2 d
(b) For the transparent plate =0 and the transmittance of plate becomes
2
(1 R ) 2 e d 1 R 1 R
Tplate
=
1 R 2 e2 d
1 R2 1 R
Tplate
or
n n0
the equation above becomes
Assuming that R
n n0
2
T plate
n n0
1
2
2
2
2
n n0
n n0 n n0
n / n0 1 n / n0 1
2(n / n0 )
2
2
2
2
2
n n0 n n0 n / n0 1 n / n0 1 (n / n0 ) 2 1
n n0
1
n n0
which leads to quadratic equation (n / n0 ) 2 2 (n / n0 ) 1 0 with the solution n/no= T-1 + (T-2 1)1/2
T
.
(c) The transmittance of 89.96% leads to refractive index of 1.5967. In practice, this is not very good
method because it does not give sufficient precision.
1.47 Scattering Consider Rayleigh scattering. If the incident light is unpolarized, the intensity Is of
the scattered light a point at a distance r at an angle to the original light beam is given by
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Is
Chapter 1
1.55
1 cos2
r2
Plot a polar plot of the intensity Is at at a fixed distance r from the scatter as we change the angle
around the scattered. In a polar plot, the radial coordinate (OP in Figure 1.48 b)) is Is. Construct a
contour plot in the xy plane in which a contour represents a constant intensity. You need to solve vary
r and or x and y such that Is remains constant. Note x = rcos and y = rsin ; = arctan(y/x), r = (x2 +
y2)1/2.
Author's Note: There is a printing error. The minus sign should have been plus as in the above
expression. This should have been obvious from Figure 1.48(b). The error will be corrected in the next
reprint. The e-version of the book is correct.
Solution
(a) Polar plot
Take I s 1 cos2 as we are interested in the angular dependence only (set r = 1).
In the polar plot, the distance from the origin is the intensity. Do not confuse this with r. r is contant
but in the polar plot the coordinate r is now the intensity.
2
1
2
Intensity
3
6
1 cos2
Is
We can now plot the above on a polar plot in which the distance from the center is r, and r and pairs
of coordinates are such that they always yield a constant Is because we have set Is = constant. We can
arbitrarily set I = 1, 2 or 3 to get 3 contour lines.
Blue, Is = 1, black, Is = 2 and red, Is = 3 in AU (arbitrary units)
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Chapter 1
1.56
0.5 r 1
1.5
6
0
-2
y
-2
Density plot of Rayleigh scattering. Brightness represents more light intensity at the point r,
1.48 One dimensional photonic crystal (a Bragg mirror) The 1D photonic crystal in Figure 1.50(a),
which is essentially a Bragg reflector, has the dispersion behavior shown in Figure 1.51. The stopband for normal incidence and for all polarizations of light is given by (R.H. Lipson and C. Lu,
Eur. J. Phys. 30, S33, 2009)
n n
2(2 / ) arcsin 2 1
o
n2 n1
where is the stop-band, o is the center frequency defined in Figure 1.50(a) and n2 and n1 are the
high and low refractive indices. Calculate the lowest stop band in terms of photon energy in eV, and
wavelength (nm) for a structure in which n2 = 4 and n1 = 1.5, and n1d1 = n2d2 = /4 and d1 = 2 m.
Solution
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Chapter 1
1.57
n n
o 2(2 / ) arcsin 2 1
n2 n1
n2 = 4 and n1 = 1.5, d1 = 2 m
n1d1 n2 d 2 / 4
1.5 2 m 4d 2 / 4
d 2 0.75 m
0 12 m
c
0 2 1.57 1014
4 1.5
15
1.57 1014 2(2 / ) arcsin
5.4110
4 1.5
8
2 3 10
2 c /
3.48 107 m 348nm
5.411015
1
5.411015
E h / 2 6.62 1034 J s
)
3.56eV
1.6 1019 J eV -1
2
1.49 Photonic crystals Concepts have been borrowed from crystallography, such as a unit cell, to
define a photonic crystal. What is the difference between a unit cell used in a photonic crystal and that
used in a real crystal? What is the size limit on the unit cell of a photonic crystal? Is the refractive
index a microscopic or a macroscopic concept? What is the assumption on the refractive index?
Solution
The size limit on the unit cell of a photonic crystal is that it must be longer than the wavelength scale.
Refractive index is a macroscopic concept.
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Chapter 1
1.58
LiveMath interpretation
This is a comment, and is not used in calculations
A square represents a mathematical statement
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Chapter 2
2.2
3 February 2013
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Chapter 2
2.3
3 February 2013
Figure 2Q1-1 Amplitude of the electric field across the planar dielectric waveguide. Red, m = 0; blue, m = 1;
black, m = 2.
2.2
Standing waves inside the core of a symmetric slab waveguide Consider a symmetric planar
dielectric waveguide. Allowed upward and downward traveling waves inside the core of the planar
waveguide set-up a standing wave along y. The standing wave can only exist if the wave can be
replicated after it has traveled along the y-direction over one round trip. Put differently, a wave starting
at A in Figure 2.51 and traveling towards the upper face will travel along y, be reflected at B, travel
down, become reflected again at A, and then it would be traveling in the same direction as it started. At
this point, it must have an identical phase to its starting phase so that it can replicate itself and not
destroy itself. Given that the wavevector along y is m, derive the waveguide condition.
Figure 2.51 Upward and downward traveling waves along y set-up a standing wave. The condition for setting-up a
standing wave is that the wave must be identical, able to replicate itself, after one round trip along y.
Solution
From Figure 2.51 it can be seen that the optical path is
AB BA 4a
With the ray under going a phase change with each reflection the total phase change is
4a m 2
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Chapter 2
2.4
3 February 2013
The wave will replicate itself, is the phase is same after the one round-trip, thus
4a m 2 2m
and since m k1 cos m
2n1 (2a)
2n1
cos m we get
cos m m m
as required.
2.3
(a)
Consider the two parallel rays 1 and 2 in Figure 2.52. Show that when they meet at C at a
distance y above the guide center, the phase difference is
m = k12(a y)cosmm
(b)
m m ( y ) m
(c)
y
(m m )
a
The two waves interfering at C can be most simply and conveniently represented as
E ( y ) A cos(t ) A cos[t m ( y )]
Hence find the amplitude of the field variation along y, across the guide. What is your conclusion?
Figure 2.52 Rays 1 and 2 are initially in phase as they belong to the same wavefront. Ray 1 experiences total internal
reflection at A. 1 and 2 interfere at C. There is a phase difference between the two waves.
Solution
(a)
and
C/AC = cos(2)
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Chapter 2
2.5
3 February 2013
=k1(a y)/cos][2cos2]
= k1(a y)cos
(b)
2 (2a )n1
Given,
cos m m m
(m m ) m m
2n1 (2a)
k1 (2a)
cos m
Then,
y
y
m 1 m m m m (m m )
a
a
m ( y ) m
(c)
m m
m
k1 (2a)
y
y
(m m ) m m ( y ) m ( m m )
a
a
in which m/2, and cos(t +) is the time dependent part that represents the wave phenomenon,
and the curly brackets contain the effective amplitude. Thus, the amplitude Eo is
y
m
Eo 2 A cos
(m m )
a
2
2
m m ( y ) m
y
(m m )
a
between the waves at C, distance y above the guide center, find the electric field pattern E (y) in the
guide. Recall that the field at C can be written as E ( y ) A cos(t ) A cos[t m ( y )] . Plot the field
pattern for the first three modes taking a planar dielectric guide with a core thickness 20 m, n1 = 1.455
n2 = 1.440, light wavelength of 1.3 m.
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Chapter 2
2.6
3 February 2013
Figure 2.52 Rays 1 and 2 are initially in phase as they belong to the same wavefront. Ray 1 experiences total internal
reflection at A. 1 and 2 interfere at C. There is a phase difference between the two
Solution
E 2 A cos t m ( y ) cos m ( y )
2
or
in which m/2, and cos(t +) is the time dependent part that represents the wave phenomenon,
and the curly brackets contain the effective amplitude. Thus, the amplitude Eo is
y
m
Eo 2 A cos
(m m )
2a
2
To plot Eo as a function of y, we need to find m for m = 0, 1 and 2 , the first three modes. From
Example 2.1.1 in the textbook, the waveguide condition is
(2a)k1 cos m m m
we can now substitute for m which has different forms for TE and TM waves to find,
TE waves
n2
2
sin m
n1
1/ 2
f TE ( m )
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Chapter 2
2.7
3 February 2013
TM waves
n2
2
sin m
n1
n2
cos m
n1
1/ 2
f TM ( m )
The above two equations can be solved graphically as in Example 2.1.1 to find m for each choice of m.
Alternatively one can use a computer program for finding the roots of a function. The above equations
are functions of m only for each m. Using a = 10 m, = 1.3 m, n1 = 1.455 n2 = 1.440, the results are:
TE Modes
m=0
m=1
m=2
m (degrees)
88.84
m (degrees)
163.75
147.02
129.69
TM Modes
m=0
m=1
m=2
m (degrees)
88.84
m (degrees)
164.08
147.66
130.60
There is no significant difference between the TE and TM modes (the reason is that n1 and n2 are very
close).
Figure 2Q4-1 Field distribution across the core of a planar dielectric waveguide
(m m )
Eo 2 cos
2a
2
with the m and m values in the table above. This is shown in Figure 2Q4-1.
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Chapter 2
2.8
3 February 2013
2.5
TE and TM Modes in dielectric slab waveguide Consider a planar dielectric guide with a core
thickness 20 m, n1 = 1.455 n2 = 1.440, light wavelength of 1.30 m. Given the waveguide condition,
and the expressions for phase changes and in TIR for the TE and TM modes respectively,
2
n2
2
sin m
n1
tan 12 m
cos m
1/ 2
and
n2
2
sin m
n1
tan 12 m
2
n2
cos m
n1
1/ 2
using a graphical solution find the angle for the fundamental TE and TM modes and compare their
propagation constants along the guide.
Solution
TE waves
TM waves
n2
2
sin m
n1
1/ 2
n2
2
sin m
n1
n2
cos m
n1
1/ 2
f TE ( m )
f TM ( m )
The above two equations can be solved graphically as in Example 2.1.1 to find m for each choice of m.
Alternatively one can use a computer program for finding the roots of a function. The above equations
are functions of m only for each m. Using a = 10 m, = 1.3 m, n1 = 1.455 n2 = 1.440, the results are:
TE Modes
m=0
m (degrees)
88.8361
m = k1sinm
7,030,883 m-1
TM Modes
m=0
m (degrees)
88.8340
m= k1sinm
7,030,878m-1
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Chapter 2
2.9
3 February 2013
Suppose that is the delay time between the TE and TM waves over a length L. Then,
1
1
(5.24 m 1 )
TE TM
L
vTE vTM
sin 2 (n2 / n1 ) 2
tan a
cos m
2
cos
sin
so that
1/ 2
tan
arctan sec sin 2 (n2 / n1 ) 2 m( / 2) Fm ( )
a
(1)
c
c
Fm ( )
n1 sin n1 sin
(2)
Both and are now a function of in Eqs (1) and (2). Then the group velocity is found by
differentiating Eqs (1) and (2) with respect to i.e.
i.e.
vg
d d d c Fm ( ) cos
1
Fm ( )
2
d d d n1 sin sin
Fm ( )
vg
Fm ( )
c
1 cot
n1 sin
Fm ( )
(3)
where Fm = dFm/d is found by differentiating the second term of Eq. (1). For a given m value, Eqs (2)
and (3) can be plotted parametrically, that is, for each value we can calculate and vg and plot vg vs.
. Figure 2.11 shows an example for a guide with the characteristics in the figure caption. Using a
convenient math-software package, or by other means, obtain the same vg vs. behavior, discuss
intermodal dispersion, and whether the Equation (2.2.2) is appropriate.
Solution
[Revised 4 February 2013]
The results shown in Figure 2.11, and Figure 2Q6-1 were generated by the author using LiveMath based
on Eqs (1) and (3). Obviously other math software packages can also be used. In the presence of say two
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Chapter 2
2.10
3 February 2013
modes (TE0 and TE1) and near cutoff, the important conclusion from Figure 2.11 is that although the
maximum group velocity is ~c/n2 (near cut-off) minimum group velocity is not c/n1 and can be much
lower. For just 2 modes near cut-off, vgmax c/n2 and vgmin c/n1, that is, taking the group velocity as the
phase velocity. Thus, it is only approximate. Further, in the presence of many modes, group velocity is
well below c/n2 and below c/n1 as shown in Figure 2Q6-2
Notice that when there are many, many modes then the fastest is c/n1 (lowest mode) and the slowest is
the highest mode at the operating frequency, in this example m = 65. The highest mode will have an
incidence angle close to qc so that its group velocity will very roughly (c/n1)sinc = (c/n1)(n2/n1). Thus,
in the presence of numerous modes vgmax c/n1 and vgmin (cn2/n12) so that the dispersion is
L = 1/vgmin 1/vgmax n1/cn12/(cn2) (n1/n2)(n2n1)/c (n2n1)/c
which is the same expression as before since n1/n2 is close to unity. Equation (2.2.2) can be used in the
presence of just a few modes near cut-off or in the presence of many modes.
Figure 2Q6-1 Group velocity vs. angular frequency for three modes, TE0 (red), TE1 (blue) and TE4 (orange) in a planar
dielectric waveguide. The horizontal black lines mark the phase velocity in the core (bottom line, c/n1) and in the cladding
(top line, c/n1). (LiveMath used)
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Chapter 2
2.11
3 February 2013
Figure 2Q6-2 Group velocity vs. angular frequency for many modes
2.7
Dielectric slab waveguide Consider a dielectric slab waveguide that has a thin GaAs layer of
thickness 0.2 m between two AlGaAs layers. The refractive index of GaAs is 3.66 and that of the
AlGaAs layers is 3.40. What is the cut-off wavelength beyond which only a single mode can propagate
in the waveguide, assuming that the refractive index does not vary greatly with the wavelength? If a
radiation of wavelength 870 nm (corresponding to bandgap radiation) is propagating in the GaAs layer,
what is the penetration of the evanescent wave into the AlGaAs layers? What is the mode field width
(MFW) of this radiation?
Solution
Given n1 = 3.66 (AlGaAs), n2 = 3.4 (AlGaAs), 2a = 210-7 m or a = 0.1 m, for only a single mode we
need
2a
(n12 n22 )1 / 2
2a(n12 n22 )1 / 2
2
2 (0.1 m)(3.66 2 3.40 2 )1 / 2
= 0.542 m.
2 wo MFW 2a
0.979 1
V 1
(0.2 m)
= 0.404 m.
0.979
V
V
0.979
The penetration depth is half the core thickness. The width between two e-1 points on the field decays in
the cladding is
Width = 2a + 2 = 0.2 m + 2(0.102) m = 0.404 m.
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Chapter 2
2.12
3 February 2013
2.8
Dielectric slab waveguide Consider a slab dielectric waveguide that has a core thickness (2a)
of 20 m, n1 = 3.00, n2 = 1.50. Solution of the waveguide condition in Eq. (2.1.9) (in Example 2.1.1)
gives the mode angles 0 and 1for the TE0 and TE1 modes for selected wavelengths as summarized in
Table 2.7. For each wavelength calculate and m and then plot vs. m. On the same plot show the
lines with slopes c/n1 and c/n2. Compare your plot with the dispersion diagram in Figure 2.10
Table 2.7 The solution of the waveguide condition for a = 10 m, n1 = 3.00, n2 = 1.50 gives the incidence angles 0 and 1
for modes 0 and 1 at the wavelengths shown.
15
20
25
30
40
45
50
70
100
150
200
77.8
74.52
71.5
68.7
63.9
61.7
59.74
53.2
46.4
39.9
36.45
65.2
58.15
51.6
45.5
35.5
32.02
30.17
Solution
m = k1sinm
or
which is the value listed in bold in Table 2Q8-1 for the m = 0 mode at = 25 m.
Similarly
which is also listed in bold in Table 2Q8-1. We now have both 0 and 1 at = 2.541013 s-1.
We can plot this 1 point for the m =0 mode at 0 = 7.15105 m-1 along the x-axis, taken as the -axis,
and = 2.541013 s-1 along the y-axis, taken as the -axis, as shown in Figure 2Q8-1. We can also plot
the 1 point we have for the m = 1 mode.
Propagation constants () at other wavelengths and hence frequencies () can be similarly calculated.
The results are listed in Table 2Q8-1 and plotted in Figure 2Q8-1. This is the dispersion diagram. For
comparison the dispersion vs for the core and the cladding are also shown. They are drawn so that
the slope is c/n1 for the core and c/n2 for the cladding.
Thus, the solutions of the waveguide condition as in Example 2.1.1 generates the data in Table 2Q8-1
for 2a = 10 m, n1 = 3; n2 = 1.5.
Table2Q8-1 Planar dielectric waveguide with a core thickness (2a) of 20 m, n1 = 3.00, n2 = 1.50.
m
15
20
25
30
40
45
50
70
100
150
200
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Chapter 2
2.13
3 February 2013
12.6
9.43
7.54
6.283
4.71
4.19
3.77
2.69
1.89
1.26
0.94
77.8
74.52
71.5
68.7
63.9
61.7
59.74
53.2
46.4
39.9
36.45
65.2
58.15
51.6
45.5
35.5
32.02
30.17
12.3
9.08
7.15
5.85
4.23
3.69
3.26
2.16
1.37
0.81
0.56
11.4
8.01
5.91
4.48
2.74
2.22
1.89
1013s1
1051/m
1
1051/m
Figure 2Q8-1 Dispersion diagram for a planar dielectric waveguide that has a core thickness (2a) of 20 m, n1 =
3.00, n2 = 1.50. Black, TE0 mode. Purple: TE1 mode. Blue: Propagation along the cladding. Red: Propagation
along the core.
Author's Note: Remember that the slope at a particular frequency is the group velocity at that
frequency. As apparent, for the TE0 (m = 0) mode, this slope is initially (very long wavelengths) along
the blue curve at low frequencies but then along the red curve at high frequencies (very short
wavelengths). The group velocity changes from c/n2 to c/n1.
2.9 Dielectric slab waveguide Dielectric slab waveguide Consider a planar dielectric waveguide with
a core thickness 10 m, n1 = 1.4446, n2 = 1.4440. Calculate the V-number, the mode angle m for m = 0
(use a graphical solution, if necessary), penetration depth, and mode field width, MFW = 2a + 2, for
light wavelengths of 1.0 m and 1.5 m. What is your conclusion? Compare your MFW calculation
with 2wo = 2a(V+1)/V. The mode angle 0, is given as 0 = 88.85 for = 1 m and 0 = 88.72 for =
1.5 m for the fundamental mode m = 0.
Solution
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Chapter 2
2.14
3 February 2013
2a
2
1
n22
1/ 2
V = 1.3079
n2
2
sin m
n1
1/ 2
f ( m )
graphically as in Example 2.1.1 to find: c = 88.35 and the mode angle (for m = 0) is o = 88.85.
Then use
n 2
2n2 1 sin 2 m 1
n2
1
m
1/ 2
= 1/= 5.33 m.
MFW = 2a + 2 = 20.65 m
= 1.5 m, V = 0.872, single mode. Solve waveguide condition graphically that the mode angle is o =
88.72.
= 1/= 9.08 m.
MFW = 2a + 2 = 28.15 m.
= 5 m, V = 0.262, single mode. Solve waveguide condition graphically to find that the mode angle is
o = 88.40.
= 1/= 77.22 m.
MFW = 2a + 2 = 164.4 m.
Compare with MFW = 2a(V+1)/V = 2(5 m)(0.262 + 1)/(0.262) = 48.2 m (Very large difference.)
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Chapter 2
2.15
3 February 2013
2.10 A multimode fiber Consider a multimode fiber with a core diameter of 100 m, core refractive
index of 1.4750, and a cladding refractive index of 1.4550 both at 850 nm. Consider operating this fiber
at = 850 nm. (a) Calculate the V-number for the fiber and estimate the number of modes. (b) Calculate
the wavelength beyond which the fiber becomes single mode. (c) Calculate the numerical aperture. (d)
Calculate the maximum acceptance angle. (e) Calculate the modal dispersion and hence the bit rate
distance product.
Solution
2a
2
1
1/ 2
n22
Number of modes M,
V 2 89.47 2
M
4002
2
2
The fiber becomes monomode when,
2a
2
1
n22
1/ 2
2a n12 n22
2.405
2.405
1/ 2
or
For wavelengths longer than 31.6 m, the fiber is a single mode waveguide.
The numerical aperture NA is
NA (n12 n22 )1/ 2 (1.475 2 1.455 2 )1 / 2 = 0.242
max arcsin
Modal dispersion is given by
L
c
3 108 m s -1
= 66.7 ps m-1 or 67.6 ns per km
Given that 0.29, maximum bit-rate is
BL
0.25 L
total
0.25 L
intermode
0.25
(0.29)(66.7 ns km -1 )
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Chapter 2
2.16
3 February 2013
i.e.
We neglected material dispersion at this wavelength which would further decrease BL. Material
dispersion and modal dispersion must be combined by
2
2
t2otal intermode
material
For example, assuming an LED with a spectral rms deviation of about 20 nm, and a Dm 200 ps
km-1 nm-1 (at about 850 nm)we would find the material dispersion as
Light guided along a thin water jet. A small hole is made in a plastic soda drink
bottle full of water to generate a thin water jet. When the hole is illuminated with a
laser beam (from a green laser pointer), the light is guided by total internal
reflections along the jet to the tray. Water with air bubbles (produced by shaking
the bottle) was used to increase the visibility of light. Air bubbles scatter light and
make the guided light visible. First such demonstration has been attributed to JeanDaniel Colladon, a Swiss scientist, who demonstrated a water jet guiding light in
1841.
Solution
V-number
V = (2a/)(n12n22)1/2 = (21.510-3/55010-9)(1.33021.0002)1/2 = 15104
Numerical aperture
NA= (n12n22)1/2 = (1.33021.0002)1/2 = 0.8814
Total acceptance angle, assuming that the laser light is launched within the water medium
sinmax = NA/n0 = 0.113/1.33 or max = 41.4.
Total acceptance 2o = 82.8
Modes = M = V2/2 = (15104)2/2 = 1.14108 modes (~100 thousand modes)
The curoff wavelength corresponds to V = 2.405, that is V = (2a/)NA = 2.405
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Chapter 2
2.17
3 February 2013
The large difference in refractive indices between the water and the air ensures that total internal
reflection occurs even as the width of the jet increases, which changes the angle of incidence.
2.12 Single mode fiber Consider a fiber with a 86.5%SiO2-13.5%GeO2 core of diameter of 8 m and
refractive index of 1.468 and a cladding refractive index of 1.464 both refractive indices at 1300 nm
where the fiber is to be operated using a laser source with a half maximum width of 2 nm. (a) Calculate
the V-number for the fiber. Is this a single mode fiber? (b) Calculate the wavelength below which the
fiber becomes multimode. (c) Calculate the numerical aperture. (d) Calculate the maximum acceptance
angle. (e) Obtain the material dispersion and waveguide dispersion and hence estimate the bit rate
distance product (BL) of the fiber.
Solution
(a)
V
(b)
2a
2
1
1/ 2
n22
2 (4 m)(1.4682 1.464 2 )1 / 2
= 2.094
(1.3 m)
Since V < 2.405, this is a single mode fiber. The fiber becomes multimode when
2a
2a n12 n22
2.405
1/ 2
or
2 (4 m)1.4682 1.464 2
2.405
1/ 2
=1.13 m
NA n12 n22
(d)
1/ 2
max arcsin
At =1.3 m, from D vs. , Figure 2.22, Dm 7.5 ps km-1 nm-1, Dw 5 ps km-1 nm-1.
1/ 2
Dm Dw 1 / 2
L
= |7.55 ps km-1 nm-1|(2 nm) = 15 ps km-1 + 10 ps km-1
= 0.025 ns km-1
Obviously material dispersion is 15 ps km-1 and waveguide dispersion is 10 ps km-1
The maximum bit-rate distance product is then
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Chapter 2
2.18
3 February 2013
BL
0.59 L
0.59
2.13 Single mode fiber Consider a step-index fiber with a core of diameter of 9 m and refractive
index of 1.4510 at 1550 nm and a normalized refractive index difference of 0.25% where the fiber is to
be operated using a laser source with a half-maximum width of 3 nm. At 1.55 m, the material and
waveguide dispersion coefficients of this fiber are approximately given by Dm = 15 ps km-1 nm-1 and Dw
= 5 ps km-1 nm-1. (a) Calculate the V-number for the fiber. Is this a single mode fiber? (b) Calculate the
wavelength below which the fiber becomes multimode. (c) Calculate the numerical aperture. (d)
Calculate the maximum total acceptance angle. (e) Calculate the material, waveguide and chromatic
dispersion per kilometer of fiber. (f) Estimate the bit rate distance product (BL) of this fiber. (g) What
is the maximum allowed diameter that maintains operation in single mode? (h) What is the mode field
diameter?
Solution
(a)
V
(b)
(n n )
2
1
2 1/ 2
2
(c)
2a
2a
(n12 n22 )1 / 2
2.405
< 1.205 m.
(d)
max arcsin
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Chapter 2
2.19
3 February 2013
= 5 ps km-1
Chromatic dispersion, 1/2/L = |Dch|1/2 = (5 ps km-1 nm-1 + 15 ps km-1 nm-1)(3 nm)
= 30 ps km-1
(f)
(g)
(h)
0.59 L
0.59
0.59
= 20 Gb s-1 km
12
1
1/ 2 ( 1 / 2 / L) (30 10 s km )
2a
2a = 11.5 m.
2.14 Normalized propagation constant b Consider a weakly guiding step index fiber in which (n1
n2) / n1 is very small. Show that
( / k ) 2 n22 ( / k ) n2
n12 n22
n1 n2
Note: Since is very small, n2/ n1 1 can be assumed were convenient. The first equation can be
rearranged as
1
2
[n b(n n )] n2 (1 x)
2
2
2
1
2
2
1
2
n2
where x b 12 1
n2
Taylor expansion around x 0 and truncating the expression, keeping only the linear term yields,
n2
b n2
nx
b
x
n2 1 n2 1 12 1 n2
2
2
n n22
2
2 n2
2 1
n2
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Chapter 2
2.20
3 February 2013
n1
1 we get
n2
n2 b(n1 n2 )
and
b
( / k ) n2
n1 n2
as required.
2.15 Group velocity of the fundamental mode Reconsider Example 2.3.4, which has a single mode
fiber with core and cladding indices of 1.4480 and 1.4400, core radius of 3 m, operating at 1.5 m. Use
the equation
( / k ) n2
; = n2k[1 + b]
n1 n2
to recalculate the propagation constant . Change the operating wavelength to by a small amount, say
0.01%, and then recalculate the new propagation constant . Then determine the group velocity vg of
the fundamental mode at 1.5 m, and the group delay g over 1 km of fiber. How do your results
compare with the findings in Example 2.3.4?
Solution
2c
1.256637 1015 s 1
(1.4480 1.4400)
1.4480
6044795 m 1
1.5 m(1 1.001) 1.5015 m , b 0.3854382 , k 4184606 m 1 , 1.255382 1015 s1
n2 k [1 b] (1.4400)(418406m 1 ) 1 (0.3854382)
(1.4480 1.4400)
1.4800
6038736m 1
Group Velocity
2.0713 108 m s 1
6
1
(6.038736 6.044795) 10 m
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Chapter 2
2.21
3 February 2013
%diff
2.0713 2.0706
100% 0.03%
2.0706
2.16 A single mode fiber design The Sellmeier dispersion equation provides n vs. for pure SiO2
and SiO2-13.5 mol.%GeO2 in Table1.2 in Ch. 1. The refractive index increases linearly with the addition
of GeO2 to SiO2 from 0 to 13.5 mol.%. A single mode step index fiber is required to have the following
properties: NA = 0.10, core diameter of 9 m, and a cladding of pure silica, and operate at 1.3 m. What
should the core composition be?
Solution
A32
A12
A2 2
2 12 2 22 2 32
0.890815
1
m
0.0690660
2
m
0.115662
3
m
9.900559
0.704048
0.0642700
0.129408
9.425478
A1
A2
A3
SiO2(fusedsilica)
0.696749
0.408218
86.5%SiO213.5%GeO2
0.711040
0.451885
Therefore, for = 1.3 m pure silica has n(0) = 1.4473 and SiO2-13.5 mol.%GeO2 has n(13.5)= 1.4682.
Confirming that for NA=0.10 we have a single mode fiber
n2
2a
1/ 2
NA
2 (4.5 m)
(0.1) = 2.175
(1.3 m)
1/ 2
=(0.12+1.44732)1/2 = 1.4508
The refractive index n(x) of SiO2-x mol.%GeO2, assuming a linear relationship, can be written as
x
x
n( x) n(0)1
n(13.5)
13.5
13.5
Substituting n(x) = n1 = 1.4508 gives x = 2.26.
2.17 Material dispersion If Ng1 is the group refractive index of the core material of a step fiber, then
the propagation time (group delay time) of the fundamental mode is
L / v g LN g1 / c
Since Ng will depend on the wavelength, show that the material dispersion coefficient Dm is given
approximately by
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Chapter 2
2.22
3 February 2013
d
d 2n
Dm
Ld c d2
Using the Sellmeier equation and the constants in Table 1.2 in Ch. 1, evaluate the material dispersion
at= 1.55 m for pure silica (SiO2) and SiO2-13.5%GeO2 glass.
Solution
Ng n
dn
d
Differentiate with respect to wavelength using the above relationship between Ng and n.
L LN g1
vg
c
d L dN g1 L dn
d 2 n dn
L d 2n
2
2
d c d
c d
d
d
c d
Thus,
Dm
d
d 2n
Ld c d2
(1)
12 2 22 2 32
2
(2)
A1
A2
A3
SiO213.5%GeO2
0.711040
0.451885
0.704048
0.0642700
0.129408
9.425478
We can use the Sellmeier coefficient in Table1.2 in Ch.1 to find n vs. , dn/d and d2n/d, and, from
Eq. (1), Dm vs as in Figure 2Q17-1. At = 1.55 m, Dm =14 ps km-1 nm-1
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Chapter 2
2.23
3 February 2013
Figure 2Q17-1 Materials dispersion Dm vs. wavelength (LiveMath used). (Other math programs such as
Matlab can also be used.)
2.18 Waveguide dispersion Waveguide dispersion arises as a result of the dependence of the
propagation constant on the V-number, which depends on the wavelength. It is present even when the
refractive index is constant; no material dispersion. Let us suppose that n1 and n2 are wavelength (or k)
independent. Suppose that is the propagation constant of mode lm and k = 2/in which is the free
space wavelength. Then the normalized propagation constant b and propagation constant are related by
= n2k[1 + b]
(1)
vg
d
dk
c
d
d
Show that the propagation time, or the group delay time, of the mode is
vg
c
c
dk
(2)
(3)
and
d (Vb)
d
d
(4)
d
Ln d 2 (Vb)
2 V
d
c
dV 2
(5)
Show that
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Chapter 2
2.24
3 February 2013
d
n2 d 2 (Vb)
Dw
V
Ld
c
dV 2
(6)
Figure 2.53 shows the dependence of V[d2(Vb)/dV2] on the V-number. In the range 1.5 < V < 2.4,
d 2 (Vb) 1.984
dV 2
V2
Show that,
Dw
n2 1.984
(n n2 ) 1.984
1
2
c V
c
V2
(7)
Dw
1.984
c( 2a ) 2 2n 2
(8)
which simplifies to
i.e.
Dw ( ps nm 1 km 1 )
83.76 (m )
[ a (m )]2 n2
(9)
Consider a fiber with a core of diameter of 8 m and refractive index of 1.468 and a cladding refractive
index of 1.464, both refractive indices at 1300 nm. Suppose that a 1.3 m laser diode with a spectral
linewidth of 2 nm is used to provide the input light pulses. Estimate the waveguide dispersion per
kilometer of fiber using Eqs. (6) and (8).
1.5
1
V[d2(Vb)/dV2]
0.5
0
0
V-number
Figure 2.53 d2(Vb)/dV2 vs V-number for a step index fiber. (Data extracted from W. A. Gambling et al. The Radio and
Electronics Engineer, 51, 313, 1981.)
Solution
Waveguide dispersion arises as a result of the dependence of the propagation constant on the V-number
which depends on the wavelength. It is present even when the refractive index is constant; no material
dispersion. Let us suppose that n1 and n2 are wavelength (or k) independent. Suppose that is the
propagation constant of mode lm and k = 2/where is the free space wavelength. Then the
normalized propagation constant b is defined as,
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Chapter 2
2.25
3 February 2013
( / k ) 2 n22
b
n12 n22
(1)
Show that for small normalized index difference = (n1 n2)/n1, Eq. (1) approximates to
( / k ) n2
n1 n2
(2)
= n2k[1 + b]
(3)
b
which gives as,
vg
d
dk
c
d
d
vg c dk
c
c
dk
(4)
where we assumed constant (does not depend on the wavelength). Given the definition of V,
V ka[n12 n22 ]1/ 2 ka[(n1 n2 )(n1 n2 )]1/ 2
1/ 2
n n2
ka (n1 n2 )n1 1
n1
(5)
d (Vb)
d
d
bkan2 ( 2 )1 / 2 an2 (2 )1 / 2
(bk )
dV
dV
dV
This means that depends on V as,
c
c
dV
(6)
Dispersion, that is, spread in due to a spread can be found by differentiating Eq. (6) to obtain,
d Ln2 dV d d (Vb) Ln2 V d 2 (Vb)
d
c d dV dV
c dV 2
Ln2 d 2 (Vb)
V
c
dV 2
(7)
Dw
n d 2 (Vb)
d
2 V
Ld
c
dV 2
(8)
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Chapter 2
2.26
3 February 2013
d 2 (Vb) 1.984
V
dV 2
V2
so that Eq. (8) becomes,
Dw
n2 1.984
(n n2 ) 1.984
1
2
c V
c
V2
(9)
n 1.984
1.984n2
Dw 2
2
1/ 2
c V
c
2an2 (2)
Dw
1/ 2
1.984
c ( 2 a ) 2 2 n 2
(10)
Equation (6) should really have Ng2 instead of n2 in which case Eq. (10) would be
Dw
1.984 N g 2
c(2a) 2 2n22
(11)
Consider a fiber with a core of diameter of 8 m and refractive index of 1.468 and a cladding
refractive index of 1.464 both refractive indices at 1300 nm. Suppose that a1.3 m laser diode with a
spectral linewidth of 2 nm is used to provide the input light pulses. Estimate the waveguide dispersion
per kilometer of fiber using Eqs. (8) and (11).
V
and
2a
2
1
n22
1/ 2
2 (4 m)(1.4682 1.464 2 )1 / 2
= 2.094
(1.3 m)
Dw
n2 d 2 (Vb)
(1.464)(2.73 10 3 )
(0.45)
V
c
dV 2
(3 108 m s -1 )(1300 10 9 m)
1.984
1.984(1300 10 9 m)
c(2a) 2 2n2
(3 108 m s -1 )[2 4 10 6 m]2 2(1.464)]
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Chapter 2
2.27
3 February 2013
2.19 Profile dispersion Total dispersion in a single mode, step index fiber is primarily due to
material dispersion and waveguide dispersion. However, there is an additional dispersion mechanism
called profile dispersion that arises from the propagation constant of the fundamental mode also
depending on the refractive index difference . Consider a light source with a range of wavelengths
coupled into a step index fiber. We can view this as a change in the input wavelength. Suppose that
n1, n 2, hence depends on the wavelength . The propagation time, or the group delay time, g per unit
length is
g 1 / v g d / d (1 / c)(d / dk )
(1)
where k is the free space propagation constant (2/), and we used dcdk. Since depends on n1,
and V, consider g as a function of n1, (thus n2), and V. A change in will change each of these
quantities. Using the partial differential chain rule,
g g n1 g V g
n1 V
(2)
The mathematics turns out to be complicated but the statement in Eq. (2) is equivalent to
Total dispersion = Material dispersion (due to n1/)
+ Waveguide dispersion (due to V/)
+ Profile dispersion (due to /)
in which the last term is due to depending on; although small, this is not zero. Even the statement in
Eq. (2) above is over simplified but nonetheless provides an insight into the problem. The total
intramode (chromatic) dispersion coefficient Dch is then given by
Dch = Dm + Dw + Dp
(3)
in which Dm, Dw, Dp are material, waveguide, and profile dispersion coefficients respectively. The
waveguide dispersion is given by Eq. (8) and (9) in Question 2.18, and the profile dispersion coefficient
is (very) approximately 1 ,
Dp
N g1 d 2 (Vb) d
V
dV 2 d
c
(4)
in which b is the normalized propagation constant and Vd2(Vb)/dV2 vs. V is shown in Figure 2.53,we can
also use Vd2(Vb)/dV2 1.984/V2.
Consider a fiber with a core of diameter of 8 m. The refractive and group indices of the core
and cladding at = 1.55 m are n1 = 1.4500, n 2 = 1.4444, Ng1 = 1.4680, Ng 2 = 1.4628, and d/d = 232
m-1. Estimate the waveguide and profile dispersion per km of fiber per nm of input light linewidth at this
wavelength. (Note: The values given are approximate and for a fiber with silica cladding and 3.6%
germania-doped core.)
Solution
1
J. Gowar, Optical Communication Systems, 2nd Edition (Prentice Hall, 1993). Ch. 8 has the derivation of this equation..
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Chapter 2
2.28
3 February 2013
Total dispersion in a single mode step index fiber is primarily due to material dispersion and waveguide
dispersion. However, there is an additional dispersion mechanism called profile dispersion that arises
from the propagation constant of the fundamental mode also depending on the refractive index
difference . Consider a light source with a range of wavelengths coupled into a step index fiber. We
can view this as a change in the input wavelength. Suppose that n1, n 2, hence depends on the
wavelength . The propagation time, or the group delay time, g per unit length is
1 1 d
vg c dk
(1)
Since depends on n1, and V, let us consider g as a function of n1, (thus n2) and V. A change
in will change each of these quantities. Using the partial differential chain rule,
g g n1 g V g
n1 V
(2)
The mathematics turns out to be complicated but the statement in Eq. (2) is equivalent to
Total dispersion = Materials dispersion (due to n1/)
+ Waveguide dispersion (due to V/)
+ Profile dispersion (due to /)
where the last term is due depending on; although small this is not zero. Even the above statement in
Eq. (2) is over simplified but nonetheless provides an sight into the problem. The total intramode
(chromatic) dispersion coefficient Dch is then given by
Dch = Dm + Dw + Dp
(3)
where Dm, Dw, Dp are material, waveguide and profile dispersion coefficients respectively. The
waveguide dispersion is given by Eq. (8) in Question 2.6 and the profile dispersion coefficient away is
(very) approximately,
Dp
N g 1 d 2 (Vb) d
c
dV 2 d
(4)
where b is the normalized propagation constant and Vd2(Vb)/dV2 vs. V is shown in Figure 2.53. The
term Vd2(Vb)/dV2 1.984/V2.
Consider a fiber with a core of diameter of 8 m. The refractive and group indexes of the core and
cladding at = 1.55 m are n1 = 1.4504, n 2 = 1.4450, Ng1 = 1.4676, Ng 2 = 1.4625. d/d = 161 m-1.
V
and
2a
2
1
n22
1/ 2
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Chapter 2
2.29
3 February 2013
Dp
N g1 d 2 (Vb) d
1.4676
V
0.50161 m 1
2
c
dV d
3 108 m s 1
Waveguide dispersion:
Dw
1.984
1.984(1500 10 9 m)
c(2a ) 2 2n2
(3 108 m s -1 )[2 4 10 6 m]2 2(1.4450)]
L
S 0 ( ) 2
2
A single mode fiber has a zero-dispersion at 0 = 1310 nm, dispersion slope S0 = 0.090 ps nm2 km. What
is the dispersion for a laser with = 1.5 nm? What would control the dispersion?
Solution
Consider the Taylor expansion for , a function of wavelength, about its center around, say at 0, when
we change the wavelength by For convenience we can the absolute value of at 0 as zero since we
are only interested in the spread . Then, Taylor's expansion gives,
f ( )
1 d 2
d
( )
( ) 2
2
2! d
d
1 d 2
1 d d
1 d
2
Dch ( ) 2
( ) 2 0
( )
2
2! d
2! dt d
2! dt
L
1 km
2
S 0 ( ) 2
0.090 ps nm -2 km -1 2 nm = 1.01 ps
2
2
This can be further reduced by using a narrower laser line width since depends on (
2.21 Polarization mode dispersion (PMD) A fiber manufacturer specifies a maximum value of 0.05
ps km-1/2 for the polarization mode dispersion (PMD) in its single mode fiber. What would be the
dispersion, maximum bit rate and the optical bandwidth for this fiber over an optical link that is 200 km
long if the only dispersion mechanism was PMD?
Solution
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Chapter 2
2.30
3 February 2013
Dispersion
Bit rate
0.59
0.59
8.35 Gb s -1
0.707ps
Optical bandwidth
f op 0.75B (0.75)(8.35 Gb s 1 ) 6.26 GHz
2.22 Polarization mode dispersion Consider a particular single mode fiber (ITU-T G.652
compliant) that has a chromatic dispersion of 15 ps nm-1 km-1. The chromatic dispersion is zero at 1315
nm, and the dispersion slope is 0.092 ps nm-2 km-1. The PMD coefficient is 0.05 ps km-1/2. Calculate the
total dispersion over 100 km if the fiber is operated at 1315 nm and the source is a laser diode with a
linewidth (FWHM) = 1 nm. What should be the linewidth of the laser source so that over 100 km,
the chromatic dispersion is the same as PMD?
Solution
Polarization mode dispersion for L = 100 km is PMD DPMD L1 / 2 = 0.05 100 ps = 0.5 ps
We need the chromatic dispersion at 0, where the chromatic dispersion Dch = 0. For L = 100 km, the
chromatic dispersion is
L
ch S0 ( )2 = 1000.092(1)2/2 = 4.60 ps
2
The rms dispersion is
2
rms PMD
ch2 = 4.63 ps
2 DPMD
= 0.33 nm
S 0 L1 / 2
2.23 Dispersion compensation Calculate the total dispersion and the overall net dispersion
coefficient when a 900 km transmission fiber with Dch = +15 ps nm-1 km-1 is spliced to a compensating
fiber that is 100 km long and has Dch = 110 ps nm-1 km-1. What is the overall effective dispersion
coefficient of this combined fiber system? Assume that the input light spectral width is 1 nm.
Solution
Using Eq. (2.6.1) with = 1 nm, we can find the total dispersion
= (D1L1 + D2L2)
= [(+15 ps nm-1 km-1)(900 km) + (110 ps nm-1 km-1)(100 km)](1 nm)
= 2,500 ps nm-1 for 1000 km.
The net or effective dispersion coefficient can be found from = DnetL,
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Chapter 2
2.31
3 February 2013
For the single mode fiber, the small core diameter is to ensure that the V-number is below the cutoff
value for singe mode operation for the commonly used wavelengths 1.1 m and 1.5 m. The larger total
diameter is to ensure that there is enough cladding to limit the loss of light that penetrates into the
cladding as an evanescent wave.
For multimode fibers, the larger core size allows multiple modes to propagate in the fiber and therefore
the spectral width is not critical. Further, the larger diameter results in a greater acceptance angle. Thus,
LEDs, which are cheaper and easier to use than lasers, are highly suitable. The total diameter of the core
and cladding is the same because in industry it is convenient to standardize equipment and the minor
losses that might accumulate from light escaping from the cladding do not matter as much over shorter
distances for multimode fibers they are short haul fibers.
2.25 Graded index fiber Consider an optimal graded index fiber with a core diameter of 30 m and
a refractive index of 1.4740 at the center of the core and a cladding refractive index of 1.4530. Find the
number of modes at 1300 nm operation. What is its NA at the fiber axis, and its effective NA? Suppose
that the fiber is coupled to a laser diode emitter at 1300 nm and a spectral linewidth (FWHM) of 3 nm.
The material dispersion coefficient at this wavelength is about 5 ps km-1 nm-1. Calculate the total
dispersion and estimate the bit rate distance product of the fiber. How does this compare with the
performance of a multimode fiber with same core radius, and n1 and n2? What would the total dispersion
and maximum bit rate be if an LED source of spectral width (FWHM) 1/2 80 nm is used?
Solution
intermode
Ln1 2 (1000)(1.474)
(0.01425) 2 = 2.910-11 s or 0.029 ns
8
20 3c
20 3 (3 10 )
Assuming a Gaussian output light pulse shape, rms material dispersion is,
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Chapter 2
2.32
3 February 2013
so that
B = 0.25/total = 8.5 Gb
If this were a multimode step-index fiber with the same n1 and n2, then the rms dispersion would
roughly be
n1 n2 1.474 1.453
= 70 ps m-1 or 70 ns per km
8
-1
L
c
3 10 m s
Maximum bit-rate is
BL
i.e.
0.25L
intermode
0.25L
0.25
(0.28) (0.28)(70 ns km -1 )
= 0.17 ns
Total dispersion is
2
total intermode
m2 0.0292 0.17 2 = 0.172 ns
so that
B = 0.25/total = 1.45 Gb
intermode
Ln1 2 (1000)(1.474)
(0.01425) 2 = 2.910-11 s or 0.029 ns.
8
20 3c
20 3 (3 10 )
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Chapter 2
2.33
3 February 2013
so that
If this were a multimode step-index fiber with the same n1 and n2, then the rms dispersion would roughly
be
n1 n2 1.474 1.453
L
c
3 108 m s-1
= 70 ps m-1 or 70 ns per km
Maximum bit-rate would be
BL
0.25L
intermode
0.25
(0.28)(70 ns km-1 )
i.e.
We are given the numerical aperture NA = 0.275. Assume that this is the maximum NA at the core
n2 n12 NA 2 2 1.45552 0.2752 2 1.4293
1
n1 n2 1.4555 1.4293
0.018
n1
1.4555
intermodal
(1.4555)(0.018) 2
n1
2
45.43 ps km-1
1
5
20 3c
20 3(3 10 km s )
0.19
0.19
0.95 ns km-1
6 1
f op
200 10 s km
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Chapter 2
2.34
3 February 2013
intramodal
2
T
1
2
2
intermodal
0.95 10
45.43 10
1
12 2 2
9 2
0.949 ns km -1
0.19
0.19
0.38 ns km-1
6 1
f op
500 10 s km
and
intramodal
2
T
1
2
2
intermodal
0.38 10
45.43 10
1
12 2 2
9 2
0.377 ns km -1
For both 850 nm and 1300 nm intramodal dispersion dominates intermodal dispersion.
Ln 2
1
2c 1 3 2
2 4c1 c2 ( 1) 16c22 2 ( 1) 2
c1
2 1
(5 2)(3 2)
1/ 2
(1)
c1
n d
3 2 2
2
; c2
; 2 1
N d
2
2( 2)
g1
(2)
where is a small unitless parameter that represents the change in with . The optimum profile
coefficient o is
o 2
(4 )(3 )
(5 2 )
(3)
Consider a graded index fiber for use at 850 nm, with n1 = 1.475, Ng1 = 1.489, = 0.015, d/d = 683
m-1.Plot in ps km-1 vs from = 1.8 to 2.4 and find the minimum. (Consider plotting on a
logarithmic axis.) Compare the minimum and the optimum , with the relevant expressions in 2.8.
Find the percentage change in for a 10 increase in . What is your conclusion?
Solution
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Chapter 2
2.35
3 February 2013
intermode
L
n1
2 = 31.93 ps km-1.
20 3c
Figure2Q281
2.29 GRIN rod lenses Figure 2.32 shows graded index (GRIN) rod lenses. (a) How would you
represent Figure 2.32(a) using two conventional converging lenses. What are O and O? (b) How would
you represent Figure 2.32(b) using a conventional converging lens. What is O? (c) Sketch ray paths for
a GRIN rod with a pitch between 0.25P and 0.5P starting from O at the face center. Where is O? (d)
What use is 0.23P GRIN rod lens in Figure 2.32(c)?
Figure 2.32 Graded index (GRIN) rod lenses of different pitches. (a) Point O is on the rod face center and the lens focuses
the rays onto O' on to the center of the opposite face. (b) The rays from O on the rod face center are collimated out. (c) O is
slightly away from the rod face and the rays are collimated out.
Solution
(a) and (b)
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Chapter 2
2.36
3 February 2013
Figure 2Q29-1: (a) The beam bending from O to O using a GRIN rod can be achieved equivalently by using
two converging lenses. O and O are the focal points of the lenses (approximately). (Schematic only). (b) The
collimation of rays from a point source on the face of a GRIN rod can be equivalently achieved by a single
converging lens whose focal length is 0.25P and O is the focal point. (Schematic only).
Figure 2Q29-2: Ray paths in a GRIN rod that has a pitch between 0.25P to 0.5P. (Schematic only.)
(d)
Since the point O does not have to be right on the face of the GRIN rod, it can be used to
collimate a point source O by bringing the rod sufficiently close to O; a fixed annular spacer can fix
the required proximity of the rod to O. Since the source does not have to be in contact with the face of
the rod, possible damage (such as scratches) to the face are avoided.
2.30 Optical Fibers Consider the manufacture of optical fibers and the materials used. (a) What
factors would reduce dispersion? (b) What factors would reduce attenuation?
Possible Answers
It is essential to control of refractive index profile, core radius, and minimize variations in the
(a)
refractive index due to variations in doping.
(b)
Minimize impurities. Reduce scattering by reducing density and hence refractive index n
fluctuations (may not be readily possible). Use a glass material with a lower glass transition temperature
so that the frozen n-variations are smaller.
2.31 Attenuation A laser emitter with a power 2 mW is used to send optical signals along a fiber
optic link of length 170 km. Assume that all the light was launched into the fiber. The fiber is quoted as
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Chapter 2
2.37
3 February 2013
having an attenuation of 0.5 dB/km. What is the output power from the optical link that a photodetector
must be able to detect?
Solution
dB
4.34
0.5 dB km1
0.115 km1
4.34
so
= (10/L)log(Pfar/Pnear)
in which L is the separation of the measurement points, the length of the cut fiber, and is in dB per
unit length. The output Pnear from the short cut fiber in the second measurement is actually the input into
the fiber under test in the first experiment. Usually a mode scrambler (mode stripper) is used for
multimode fibers before the input. The power output from a particular fiber is measured to be 13 nW.
Then, 10 km of fiber is cut-out and the power output is measured again and found to be 43 nW. What is
the attenuation of the fiber?
Figure 2.54 Illustration of the cut-back method for measuring the fiber attenuation. S is an optical source and D is a
photodetector
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Chapter 2
2.38
3 February 2013
Solution
Intrinsic losses
(a)
Consider a standard single mode fiber with a NA of 0.14. What is its attenuation at 1625 and at
1490 nm? How do these compare with the attenuation quotes for the Corning SMF-28e+, 0.200.23
dB km-1 at 1625 nm and 0.21 0.24 dB km-1 at 1490 nm?
(b)
Consider a graded index fiber with a NA of 0.275. What would you expect for its attenuation at
850 nm and 1300 nm? How do your calculations compare with quoted maximum values of 2.9 dB km-1
at 850 nm and 0.6 dB km-1 at 1300 nm for 62.5 m graded index fibers? Actual values would be less.
Solution
(a)
FIR A exp B /
B
48.5
11
-1
7.8 10 exp
0.085 dB km
1.625
FIR A exp
0.918 dB km 1 m 4
0.132 dB km 1
aR 4
4
1.625 m
AR
FIR A exp
aR
AR
0.918 dB km 1 m 4
0.1863 dB km 1
4
1.490 m
Rayleigh scattering
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Chapter 2
2.39
3 February 2013
1.111 dB km1 m4
aR 4
2.13 dB km1
4
0.850 m
AR
At 1300 nm,
aR
2.34
AR
1.111 dB km1 m 4
0.390 dB km1
1.300 m4
Rayleigh scattering process decreases with wavelength, and as mentioned in Ch. 1, it is inversely
proportional to 4. The expression for the attenuation R in a single component glass such as silica due
to Rayleigh scattering is approximately given by two sets of different equations in the literature 3 ,
8 3 8 2
n p T k BT f
34
and
8 3 2
(n 1) 2 T k B T f
34
in which is the free space wavelength, n is the refractive index at the wavelength of interest, is the
isothermal compressibility (at Tf) of the glass, kT is the Boltzmann constant, and Tf is a quantity called
the fictive temperature (or the glass transition temperature) at which the liquid structure during the
cooling of the fiber is frozen to become the glass structure. Fiber is drawn at high temperatures and as
the fiber cools eventually the temperature drops sufficiently for the atomic motions to be so sluggish that
the structure becomes essentially "frozen-in" and remains like this even at room temperature. Thus, Tf
marks the temperature below which the liquid structure is frozen and hence the density fluctuations are
also frozen into the glass structure. Use these two equations and calculate the attenuation in dB/km due
to Rayleigh scattering at around the = 1.55 m window given that pure silica (SiO2) has the following
properties: Tf 1180C; T 710-11 m2 N-1 (at high temperatures); n 1.45 at 1.55 m, p = 0.28. The
lowest reported attenuation around this wavelength is about 0.14 dB/km. What is your conclusion?
Solution
8 3 8 2
n p T k BT f = 0.0308 km-1 or 4.340.0308 = 0.13 dB km-1
34
8 3 2
(n 1) 2 T k BT f = 0.0245 km-1 or 4.340.0245 = 0.11 dB km-1
4
3
The first equation appears to be the closest to the experimental value. However, note that the reported
attenuation also has a contribution from the fundamental IR absorption.
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Chapter 2
2.40
3 February 2013
2.35 Bending loss Bending losses always increase with the mode field diameter (MFD). Since the
MFD increases for decreasing V, 2w 22.6a/V, smaller V fibers have higher bending losses. How does
the bending loss vs. radius of curvature R behavior look like on a semilogarithmic plot (as in Figure
2.39(a) for two values of the V-number V1 and V2 if V2 > V1. It is found that for a single mode fiber with
a cut-off wavelength c = 1180 nm, operating at 1300 nm, the microbending loss reaches 1 dB m-1 when
the radius of curvature of the bend is roughly 6 mm for = 0.00825, 12 mm for = 0.00550, and 35
mm for = 0.00275. Explain these findings.
Solution
We expect the bending loss vs. R on a semilogarithmic plot to be as in Figure 2Q35-1 (schematic)
Figure 2Q35-1 Microbending loss decreases sharply with the bend radius R. (Schematic only.)
From the figure, given = 1, R increases from R1 to R2 when V decreases from V1 to V2.
Expected
Equivalently at one R = R1
R with V
(1)
with V
(2)
We can generalize by noting that the penetration depth into the cladding 1/V.
Expected
Equivalently at one R = R1
R with
(3)
with
(4)
Eqs. (3) and (4) correspond to the general statement that microbending loss gets worse when
penetration into cladding increases; intuitively correct based on Figure 2.32.
Experiments show that for a given = 1, R increases with decreasing .
Observation
R with
(5)
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Chapter 2
2.41
3 February 2013
1
1
1
2
2 1/ 2
2 ( n1 n2 )
2n1 (2 )1 / 2
with
(6)
R with with
(7)
Rc
exp
(8)
where Rc is a constant (a critical radius type of constant) that is proportional to . Thus, taking
logs,
ln 3 / 2 R constant
(9)
We are interested in the R behavior at a constant . We can lump the constant into ln and obtain,
R 2 / 3
(10)
As shown in Figure 2Q35-2, x = 0.62 is close to 2/3 given three points and the rough derivation
above.
1
Normalizedindexdifferent
0.01
0.001
100
10
y=0.0255x0.625
R=0.9993
R (mm)
Figure 2Q35-2 The relationship between and the radius of curvature R for a given amount of bending loss.
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Chapter 2
2.42
3 February 2013
2.36 Bend loss reduced fibers Consider the bend loss measurements listed in Table 2.8 for four
difference types of fiber. The trench fibers have a trench placed in the cladding where the refractive
index is lowered as shown in Figure 2.39 The nanoengineered fiber is shown in the Figure 2.55. There is
a ring of region in the cladding in which there are gas-filled nanoscale voids. (They are introduced
during fabrication.) A void in the ring has a circular cross section but has a length along the fiber that
can be a few meters. These voids occupy a volume in the ring that is only 1 - 10%. Plot the bending loss
semilogarithmically ( on a log scale and R on a linear scale) and fit the data to micobend = Aexp(R/Rc)
and find A and Rc. What is your conclusion? Suppose that we set our maximum acceptable bending loss
to 0.1 dB/turn in installation (the present goal is to bring the bending loss to below 0.1 dB/turn). What
are the allowed radii of curvature for each turn?
Table 2.8 Bend radius R in mm, in dB/turn. Data over 1.55 - 1.65 m range. (Note, data used from a number of sources:
(a) M.-J. Li et al. J. Light Wave Technol., 27, 376, 2009; (b) K. Himeno et al, J. Light Wave Technol., 23, 3494, 2005; (c) L.A. de Montmorillon, et al. "Bend-Optimized G.652D Compatible Trench-Assisted Single-Mode Fibers" Proceedings of the
55th IWCS/Focus, pp. 342-347, November, 2006.)
StandardSMFa
TrenchFiber1b
TrenchFiber2c
NanoengineeredFibera
1550nm
1650nm
1625nm
1550nm
R
mm
dB/turn
R
mm
dB/turn
R
mm
dB/turn
R
mm
dB/turn
5.0
15.0
7.50
0.354
5.0
0.178
5.0
0.031
7.0
4.00
10.0
0.135
7.5
0.0619
7.5
0.0081
10.0
0.611
15.0
0.020
10.0
0.0162
10.0
0.0030
12.5
0.124
15.0
0.00092
15
0.00018
16.0
0.0105
17.5
0.0040
Solution
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Chapter 2
2.43
3 February 2013
Bend Losses
100
Standard SMF
y = 418.95e-0.659x
Trench 1
Trench 2
10
Nanoengineered
Expon. (Standard SMF)
Expon. (Trench 1)
dB/turn
y = 6.241e-0.383x
Expon. (Trench 2)
Expon. (Nanoengineered)
0.1
0.01
0.001
y = 2.971e-0.533x
y = 0.4079e-0.51x
0.0001
0
10
20
30
R (mm)
For a bending loss of 0.1 dB/turn, the allowed radii of curvature are (very roughly)
Standard SMF, 13 mm; trench 1, 10 mm; trench 2, 6 mm; nanoengineered, 3 mm.
2.37 Microbending loss Microbending loss B depends on the fiber characteristics and wavelength.
We will calculate approximately given various fiber parameters using the single mode fiber
microbending loss equation (D. Marcuse, J. Op. Soc. Am., 66, 216, 1976)
1 / 2 2
2 3 / 2V 2 K1 (a)
R 1 / 2 exp(
2 3
R)
3 2
where R is the bend radius of curvature, a = fiber radius, is the propagation constant, determined by b,
normalized propagation constant, which is related to V, = n2k[1 + b]; k = 2/ is the free-space
wavevector; = [2 n22k2]; = [ n12k2 ], and K1(x) is a first-order modified Bessel function,
available in math software packages. The normalized propagation constant b can be found from b =
(1.14280.996V-1)2. Consider a single mode fiber with n1 = 1.450, n2 = 1.446, 2a (diameter) = 3.9 m.
Plot B vs. R for = 633 nm and 790 nm from R = 2 mm to 15 mm. Figure 2.56 shows the experimental
results on a SMF that has the same properties as the fiber above. What is your conclusion? (You might
wish to compare your calculations with the experiments of A.J. Harris and P.F. Castle, IEEE J. Light
Wave Technol., LT4, 34, 1986).
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Chapter 2
2.44
3 February 2013
Solution
Given: n1 = 1.450, n2 = 1.446, 2a (diameter) = 3.9 m; = 790 nm, we can calculate the following:
k = 2/= 7.953106 m-1;
(n12 n22 )1 / 2
= 0.00275;
2n12
2a
(n12 n22 )1 / 2
0.996
b 1.1428
= 0.2977;
V
B
to find
1 / 2 2
2 3 / 2V 2 K1 (a)
R 1 / 2 exp(
2 3
R)
3 2
R
)
0.0020
(n12 n22 )1 / 2
= 0.00275;
2n12
2a
(n12 n22 )1 / 2
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Chapter 2
2.45
3 February 2013
2
0.996
b 1.1428
= 0.44127;
V
B
to find
1 / 2 2
2 3 / 2V 2 K1 (a)
R 1 / 2 exp(
2 3
R)
3 2
R
)
0.00089
Results compare reasonably with the experiments in Figure 2.56 given the approximate nature of the
theory. Note that the calculated attenuation is per meter (for 1 meter) whereas the attenuation in Figure
2.56 is for a 10 cm fiber, so that for a 1 m of fiber, the observed attenuation will be 10 times higher.
2.38 Fiber Bragg grating A silica fiber based FBG is required to operate at 850 nm. What should be
the periodicity of the grating ? If the amplitude of the index variation n is 210-5 and total length of
the FBG is 5 mm, what are the maximum reflectance at the Bragg wavelength and the bandwidth of the
FBG? Assume that the effective refractive index n is 1.460. What are the reflectance and the bandwidth
if n is 210-4?
Solution
B
2n
FBG#1 FBG#2
2105
1104
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Chapter 2
2.46
3 February 2013
(1/m)
73.92
739.2
0.37
3.7
Gratingis
weak
strong
R tanh 2 (L)
0.125
0.998
NA
0.47
0.099
N/A
strong
42B
,nm
n
weak
2B
nL
,nm
The parameter L for FBG#1 with n = 210-5 is equal to 0.37 which is a weak grating. The parameter
L for FBG#2 with n = 210-4 is equal to 3.7 which is a strong grating.
2.39 Fiber Bragg grating sensor array Consider a FBG strain sensor array embedded in a silica
fiber that is used to measure strain at various locations on an object. Two neighboring sensors have
grating periodicities of 1 = 534.5 nm and 2 = 539.7 nm. The effective refractive index is 1.450 and the
photoelastic coefficient is 0.22. What is the maximum strain that can be measured assuming that (a) only
one of the sensors is strained; (b) when the sensors are strained in opposite directions ? What would be
the main problem with this sensor array? What is the strain at fracture if the fiber fractures roughly at an
applied stress of 700 MPa and the elastic modulus is 70 GPa? What is your conclusion?
Solution
Initially the Bragg wavelengths of two sensors are B1 2n1 =1550.05 nm and B 2 2n 2 = 1565.13
nm, respectively. When the second sensor is stretched its effective refractive index changes due to
photoelastic effect and there is also a change in the period, both of which leads to
B 2 B 2 (1 12 n 2 pe )
and B 2 shifts towards B1 .
(a) The separation between the Bragg wavelengths is B = B 2 B1 = 1565.13 1550.05 = 15.08 nm
The shift due to strain is (only B is strained)
B 2 = B 2 1 12 n 2 pe 2n 2 1 12 n 2 pe
B = B 2 B1 2n 2 2n1 2n 2 1 12 n 2 pe
2 1
= 0.012 or 1.2%
2 (1 12 n 2 pe )
The strain at fracture is given by strain = stress / elastic modulus = 700106 / 70109 = 0.01 or 1%. The
fiber is likely to fracture before it reaches the maximum strain.
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Chapter 2
2.47
3 February 2013
(b)
Consider the sensors strained in opposite directions. The separation between the Bragg
wavelengths is still B 2 B1 =1565.13 1550.05 = 15.08 nm. Note that B 2 B1 = 2n( 2 2 )
Shift due to strain is now
B = B 2 1 12 n 2 pe B1 1 12 n 2 pe 2n(1 2 )1 12 n 2 pe
2n( 2 2 ) 2n(1 2 ) 1 12 n 2 pe
2 2
= 0.0063 or 0.63% (about half the above value).
(1 2 ) 1 12 n 2 pe
2013 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved. This publication is protected by Copyright and written permission should be obtained from the publisher prior
to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or likewise.
For information regarding permission(s), write to: Rights and Permissions Department, Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458.