Kan Yu Ret An Rayt en Ingles: Children Become Literate in English As A Second Language

Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages, Inc.
(TESOL)
Kan Yu Ret an Rayt en Ingles: Children Become Literate in English as a Second Language
Author(s): Sarah Hudelson
Source: TESOL Quarterly, Vol. 18, No. 2 (Jun., 1984), pp. 221-238
Published by: Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages, Inc. (TESOL)
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TESOL QUARTERLY,Vol.18, No.2, June1984
Kan Yu Ret an Rayt en Ingles:

ChildrenBecome Literatein English
as a Second Language
SARAH HUDELSON
FloridaInternational
University
Current
researchon secondlanguagedevelopment
inchildren
has
withmultiple
providedteachersandcurriculum
planners
possibilities for innovations
in classroompractice.In the case of oral
in ESL, thisresearchhas made significant
languagedevelopment
contributions
bothtoclassroom
andtothematerials
teaching
being
publishedforclassroomuse. Classroompracticesin literacyfor
ESL children,however,have not kept up withresearch.This
articlepresentsseveralgeneralfindings
fromrecentresearchon
second languagereadingand writingdevelopmentin children.
These findings
no
suggest:thatevenchildrenwhospeakvirtually
thatESL learners
Englishread Englishprintin theenvironment;
are able to read Englishwithonlylimitedcontrolovertheoral
and culturalbacksystemof thelanguage;thattheexperiential
groundof theESL readerhas a strongeffecton readingcomprehension;thatchildESL learners,earlyin theirdevelopmentof
English,canwriteEnglishandcando so forvariouspurposes.This
articlealso presents
classroomapplications
foreach finding.
INTRODUCTION
During the last ten to fifteenyears,significantstudiesin second

language developmenthave provided researchersand practitioners
with importantinformationabout how children learn a second
has been applied to ESL teaching
language. Oftenthisinformation
practicesand curriculumdevelopment.Unfortunately,
manyof the
innovations in teaching children have been limited to or have
focused upon oral language (Gonzalez-Mena 1975, Urzua 1981,
Ventriglia 1982), with less considerationgiven to innovationin
literacy(reading and writing)practices.In spite of recentresearch
thatpresentsfindingswithimplicationsforpractice,children'sESL
literacyis dominated by materialsand procedures thathave been
created with the followingperspectivein mind: thatESL reading
221

and writingshould be strictlycontrolledso thaterrorsdo notoccur;

thatchildrenshould be asked to read and writeonlywhattheyhave
practiced orally in formal lessons; that early experiences with
materialsthatemphasize
Englishreadingshouldconsistof"linguistic"
thatthereshouldbe
and
words;
regular
phonically
orthographically
a time gap between the presentationof oral and writtenformsof
English;thatwriting,especiallyat theinitialstages,shouldconsistof
copying,fillingin blanks,and takingdictationratherthancreating
one's own messages; thatreadingand writingshould always follow
listeningand speaking instruction,with writingalways following
reading. Reading materialssuch as The Miami LinguisticsReaders
(Robinett,Bell,and Rojas 1970),theCrane ReadingSystem-English
(Crane 1977), and the reading/writingcomponents of programs
suchas Stepsto English(Kernan1983),EnglishAroundtheWorld
(Marquardt, Miller, and Housman 1976), and YES English for

Children (Mellgren and Walker 1977) exemplifythis perspective.
Aspectsof thispositionhave been articulatedin methodstextbooks
such as thosewrittenby Ching (1976), Donoghue and Kunkle(1979),
and Finocchiaro (1974), among others.Elley (1981) has suggested
thatthe dominanceof thesekindsof materialsand approaches may
be traced to the influenceof the audiolingual school of language
teaching,whose methods and principlesElley sees in practice in
elementarysecond language classrooms and curriculaaround the
world.
Until recently,the perspective delineated above reflectedour
understandingof second languageliteracydevelopmentin children.
However,in recentyearsresearchershave made excitingdiscoveries
about thegrowthofreadingand writingabilitiesin childrenlearning
a second language. Many of these findings,in addition to coming
fromdescriptiveand classroom-basedresearch,have directimplicationsforand applicationsto classroompractice.Withoutintending
to reject outrightall previous notions or effortsof the past, this
article offerssome alternativeviews of second language literacy
developmentin children.This article,then,has two purposes: 1) to
provide an overview of some findingsof recentresearchin second
language literacy (reading and writing),and 2) to provide some
examples of how thesefindingsspeak to classroompractice.
RECENT RESEARCHFINDINGS
1
Finding/Generalization
Even childrenwho speak no or very littleEnglish are reading
some of the printin theirenvironment
and are usingthatreadingto
increasetheirEnglish.In the UnitedStates,non-or limitedEnglish222
TESOL QUARTERLY

speakingchildrenfindthemselvessurroundedby Englishoutsideof
school. These learners acquire a lot of English and often begin
reading English fromlivingand coping withEnglish in theirdaily
lives (K. Goodman, Y. Goodman, and Flores 1979).
A few years ago, in severalsettings,Y. Goodman investigatedthe
printawareness of preschool,supposedly preliteratechildren,both
nativeEnglishspeakersand non-or limitedEnglish-speaking
children
from such native language backgrounds as Arabic, Navajo, and
Spanish. She found that even children who were virtuallynonspeakers of English in such isolated areas as the Navajo Nation in
NorthernArizona could read items such as Crest, Coca Cola,
McDonalds,Cheerios,WonderWoman,Dracula,and SpiderMan
(Y. Goodman 1980,Y. Goodman and Altwerger1981,K. Goodman,

Y. Goodman, and Flores 1979). They were able to do thisbecause
theseitemsfromthemedia and fromreal lifewere salientforthem.
Older non-English-speakingchildren,too, have demonstratedan
abilityto read such environmentalprintitems,even thoughthey
have resided in theUnitedStatesforonlya monthor two (Hudelson
1981). An example comes froma case studyof a thirdgraderwho,
when asked by the researcherabout English printin his neighborhood, could tell her thata sign thatsaid BEWARE OF THE DOG
meant"que no se acerque al perro"('don't get close to thedog') and
that TVs FIXED HERE meant "que se compongan televisiones
aqui" ('televisionsfixedhere').
What does thismean forclassroominstruction?
For teacherswho
that
children
are
see
the entirelabel
because
say
reading only
they
and thereforeare not really reading, it means little.But for ESL
teacherswho take thisas evidence thatchildrenare interacting
with
and learningfromtheirenvironment,
a hostof instructional
possibilitiesappear. Some examples appear below.
A first-grade
teachertookherESL childrenon a walkingfieldtrip
around the school. The childrenhad received no formalEnglish
at thetimeof thisactivity.The children'sjob was
readinginstruction
to point out, read, and write down all of the English words they
could find. If the children were unable to read the print they
discovered, the teacher read the word for them. Considerable
English vocabulary teaching occurred as the childrendeveloped
theirlists.The teacherread severalwords to theclass (forexample,
fire extinguisher).Others she pronounced with standard English
phonology and explained theirmeaning in English (custodian and
caution). In some cases one childwould read fortheothers.Back in
the classroom,thelistswere reread and theitemswere thenused in
categorizingactivities.
In two firstand second-grade classrooms, as a substitutefor
CHILD LITERACY IN ESL

223
structuredESL time,teacherssetup a class grocerystore,requesting

that studentsbring in items for the store (in the formof empty
boxes, cartons,tincans, and so on), identifytheitems,arrangethem
on shelves as a grocer would, and roleplay grocer and customers.
These childrenalso had not received any formalEnglish reading
instruction.All transactionshad to be conducted in English,and the
customershad to write out shopping listsbefore theywent to the
storein order to be able to buy theirgroceries.On the liststhatthe
childrenwrote and read were such itemsas Coors Lite beer, pizza,
soup,milk,andgum.
In a combinationthird-fourth
grade,theteacherassignedstudents
to bringin productlabels, identifythe products,and thendescribe
themorallyand in writing.One youngwriter,who read herpaper to
the class, described Trix cereal as soft (sofet), crunchy(cranchi),
and lemon and orange flavored(flavertlimenand oreng).
In a junior high school class, some advanced ESL students
workingin small groups inventedtheirown productsand created
commercialmessages. Actualtelevisioncommercialswere used for
and reading activitiesbefore the studentscame
listening/speaking
up with theirown inventions.One of the commercialmessages is
reproduced as Figure 1.
These are a few examples of ways in which ESL teachershave
made use of theirstudents'interactionwithEnglish environmental
print.These teachershave takenadvantage of whatstudentsalready
know (and are interestedin) in theirsecond language; theyhave
validated thisknowledgeby bringingitintoschool and have used it
as part of literacyinstruction.
This instruction
has raised children's
awareness of themselvesas English readers while simultaneously
developing and revealingtheirEnglishvocabularies.
2
ESL learnersare able to read Englishbeforetheyhave complete
oral control of the language. As in a firstlanguage, reading in a
second language is a psycho-sociolinguistic
process, an interaction
between reader, print,and the reading situation,an experiencein
which readers build meaning by interactionwith print and by
utilizingin these interactionstheirown backgroundof experiences
and personal informationas well as theirdevelopingknowledge of
the language (Grove 1981). Using theirlanguage and experiential
background, readers predict their way througha text. As ESL
readers build meaning,theirown levels of language development
and theirown backgroundinfluencewhat is created.
A clear view of thesecond language readeras a predictorpresents
224
TESOL QUARTERLY

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itselfwhenmiscueanalysis,a readingresearchtechniqueoriginally
developedto examinetheoralreadingofnativespeakersofEnglish
(K. Goodmanand Burke1973),is utilized.Miscueanalysisrequires
Boththe
thata personreada storyorallyandthenretellthecontents.
and thereader'smiscues(deviationsfromtheprintedtext)
retelling
haveusedmiscue
areexamined.In recentyears,severalresearchers
analysiswithESL readers(Barrera1978,Clarke1981,Connor1981,
Devine 1981,K. Goodmanand Y. Goodman1978,Mott1981,Rigg
1977). Their researchhas yielded the followinggeneralizations:
1) likenativespeakers,ESL readersmakemiscueswhentheyread
English;2) some of thesemiscueschangethemeaningof whatis
beingread, whileothersdo not;3) thosemiscuesthatchangethe
meaningof whatis beingread are morelikelyto be self-corrected
thanthosethatdo not;4) some of the miscuesthatESL readers
makereflectthereader'sEnglishlanguagedevelopment;
5) theESL
ofmaterial
readermaybe able to demonstrate
moreunderstanding
is done in thenativelanguagerather
thathas been read ifretelling
thanin English;6) ESL readersdo not need to pronouncethe
surfacephonologyof whattheyare readingas a nativespeaker

225
would in order to understandwhat they are reading; and 7) ESL

readers demonstrate greater comprehension of material that is
culturallyclose to theirown experiences.
These findingssuggestseveral applications. First,ESL teachers
do not need to wait untilchildrenare highlyfluentin Englishbefore
offeringreadingmaterials.Care mustbe takenin selectingthekinds
of materialsto be offered,but reading can and should begin fairly
soon afterchildrenbegin studyingEnglish.Second, teachersshould
avoid judging children'sESL reading ability on the basis of the
numberof oral readingerrorsthechildrenmake and/oron thebasis
of heavily accented reading. Informalreading inventories,widely
used in elementaryschool classrooms (see Harrisand Sipay 1979),
suggestthatteacherstotalthenumberof oral readingerrorsin order
to determine whether a child is able to read certain material.
Applyingthispracticeto ESL readers can be especially misleading
since ESL childrenmake many surface errorsthat do not affect
understanding.Rather,theteachershould considerthechild'sability
to talk about what has been read. Third, teachers should avoid
ESL childrenwhiletheyare readingin orderto correct
interrupting
them. Allowing children to make pronunciationerrorsdoes not
reinforceincorrectEnglish, and the practice of interrupting
and
the
readers'
than
facilitate
rather
correctingmay actually disrupt
constructionof meaningfroma text.Fourth,in workingwithESL
childrenreading English,it is crucial to focus on comprehensionof
textmaterial.An appropriatebeginningis to encourage childrento
retellas much as possible of whattheyhave read. Specificquestions
may also be asked, but it is importantthatthe childrendo as much
of thetalkingas possible in responseto a generalrequestto "tellme
everythingyou can about what you just read." Children'sretellings
oftenreveal what theydo not understandas well as what theydo.
This informationis valuable to the teacherin returning
the children
to thestoryto re-examinepartsof the text.And fifth,
whenpossible
(eitherthroughthe teacheror throughpeers), ESL childrenshould
be allowed to discuss texts in the native language as well as in
English.In thisway the teachermay get a more accurate pictureof
what childrenunderstand.
3
Reading comprehensionin a second language, as in a first,is
influencedby thebackgroundknowledgeand theculturalframework
thatthereader bringsto thetext(Grove 1981). Even quite proficient
ESL readersrecall more froma textbased on theirown culturethan
theydo froma textbased on a foreignculture(Steffensen,
Joag-dev,
226
TESOL QUARTERLY

andAnderson1979,Steffensen
andJoag-dev1981).In twostudiesof
ESL readers,Johnson(1981, 1982) foundthatsimplification
of
factorsin ESL readers'
vocabularyand syntaxwerelessimportant
of a textthantheculturalcontentsof thepassage
comprehension
beingread. She also foundthatreal culturalexperiencespriorto
to formalstudyof vocabularyitems)had a
reading(as contrasted
ofa passage
positiveeffectonESL students'
readingcomprehension
linkedto thecultural
experience.
are several.First,
The classroomapplicationsof thesefindings
wheneverpossibletheteachershouldselectreadingmaterials
that
Children's
reflect
thechildren's
cultural
andexperiential
background.
also may be enhancedif the teacherutilizesthe
comprehension
children's
forreading.Makas background
experiences
preparation
ing the childrenaware of whattheyalreadyknowabout a topic
contributes
tosubsequent
Second,
positively
readingcomprehension.
as oftenas possible,if childrenare readingculturally
unfamiliar
teachersneedtobuilda background
ofknowledgepriorto
material,
this
will
form
of
a
take
the
real
reading.Ideally
experience(as in
of
the
Halloween
Johnson'sexample
carnival).Knowledge(and
filmsor filmstrips,
television,
language)mayalso be builtthrough
and materials
sharedwithchildren.Third,instrucdemonstrations,
tionalstrategies
thatdo notdependuponpreparedtextsbutwhich
utilizethereaders'culturaland experiential
backgroundsare also
Two
such
are
use
of key words and
the
appropriate.
strategies
stories.
languageexperience
Developed by Ashton-Warner
(1963) as a way of teachingnonMaori
children
to read English,key wordsare
English-speaking
wordsthatindividualchildrendecide theywantto learnto read
because the wordsare personally
to them.On a daily
important
the
teacher
elicits
a
word
from
each
child.The teacher
basis,
key
writesdown each child'sword on a card, whichthe child then
retainsin orderto read thewordsover,copythem,makea picture
writesentenceswiththem,and so on.
ofthem,readthemto others,
Since Ashton-Warner
firstproposed the use of key words,the
intheUnitedStatesas a beginning
practicehasbeenusedeffectively
for
readingstrategy both nativespeakersof Englishand ESL
children(Veatch1979).
Languageexperiencestoriesalso utilizethestudents'
knowledge
and culturalbackgroundas well as theirdevelopinglanguage
(Murphy1980,Feeley 1979,1983). Researchhas shownthatthe
methodforteaching
languageexperienceapproachis an effective
readingbothto nativeand non-native
speakersofEnglish(Colvert
1973, Hall 1979, Mallett1977). Basically,the studentshave an
experiencewhich theydiscuss,afterwhichtheydictateto the

227
teacher (scribe) what theywant writtenabout the experience.The
the storyexactlyas the children

teacherlistensand transcribes
ofthestoriesand thelanguage
dictateit.Becauseboththecontents
used come fromthe students,these storiesare especially comprehensible,an importantfactorin workingwithESL students.
Rigg (1981) has utilized language experienceswith ESL learners
of all ages. Usingwordlesspicturebooks as thestimulus(experience),
she has found that students are willing and able to use their
background knowledge to create stories.To address the concern
thatacceptingchildren'sstoriesas dictatedreinforcestheirincorrect
language patterns,Rigg has demonstratedthatfirstdraftstoriesmay
be used as the basis fororal language activities(diagnosingwhich
structuresto practice fromtheirdictations)as well as forrevising
and editing by the students. In the example below, a Russianspeaking studentdictated two storiesusingpicturestimuli.Each of
thestorieswas subsequentlycorrectedby thestudentwithoutbeing
promptedto do so.
FirstEffort
Self-Revision
Two ladiesplayingintennis.
Two ladies are playingin tennis.
In thehandtheyholding
therackets. In the hand theyare holdingthe
One fromtheyis comingto the rackets.One fromtheyis running
ball.
to theball.
The boy liveintheranch.He help The boy lives on the ranch.He
He givesthefood
forhis parents.He give the food helpshisparents.
forthe cocks. .. The cows eat the forthe cocks. . . The cows eat the
grassand he watchforthem.
grassandhe watchesthem.
(Rigg1981:85)
The second draftssuggestthatmanyESL learnersare able to reflect
on theformof what theyhave said and have seen writtendown and
thattheyare able to make revisionsas theylearnmore English.The
draftsalso are usefulto the ESL teacher as a way of documenting
studentlearning.
Students learning English as a second language, then, show
teachers both that they are able to read and understandsome
materialin Englishthattheydo not yet controlorallyand thatthey
are able to read English when the material comes from within
themselves,thatis, when the approach used is an organicone that
relies on what the studentsknow ratherthan on what theydo not
know.
228
TESOL QUARTERLY

4
As in a firstlanguage,writing
in a secondlanguageinteracts
with
reading.The two processesare closelyrelatedand complement
each other(Edelsky1982,Staton1981). Bissex(1980), Chomsky
thatforsome young
(1971),and Read (1975) have demonstrated
nativespeakersof English,writing-thecomposingof one's own
message--precedesformalreading.These messagesgenerallyare
characterized
by a varietyofunconventional
aspects(forexample,
thattheyoungcomposers
whichsignify
spellingand segmentation)
use theirexisting
knowledgeto solvetheirwriting
problems.These
researchers
havealsoshownthattheseyoungwriters
readtheirown
oftenbeforetheyreadconventional
creations,
Englishtexts.Bissex
discoveredthatPaul,thechildin herlongitudinal
case study,used
hiswriting
as hispersonalreadingmaterialforseveralmonths.
Whathasbeenfoundfornativespeakersis alsobeingshowntobe
trueforchildsecond languagelearners.For some ESL children,
inEnglishmayprecedeformal
written
expression
readinginstruction
For
their
some,
(Edelsky1982).
Englishwritingformstheirfirst
For
reading(Rigg1981).
others,
writing
mayhelpotherschoolwork
and
Bean
Staton
(Searfoss,Smith,
1981,
1981).
The classroomapplicationis this:we should encourageESL
learnersto write,to expressthemselves
in writing
as wellas orally,
and to use written
as
one
means
of
expression
developingEnglish.
The previousexampleshave shownthatESL speakerscan write
based on environmental
shoppinglistsand productdescriptions
Other
kinds
of
also
print.
writing havebeenencouragedbyteachers
who considerwriting
an integralpartof secondlanguagedevelopment.
childenrolledin a
Figure2 is a journalentryfroma first-grade
bilingualprogramwhereinitialliteracy,includinga greatdeal of
writing,was in Spanish(see Edelsky1981,1982,1983). Withno
formalliteracyinstruction
in English,one daylatein thespringthe
childproducedthisjournalentryin Englishwhentheteacherasked
theclassiftheycouldwriteintheirjournalsinEnglishrather
thanin
Spanish.
In readingthe entry,the influenceof Spanishon Englishis
obvious.But lookingbeyondthe inventedspelling,one is struck
bothby theabilityofthischildto expresshimself
in Englishand to
revealwhathealreadyknowsaboutEnglish,
without
havingreceived
in thatlanguage.Thischildwas notafraidto tryto writein
training
English,and he readwhathe wrote.
Older ESL studentsmay expressthemselvesmore easily in
writingthanorally.The followingjournalentrywas written
by a

229
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fourthgraderdescribed by her teacheras extremelyshyin class. At

the time of the writing,thischild had been in the United Statesless
thantwo years. In her writingthischild expressed several personal
feelingsthatperhaps she was unwillingor unable to say out loud.
Her incomplete masteryof English did not preventher fromusing
her journalto expresssome thingsthatwere on her mind.
Some girlact beautifulcause shaketheirbutand has feather
back hear
and act big. And theyact smartibe day I was playingwothPola and
and toldme notto playwithpola
somebodycalled me to theteetotter
becauseshewouldmakeme black.I feelthatare are bad becuasethey
dressin tightpantstightshirtbecuase theyact thattheycouldbeet up
everibody
(Spelling,punctuation,
and wordchoice
havenotbeenchanged.)
In middle school settings,interactivejournal writinghas been
used to promotestudentexpression(Staton,Shuy,and Kreeft1982).
In thispractice,studentsuse daily journalsto writeto theirteacher
about whatevertheychoose to discuss. The teacherwritesback to
230
TESOL QUARTERLY

them responding to content, not form, and creates a written

conversation.The use of interactivejournalshas been studiedusing
both native and non-nativespeakersof English(Staton 1981,1983).
The findingssuggestthatESL studentsare able to make progress
toward understandingand producing more formal discourse by
usingtheless formal,more"oral" styleof a journal.The researchhas
also documented that, for ESL students,the journals become a
vehicle for obtaininginformationabout school subjects and about
English(Staton 1981).
ESL writingmay also play a role in contentarea construction.In
second-grade social studies,forexample, a class of limitedEnglish
speakers studied several Native Americantribes.During class time
set aside forESL, theteachertold the class about each tribe,and the
class thenparticipatedin such activitiesas creatingsand paintings,
totempoles, and makingdioramas.The teachershared
constructing
some books about Indians,but no formalreading was required. At
the end of the unit,the teacher asked the studentsto write about
somethingthey had learned. One child wrote what appears in
Figure3, usingwritingto reflectupon what he had studied.
For ESL studentsworkingwithcontentarea textbooks,theuse of
the"guided writingprocedure"may contributebothto ESL students'
understandingof text materialand to theirabilityto express that
understandingin writing(Searfoss, Smith, and Bean 1981). The
what
guided writingprocedure involveschildrenin brainstorming
know
about
the
will
read
about, putting their
they
topic they
in
the
and
text,and writing
knowledge writing,reading
discussing
serves
both
to
set
for
again. Writing
expectations
reading and to
a
mechanism
for
the
of
contents
the
text.
provide
rethinking
51
ESL learners can (and should) write English before they have
complete controlover the oral and writtensystemsof thelanguage.
Second language acquirers'writtenproductsreflecttheirlanguage
developmentat a givenpointin time.As learnersgain more control
over the language, their writing will reflect this development
(Hudelson 1983). Consider these examples (see Figure 4) froma
second graderfromPuertoRico who was enrolledin a public school
in Florida. They were gatheredby an ESL tutorwho encouraged
the child's early and continued writtenexpression but did not
correctthe writingefforts.
Althoughthis generalizationrelates closely to the one just discussed, it meritsseparate
commentbecause many elementary-level
ESL teachersfearthatif theyallow childrento
write"incorrectly"
theywill contributeto the children'scontinueduse of those forms.

231
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In October thischild hypothesizedthatEnglish was spelled like

Spanish,and while she was unable to writesentences,she did come
up with a phrase she knew. By December the overwhelming
influenceon her writingwas the material (The Miami Linguistic
Readers) she was readingin her classroom.She was willingto write
onlywhat she thoughtshe could spell correctly,whatshe had copied
in class. In Februaryand Marchshe began to use some of thewords
she had learned to read in herclassroom,but she was also willingto
predictthe spellingof words thatwere in her oral vocabulary even
thoughtheywere not in her spellingrepertoire.As the school year
continued,she used a combinationof reading words, words from
spelling,and words for which she invented the spelling. She also
became more willingto venturebeyond thesafe topic of herhouse.
Over time,both the quantityand quality of her writingimproved.
Althoughin May she stilldid notdemonstratecompletecontrolover
the oral or writtensystemsof English,she did exhibitgrowthin her
abilityto expressherselfin English. Additionally,her writingover
timehelps the teacherdocumenther progressin English.
This child'swritingwas nurturedby a situationin whichtheadult
workingwithherbelieved thatshe was capable of writingin English
while still acquiring and refiningthe language. This ESL tutor
encouraged the child's writingwith the awareness that it would
develop over time and believed thatthe mistakesthischild made
were an integralpartof her growthas an Englishuser.
6
As many examples in this article illustrate,the processes of
writing,reading, speaking,and listeningin a second language are
interrelatedand interdependent.It is both useless and, ultimately,
impossible to separate out the language processes in our teaching
(i.e., to attemptto teach onlylisteningor speakingor onlyreadingor
writing,althoughsome elementaryESL curriculastilltryto do so),
or to tryto presentESL materialin a linearsequence of
listening,
speaking,reading,and writing.The examples presentedhererefute
boththatseparationand thatnotionof sequencing.Second language
learnersdemonstratethattheyare dealing withand makingsense of
language as a totalityratherthandealingwiththelanguageprocesses
as separate entities.
CONCLUSION
Researchon second languageliteracyin childrenhas thefollowing
applications.Teachers should: 1) give childrencreditforinteracting
234
TESOL QUARTERLY

with and acting upon theirenvironment;2) use the students'lives

forliteracyexperiences(thattakeadvantage
and livingenvironments
of what studentsknow); 3) ask childrenboth to respond to and to
createmeaningfullanguage in meaningfulcontexts(thatis,listening
to or readingwhole textsand writingforreal purposes,as compared
with fillingin dittosheets and labeling parts of speech); 4) realize
thatmistakesare a necessarypartof second language development
and, that they are criticalto language growth;and 5) respond to
studentproducts,whetheroral or written,more as workin progress
(Graves 1982) than as finalproduct by reactingprimarilyto what
studentsare tryingto expressand only secondarilyto form.These
kindsof activitieswill help Englishas a second language learnersin
elementaryschoolsto become theproficientusersof Englishthatall
teacherswant themto be.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Most of the examples used in thisarticlewere contributedby teachersin Arizona
thatthe authorwas privilegedto work with. The authorthanksthose teachers.A
few of the examples come from data collected during a study, funded by the
National Instituteof Education, of bilingualchildrens'writingdevelopment.Dr.
Carole Edelsky was the principalinvestigatorof thisstudy,and the authorwas a
member of the researchteam. The authorthanksDr. Edelsky forincludingher in
thatproject. Several of theideas discussedhere were firstpresentedin a speech to
the Texas InternationalReading Associationin El Paso, Texas, March 1982. The
authorthanksPat Rigg forher commentson an earlierversionof thisarticle.
THE AUTHOR
Sarah Hudelson, ResearchCoordinatorat the InternationalAffairsCenter,Florida
InternationalUniversity,has taughtboth at elementaryand universitylevels. As a
researcher,she has published in the area of bilingualchildren'snativeand second
language development.
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TESOL QUARTERLY,Vol.18, No.2, June1984