Antenna (radio)

An antenna (or aerial) is an electrical device which converts electric power into
radio waves, and vice versa. It is usually used with a radio transmitter or radio
receiver. In transmission, a radio transmitter supplies an oscillating radio frequency
electric current to the antenna's terminals, and the antenna radiates the energy from
the current as electromagnetic waves (radio waves). In reception, an antenna
intercepts some of the power of an electromagnetic wave in order to produce a tiny
voltage at its terminals, that is applied to a receiver to be amplified.
Antennas are essential components of all equipment that uses radio. They are used
in systems such as radio broadcasting, broadcast television, two-way radio,
communications receivers, radar, cell phones, and satellite communications, as
well as other devices such as garage door openers, wireless microphones, bluetooth
enabled devices, wireless computer networks, baby monitors, and RFID tags on
merchandise.
Typically an antenna consists of an arrangement of metallic conductors
("elements"), electrically connected (often through a transmission line) to the
receiver or transmitter. An oscillating current of electrons forced through the
antenna by a transmitter will create an oscillating magnetic field around the
antenna elements, while the charge of the electrons also creates an oscillating
electric field along the elements. These time-varying fields, when created in the
proper proportions, radiate away from the antenna into space as a moving
transverse electromagnetic field wave. Conversely, during reception, the oscillating
electric and magnetic fields of an incoming radio wave exert force on the electrons
in the antenna elements, causing them to move back and forth, creating oscillating
currents in the antenna.
Antennas may also contain reflective or directive elements or surfaces not
connected to the transmitter or receiver, such as parasitic elements, parabolic
reflectors or horns, which serve to direct the radio waves into a beam or other
desired radiation pattern. Antennas can be designed to transmit or receive radio
waves in all directions equally (omnidirectional antennas), or transmit them in a
beam in a particular direction, and receive from that one direction only (directional
or high gain antennas).
The first antennas were built in 1888 by German physicist Heinrich Hertz in his
pioneering experiments to prove the existence of electromagnetic waves predicted

by the theory of James Clerk Maxwell. Hertz placed dipole antennas at the focal
point of parabolic reflectors for both transmitting and receiving. He published his
work in Annalen der Physik und Chemie (vol. 36, 1889).
Antennas are required by any radio receiver or transmitter to couple its electrical
connection to the electromagnetic field. Radio waves are electromagnetic waves
which carry signals through the air (or through space) at the speed of light with
almost no transmission loss. Radio transmitters and receivers are used to convey
signals (information) in systems including broadcast (audio) radio, television,
mobile telephones, wi-fi (WLAN) data networks, trunk lines and point-to-point
communications links (telephone, data networks), satellite links, many remote
controlled devices such as garage door openers, and wireless remote sensors,
among many others. Radio waves are also used directly for measurements in
technologies including RADAR, GPS, and radio astronomy. In each and every
case, the transmitters and receivers involved require antennas, although these are
sometimes hidden (such as the antenna inside an AM radio or inside a laptop
computer equipped with wi-fi).
According to their applications and technology available, antennas generally fall in
one of two categories:
1. Omnidirectional or only weakly directional antennas which receive or
radiate more or less in all directions. These are employed when the relative
position of the other station is unknown or arbitrary. They are also used at
lower frequencies where a directional antenna would be too large, or simply
to cut costs in applications where a directional antenna isn't required.
2. Directional or beam antennas which are intended to preferentially radiate or
receive in a particular direction or directional pattern.
In common usage "omnidirectional" usually refers to all horizontal directions,
typically with reduced performance in the direction of the sky or the ground (a
truly isotropic radiator is not even possible). A "directional" antenna usually is
intended to maximize its coupling to the electromagnetic field in the direction of
the other station, or sometimes to cover a particular sector such as a 120
horizontal fan pattern in the case of a panel antenna at a cell site.
One example of omnidirectional antennas is the very common vertical antenna or
whip antenna consisting of a metal rod (often, but not always, a quarter of a
wavelength long). A dipole antenna is similar but consists of two such conductors
extending in opposite directions, with a total length that is often, but not always, a

half of a wavelength long. Dipoles are typically oriented horizontally in which case
they are weakly directional: signals are reasonably well radiated toward or received
from all directions with the exception of the direction along the conductor itself;
this region is called the antenna blind cone or null.

Half-wave dipole antenna

Both the vertical and dipole antennas are simple in construction and relatively
inexpensive. The dipole antenna, which is the basis for most antenna designs, is a
balanced component, with equal but opposite voltages and currents applied at its
two terminals through a balanced transmission line (or to a coaxial transmission
line through a so-called balun). The vertical antenna, on the other hand, is a
monopole antenna. It is typically connected to the inner conductor of a coaxial
transmission line (or a matching network); the shield of the transmission line is
connected to ground. In this way, the ground (or any large conductive surface)
plays the role of the second conductor of a dipole, thereby forming a complete
circuit.[5] Since monopole antennas rely on a conductive ground, a so-called
grounding structure may be employed to provide a better ground contact to the
earth or which itself acts as a ground plane to perform that function regardless of
(or in absence of) an actual contact with the earth.
Antennas more complex than the dipole or vertical designs are usually intended to
increase the directivity and consequently the gain of the antenna. This can be
accomplished in many different ways leading to a plethora of antenna designs. The
vast majority of designs are fed with a balanced line (unlike a monopole antenna)
and are based on the dipole antenna with additional components (or elements)
which increase its directionality. Antenna "gain" in this instance describes the
concentration of radiated power into a particular solid angle of space, as opposed
to the spherically uniform radiation of the ideal radiator. The increased power in
the desired direction is at the expense of that in the undesired directions. Power is
conserved, and there is no net power increase over that delivered from the power
source (the transmitter.)
For instance, a phased array consists of two or more simple antennas which are
connected together through an electrical network. This often involves a number of
parallel dipole antennas with a certain spacing. Depending on the relative phase
introduced by the network, the same combination of dipole antennas can operate as
a "broadside array" (directional normal to a line connecting the elements) or as an

"end-fire array" (directional along the line connecting the elements). Antenna
arrays may employ any basic (omnidirectional or weakly directional) antenna type,
such as dipole, loop or slot antennas. These elements are often identical.
However a log-periodic dipole array consists of a number of dipole elements of
different lengths in order to obtain a somewhat directional antenna having an
extremely wide bandwidth: these are frequently used for television reception in
fringe areas. The dipole antennas composing it are all considered "active elements"
since they are all electrically connected together (and to the transmission line). On
the other hand, a superficially similar dipole array, the Yagi-Uda Antenna (or
simply "Yagi"), has only one dipole element with an electrical connection; the
other so-called parasitic elements interact with the electromagnetic field in order to
realize a fairly directional antenna but one which is limited to a rather narrow
bandwidth. The Yagi antenna has similar looking parasitic dipole elements but
which act differently due to their somewhat different lengths. There may be a
number of so-called "directors" in front of the active element in the direction of
propagation, and usually a single (but possibly more) "reflector" on the opposite
side of the active element.
Greater directionality can be obtained using beam-forming techniques such as a
parabolic reflector or a horn. Since the size of a directional antenna depends on it
being large compared to the wavelength, very directional antennas of this sort are
mainly feasible at UHF and microwave frequencies. On the other hand, at low
frequencies (such as AM broadcast) where a practical antenna must be much
smaller than a wavelength, significant directionality isn't even possible. A vertical
antenna or loop antenna small compared to the wavelength is typically used, with
the main design challenge being that of impedance matching. With a vertical
antenna a loading coil at the base of the antenna may be employed to cancel the
reactive component of impedance; small loop antennas are tuned with parallel
capacitors for this purpose.
An antenna lead-in is the transmission line (or feed line) which connects the
antenna to a transmitter or receiver. The antenna feed may refer to all components
connecting the antenna to the transmitter or receiver, such as an impedance
matching network in addition to the transmission line. In a so-called aperture
antenna, such as a horn or parabolic dish, the "feed" may also refer to a basic
antenna inside the entire system (normally at the focus of the parabolic dish or at
the throat of a horn) which could be considered the one active element in that
antenna system. A microwave antenna may also be fed directly from a waveguide
in lieu of a (conductive) transmission line.

An antenna counterpoise or ground plane is a structure of conductive material

which improves or substitutes for the ground. It may be connected to or insulated
from the natural ground. In a monopole antenna, this aids in the function of the
natural ground, particularly where variations (or limitations) of the characteristics
of the natural ground interfere with its proper function. Such a structure is
normally connected to the return connection of an unbalanced transmission line
such as the shield of a coaxial cable.
An electromagnetic wave refractor in some aperture antennas is a component
which due to its shape and position functions to selectively delay or advance
portions of the electromagnetic wavefront passing through it. The refractor alters
the spatial characteristics of the wave on one side relative to the other side. It can,
for instance, bring the wave to a focus or alter the wave front in other ways,
generally in order to maximize the directivity of the antenna system. This is the
radio equivalent of an optical lens.
An antenna coupling network is a passive network (generally a combination of
inductive and capacitive circuit elements) used for impedance matching in between
the antenna and the transmitter or receiver. This may be used to improve the
standing wave ratio in order to minimize losses in the transmission line and to
present the transmitter or receiver with a standard resistive impedance that it
expects to see for optimum operation.

[edit] Reciprocity
It is a fundamental property of antennas that the electrical characteristics of an
antenna described in the next section, such as gain, radiation pattern, impedance,
bandwidth, resonant frequency and polarization, are the same whether the antenna
is transmitting or receiving. For example, the "receiving pattern" (sensitivity as a
function of direction) of an antenna when used for reception is identical to the
radiation pattern of the antenna when it is driven and functions as a radiator. This is
a consequence of the reciprocity theorem of electromagnetics. Therefore in
discussions of antenna properties no distinction is usually made between receiving
and transmitting terminology, and the antenna can be viewed as either transmitting
or receiving, whichever is more convenient.
A necessary condition for the aforementioned reciprocity property is that the
materials in the antenna and transmission medium are linear and reciprocal.
Reciprocal (or bilateral) means that the material has the same response to an
electric current or magnetic field in one direction, as it has to the field or current in

the opposite direction. Most materials used in antennas meet these conditions, but
some microwave antennas use[citation needed] high-tech components such as isolators
and circulators, made of nonreciprocal materials such as ferrite or garnet. These
can be used to give the antenna a different behavior on receiving than it has on
transmitting, which can be useful in applications like radar.

[edit] Parameters
Main article: Antenna measurement
Antennas are characterized by a number of performance measures which a user
would be concerned with in selecting or designing an antenna for a particular
application. Chief among these relate to the directional characteristics (as depicted
in the antenna's radiation pattern) and the resulting gain. Even in omnidirectional
(or weakly directional) antennas, the gain can often be increased by concentrating
more of its power in the horizontal directions, sacrificing power radiated toward
the sky and ground. The antenna's power gain (or simply "gain") also takes into
account the antenna's efficiency, and is often the primary figure of merit.
Resonant antennas are expected to be used around a particular resonant frequency;
an antenna must therefore be built or ordered to match the frequency range of the
intended application. A particular antenna design will present a particular feedpoint
impedance. While this may affect the choice of an antenna, an antenna's impedance
can also be adapted to the desired impedance level of a system using a matching
network while maintaining the other characteristics (except for a possible loss of
efficiency).
Although these parameters can be measured in principle, such measurements are
difficult and require very specialized equipment. Beyond tuning a transmitting
antenna using an SWR meter, the typical user will depend on theoretical
predictions based on the antenna design or on claims of a vendor.
An antenna transmits and receives radio waves with a particular polarization which
can be reoriented by tilting the axis of the antenna in many (but not all) cases. The
physical size of an antenna is often a practical issue, particularly at lower
frequencies (longer wavelengths). Highly directional antennas need to be
significantly larger than the wavelength. Resonant antennas use a conductor, or a
pair of conductors, each of which is about one quarter of the wavelength in length.
Antennas that are required to be very small compared to the wavelength sacrifice
efficiency and cannot be very directional. Fortunately at higher frequencies (UHF,

microwaves) trading off performance to obtain a smaller physical size is usually

not required.

Resonant antennas
While there are broadband designs for antennas, the vast majority of antennas are
based on the half-wave dipole which has a particular resonant frequency. At its
resonant frequency, the wavelength (figured by dividing the speed of light by the
resonant frequency) is slightly over twice the length of the half-wave dipole (thus
the name). The quarter-wave vertical antenna consists of one arm of a half-wave
dipole, with the other arm replaced by a connection to ground or an equivalent
ground plane (or counterpoise). A Yagi-Uda array consists of a number of resonant
dipole elements, only one of which is directly connected to the transmission line.
The quarter-wave elements of a dipole or vertical antenna imitate a series-resonant
electrical element, since if they are driven at the resonant frequency a standing
wave is created with the peak current at the feed-point and the peak voltage at the
far end.
A common misconception is that the ability of a resonant antenna to transmit (or
receive) fails at frequencies far from the resonant frequency. The reason a dipole
antenna needs to be used at the resonant frequency has to do with the impedance
match between the antenna and the transmitter or receiver (and its transmission
line). For instance, a dipole using a fairly thin conductor[6] will have a purely
resistive feedpoint impedance of about 63 ohms at its design frequency. Feeding
that antenna with a current of 1 ampere will require 63 volts of RF, and the antenna
will radiate 63 watts (ignoring losses) of radio frequency power. If that antenna is
driven with 1 ampere at a frequency 20% higher, it will still radiate as efficiently
but in order to do that about 200 volts would be required due to the change in the
antenna's impedance which is now largely reactive (voltage out of phase with the
current). A typical transmitter would not find that impedance acceptable and would
deliver much less than 63 watts to it; the transmission line would be operating at a
high (poor) standing wave ratio. But using an appropriate matching network, that
large reactive impedance could be converted to a resistive impedance satisfying the
transmitter and accepting the available power of the transmitter.
This principle is used to construct vertical antennas substantially shorter than the
1/4 wavelength at which the antenna is resonant. By adding an inductance in series
with the vertical antenna (a so-called loading coil) the capacitative reactance of this
antenna can be cancelled leaving a pure resistance which can then be matched to
the transmission line. Sometimes the resulting resonant frequency of such a system

(antenna plus matching network) is described using the construct of "electrical

length" and the use of a shorter antenna at a lower frequency than its resonant
frequency is termed "electrical lengthening". For example, at 30 MHz (wavelength
= 10 meters) a true resonant monopole would be almost 2.5 meters (1/4
wavelength) long, and using an antenna only 1.5 meters tall would require the
addition of a loading coil. Then it may be said that the coil has "lengthened" the
antenna to achieve an "electrical length" of 2.5 meters, that is, 1/4 wavelength at
30 MHz where the combined system now resonates. However, the resulting
resistive impedance achieved will be quite a bit lower than the impedance of a
resonant monopole, likely requiring further impedance matching. In addition to a
lower radiation resistance, the reactance becomes higher as the antenna size is
reduced, and the resonant circuit formed by the antenna and the tuning coil has a Q
factor that rises and eventually causes the bandwidth of the antenna to be
inadequate for the signal being transmitted. This is the major factor that sets the
size of antennas at 1 MHz and lower frequencies.
Current and voltage distribution
The antenna conductors have the lowest feed-point impedance at the resonant
frequency where they are just under 1/4 wavelength long; two such conductors in
line fed differentially thus realizes the familiar "half-wave dipole". When fed with
an RF current at the resonant frequency, the quarter wave element contains a
standing wave with the voltage and current largely (but not exactly) in phase
quadrature, as would be obtained using a quarter wave stub of transmission line.
The current reaches a minimum at the end of the element (where it has nowhere to
go!) and is maximum at the feed-point. The voltage, on the other hand, is the
greatest at the end of the conductor and reaches a minimum (but not zero) at the
feedpoint. Making the conductor shorter or longer than 1/4 wavelength means that
the voltage pattern reaches its minimum somewhere beyond the feed-point, so that
the feed-point has a higher voltage and thus sees a higher impedance, as we have
noted. Since that voltage pattern is almost in phase quadrature with the current, the
impedance seen at the feed-point is not only much higher but mainly reactive.
It can be seen that if such an element is resonant at f0 to produce such a standing
wave pattern, then feeding that element with 3f0 (whose wavelength is 1/3 that of
f0) will lead to a standing wave pattern in which the voltage is likewise a minimum
at the feed-point (and the current at a maximum there). Thus, an antenna element is
also resonant when its length is 3/4 of a wavelength (3/2 wavelength for a
complete dipole). This is true for all odd multiples of 1/4 wavelength, where the
feed-point impedance is purely resistive, though larger than the resistive

impedance of the 1/4 wave element. Although such an antenna is resonant and
works perfectly well at the higher frequency, the antenna radiation pattern is also
altered compared to the half-wave dipole.
The use of a monopole or dipole at odd multiples of the fundamental resonant
frequency, however, does not extend to even multiples (thus a 1/2 wavelength
monopole or 1 wavelength dipole). Now the voltage standing wave is at its peak at
the feed-point, while that of the current (which must be zero at the end of the
conductor) is at a minimum (but not exactly zero). The antenna is anti-resonant at
this frequency. Although the reactance at the feedpoint can be cancelled using such
an element length, the feed-point impedance is very high, and is highly dependent
on the diameter of the conductor (which makes only a small difference at the actual
resonant frequency). Such an antenna does not match the much lower characteristic
impedance of available transmission lines, and is generally not used. However
some equipment where transmission lines are not involved which desire a high
driving point impedance may take advantage of this anti-resonance.
Bandwidth
Although a resonant antenna has a purely resistive feed-point impedance at a
particular frequency, many (if not most) applications require using an antenna over
a range of frequencies. An antenna's bandwidth specifies the range of frequencies
over which its performance does not suffer due to a poor impedance match. Also in
the case of a Yagi-Uda array, the use of the antenna very far away from its design
frequency reduces the antenna's directivity, thus reducing the usable bandwidth
regardless of impedance matching.
Except for the latter concern, the resonant frequency of a resonant antenna can
always be altered by adjusting a suitable matching network. To do this efficiently
one would require remotely adjusting a matching network at the site of the
antenna, since simply adjusting a matching network at the transmitter (or receiver)
would leave the transmission line with a poor standing wave ratio.
Instead, it is often desired to have an antenna whose impedance does not vary so
greatly over a certain bandwidth. It turns out that the amount of reactance seen at
the terminals of a resonant antenna when the frequency is shifted, say, by 5%,
depends very much on the diameter of the conductor used. A long thin wire used as
a half-wave dipole (or quarter wave monopole) will have a reactance significantly
greater than the resistive impedance it has at resonance, leading to a poor match
and generally unacceptable performance. Making the element using a tube of a

diameter perhaps 1/50 of its length, however, results in a reactance at this altered
frequency which is not so great, and a much less serious mismatch which will only
modestly damage the antenna's net performance. Thus rather thick tubes are
typically used for the solid elements of such antennas, including Yagi-Uda arrays.
Rather than just using a thick tube, there are similar techniques used to the same
effect such as replacing thin wire elements with cages to simulate a thicker
element. This widens the bandwidth of the resonance. On the other hand, amateur
radio antennas need to operate over several bands which are widely separated from
each other. This can often be accomplished simply by connecting resonant
elements for the different bands in parallel. Most of the transmitter's power will
flow into the resonant element while the others present a high (reactive) impedance
and draw little current from the same voltage. A popular solution uses so-called
traps consisting of parallel resonant circuits which are strategically placed in
breaks along each antenna element. When used at one particular frequency band
the trap presents a very high impedance (parallel resonance) effectively truncating
the element at that length, making it a proper resonant antenna. At a lower
frequency the trap allows the full length of the element to be employed, albeit with
a shifted resonant frequency due to the inclusion of the trap's net reactance at that
lower frequency.
The bandwidth characteristics of a resonant antenna element can be characterized
according to its Q, just as one uses to characterize the sharpness of an L-C resonant
circuit. However it is often assumed that there is an advantage in an antenna having
a high Q. After all, Q is short for "quality factor" and a low Q typically signifies
excessive loss (due to unwanted resistance) in a resonant L-C circuit. However this
understanding does not apply to resonant antennas where the resistance involved is
the radiation resistance, a desired quantity which removes energy from the resonant
element in order to radiate it (the purpose of an antenna, after all!). The Q is a
measure of the ratio of reactance to resistance, so with a fixed radiation resistance
(an element's radiation resistance is almost independent of its diameter) a greater
reactance off-resonance corresponds to the poorer bandwidth of a very thin
conductor. The Q of such a narrowband antenna can be as high as 15. On the other
hand a thick element presents less reactance at an off-resonant frequency, and
consequently a Q as low as 5. These two antennas will perform equivalently at the
resonant frequency, but the second antenna will perform over a bandwidth 3 times
as wide as the "hi-Q" antenna consisting of a thin conductor.

Gain
Gain is a parameter which measures the degree of directivity of the antenna's
radiation pattern. A high-gain antenna will preferentially radiate in a particular
direction. Specifically, the antenna gain, or power gain of an antenna is defined as
the ratio of the intensity (power per unit surface) radiated by the antenna in the
direction of its maximum output, at an arbitrary distance, divided by the intensity
radiated at the same distance by a hypothetical isotropic antenna.
The gain of an antenna is a passive phenomenon - power is not added by the
antenna, but simply redistributed to provide more radiated power in a certain
direction than would be transmitted by an isotropic antenna. An antenna designer
must take into account the application for the antenna when determining the gain.
High-gain antennas have the advantage of longer range and better signal quality,
but must be aimed carefully in a particular direction. Low-gain antennas have
shorter range, but the orientation of the antenna is relatively inconsequential. For
example, a dish antenna on a spacecraft is a high-gain device that must be pointed
at the planet to be effective, whereas a typical Wi-Fi antenna in a laptop computer
is low-gain, and as long as the base station is within range, the antenna can be in
any orientation in space. It makes sense to improve horizontal range at the expense
of reception above or below the antenna.[7]
In practice, the half-wave dipole is taken as a reference instead of the isotropic
radiator. The gain is then given in dBd (decibels over dipole):
NOTE: 0 dBd = 2.15 dBi. It is vital in expressing gain values that the
reference point be included. Failure to do so can lead to confusion and error.

Effective area or aperture

The effective area or effective aperture of a receiving antenna expresses the portion
of the power of a passing electromagnetic wave which it delivers to its terminals,
expressed in terms of an equivalent area. For instance, if a radio wave passing a
given location has a flux of 1 pW / m2 (1012 watts per square meter) and an
antenna has an effective area of 12 m2, then the antenna would deliver 12 pW of
RF power to the receiver (30 microvolts rms at 75 ohms). Since the receiving
antenna is not equally sensitive to signals received from all directions, the effective
area is a function of the direction to the source.

Due to reciprocity (discussed above) the gain of an antenna used for transmitting
must be proportional to its effective area when used for receiving. Consider an
antenna with no loss, that is, one whose electrical efficiency is 100%. It can be
shown that its effective area averaged over all directions must be equal to 2/4, the
wavelength squared divided by 4. Gain is defined such that the average gain over
all directions for an antenna with 100% electrical efficiency is equal to 1.
Therefore the effective area Aeff in terms of the gain G in a given direction is given
by:

For an antenna with an efficiency of less than 100%, both the effective area and
gain are reduced by that same amount. Therefore the above relationship between
gain and effective area still holds. These are thus two different ways of expressing
the same quantity. Aeff is especially convenient when computing the power that
would be received by an antenna of a specified gain, as illustrated by the above
example.

Radiation pattern
Main article: Radiation pattern

polar plots of the horizontal cross sections of a (virtual) Yagi-Uda-antenna. Outline

connects points with 3db field power compared to an ISO emitter.
The radiation pattern of an antenna is a plot of the relative field strength of the
radio waves emitted by the antenna at different angles. It is typically represented
by a three dimensional graph, or polar plots of the horizontal and vertical cross
sections. The pattern of an ideal isotropic antenna, which radiates equally in all

directions, would look like a sphere. Many nondirectional antennas, such as

monopoles and dipoles, emit equal power in all horizontal directions, with the
power dropping off at higher and lower angles; this is called an omnidirectional
pattern and when plotted looks like a torus or donut.
The radiation of many antennas shows a pattern of maxima or "lobes" at various
angles, separated by "nulls", angles where the radiation falls to zero. This is
because the radio waves emitted by different parts of the antenna typically
interfere, causing maxima at angles where the radio waves arrive at distant points
in phase, and zero radiation at other angles where the radio waves arrive out of
phase. In a directional antenna designed to project radio waves in a particular
direction, the lobe in that direction is designed larger than the others and is called
the "main lobe". The other lobes usually represent unwanted radiation and are
called "sidelobes". The axis through the main lobe is called the "principal axis" or
"boresight axis".

Impedance
As an electro-magnetic wave travels through the different parts of the antenna
system (radio, feed line, antenna, free space) it may encounter differences in
impedance (E/H, V/I, etc.). At each interface, depending on the impedance match,
some fraction of the wave's energy will reflect back to the source,[8] forming a
standing wave in the feed line. The ratio of maximum power to minimum power in
the wave can be measured and is called the standing wave ratio (SWR). A SWR of
1:1 is ideal. A SWR of 1.5:1 is considered to be marginally acceptable in low
power applications where power loss is more critical, although an SWR as high as
6:1 may still be usable with the right equipment. Minimizing impedance
differences at each interface (impedance matching) will reduce SWR and
maximize power transfer through each part of the antenna system.
Complex impedance of an antenna is related to the electrical length of the antenna
at the wavelength in use. The impedance of an antenna can be matched to the feed
line and radio by adjusting the impedance of the feed line, using the feed line as an
impedance transformer. More commonly, the impedance is adjusted at the load
(see below) with an antenna tuner, a balun, a matching transformer, matching
networks composed of inductors and capacitors, or matching sections such as the
gamma match.

Efficiency
Main article: Antenna efficiency
Efficiency of a transmitting antenna is the ratio of power actually radiated (in all
directions) to the power absorbed by the antenna terminals. The power supplied to
the antenna terminals which is not radiated is converted into heat. This is usually
through loss resistance in the antenna's conductors, but can also be due to dielectric
or magnetic core losses in antennas (or antenna systems) using such components.
Such loss effectively robs power from the transmitter, requiring a stronger
transmitter in order to transmit a signal of a given strength.
For instance, if a transmitter delivers 100 W into an antenna having an efficiency
of 80%, then the antenna will radiate 80 W as radio waves and produce 20 W of
heat. In order to radiate 100 W of power, one would need to use a transmitter
capable of supplying 125 W to the antenna. Note that antenna efficiency is a
separate issue from impedance matching, which may also reduce the amount of
power radiated using a given transmitter. If an SWR meter reads 150 W of incident
power and 50 W of reflected power, that means that 100 W have actually been
absorbed by the antenna (ignoring transmission line losses). How much of that
power has actually been radiated cannot be directly determined through electrical
measurements at (or before) the antenna terminals, but would require (for instance)
careful measurement of field strength. Fortunately the loss resistance of antenna
conductors such as aluminum rods can be calculated and the efficiency of an
antenna using such materials predicted.
However loss resistance will generally affect the feedpoint impedance, adding to
its resistive (real) component. That resistance will consist of the sum of the
radiation resistance Rr and the loss resistance Rloss. If an rms current I is delivered
to the terminals of an antenna, then a power of I2Rr will be radiated and a power of
I2Rloss will be lost as heat. Therefore the efficiency of an antenna is equal to Rr / (Rr
+ Rloss). Of course only the total resistance Rr + Rloss can be directly measured.
According to reciprocity, the efficiency of an antenna used as a receiving antenna
is identical to the efficiency as defined above. The power that an antenna will
deliver to a receiver (with a proper impedance match) is reduced by the same
amount. In some receiving applications, the very inefficient antennas may have
little impact on performance. At low frequencies, for example, atmospheric or
man-made noise can mask antenna inefficiency. For example, CCIR Rep. 258-3
indicates man-made noise in a residential setting at 40 MHz is about 28 dB above

the thermal noise floor. Consequently, an antenna with a 20 dB loss (due to

inefficiency) would have little impact on system noise performance. The loss
within the antenna will affect the intended signal and the noise/interference
identically, leading to no reduction in signal to noise ratio (SNR).
This is fortunate, since antennas at lower frequencies which are not rather large (a
good fraction of a wavelength in size) are inevitably inefficient (due to the small
radiation resistance Rr of small antennas). Most AM broadcast radios (except for
car radios) take advantage of this principle by including a small loop antenna for
reception which has an extremely poor efficiency. Using such an inefficient
antenna at this low frequency (5301650 kHz) thus has little effect on the
receiver's net performance, but simply requires greater amplification by the
receiver's electronics. Contrast this tiny component to the massive and very tall
towers used at AM broadcast stations for transmitting at the very same frequency,
where every percentage point of reduced antenna efficiency entails a substantial
cost.
The definition of antenna gain or power gain already includes the effect of the
antenna's efficiency. Therefore if one is trying to radiate a signal toward a receiver
using a transmitter of a given power, one need only compare the gain of various
antennas rather than considering the efficiency as well. This is likewise true for a
receiving antenna at very high (especially microwave) frequencies, where the point
is to receive a signal which is strong compared to the receiver's noise temperature.
However in the case of a directional antenna used for receiving signals with the
intention of rejecting interference from different directions, one is no longer
concerned with the antenna efficiency, as discussed above. In this case, rather than
quoting the antenna gain, one would be more concerned with the directive gain
which does not include the effect of antenna (in)efficiency. The directive gain of an
antenna can be computed from the published gain divided by the antenna's
efficiency.

Polarization
Main article: Polarization (waves)
The polarization of an antenna is the orientation of the electric field (E-plane) of
the radio wave with respect to the Earth's surface and is determined by the physical
structure of the antenna and by its orientation. It has nothing in common with
antenna directionality terms: "horizontal", "vertical", and "circular". Thus, a simple
straight wire antenna will have one polarization when mounted vertically, and a

different polarization when mounted horizontally. "Electromagnetic wave

polarization filters"[citation needed] are structures which can be employed to act directly
on the electromagnetic wave to filter out wave energy of an undesired polarization
and to pass wave energy of a desired polarization.
Reflections generally affect polarization. For radio waves the most important
reflector is the ionosphere - signals which reflect from it will have their
polarization changed unpredictably. For signals which are reflected by the
ionosphere, polarization cannot be relied upon. For line-of-sight communications
for which polarization can be relied upon, it can make a large difference in signal
quality to have the transmitter and receiver using the same polarization; many tens
of dB difference are commonly seen and this is more than enough to make the
difference between reasonable communication and a broken link.
Polarization is largely predictable from antenna construction but, especially in
directional antennas, the polarization of side lobes can be quite different from that
of the main propagation lobe. For radio antennas, polarization corresponds to the
orientation of the radiating element in an antenna. A vertical omnidirectional WiFi
antenna will have vertical polarization (the most common type). An exception is a
class of elongated waveguide antennas in which vertically placed antennas are
horizontally polarized. Many commercial antennas are marked as to the
polarization of their emitted signals.
Polarization is the sum of the E-plane orientations over time projected onto an
imaginary plane perpendicular to the direction of motion of the radio wave. In the
most general case, polarization is elliptical, meaning that the polarization of the
radio waves varies over time. Two special cases are linear polarization (the ellipse
collapses into a line) and circular polarization (in which the two axes of the ellipse
are equal). In linear polarization the antenna compels the electric field of the
emitted radio wave to a particular orientation. Depending on the orientation of the
antenna mounting, the usual linear cases are horizontal and vertical polarization. In
circular polarization, the antenna continuously varies the electric field of the radio
wave through all possible values of its orientation with regard to the Earth's
surface. Circular polarizations, like elliptical ones, are classified as right-hand
polarized or left-hand polarized using a "thumb in the direction of the propagation"
rule. Optical researchers use the same rule of thumb, but pointing it in the direction
of the emitter, not in the direction of propagation, and so are opposite to radio
engineers' use.

In practice, regardless of confusing terminology, it is important that linearly

polarized antennas be matched, lest the received signal strength be greatly reduced.
So horizontal should be used with horizontal and vertical with vertical.
Intermediate matchings will lose some signal strength, but not as much as a
complete mismatch. Transmitters mounted on vehicles with large motional
freedom commonly use circularly polarized antennas[citation needed] so that there will
never be a complete mismatch with signals from other sources.

Impedance matching
Main article: Impedance matching
Maximum power transfer requires matching the impedance of an antenna system
(as seen looking into the transmission line) to the complex conjugate of the
impedance of the receiver or transmitter. In the case of a transmitter, however, the
desired matching impedance might not correspond to the dynamic output
impedance of the transmitter as analyzed as a source impedance but rather the
design value (typically 50 ohms) required for efficient and safe operation of the
transmitting circuitry. The intended impedance is normally resistive but a
transmitter (and some receivers) may have additional adjustments to cancel a
certain amount of reactance in order to "tweak" the match. When a transmission
line is used in between the antenna and the transmitter (or receiver) one generally
would like an antenna system whose impedance is resistive and near the
characteristic impedance of that transmission line in order to minimize the standing
wave ratio (SWR) and the increase in transmission line losses it entails, in addition
to supplying a good match at the transmitter or receiver itself.
Antenna tuning generally refers to cancellation of any reactance seen at the
antenna terminals, leaving only a resistive impedance which might or might not be
exactly the desired impedance (that of the transmission line). Although an antenna
may be designed to have a purely resistive feedpoint impedance (such as a dipole
97% of a half wavelength long) this might not be exactly true at the frequency that
it is eventually used at. In some cases the physical length of the antenna can be
"trimmed" to obtain a pure resistance. On the other hand, the addition of a series
inductance or parallel capacitance can be used to cancel a residual capacitative or
inductive reactance, respectively.
In some cases this is done in a more extreme manner, not simply to cancel a small
amount of residual reactance, but to resonate an antenna whose resonance
frequency is quite different than the intended frequency of operation. For instance,

a "whip antenna" can be made significantly shorter than 1/4 wavelength long, for
practical reasons, and then resonated using a so-called loading coil. This physically
large inductor at the base of the antenna has an inductive reactance which is the
opposite of the capacitative reactance that such a vertical antenna has at the desired
operating frequency. The result is a pure resistance seen at feedpoint of the loading
coil; unfortunately that resistance is somewhat lower than would be desired to
match commercial coax[citation needed].
So an additional problem beyond canceling the unwanted reactance is of matching
the remaining resistive impedance to the characteristic impedance of the
transmission line. In principle this can always be done with a transformer, however
the turns ratio of a transformer is not adjustable. A general matching network with
at least two adjustments can be made to correct both components of impedance.
Matching networks using discrete inductors and capacitors will have losses
associated with those components, and will have power restrictions when used for
transmitting. Avoiding these difficulties, commercial antennas are generally
designed with fixed matching elements or feeding strategies to get an approximate
match to standard coax, such as 50 or 75 Ohms. Antennas based on the dipole
(rather than vertical antennas) should include a balun in between the transmission
line and antenna element, which may be integrated into any such matching
network.
Another extreme case of impedance matching occurs when using a small loop
antenna (usually, but not always, for receiving) at a relatively low frequency where
it appears almost as a pure inductor. Resonating such an inductor with a capacitor
at the frequency of operation not only cancels the reactance but greatly magnifies
the very small radiation resistance of such a loop[citation needed]. This is implemented in
most AM broadcast receivers, with a small ferrite loop antenna resonated by a
capacitor which is varied along with the receiver tuning

Basic antenna models

Typical US multiband TV antenna (aerial)
There are many variations of antennas. Below are a few basic models. More can be
found in Category: Radio frequency antenna types.

 The isotropic radiator is a purely theoretical antenna that radiates equally in

all directions. It is considered to be a point in space with no dimensions and
no mass. This antenna cannot physically exist, but is useful as a theoretical
model for comparison with all other antennas. Most antennas' gains are
measured with reference to an isotropic radiator, and are rated in dBi
(decibels with respect to an isotropic radiator).
The dipole antenna is simply two wires pointed in opposite directions
arranged either horizontally or vertically, with one end of each wire
connected to the radio and the other end hanging free in space. Since this is
the simplest practical antenna, it is also used as a reference model for other
antennas; gain with respect to a dipole is labeled as dBd. Generally, the
dipole is considered to be omnidirectional in the plane perpendicular to the
axis of the antenna, but it has deep nulls in the directions of the axis.
Variations of the dipole include the folded dipole, the half wave antenna, the
ground plane antenna, the whip, and the J-pole.
The Yagi-Uda antenna is a directional variation of the dipole with parasitic
elements added which are functionality similar to adding a reflector and
lenses (directors) to focus a filament light bulb.
The random wire antenna is simply a very long (at least one quarter
wavelength[citation needed]) wire with one end connected to the radio and the
other in free space, arranged in any way most convenient for the space
available. Folding will reduce effectiveness and make theoretical analysis
extremely difficult. (The added length helps more than the folding typically
hurts.) Typically, a random wire antenna will also require an antenna tuner,
as it might have a random impedance that varies non-linearly with
frequency.
The horn antenna is used where high gain is needed, the wavelength is short
(microwave) and space is not an issue. Horns can be narrow band or wide
band, depending on their shape. A horn can be built for any frequency, but
horns for lower frequencies are typically impractical. Horns are also
frequently used as reference antennas.
The parabolic antenna consists of an active element at the focus of a
parabolic reflector to reflect the waves into a plane wave. Like the horn it is
used for high gain, microwave applications, such as satellite dishes.

 The patch antenna consists mainly of a square conductor mounted over a

groundplane. Another example of a planar antenna is the tapered slot
antenna (TSA), as the Vivaldi-antenna.