AM-FM Basics

Notes from Book
Communication Systems
Spring 2013-14
Feb 03, 2014
EE-380: Communication Systems
Introduction to Communication Systems
Chapter 1
Feb 03, 2014
Communications
Communications = Information transfer

This course is about communications
Limited to information in electrical form
We will not consider delivering newspapers
We will primarily cover information transfer

at systems level
Feb 03, 2014
We will not deal [too much] with circuits, chips,

signal processing, microprocessors, protocols,
and networks
What exactly is information?
Information is a word that is too

generic for our purposes
We will use the word message
A physical manifestation of information
What do communication systems have

to do with messages?
Communication systems are responsible for

producing an acceptable replica of
message at the destination
Feb 03, 2014
Is Signal = Message?
Just like information, signal is also a generic

word
Derived directly from information
Scientists and Engineers use signal to denote

information in electrical form
We will use signal and message interchangeably
Feb 03, 2014
Can we classify signals?
Messages or signals can be classified:

Analog
A physical quantity that varies with time, usually in a

smooth or continuous fashion
Fidelity describes how close is the received signal to the
original signal. Fidelity defines acceptability
Digital
An ordered sequence of symbols selected from a finite set of

discrete elements
When digital signals are sent through a communication
system, degree of accuracy within a given time defines the
acceptability
Feb 03, 2014
Examples
Analog Signals
Digital Signals
Values are taken from an

infinite set
Values are taken from a

discrete set
Binary Signals
Digital signals with just

two discrete values
1
0 0
1
0
t
Feb 03, 2014
Elements of Communication Systems
Transmitter
Channel
Modulation
Coding
Attenuation
Noise
Distortion
Interference
Receiver
Detection (Demodulation+Decoding)
Filtering (Equalization)
Feb 03, 2014

Text
Images
Video
Audio
b1b2 ...
Source
Encoder
m (t )
Transmitter
b1b2 ...
m (t )
s(t )
s (t )
Channel
Receiver
Source
Decoder
Encoder: Message Message Signal or bits

Transmitter: Message signal Transmitted signal
Channel: Introduces noise, distortion, interference
Receiver: Received Signal Message Signal
Decoder: Message Signal Original Message
Example: Microphone ---------------> Speaker
Feb 03, 2014
What do we cover in EE-380

b1b2 ...
m (t )
n(t)
Analog or Digital
Modulator
Transmitter
s (t )
h(t)
s(t ) n(t )
Channel
Analog or Digital
Demodulator
b1b2 ...
m ( t )
Receiver
Modulation converts message signal or bits into amplitude,

phase, or frequency of a sinusoidal carrier (AM, FM, QPSK)
Modulation may make the transmitted signal robust to channel
impairments
Channel introduces noise, distortion, and interference
Demodulator tries to mitigate the channel impairments
Feb 03, 2014
10
Fundamental Limitations
If practical implementation is not a concern and we

dont worry about feasibility, is there something else
that limits acceptable communications?
Bandwidth
Noise
Channels must be able to allow signal to pass through

Channels usually have limited bandwidth
Can we reduce signal bandwidth? Do something at source
Can we reduce it?
Can we reduce its effects?
Do something at the transmitter and receiver
Signal to Noise Ratio
Feb 03, 2014
11
Block Diagram
n(t)
m(t) (Modulator)
Analog
or Digital
Transmitter
Feb 03, 2014
s(t)
h(t)
Demodulator
Channel
m
(t)
Receiver
12
Performance Criterion
How a good communication system can be

differentiated from a sloppy one?
For analog communications
(t) to m(t)? Fidelity!

How close is m
SNR is typically used as a performance metric
For digital communications
Data rate and probability of error

No channel impairments, no error
With noise, error probability depends upon data
rate, signal and noise powers, modulation scheme
Feb 03, 2014
13
Limits on data rates
Shannon obtained formulas that provide

fundamental limits on data rates (1948)
Without channel impairments, an
infinite data rate is achievable with
probability of error approaching zero
For bandlimited AWGN channels, the
capacity of a channel is:
C = B log(1 + SNR)
Feb 03, 2014
14
Example: PSTN
Public Switched Telephone Network

Components
Phone set (analog signal is generated)

Local exchange (A/D conversion)
Long-haul exchange
Characteristics
Circuit-switched network
Designed for voice communications (analog???)
Faxes and modems use PSTN for transmission of
digital data in analog form
Feb 03, 2014
15
Example:PSTN
Long distance line
Local
exchange
Local line
International
exchange
International line
Long distance
exchange
Long distance line
Local
exchange
Feb 03, 2014
16
Example: Cellular
Islamabad
PSTN
MTSO
MTSO
MTSO: Mobile Telephone

Switching Office
Lahore
Feb 03, 2014
17
Example: Cellular
Cellular Communication System
A cell is assigned some number of channels

Typically one channel is allocated to a user
Users communicate with a base station
Base station is connected to MTSO/PSTN
AMPS is an analog system
Uses FM and frequency-division multiple access
Digital systems use digital modulation
Feb 03, 2014
18
Example: Radio broadcast
Two modes are used
AM
Amplitude modulation
535-1605kHz
10kHz channels
FM
Feb 03, 2014
Frequency modulation
88-108MHz
Channels centered at 200kHz intervals starting at
88.1MHz
19
Example: Wireless LANs
Various standards
IEEE 802.11a/b/g popular
IEEE 802.11b
11Mb/s data rate

2.4-2.4835GHz band
Modulation: Direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS)
IEEE 802.11a
55Mb/s data rate

5.725-5.825GHz band (in U.S.)
Uses orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM)
Feb 03, 2014
20
Example: LANs and WANs
Local Area Networks (LANs)
Connect closely located computers

Data bits are transmitted in chunks (packets) for
efficiency/feasibility reasons
Various LAN protocols are used in practice
Wide Area Networks (WANs)
A wide area backbone network connects different

LANs
A standard protocol is needed for such
communication (TCP/IP)
Feb 03, 2014
21
Example: Ad Hoc Networks
Various devices connected to each other

without using an infrastructure
Sensor Networks
Similar to ad hoc Networks (may be considered a special

case of ad hoc networks)
Have power constraints (Use non-rechargeable battery)
Mesh Networks
Feb 03, 2014
Another example of ad hoc networks

Used for provide communications to remote areas
22
A Generic Communication System
n(t)
m(t) (Modulator)
Analog
or Digital
Transmitter
Feb 03, 2014
s(t)
h(t)
Demodulator
Channel
m
(t)
Receiver
23
Transmitter
Channel
Modulation
Coding
Attenuation
Noise
Distortion
Interference
Receiver
Detection (Demodulation+Decoding)
Filtering (Equalization)
Feb 03, 2014
24
Transmitter
What does modulation do?
Encodes messages (analog) or bits (digital)

into amplitude, frequency, or phase of a
carrier signal
Also makes transmitted signal robust
against channel impairments
Coding
Source coding remove redundancy

Channel coding add redundancy
Feb 03, 2014
25
Channel
Channel introduces impairments
Noise
Distortion
Inter-symbol interference
Attenuation and fading
Thermal noise is the most significant

Additive white Gaussian noise (AWGN)
Constant attenuation
Variable attenuation
Interference
Feb 03, 2014
Crosstalk
26
Receiver
What does demodulator do?
Extracts messages or bits from the

received signal
Mitigates channel impairments by making
use of equalizers
Decodes the signal, especially if channel
coding was performed at the transmitter
Feb 03, 2014
27
Performance Criterion
How a good communication system can be

differentiated from a sloppy one?
For analog communications
(t) to m(t)? Fidelity!

How close is m
SNR is typically used as a performance metric
For digital communications
Data rate and probability of error

No channel impairments, no error
With noise, error probability depends upon data
rate, signal and noise powers, modulation scheme
Feb 03, 2014
28
Signals and Spectra

Chapter 2
Feb 03, 2014
29
Review of Signals and Spectra
A generic sinusoidal signal

v(t) = A cos(w 0t + );
w0 = 2f0
Phasor representation
v(t) = A cos(w0t + ) = <[A ej(w0t+)]
Rotating phasors
Frequency plots
Amplitude
Phase
f0
A
w 0t +
Amplitude
Frequency domain representation
Phase
A
f0
f0
Feb 03, 2014
f
30
Review of Signals and Spectra
Two sided spectra can be seen from

v(t) = A2 ejejw0t + A2 ejejw 0t
This represents two rotating phasors

Amplitude and phase spectrum (two sided)
A=2
A=2
f0
f0
f0
Amplitude
Feb 03, 2014
f0
Phase
31
Periodic Signals
A signal xp(t) is periodic if there exists T

such that xp(t) = xp(t + T)
Smallest such T is called fundamental
period T 0
Any integer multiple of T 0 is also a period
T0
Feb 03, 2014
32
Average signal and Power
Average signal
hx(t)i = Tlim
!1
x(t)dt
T=2
Average power
hjx(t)j2i = Tlim
!1
1
T
T=2
R
1
T
T=2
R
jx(t)j2dt
T=2
For periodic signals, limit goes away
Feb 03, 2014
33
Fourier Series Representation
Projection of periodic signals onto basis

functions
Periodic signal is a weighted sum of these basis

functions
Exponentials are used as basis functions for

writing Fourier series
Any periodic signal can be expressed as a
sum of infinite number of exponentials (or
sinusoids for real signals)
Feb 03, 2014
34
Fourier Series
v(t) =
1
P
cnej2nf 0t
(Each term represents one frequency)
cn =
c0 =
1
T0
1
T0
f0 = T10
v(t)e j2nf 0tdt
T0
v(t)dt = hv(t)i
T0
(fundamental frequency)
Line spectra at frequencies that are integer

multiple of fundamental frequency
Feb 03, 2014
35
Sinc Function
1
sinc(x) = sinxx
0.8
0.6
Note the points where this

function becomes zero
0.4
0.2
Where does this appear?
-0.2
-0.4
-5
1
T
T=2
R
ej2ftdt =
T=2
Feb 03, 2014
1
j2fT
-4
-3
-2
-1
sin fT
(ejfT ejfT) = fT = sinc(fT)
36
Fourier Series: Example
= T10
v(t)e j2nf 0tdt
T0
=2
R
Aej2nf 0tdt
A
n
sinc(
)
4
4
A
sinc(nf 0)
T0
for =
T0
4
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
-3
-2
-1
nf0 =
Feb 03, 2014
T0
0.9
A
jnf 0
jnf 0
= j2nf
(e
e
)
0T 0
sin nf 0
nf 0
=2
A
T0
T0
Amplitude normalized by A/4
cn =
1
T0
v(t)
n
4
37
Sinusoidal Fourier Series
For real signals c n = c n

v(t) =
1
P
cnej2nf 0t = c0 +
= c0 +
1
P
jcnje
n=1
= c0 + 2
= a0 + 2
1
P
(cnej2nf 0t + cnej2nf 0t)
n=1
j(2nf 0t+6 c n)
1
P
6 c n)
jc njej(2nf 0t+
n=1
1
P
n=1
1
P
jcnj cos(2nf 0t + 6 cn)

[an cos(2nf 0t) + b n sin(2nf 0t)]
n=1
a n and b n can be expressed in terms of c n
Feb 03, 2014
38
Parsevals theorem
Average power of a periodic signal can be

obtained from its Fourier coefficients
P = hjx(t)j2i = T1
= T1
=
T=2
R
T=2
T=2
R
T=2
1
P
jx(t)j2dt
x(t)x(t)dt
c nc n
1
P
jc nj 2
To prove, write the Fourier series expansion
Feb 03, 2014
39
Fourier Transform
1
v(t)
A
T0
T0
What if the x-axis in the Fourier

series represents frequency?
The spectral lines appear at integer
multiples of fundamental frequency!
Separation between two consecutive
spectral lines is equal to f0 = T10
Amplitude normalized by A/4
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
-3
-2
-1
nf0 =
n
4
How does increasing fundamental period affect the

separation between two consecutive spectral lines? Fourier transform
Feb 03, 2014
40
Fourier Transform
Fourier series in the limit

Represents spectral components of a signal
Signal uniquely represented in time or
frequency domain
X(f) =
x(t) =
R1
1
R1
x(t)e j2ftdt
X(f)e j2ftdt
x(t) $ X(f)
Feb 03, 2014
41
Shifting and Scaling Review

x(t)
x(t=b)
ac
x(t
k )
a=b
x( t)
a+c
x(d t)
da
ab
x(t c)
x(t + c)
A
Feb 03, 2014
x(tb)
+ ak
t
42
Fourier Transform: Example

1
x(t) = rect(t)
12
X(f) = sinc(f)
x(t) =
Feb 03, 2014
Arect(t)
X(f) = Asinc(f)
1
2
43
Properties of FT
Linearity x1(t) + x2(t) $ X1(f) + X2(f)

1
f
x(at)
$
X(
)
Scaling
jaj
a
X(t) $ x( f)
Duality
Time shifting
x(t ) $ X(f)ej2f
Frequency shifting (modulation)

x(t)ej2fct $ X(f f c)
Feb 03, 2014
44
Properties of FT
Modulation
x(t) cos(2f ct + ) $
e j
X(f
2
f c) +
e j
X(f
2
+ f c)
Product and convolution

x(t)y(t) $ X(f) Y(f)
x(t) y(t) $ X(f)Y(f)
More on this under LTI systems
Feb 03, 2014
45
Properties of FT
Differentiation
d
x(t)
dt
$ j2fX(f)
dn
x(t)
dt n
$ (j2f)nX(f)
Integration
R
R1
1
Feb 03, 2014
1
x()d $ j2f
X(f)
x()d = X(0)
R1
X(f)df = x(0)
46
The Dirac Delta Function
A generalized function
R1
x(t)(t)dt = x(0)
(defined by sifting)
R1
1
R1
1
R1
(t)dt = 1
x(t)(t t 1)dt = x(t 1)
x(t t 2)(t t 1)dt = x(t 1 t 2)
x(t) (t) =
Feb 03, 2014
R1
1
x()(t )d = x(t)
47
FT of 1 and exponentials
R1
e j2ft(f f 0)df = e j2f 0t
ej2f0t $ (f f0)
1 $ (f)
and
(t) $ 1
Fourier transform of RF Pulse: (go through the integral)

rfp(t) = Arect(t) cos 2f ct
A
RFP(f) = A
sinc(f
f
)
+
sinc(f + f c)
c
2
2
Feb 03, 2014
48
Other Functions
Signum Function:
n
t>0
sgn(t) = +1
1 t<0
1
$ jf
Unit step Function:

u(t) = 12(1 + sgn(t))
h
i
1
u(t) $ 12 jf
+ (f)
Feb 03, 2014
1
t
49
FT of Periodic Signals
xp(t) =
1
P
cne
j2nf 0t
cn =
n
Let x(t) =
cn = f0
x p(t)
0
R1
jtj<T 0=2
else
1
T0
xp(t)e j2nf 0tdt;
T0
1
P
) xp(t) =
f0 = T10
x(t mT 0)
m=1
x(t)e j2nf 0tdt = f 0X(nf 0)
1
P
xp(t) = f 0
X(nf 0)ej2nf 0t
n=1
1
P
xp(t) $ f 0
X(nf 0)(f nf 0)
n=1
Feb 03, 2014
50
FT of Periodic Signals
1
P
(t mT 0)
m=1n
0=2
Let x(t) = x p0(t) jtj<T
else
xp(t) =
) x(t) = (t); and X(f) = 1

1
P
xp(t) $ f 0
X(nf 0)(f nf 0)
n=1
1
P
Xp(f) = f 0
(f nf 0)
n=1
1
1
P
P
(t mT 0) $ f 0
(f nf 0)
m=1
Feb 03, 2014
T0
f0
f
f0 = T10
n=1
51
LTI Systems
Linearity
x(t)
If
x(t) =
then
y(t) =
P
n
P
cnxn(t)
cnG[xn(t)]
y(t)
y(t) = G[x(t)]
Time invariance
G[x(t )] = y(t )
Linearity and Time invariance

y(t ) =
cnG[xn(t )]
n
Feb 03, 2014
52
Response of LTI Systems

Impulse response: h(t) = G[(t)]
y(t) = G[x(t)] = G[x(t) (t)]
h R1
i
=G
x()(t )d
=
=
R1
1
R1
x()G[(t )]d
x()h(t )d
= x(t) h(t)
Feb 03, 2014
53
Exponentials and LTI Systems

Let x(t) = ej2f ct
y(t) = x(t) h(t)
=
=
R1
1
R1
h()x(t )d
h()e j2f c(t)d
= e j2f ct
R1
h()e j2f cd
= ej2f ctH(f c)
Feb 03, 2014
Exponentials are
eigenfunctions of
LTI systems!
LTI Systems can
not generate new
frequencies!
54
Hilbert Transformer
A filter introducing a constant delay of 90 degrees

to the input signal
Hilbert transform does not change the domain;
Its merely a convolution
j
f>0
HQ(f) = jsgn(f) =
+j
f<0
1
xQ(t) = t
1
x
(t) = x(t) hQ(t) = x(t) t
x
(t) $ jsgn(f)X(f)
Feb 03, 2014
55
Linear CW (Amplitude) Modulation

Chapter 4
Feb 03, 2014
56
Bandpass Signals
How does it look like in frequency domain?
Vbp(f)
fc W
V bp(f);
fc
fc + W
jfj > f c W;
fc W
fc
fc + W
jfj < f c + W
What might be an expression for the time domain signal?

Two deltas (in frequency) convolved with a baseband/lowpass signal!
A sinusoid multiplied with a baseband/lowpass signal!
Feb 03, 2014
57
Bandpass Signals
vbp(t) = A(t) cos(2f ct + )
vbp(t) = A(t) cos 2f ct cos A(t) sin 2f ct sin
vbp(t) = vi(t) cos 2f ct vq(t) sin 2f ct
vbp(t) = vi(t) cos 2f ct + vq(t) cos(2f ct + =2)
Vbp(f) = 0:5[Vi(f fc) + Vi(f + fc)] + 0:5j[Vq(f fc) Vq(f + fc)]
V+(f) = Vbp(f)u(f) = 0:5Vi(f fc) + 0:5jVq(f fc)
Vlp(f) V+(f + fc) = 0:5Vi(f) + 0:5jVq(f)
Feb 03, 2014
58
Lowpass-Bandpass
vbp(t) = <fA(t)ej(2fct+)g
vbp(t) = 2<f12A(t)ejej2f ctg
vbp(t) = 2<fvlp(t)ej2fctg
Vbp(f) = Vlp(f fc) + Vlp( f fc)
Why this all lowpass-bandpass stuff needed?
Y lp(f) = H lp(f)Xlp(f)
Y bp(f) = H bp(f)Xbp(f)
Feb 03, 2014
59
Amplitude Modulation
Double-sideband (DSB)
xc(t) = A(t) cos 2f ct

A(t) = A c[1 + x(t)]
jx(t)j 1 ) A max = A c(1 + ); A min = A c(1 )
Feb 03, 2014
60
Double-sideband+carrier (DSB+C) or simple AM
xc(t) = A(t) cos 2f ct
A max
A min
A(t) = A c[1 + x(t)]
jx(t)j 1 ) A max = A c(1 + ); A min = A c(1 )
xc(t) = A(t) cos 2f ct + 0 sin 2f ct

) xci(t) = A(t); xcq(t) = 0
Feb 03, 2014
61
We can easily demodulate the signal if 1 + x(t) 0
Envelope Detection
> 1 ) min(1 + x(t)) < 0
Envelope Distortion
Phase Reversal
Feb 03, 2014
62
AM in Frequency domain
X(f)
Xc+(f) = A2c(f fc) + A2cX(f fc)

0
X c(f)
USB
LSB
fc
LSB
fc B
+B f
USB
fc
fc + B
Key Points:
1. Power wasted in carrier
2. Requires twice the baseband bandwidth
Feb 03, 2014
63
AM Power Calculations
ST hx2c (t)i
xc(t) = Ac[1 + x(t)] cos 2f ct
) S T = 12A2c (1 + 2S x);
S x = hx2(t)i
Lets calculate power in carrier and sidebands:
Pc = ST =0 = 12A2c
Psb = 12(S T Pc) = 14A2c 2S x = 122S xPc (in one sideband)
Feb 03, 2014
64
AM Power Calculations
jx(t)j 1 ) 2S x 1
) Psb < 12Pc
2Psb < Pc
At least 50% power is wasted in carrier
Feb 03, 2014
65
DSB-SC or Simple DSB

xc(t) = Acx(t) cos 2f ct
Xc+(f) =
Ac
X(f
2
f c)
X c(f)
USB
LSB
fc
Feb 03, 2014
LSB
fc B
USB
fc
fc + B
f
66
DSB Power Calculations

ST hx2c (t)i
S T = 2Psb = 12A2c S x
( Psb is power in one sideband)
Psb = 14A2c S x
How does AM compare with DSB?

Find out
Feb 03, 2014
P sb
?
A 2max
(Criteria for good modulation!)
67
Power Calculations
What is
P sb
?
A 2max
For DSB-SC or DSB:

P sb
A 2max
= S4x
For DSB+C or AM:

1 2
Psb = 14A2c 2S x = 16
AmaxS x
(100% modulation)
) AP2sb = S16x
max
Feb 03, 2014
68
Tone Modulation
Information signal is x(t) = Am cos 2f mt
For DSB-SC or DSB:
xc(t) = AcAm cos 2f mt cos 2f ct
A cA m
xc(t) = 2 cos 2(fc fm)t + cos 2(fc + fm)t
For DSB+C or AM:
m
xc(t) = Ac cos 2fct + A cA
cos 2(fc fm)t
2
m
+ A cA
cos 2(fc + fm)t
2
Feb 03, 2014
69
Tone Modulation
For DSB-SC or DSB:
A cA m
2
fc
For DSB+C or AM:
fc + fm
Ac
AcAm
2
fc
Feb 03, 2014
fc + fm
70
Modulators
Product modulators
Require analog multipliers
Hard to build
Generally limited by low power and low frequencies
Modulators based on filtering undesired frequencies
Variable trans-conductance multipliers

Hall effect devices
Square-law and balanced modulators

Ring modulator
Switching modulator
Avoid heavy filtering by not generating higher frequencies
Feb 03, 2014
71
SSB-AM
First consider DSB-SC
USB
LSB
X c(f)
fc
LSB
USB
fc B
fc
fc + B
fc B
fc
fc + B
Pass it through an SSB filter

X c(f)
fc
Islands are not symmetric around f c

Feb 03, 2014
72
SSB and DSB Comparison

For DSB:
BT = 2W
(Transmission BW is twice the signal BW)
S T = 2Psb = 2 14A2c S x = 12A2c S x
For SSB:
BT = W
S T = 1 Psb = 14A2c S x
Feb 03, 2014
73
Tone Modulation: SSB & DSB

Information signal is x(t) = Am cos 2f mt
For DSB-SC or DSB:
xc(t) = AcAm cos 2f mt cos 2f ct
A cA m
xc(t) = 2 cos 2(fc fm)t + cos 2(fc + fm)t
For USSB:
xc(t) = A c2A m cos 2(fc + fm)t

For LSSB:
xc(t) = A c2A m cos 2(fc fm)t

Feb 03, 2014
74
Tone Modulation
For DSB-SC or DSB:
A cA m
2
fc
fc + fm
For USSB:
A cA m
2
fc
fc + fm
Will Envelope detection work for SSB with tone modulation?

NO, because envelope is a constant proportional to Am
Feb 03, 2014
75
SSB With Arbitrary Input

Assume SSB filter as a bandpass system
with DSB as the input signal
DSB Input
xbp(t) = Acx(t) cos 2fct
SSB Filter
SSB Output
ybp(t) = xbp(t) ? hbp(t) = xc(t)
hbp(t)
Then, apply equivalent lowpass analysis

y lp(t) = xlp(t) ? hlp(t)
Y lp(f) = Xlp(f)H lp(f)
Feb 03, 2014
76

What is xlp(t) ?
xbp(t) = Acx(t) cos 2f ct
(Start from a DSB signal)
xi(t) = A cx(t)
xq(t) = 0
xlp(t) = 12[xi(t) + j xq(t)] = 12Acx(t)

Xlp(f) = 12AcX(f)
Feb 03, 2014
77

For USSB Filtering: (we are filtering the DSB input signal)
H bp(f)
fc
fc W
fc
fc + W
fc W
fc
fc + W
H bp+(f)
H lp(f) = H bp+(f + f c)
H lp(f)
(For USSB)
H lp(f) = u(f) u(f W)

W
Feb 03, 2014
f
78

Similarly, For LSSB:
H lp(f)
H lp(f) = u(f + W) u(f)
In general, for LSSB and USSB:

H lp(f) = 12[1 sgn(f)];
(For LSSB)
f
jfj W
Thus we can find the lowpass output

Y lp(f) = Xlp(f)H lp(f) = 12AcX(f) 12[1 sgn(f)]
Y lp(f) = 14AcX(f)[1 sgn(f)]
Feb 03, 2014
79

Using the transform pair:
x
(t) $ jsgn(f)X(f)
) jx
(t) $ sgn(f)X(f)
Thus, lowpass output in time domain is:

y lp(t) = 14Acx(t) 4jAcx
(t)
What is the SSB output from SSB filter?
ybp(t) = 2<[ylp(t)ej2fct]
y bp(t) = 12Ac[x(t) cos 2f ct x
(t) sin 2f ct]
Feb 03, 2014
80

xc(t) = 12Ac[x(t) cos 2f ct x
(t) sin 2f ct]
SSB output is a bandpass signal
What are the in-phase and quadrature components?

xc i(t) = 12Acx(t)
xc q(t) = 12Acx
(t)
What is SSB envelope?

q
p
1
A(t) = x2c i(t) + x2c q(t) = 2Ac x2(t) + x
2(t)
Feb 03, 2014
81
SSB Generation
DSB Input
Perfect SSB filters
SSB Filter
SSB Output
Hard to realize
Rely on the absence of spectral
components at low frequencies
Use of phase shift methods
Feb 03, 2014
82
VSB Signals
Used in commercial TV broadcast
Include a low power carrier in transmission
One sideband is passed completely and

the other is passed partially
Generated by using a VSB filter
Anti-symmetric around the carrier

frequency
Has amplitude 0.5 at the carrier frequency
Feb 03, 2014
83
Demodulation
Frequency conversion
Synchronous detection
Requires tight synchronization at the receiver
Envelope detection
Can be used with modulations where envelope

truly reflects the information signal
Can not be used if envelope is distorted
Feb 03, 2014
84
Angle CW (Frequency or Phase) Modulation
Chapter 5
Feb 03, 2014
85
Exponential Modulation
Modulation in which information signal is

encoded in carrier frequency or phase
Amplitude of the transmitted signal is
constant
This modulation is robust to channel gain

variations
The modulation is non-linear
Bandwidth of the transmitted signals depends

upon the amplitude of the information signal
Feb 03, 2014
86
Exponential Modulation
Transmitted/Modulated signal:
xc(t) = Ac cos(2f ct + (t))
Total instantaneous angle:

c(t) = 2f ct + (t)
xc(t) = Ac cos c(t) = Ac<fejc(t)g

To obtain angle or exponential modulation:
Make instantaneous phase dependent

on the information signal
Feb 03, 2014
87
Instantaneous Frequency
Instantaneous frequency:
1 d c(t)
1
f(t) 2
dt = 2
c(t)
For constant phase signals:

c(t) = 2f ct +
1
f(t) = 2
c(t) = f c
For signals with time varying phase:

1
f(t) = f c + 2
(t)
Feb 03, 2014
88
Phase Modulation (PM)

Make phase proportional to the information signal:
(t) = x(t);
180
xc(t) = Ac cos(2f ct + x(t))

1
f(t) = fc + 2
(t) = fc + 2x (t)
Instantaneous frequency is dependent on

the derivative of the information signal
is called phase deviation

Feb 03, 2014
89
Frequency Modulation (FM)

Make instantaneous frequency dependent
on the information signal
f(t) = f c + f x(t);
f fc
f is called frequency deviation

What is the transmitted signal?
R
R
c(t) = 2 f(t)dt = 2f ct + 2f x()d
t
t
R
xc(t) = Ac cos(2f ct + 2f x()d)
t
Feb 03, 2014
90
PM to FM and Vice Versa

R
(For FM)
xc(t) = Ac cos(2f ct + x(t))
R
Input
PM Modulator
(For PM)
FM Output
= 2f
Feb 03, 2014
91
Peak and Average Powers
Peak power is:

Pmax = A2max = A2c
Average power is:

Pavg = 12A2c
Peak to average power ratio is 2
Compare with DSB and AM

Low peak to average power ratio is good
for circuit designers
Feb 03, 2014
92
AM, FM, and PM Comparison
Feb 03, 2014
93
Spectral Analysis of FM
Exponential modulation is non-linear
Bandwidth of the transmitted signals depends

upon the amplitude of the information signal
Hard to analyze with Fourier transforms
Narrowband approximation makes analysis a

little easier NBFM and NBPM
For narrowband approximation to hold:

j(t)j 1 rad
Feb 03, 2014
94
NBFM and NBPM

Consider the bandpass transmitted signal:
xc(t) = xci(t) cos 2f ct xcq(t) sin 2f ct
xci(t) = Ac cos (t) = Ac[1
2(t)
2!
xcq(t) = Ac sin (t) = Ac[(t)
+ ]
3(t)
3!
+ ]
For narrowband approximation:

xci(t) Ac;
Feb 03, 2014
xcq(t) Ac(t)
95
NBFM and NBPM

Thus, for NBFM and NBPM:
xc(t) Ac cos 2f ct Ac(t) sin 2f ct
Xc(f) 12Ac(f f c) 2jAc(f f c);
x(t)
PM
R
(t) =
2f x(t)
FM
X(f)
(f) =
jf X(f)=f
Feb 03, 2014
f>0
PM
FM
96
Tone Modulation
Am sin 2f mt
x(t) =
Am cos 2f mt
x(t)
R
(t) =
2f x(t)
) (t) = sin 2f mt
A m
= Am
( f m )f
PM
FM
PM
FM
PM
FM
Thus, for NBFM and NBPM: 1

Feb 03, 2014
97
Tone Modulation with NB

xc(t) Ac cos 2f ct Ac(t) sin 2f ct
xc(t) Ac cos 2f ct Ac sin 2f mt sin 2f ct
= Ac cos 2fct A2c cos 2(fc fm)t

+ A2c cos 2(fc + fm)t
Xc(f) Ac(f fc) A2c(f (fc fm))
+ A2c(f (fc + fm));
Feb 03, 2014
f>0
98
Tone Modulation with NB

xc(t) Ac cos 2fct A2c cos 2(fc fm)t
+ A2c cos 2(fc + fm)t
Xc+(f) Ac(f fc) A2c(f (fc fm))
+ A2c(f (f c + f m))
Ac
2
A c
4
fc fm
Feb 03, 2014
A c
4
fc
fc + fm
99
Tone Modulation with WB

xc(t) = Ac cos(2f ct + sin 2f mt)
= Ac[cos( sin 2f mt) cos 2f ct
sin( sin 2f mt) sin 2f ct]
NOTE: cos( sin 2f mt) and sin( sin 2f mt) are periodic
Try to write their Fourier series expansion!
Feb 03, 2014
100

cos( sin 2fmt) = J0() +
2Jn() cos n2fmt
n even
sin( sin 2fmt) =
2Jn() sin n2fmt
n odd
where n > 0
and
J n()
1
2
xc(t) = Ac
e j( sin n)d
1
P
Jn() cos 2(f c + nf m)t
n=1
Feb 03, 2014
101

1
P
xc(t) = Ac
Jn() cos 2(f c + nf m)t
n=1
J 0()
J 1()
J 2()
J 2()
J 3()
fc fm
fc
J 3()
fc + fm
J 1()
All values in the line spectrum are scaled by Ac

(Do Example 5.1-2 and Exercise 5.1-3 in text)
Feb 03, 2014
102
Bessel Function
1.0
n=0
n=1
n=2
n=3
J ( )
n
n = 10
0.0
0 1 2 3
Feb 03, 2014
10
15
103
Bessel Function
1
Jn( )
=1
0.5
0
-0.5
0
Feb 03, 2014
=2
=5
= 10
1
n/
2
104
Bessel Function
Feb 03, 2014
105
Feb 03, 2014
106
FM Bandwidth
Consider Tone Modulation
Observation for 1
jJ n()j falls off quickly for jn=j > 1
Consider components only for jnj
Significant frequency components lie within fc fm
Observation for 1
jJ n()j is insignificant for jnj > 1
Consider components only for jnj = 1
Significant frequency components lie within f c f m
Feb 03, 2014
107
FM Bandwidth: Single Tone

B = 2M()f m;
M() 1
M() depends upon the allowable distortion level

>2
Usually approximated by M() = + 2;
B = 2( + 2) fm = 2(Amf4 + 2fm)
For worst case, use: Am = 1; fm = W
BT = 2(f + 2W);
>2
What is the corresponding value of ?

Is this the maximum value of
( = fW)
NO! if Am < 1; fm < W Well require less bandwidth even

though
may be larger
Feb 03, 2014
108
FM Bandwidth: Generic Signal

Estimate BW using worst case tone modulation!
Define Deviation ratio: D = fW ) BT = 2M(D)W
Approximations:
2DW = 2f ; D 1
BT =
2W;
D1
Carsons rule: BT 2(f + W) = 2(D + 1)W
Carsons rule is applied for extreme values of deviation
ratio. It underestimates the BW for practical systems.
For practical systems (2 < D < 10) :
D>2
Use BT 2(f + 2W) = 2(D + 2)W;
(Do Example 5.2-1 and Exercise 5.2-1 in text)
Feb 03, 2014
109
Transmission BW: Summary

Condition(s)
Single Tone
Generic Signal
D 1; 1
2fm
2DW
D 1; 1
2fm
2W
Carsons Rule
D; extreme
2( + 1)f m
2(D + 1)W
Practical designs
2( + 2)f m
2(D + 2)W
(2 < D < 10)

Feb 03, 2014
110
Generating NBFM Signals
Direct method
Use a voltage-controlled oscillator
Output frequency is proportional to input

voltage
Use information signal as the input voltage
Restricted to low power applications

Most circuits unstable at carrier frequency
Feb 03, 2014
Not suitable for commercial FM broadcast

Require sophisticated feedback control
111
Generating NBFM Signals

Indirect method:
xc(t) Ac cos 2f ct Ac(t) sin 2f ct (NBPM/NBFM)
xc(t) (NBPM)
(t) = x(t)
900
R
1
Input
Feb 03, 2014
Ac cos 2fct
NBPM Modulator
= 2Tf
NBFM Output
112
Generating WBFM Signals

Direct Method Use a VCO (as in case of NBFM)
Indirect Method Generate NBFM first
NBFM
Modulator
Non-linear
Device
Bandpass
Filter
Frequency Multiplier
Frequency
Converter
"; fc "; fm unchanged
Frequency converter might be needed if the

multiplier produces a carrier at a frequency
different from the desired carrier frequency!
Feb 03, 2014
113
FM Detection
Four primary methods
Differentiator with envelope detector
Phase-shift discriminator
FM to AM conversion
Approximates the differentiator
Zero-crossing detector
Frequency feedback
Feb 03, 2014
Phase lock loops (PLL)

114
FM Detection: FM to AM
Differentiate the FM signal to get an AM signal!
xc(t) = Ac cos(2f ct + (t)) = Ac cos c(t)
R
dx c(t)
dt
= 2A c(f c + f x(t)) sin c(t)
Then use an Envelope Detector!

Amplitude
Limiter
Feb 03, 2014
Signal
Differentiator
Envelope
Detector
DC
Block
115
FM Detection: Discriminator
(t) (t t1) t1 (t) = 2ft 1x(t)
Can we produce (t) (t t 1)?
Amplitude
Limiter+BPF
cos(2fct + (t))
Phase-shift
Network
LPF
yD(t) K Dfx(t)
sin(2fct + (t t 1))
For small values of t 1

y D(t) = sin((t) (t t 1)) (t) (t t 1)
Feb 03, 2014
116
FM Detection: Zero crossing detector

Idea:
Produce a pulse at each zero crossing;
Integrate over a suitable period
Higher frequencies produce more pulses;

More pulses result in higher output values;
Output values are proportional to message
W T1 f c
Want to track message but not the carrier!

Feb 03, 2014
117
FM Detection: Phase Lock Loops

Basic Task of PLL:
Lock the instantaneous angle of a VCO with the
instantaneous angle of an external signal. i.e.,
lock (or track) the phase and frequency.
xc(t) = Ac cos c(t)
e(t)
v(t) = Av cos v(t)
LPF
Ka
y(t) = 12A cA vK a sin (t)
VCO
y(t) = 12AcAvKa cos[c(t) v(t)]

= 12AcAvKa cos[(t) 90] = 12AcAvKa sin (t)
Feb 03, 2014
118
Phase Lock Loops
Used in
Modulators and demodulators

Synchronizers
Frequency synthesizers
Multiplexers
Locks or synchronizes the external angle with

the output angle of VCO
A negative feedback system based on phase

comparison
Feb 03, 2014
119
PLL: Phase Comparator

xc(t) = Ac cos c(t)
e(t)
LPF
y(t) = 12A cA v sin (t)
v(t) = Av cos v(t)
xc(t) = Ac cos c(t) = Ac cos(2f ct + )

v(t) = Av cos v(t) Av cos(2fct + + 90)
= Av sin(2fct + )
e(t) = AcAv cos(2fct + ) sin(2fct + )
= AcAv[sin( ) sin(4fct + + )]
2
y(t) = 12AcAv sin( ) = 12AcAv sin (t)

Feb 03, 2014
120
Linearized PLL Models

Assumptions:
1. Incoming frequency is approximately the same
as the VCO free running frequency
2. Phase error is small such that:
sin( ) = sin (t) = (t)
Consider phases as the signals for further analysis
(t) +
h(t)
Ka
y(t)
(t) = 2Kv
(t)
t y()d
Integrator
Feb 03, 2014
121
Linearized PLL Models

(f) +
H(f)
(f)
Ka
Y(f)
K v=jf
aH(f)
Y(f) = 1+KaKH(f)(K
(f)
v=jf)
jfK aH(f)
= jf+K
(f)
aK vH(f)
jfKH(f)
= K1v jf+KH(f)
(f)
Feb 03, 2014
(K = K aK v)
122
FM Detection using Linear PLL Model

(t) = 2fx(t) ) (f) = fjfX(f)
(for FM input)
jfKH(f) f
f
Y(f) = K1v jf+KH(f)
jf X(f) = K
H L(f)X(f)
v
If H(f) is a lowpass filter, i.e., H(f) = 1;

Then H L(f) is a first-order lowpass filter
1
HL(f) = 1+j(f=K)
; jfj < W
f
Y(f) K
X(f);
v
jfj < W
K>W
f
y(t) K
x(t)
v
First order PLL requires loop gain to be greater than
the frequency deviation K f
Thus second order PLLs are used in practice.
Feb 03, 2014
123
Non-linearities in FM
FM transmission is robust against channel variations!
vo(t) = a1vi(t) + a2v2i (t) + a3v3i (t) (Non-linear channel)
vi(t) = xc(t) = Ac cos(2f ct + (t))
vo(t) = K0 + K1(cos 2f ct + (t)) + K2(cos 4f ct + 2(t))
+ K3(cos 6f ct + 3(t))
We need a BPF; what are the requirements?
f c + f + W 2f c (2f + W) (Carsons rule)
fc 3f + 2W
With this BPF, output is: vo(t) = K1(cos 2f ct + (t))
Unlike AM, FM can combat amplitude non-linearities!
Feb 03, 2014
124

AM-FM Basics

Hochgeladen von

Dokumentinformationen

Originaltitel

Copyright

Verfügbare Formate

Dieses Dokument teilen

Dokument teilen oder einbetten

Freigabeoptionen

Stufen Sie dieses Dokument als nützlich ein?

Sind diese Inhalte unangemessen?

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

AM-FM Basics

Hochgeladen von

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

Notes from Book

Feb 03, 2014

EE-380: Communication Systems

Introduction to Communication Systems

Feb 03, 2014

EE-380: Communication Systems

Communications = Information transfer

Limited to information in electrical form

We will not consider delivering newspapers

We will primarily cover information transfer

Feb 03, 2014

We will not deal [too much] with circuits, chips,

What exactly is information?

Information is a word that is too

We will use the word message

A physical manifestation of information

What do communication systems have

Communication systems are responsible for

Feb 03, 2014

EE-380: Communication Systems

Just like information, signal is also a generic

Derived directly from information

Scientists and Engineers use signal to denote

We will use signal and message interchangeably

Feb 03, 2014

EE-380: Communication Systems

Can we classify signals?

Messages or signals can be classified:

A physical quantity that varies with time, usually in a

An ordered sequence of symbols selected from a finite set of

Feb 03, 2014

EE-380: Communication Systems

Values are taken from an

Values are taken from a

Digital signals with just

EE-380: Communication Systems

Elements of Communication Systems

Feb 03, 2014

EE-380: Communication Systems

Elements of Communication Systems

Encoder: Message Message Signal or bits

Feb 03, 2014

EE-380: Communication Systems

What do we cover in EE-380

Modulation converts message signal or bits into amplitude,

Feb 03, 2014

EE-380: Communication Systems

If practical implementation is not a concern and we

Channels must be able to allow signal to pass through

Signal to Noise Ratio

Feb 03, 2014

EE-380: Communication Systems

Feb 03, 2014

EE-380: Communication Systems

How a good communication system can be

(t) to m(t)? Fidelity!

For digital communications

Data rate and probability of error

Feb 03, 2014

EE-380: Communication Systems

Limits on data rates

Shannon obtained formulas that provide

Feb 03, 2014