Field-Scale Simulation of Cyclic Solvent

Injection (CSI)
Jeannine Chang, Devon Canada, and John Ivory, Alberta InnovatesTechnology Futures

Summary
Only 510% of the oil in Lloydminster heavy-oil reservoirs is
recovered during cold heavy-oil production with sand (CHOPS).
CSI is currently the most active post-CHOPS process. In CSI, a
solvent mixture (e.g., methane/propane) is injected and allowed to
soak into the reservoir before production begins (Fig. 1). CSI has
been focused on heavy-oil recovery from post-CHOPS reservoirs
that are too thin for an economic steam-based process. It has been
piloted by Nexen and Husky and was a fundamental part of the
CDN 40 million joint implementation of vapour extraction (JIVE)
solvent pilot program that ran from 2006 through 2010.
This paper describes field-scale simulations of CSI performed
with a comprehensive numerical model that uses mass-transfer
rate equations to represent nonequilibrium solvent-solubility
behaviour (i.e., there is a delay before the solvent reaches its equilibrium solubility in oil). The model contains mechanisms to consider foaming or to ignore it, depending on the field behaviour. It
has been used to match laboratory experiments, design CSI operating strategies, and to interpret CSI field pilot results.
The paper summarizes the impact on simulation predictions of
post-CHOPS reservoir characterizations where the wormhole
region was represented by one of the following five configurations: (1) an effective high-permeability zone, (2) a dual-permeability zone, (3) a dilated zone around the well, (4) wormholes
(20-cm-diameter spokes) extending from the well without branching, and (5) wormholes extending from the well with branching
from the main wormholes. The different post-CHOPS configurations lead to dramatically different reservoir access for solvent
and to different predictions of CSI performance.
The impacts of grid size, upscaling, solvent dissolution and
exsolution rate constants, and injection strategy were examined.
The assumption of instant equilibrium solubility resulted in a 23%
reduction in oil production compared with when a delay in solvent
dissolution and exsolution was allowed for. Increasing the gridblock size by a factor of nine reduced the predicted oil production
five-fold. Assuming isothermal behaviour in the simulations
decreased predicted oil production by 17%.
Introduction
Primary CHOPS is commonly used in Lloydminster and Cold
Lake to produce heavy-oil reservoirs (Sawatzky et al. 2002). As a
result of reservoir-pressure depletion and/or excessive water production, CHOPS becomes uneconomic after approximately
515% of the initial oil has been recovered. Detailed studies of
the cold-production process and enhanced-oil-production mechanisms, including the effect of fluid flow on sand production in
heavy-oil reservoirs under solution gas drive, have been presented
previously (Bratli and Risnes 1981, Bratli et al. 1998; Chang
2000; Dusseault and Santarelli 1989; Dusseault et al. 1998; Dusseault and El-Sayed 1999; Geilikman and Dusseault 1997; Geilikman 1999; Risnes et al. 1982; Sawatzky et al. 1996, 2002; Smith
1988; Tremblay et al. 1998, 1999, 2009; Tremblay 2003).
In CSI, a solvent mixture is injected into the reservoir, allowed
to soak, and then the well is put on production to a drawdown
C 2013 Society of Petroleum Engineers
Copyright V

This paper (SPE 157804) was accepted for presentation at the SPE Heavy Oil Conference
Canada, Calgary, 1214 June 2012, and revised for publication. Original manuscript
received for review 27 June 2012. Revised manuscript received for review 6 April 2013.
Paper peer approved 29 April 2013.

July 2013 Journal of Canadian Petroleum Technology

pressure of approximately 50500 kPaa. The cycles are repeated

until the process is no longer economic. Typically, the reservoir is
repressurized to initial reservoir conditions so that solvent solubility will be high and the reservoir is re-energized. If the CSI well is
not an isolated well, then the injection pressure may not be built
up to the desired value, but CSI can still perform well at a lower
pressure with appropriate solvent-mixture selection. The solvent
composition is normally selected to suit the reservoir so that the
solvent mixture is slightly above its dewpoint at the end of injection periods (Fig. 2). This creates high solvent solubility in the
oil. Apart from that dissolved in the oil phase, the solvent should
not be liquid because excessive solvent inventory in the resevoir
would make the process uneconomic.
CSI has shown potential as a follow-up oil-recovery process to
CHOPS and has undergone pilot testing. Wormholes, created during CHOPS, extend outward from production wells and provide
access for solvent injection during CSI and larger contact area for
solvent dissolution in oil. There are dramatic opportunities for
CSI field applications. Lloydminster reservoirs contain approximately 3 billion m3 of heavy-oil resources. Most of these reservoirs are under CHOPS. However, after CHOPS, where oil
recovery is only approximately 510%, the wells have been either
pressure depleted or are watered out. Most of the original oil in
place still remains in the reservoir after CHOPS and is available
for a follow-up process. In addition, CSI is applicable for thin
pays where steam-based processes are uneconomic and it can use
the existing nonthermally completed CHOPS wells. CSI is considered more environmentally friendly than steam-based processes
because there is essentially no water usage, its energy requirement
is lower, and if CO2 is part of the injected solvent, then some of it
will remain in the reservoir at the end of the solvent process. CSI
has been tested in the field by Nexen at Plover Lake and is currently being piloted by Husky.
Looking at Darcys law, CHOPS increases the effective permeability because of the wormhole formation, and in CSI, solvent
dissolves in the oil and reduces the live-oil viscosity. Both of
these mechanisms enhance oil production. The solvent mixture
also creates other benefits (e.g., oil swelling and solution gas
drive).
(Primary) CHOPS

q =
(EOR) CSI

k dp
dr
, ............ (1)

where k is permeability (m2), l is viscosity (Pas), q is the flow

rate per unit cross-sectional area (m2/s), and dp/dr is the pressure
gradient (Pa/m).
Laboratory-scale numerical simulation of CSI has been investigated at Alberta InnovatesTechnology Futures (AITF) for a
number of years (Ivory et al. 2010), and a focus is now to use the
previous learnings to improve field-scale simulation of CSI and
other solvent processes [e.g., vapour-assisted petroleum extraction
(VAPEX) and solvent drive], thereby facilitating the development
of improved injection and production strategies. Improved representations of complex mechanisms (e.g., nonequilibrium dissolution and exsolution of solvent, foamy oil behaviour, and relative
permeability hysteresis) are being developed. In particular, the
251

CSI well on injection

CSI well on production

Oil

Oil

Bubble
s

Solvent dissolved in oil

Solvent dissolved in oil

3000 kPaa

Pressure Profile

Pressure Profile
200 kPaa

60/40 Methane/Propane

10,000

int

o
lep

e
Lin

bb

Bu

se
pha

ion

reg

Two

4,000

CSI

Pressure (kPa)

8,000
6,000

Propane Mole Fraction at 150,1,1

Fig. 1Reservoir behaviour during CSI.

2,000

ne

Dewpoint Li

0
60

40

20

20

0.50

Cycle 1 Cycle 2 Cycle 3 Cycle 4 Cycle 5 Cycle 6

0.40
XC3H8Leqm

0.30
0.20

XC3H8L

0.10
0.00

100

40

Temperature (C)

200

300
400
Time (days)

500

600

Fig. 3Propane nonequilibrium solubility during a CSI

experiment.

Fig. 2Phase envelope for 60% methane/40% propane mixture.

TABLE 1COMPARISON OF NONEQUILIBRIUM AND INSTANT EQUILIBRIUM SIMULATION

PREDICTIONS

Nonequilibrium
Instant equilibrium

Cumulative
Oil (cm3)

Propane
Recovery (%)

Carbon Dioxide
Recovery (%)

Net Solvent/Oil
Ratio (liquid cm3/cm3)

1698
809

72.8
92.3

64.1
97.4

0.60
0.34

physical delay in both gas dissolution and gas exsolution is represented by nonequilibrium behaviour during both injection and
production periods. In developing CSI numerical-simulation models, the nonequilibrium representation of solvent (e.g., methane
and propane) solubility, solvent/oil-mixture (methane/propane/
oil-mixture) viscosities, and the mixing parameters (diffusion, dispersion) of the process were incorporated into the reservoir-fluid
model. Previous work at AITF for a laboratory-scale experiment
showed the difference between the predicted propane mole fraction in oil and its equilibrium value during six CSI cycles (Fig. 3).

Well BHP (kPa)

Insoluble gas
FF=0
FF=0.01

Slow solvent dissolution

Instant solvent dissolution

Time (days)
Fig. 4Effect of dissolution rate on well BHP during injection.
252

Predicted values for the 72% carbon dioxide/28% propane injection experiment were dramatically different when nonequilibrium
solubility effects were considered relative to when they were
ignored (Table 1). Allowance for nonequilibrium behaviour also
affects the predicted bottomhole pressure (BHP) during injection
periods in field-scale simulations (Fig. 4). Frequency factor (FF)
in this figure is the value of the frequency factor in the nonequilibrium reactions. For confidentiality reasons, the actual BHP values are not shown in Fig. 4. In general, the quicker the solvent
dissolution, the slower is the rise in BHP during injection periods.
In predicting the effectiveness of CSI and in developing operating strategies, the assumed post-CHOPS reservoir situation
resulting from sand production is of key importance. AITF has
developed a sand-production model, which is supported in CMG
STARS software, and is an effective-permeability model in that
the regions with a wormhole network are represented by a high
permeability determined by the sand-production model. For due
diligence, other post-CHOPS representations can be considered.
In this paper, the effectiveness of CSI was investigated for the
following post-CHOPS representations (Fig. 5): (1) an effective
high-permeability zone, (2) a dual-permeability zone, (3) a dilated
zone around the well, (4) wormholes (20-cm-diameter spokes)
extending from the well without branching, and (5) wormholes
extending from the well with branching from the main
wormholes.
Simulations were performed to examine the impact of
 Using nonequilibrium dissolution and exsolution reaction
kinetics to represent delays in solvent dissolution and exsolution
 Nonequilibrium solubility rate parameters
July 2013 Journal of Canadian Petroleum Technology

VW

(a)

(b)
Frac Perm = 10,000 darcies
Frac Trans = 1,000
In blocks with fractures,
Frac Vol/Block Vol = 0.067

High permeability
region

Dual
permeability

Permeability = 1.56 darcies

Dual-Permeability model
(d) Wormhole diameter = 20 cm Spoke 1
3

Permeability = 1.56 darcies

Branch 2

ok

Sp

Spoke 2

ok

Sp

200 m
Dilated-Zone model

Spoke 1
Branch 1

Porosity = 0.7
Permeability
= 1,000 darcy

Porosity = 0.3
Permeability = 1.56 darcies

(e) Wormhole diameter = 20 cm

Spoke 2

Effective-Permeability model
(c)

Permeability = 1.56 darcies

Spokes and Branches model

Spokes model

Fig. 5One-quarter symmetry representation of different reservoir configurations being tested.

 Instant equilibrium vs. nonequilibrium dissolution and

exsolution
 Gridblock size.
The solvent used in the simulations was a 60% methane/40%
propane mixture.

Development of CSI Models at AITF

Over the years, CSI models have been developed at AITF (Chang
and Ivory 2011) which consider important mechanisms (e.g., nonequilibrium solubility, foamy oil, gas expansion, oil swelling, diffusion, dispersion, and relative permeability hysteresis). AITFs
CSI models have been validated with laboratory- and field-scale
history matches. In the JIVE program, some CSI cycles were history matched for a Colony well and a Waseca well in Huskys first
CSI Edam pilot. Following a history match of two cycles, different operating strategies were evaluated. JIVE was the CDN 40
million solvent pilot program that ran from 2006 through 2010
(Kristoff et al. 2008). The program was managed by Petroleum
Technology Research Centre. Operators were Canadian Natural
Resources, Husky, and Nexen, and research providers were AITF
and the Saskatchewan Research Council (SRC).
In representing nonequilibrium gas dissolution and exsolution
behaviour, the delay in a gaseous component dissolving or exsolving from the oil depends on the difference between its current
mole fraction in the oil phase (xi) and its equilibrium mole fraction in the oil phase (xieqm). The latter is determined from its mole
fraction in the gas phase, the temperature, and the pressure.
Equilibrium pressure/volume/temperature behaviour is represented by the use of K-values for each component i, as follows

TABLE 2METHANE AND PROPANE kv VALUES USED

IN THE SIMULATIONS

kv1 (kPa)
kv2 (kPa1)
kv3
kv4 ( C)
kv5 ( C)

Methane

Propane

476 664
0
0
879.84
265.99

726 374
0
0
1872.46
247.99

July 2013 Journal of Canadian Petroleum Technology

Ki

yi

=xi ;

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

where xi is the equilibrium mole fraction of i in the oil phase and

yi is the equilibrium mole fraction of i in the gas phase.
In the CMG STARS simulator, the equilibrium K-value of a
specific gas is calculated using a modified version of the Antoine
equation,




kv1
kv4
kv2  P kv3  exp
; . . . . . 3
K
P
T  kv5
where P is the pressure (kPa), T is the temperature (K), and kv1,
kv2, kv3, kv4, and kv5 are coefficients for specific gases.
Eq. 3 is based on the assumption that the K-value is independent of composition and depends only on temperature and pressure.
If kv2 and kv3 are set to zero as they were in the simulations
described in this paper, then the K-value is inversely proportional
to pressure. As shown in Eq. 3, the K-value is exponentially dependent on temperature. Some allowance for the dependence of
the K-value on composition can be obtained in STARS by providing nonzero values for kv3 and kv4 to match experimental solubility data at specified temperatures, pressures, and compositions.
However, these experimental data are not available frequently in
the required detail and it is risky to use nonzero kv4 and kv5 values
for predictions outside the range of experimentally measured conditions because nonphysical K-values can then be obtained.
The methane and propane kv values that were used in the simulations are provided in Table 2, and the resultant K-values for
methane and propane at the reservoir temperature of 23.4 C are
displayed in Fig. 6a. The kv4 and kv5 values in Table 2 were
obtained from the CMG STARSTM simulator Users Guide. The
kv1 values were adjusted from the STARS values to meet measurements at AITF, including some oil/CH4/propane solubility
measurements. The higher the K-value is, the lower the solubility.
Propane is approximately 30 times as soluble as methane.
Gas Dissolution. Reactions in STARS are used to represent the
delay in a solvent dissolving or coming out of solution. The
slower the reaction rate, the slower the solvent dissolution or
exsolution. Slower dissolution rates are typically used for large
field gridblocks rather than for small laboratory-scale gridblocks.
For example, dissolved propane is considered as one component
and propane gas as another component. A reaction is used to
253

45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0

(b) 100000
Viscosity (mPas)

K Value

(a) 50
CH4
C3H8

45.6

22.8
11.4
1.47

0.73

1000

0.37

7.6
0.24

2000

3000

Pressure (kPaa)

10000

240

100

Oil-C3H8

10
1

6.5
0.21

Oil-CH4

1000

4000

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

CH4 or C3H8 Mole Fraction in Oil

Fig. 6(a) K-values for C3H8 and CH4 at 23.4 C and (b) live-oil viscosity.

represent the transformation from propane gas to dissolved gas.

Similar reactions are used to represent propane coming out of
solution.
The nonequilibrium behaviour of gas dissolution in oil is represented by
CH4 G CH4 L ! 2 CH4 L: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
C3 H8 G C3 H8 L ! 2 C3 H8 L; . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
where CH4L is dissolved methane in the oil phase, CH4G is methane in the gaseous phase, C3H8L is dissolved propane in the oil
phase, and C3H8G is propane in the gaseous phase.
The dissolution rate for propane is
@NC3H8L
n1
kC3H8  N o  xC3H8Geqm  xC3H8L n1
@t
; . . . . 6
n2
N g  yC3H8G
where k is the rate constant for propane dissolution (m3/mol/d),
Ng is the moles of gas phase/m3 of the gridblock, NC3H8L is the
moles of propane in the oil phase/m3 of the gridblock, No is the
moles of oil phase/m3 of the gridblock and is the porosity  oil
saturation  oil molar density, n1 is the exponent for xC3H8eqm
xC3H8, and n2 is the exponent for yC3H8.
The rate equation constants kC3H8, n1, and n2, can be determined from experimental results (e.g., by history matching laboratory experiments or field tests). Similar equations are used for
methane dissolution. The rate constants are dependent on temperature, but because of the small temperature changes and lack of
experimental data available to determine this dependency, they
were assumed to be independent of temperature in the simulations
discussed in this paper. The dependency of phase behaviour on
temperature is partially captured in the dependency of the K-value
on temperature. Allowance for the temperature dependency of the
rate constants is available in STARS.
Gas Exsolution. Nonequilibrium gas exsolution with foam formation is represented as follows for methane and propane:
CH4 L ! SBubCH4 ! CH4 G: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
C3 H8 L ! SBubC3 H8 ! C3 H8 G; . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
where SBubCH4 is a small methane bubble in the oil phase and
SBubC3H8 is a small propane bubble in the oil phase.
Unless specified otherwise, a nonequilibrium treatment was
used in this project for both gas dissolution and exsolution. As a
result of nonequilibrium behaviour, solvent components can still
be dissolving at the beginning of a production period and come
out of solution (exsolve) during the initial part of an injection
period. Although the simulations are slower, it is more representative of CSI to include all of the exsolution and reactions during
both injection and production periods.
Solvent/Oil-Mixture Viscosity. The STARS default logarithmic
mixing rule was used to determine the oil-phase viscosity.
254

lnllive oil

X
Xi  lnli ; . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

where li is the the pseudoviscosity of component i.

The dead-oil viscosity and the dissolved methane and propane
pseudoviscosities at 23.48C are provided in Fig. 6b. The dead-oil
viscosity at this temperature was 18 775 mPas.
A rock compressibility of 2.9  106 kPa1 was used. Small gas
bubbles were assigned a molar density of 41 gmol/std m3, as
obtained from the ideal-gas law.
Solvent/Oil Mixing Process. Solvent and oil are mixed in a reservoir as a result of the combined effect of advection, diffusion,
dispersion, and dissolution. Fluid flow by advection is the main
mechanism by which solvent is transported as gas and/or liquid
into the reservoir, especially through wormholes. Diffusion and
dispersion allow it to spread within a phase and dissolution/exsolution allows it to transfer between phases. In diffusion, the flow
of a component toward regions of lower concentration in a fluid
phase is represented by Ficks first law:
Jijk / Sj Dmij dCij =dk; . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
where Jijk is the flux of component i in phase j in the k direction
(g mol/m2/d), / is the porosity, Sj is the saturation of phase j, Dmij
is the molecular diffusion coefficient of component i in phase j
(m2/d), and dCij/dk is the concentration gradient of component i
in phase j in the k direction (g mol/m3/m).
In porous media, allowance is made for the increased flow
length caused by tortuous flow paths through the pore spaces. As
a result, the apparent diffusion coefficient (D) used for porous
media is lower than the molecular diffusion coefficient and
D Dm s; . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
where s is the tortuosity.
Individual streamlines flow in a tortuous route through porous
media. A fluid particle can transfer (disperse) from one streamline to another by diffusion or through turbulent eddies that disrupt the streamlines. Mechanical dispersion in porous media
arises from complex flow paths, which create mechanical mixing
that is independent of molecular diffusion. The mixing process is
caused by pore-to-pore difference, velocity gradients, and heterogeneous flow paths.
Both longitudinal (in direction of flow) and lateral (orthogonal
to flow) mixing are controlled by diffusion at low velocities and
by advection at high velocities. Velocity variations parallel to the
mean flow direction are greater than those that are perpendicular
to the main flow. Thus, longitudinal dispersion is greater than
transverse dispersion. At high velocities, Blackwell (1962)
observed that longitudinal dispersion was approximately 24 times
that of transverse dispersion.
Neuman (1990) examined over 130 longitudinal dispersivity
values obtained from worldwide laboratory and field tracer studies
in porous and fractured media. The dispersivity values ranged
from less than 1 mm to greater than 1 km for studies ranging from
less than 10 cm to greater than 100 km. For laminar-flow conditions in typical unconsolidated random packs, dispersion
July 2013 Journal of Canadian Petroleum Technology

Interblock

Intrablock
Gridblock n

Gridblock n
yi, n

Gas Phase

Gridblock n + 1

Gas Phase

Gas Phase

,
Oil Phase

Oil Phase
Pn, ci, n

xi, n

Pn+1, ci, n+1

Fig. 7Solubility and fluid-transport mechanisms.

correlations can be represented as (Perkins and Johnston 1963)

the following:
Longitudinal Dispersion Correlation
KL
1
udp
0:5r

;
Dm F/
Dm
rudp
< 50
where
Dm

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Transverse Dispersion Correlation

KT
1
udp
0:0157r

;
Dm F/
Dm
rudp
< 104
where
Dm

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

where Dm is the molecular diffusion coefficient, dp is the particle

diameter, u is the local fluid velocity, r is the inhomogeneity factor, and F is the formation factor 1/(s/), which is also used for
quantifying electrical conductivity through porous media.
In the simulations discussed in this paper, a gas phase diffusion coefficient of 0.0144 m2/d and an oil-phase diffusion coefficient of 0.0000432 m2/d were used. The oil-phase diffusion
coefficient is typical for solvent diffusion in oil. Unless otherwise
specified, a mechanical dispersion coefficient of 0.005 m was
used for both the gas and oil phases. The diffusion and dispersion
coefficients were assumed to be independent of direction. No
allowance was made for the fact that diffusion and dispersion
coefficients are different for regions with wormholes because of
their impact on tortuosity and flow patterns and velocities. In
addition, time-dependent dispersive behaviour in the post-CHOPS
reservoir was not incorporated into this study but was in later
studies. Diffusion between gridblocks is not as significant for CSI
as it would be for VAPEX because advection and dispersion are
more important. However, when looking within a gridblock, nonequilibrium behaviour is strongly dependent on diffusion and
gridblock size. The impact of interblock and intrablock diffusion
on simulation results will continue to be investigated.

TABLE 3PRE-CHOPS RESERVOIR PROPERTIES

Layer

Thickness
(m)

So

Sw

Permeability
(md)

7 (top)
6
5
4
3
2
1 (bottom)

0.15
0.38
1.14
0.99
0.53
0.23
0.15

0.15
0.55
0.66
0.79
0.70
0.37
0.0

0.85
0.45
0.34
0.21
0.30
0.63
1.0

0.06
0.14
0.25
0.31
0.26
0.20
0.05

0.0
11.1
290.7
1,563
277.1
40.8
0.02

July 2013 Journal of Canadian Petroleum Technology

The oil/water and oil/gas relative permeability values were

based on Stones Method 2 with gas-phase relative permeabilities
being lower during production periods because of the impact of
trapped gas bubbles. The irreducible water saturation was 0.37,
the critical gas saturation was 0.05, the water/oil residual-oil saturation was 0.29, and the gas/oil residual oil saturation was 0.15.
The relative permeability values were based on previous history
matches at AITF. In reality, solvent injection can reduce the residual-oil saturation because it progressively increases its mole fraction in the oil phase and reduces the oil-phase viscosity. In the
simulations, the residual oil saturation was not made dependent
on the oil-phase mole fractions. However, low oil saturations can
occur near the well when the oil phase has a high solvent mole
fraction and the solvent vapourizes when the pressure is reduced
during production.
The complex interaction between nonequilibrium solvent solubility and the other fluid-transfer mechanisms (diffusion, dispersion, and advection) in a reservoir model is represented in Fig. 7.
In STARS, solvent dissolution and exsolution occur between
phases in a single gridblock. Diffusion, dispersion, and advection
occur within a single phase and between adjacent gridblocks. Diffusion is proportional to the concentration gradient, dispersion to
the concentration gradient and velocity, and advection to the pressure gradient. Solvent dissolution and exsolution rates depend on
how far the solvent mole fraction in the oil is from its equilibrium
value. The latter is determined from its K-value at the particular
temperature and pressure.
Asphaltene deposition was not considered in the simulations,
but will be represented in future work.
CSI Simulations for Post-CHOPS Reservoir
Characterization on the Basis of AITF CHOPS
Model
For the effective-permeability model, 2D radial primary-production simulations were first performed for an actual Lloydminster
well using AITFs sand-transport and foamy-oil models. The reservoir was divided into seven layers on the basis of the well-log
information. The match for the effective-permeability model was
made using the radial grid. For the CSI simulations, the postCHOPS reservoir configuration was transformed from radial to
Cartesian geometry. This step allowed for future simulation of
multiwell and horizontal-well CSI processes. The CSI simulations
described here were performed using the Cartesian grid.
Initial Pre-CHOPS Reservoir Conditions and CHOPS
Simulation. Some initial reservoir conditions were
 Depth 431 m
 Pressure 3300 kPaa
 Temperature 23.4 C
 Dead-oil viscosity 18 775 mPas
 Gas/oil ratio (GOR) 7 std m3/m3
The GOR of 7 std m3/m3 was determined with the K-value correlation that was used for methane. A GOR of 7 to 8 std m3/m3 is
typical for a Lloydminster reservoir with the initial reservoir conditions specified previously. Other pre-CHOPS reservoir conditions are provided in Table 3 and Figs. 8a and 8b.
255

(a)

(b)

md

1,560
290
< 0.1 40

500 m
1.00
0.90
0.80
0.70
0.60
0.50
0.40
0.30
0.20
0.10
0.00

3.58 m

< 0.1 40
280

2,000
1,800
1,600
1,400
1,200
1,000
800
600
400
200
0

Fig. 8Pre-CHOPS (a) permeability and (b) oil saturation.

(b)
4,000

8
6

10,000

4
5,000
2
0

Cumulative Oil SC (m )

10
15,000

30

3,000
20
2,000
10
1,000

1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007

3
Water Rate SC [m /day]

12

20,000

Oil Rate SC [m3/day]

Cumulative Oil surface conditions

3
(SC) (m )

(a)

0
1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007

Time (Date)

Time (Date)

Fig. 9CHOPS (a) oil production and (b) water production using AITF cold-production model.

A good match of oil and water production (Figs. 9a and 9b)

and reasonable sand production values were obtained during
CHOPS. BHP data were not available, but the predicted values
were typical of what one would expect during CHOPS. The postCHOPS permeability, porosity, saturations, and oil-phase mole
fractions obtained from the history match were used as the initial
conditions for simulating the solvent cycles. Wormholes were
formed in Layer 4, which had the highest pre-CHOPS permeability
(1.563 darcies) and porosity (0.31). The wormholes propogated to
175 m from the well. The increased permeability occurring from
the creation of wormholes was represented by high-effective-permeability values in the Layer 4 gridblocks (Fig. 10a). The oil saturation following CHOPS is provided in Fig. 10b.
CSI Simulation and Injection/Production Strategy. The 3D
Cartesian geometry (Figs. 11a and 11b) for the CSI simulations
maintained the porosity, permeability, fluid saturations, mole fractions, pressure, and temperature profiles of the 2D post-CHOPS
radial geometry.
CSI generally consisted of three injection/production cycles in
which the production period was 180 days in each cycle and the
injection period was 30 days in Cycle 1, 40 days in Cycle 2, and

50 days in Cycle 3. The composition of the injected gas was 60%

methane and 40% propane, and the specified gas-injection rate
was 20 000 std m3/d in each cycle until the injection pressure constraint of 3.5 MPaa was reached and the injection rate declined.
Standard (surface) conditions were 15 C and 101.3 kPaa.
During production, the minimum BHP was specified as either
150 or 200 kPaa, the maximum gas-production rate as 20 000 std
m3/d, and the maximum liquid rate at downhole conditions as 50
m3/d.
Results for Effective-Permeability Simulations. Effect of
Increasing Reaction Rate Constants. Rate constant parameters
control the rate at which the solvent dissolves in CSI simulations.
Selected rate parameter values are judged by how significantly the
mole fraction of solvent in the oil phase deviates from the
equilibrium solvent mole fraction, which is calculated from the
pressure, temperature, and solvent mole fractions in the gas phase,
and from the predicted production rates and compositions.
Increasing the dissolution and exsolution reaction rate constants
(frequency factors) by a factor of 100 enhanced solvent injectivity
and decreased the BHP during an injection period. Oil production
was marginally decreased by 2% from 3524 to 3453 m3 in the first

md

Permeability

3.58 m

250 m

> 10,000 darcies

1.00e+7
9.00e+6
8.00e+6
7.00e+6
6.00e+6
5.00e+6
4.00e+6
3.00e+6
2.00e+6
1.00e+6
2.00e2

1.00
0.90
0.80
0.70
0.60
0.50
0.40
0.30
0.20
0.10
0.00

(b)
250 m

Oil Saturation

3.58 m

(a)

Fig. 10Post-CHOPS (a) effective permeability and (b) oil saturation (AITF radial model).

(a)

> 3,000 darcies

md

3,000
2,700
2,400
2,100
1,800
1,500
1,200
900
600
300
0

(b)
1.00
0.90
0.80
0.70
0.60
0.50
0.40
0.30
0.20
0.10
0.00

Fig. 11Pre-CSI Cartesian model with one-quarter symmetry (a) effective permeability and (b) oil saturation.
256

July 2013 Journal of Canadian Petroleum Technology

36 36 7
0

100

200

VW

16 16 7

100

200

VW

High-permeability
region

High-permeability
region

Permeability:
5,000 to 100,000 darcies

100

6.49 6.49 m

200

1 m 6.49 m

100

19.47 19.47 m

200

1 m 19.47 m

Fig. 12Fine and coarse grids used in simulations.

cycle but the net propane/oil ratio was dramatically increased

from 0.04 to 0.15 liquid m3/m3. This indicates that moving the
solvent dissolution/exsolution closer to an instant equilibrium situation reduces oil production and increases solvent loss in the
reservoir.
Effect of Gridblock SizeUpscaling. One-quarter symmetry
was used in all of the CSI simulations, and they covered one-quarter of the 400  400-m area in the centre of which the vertical CSI
well was located. A 36  36  7 Cartesian grid was used for most
of the simulations (Fig. 12). Some simulations were performed
using a 16  16  7 grid with coarser gridblocks (Fig. 12) in order
to accelerate simulation speed.
When all other parameters remained the same, the use of the
coarse grid resulted in a much quicker reduction in BHP during
production (Fig. 13a) and much lower oil rates (Fig. 13b). Adjustments of dissolution and exsolution rate parameters and dispersion coefficients can be made to compensate for changes in
predicted oil and gas production caused by increasing the size of

gridblocks. Simulation run Upscale 1 in Table 4 had the same

kinetic parameters and dispersion coefficients as the baseline finegrid run, and the predicted oil production was an order of magnitude less than for the fine grid. Changing the FF rate parameters
significantly impacted predictions (Upscale 2 through Upscale 6),
as did changing the dispersion coefficients (Upscale 7 and
Upscale 8). For example, Upscale 6 had the rate constant for the
exsolution reactions increased from 0.0005 to 0.05 day1 and
resulted in a reasonable approximation to the fine-grid case in
terms of gas injection, oil production, and net solvent/oil ratio
(Table 4 and Fig. 14). Alternatively, increasing the dispersion
coefficients from 0.005 to 0.1 m (Upscale 8) also resulted in
results similar to those of the fine-grid case. Decreasing the dispersion coefficients to 0 m (Upscale 7) resulted in satisfactory oil
production, but the net solvent/oil ratio was significantly lower
than for the fine-grid case (Table 4). Fine tuning of the dispersion
coefficients and/or nonequilibrium parameters can result in a close
match for oil, water, and gas production between coarse- and finegrid predictions.
It is apparent from Table 4 that for the coarse grid, decreasing
both the FF dissolution and FF exsolution from the 0.0005 value
in Upscale 1 to 0.00005 (Upscale 2) or increasing them to 0.05
(Upscale 3) resulted in a dramatic increase in oil production.
However, this is a complex problem with numerous interacting
effects. For example, increasing the FF for dissolution reactions
means more gas dissolves in the oil, which results in greater oilviscosity reduction and potential for a greater solution gas drive
during production. However, a high FF dissolution value also
means that more of the solvent dissolves near the well and its
effect may be restricted to the near-wellbore region.
Increasing the FF for exsolution reactions increases the rate at
which gas comes out of the solution. A low exsolution FF value
means the gas effectively stays in the solution and its effect is
essentially oil-phase viscosity reduction, whereas a high

(a)

(b)

Well BHP (kPa)

Coarse grid
3,000
2,000
Fine grid

1,000
0

Cumulative Oil SC (m3)

4,000
Fine grid

3,000

2,000

1,000

Coarse grid

0
0

200

400
Time (days)

600

200

400
Time (days)

600

Fig. 13Impact of grid size on (a) BHP and (b) oil production (one-quarter well basis).

TABLE 4EFFECT OF FFs AND DISPERSION COEFFICIENTS

Run

Grid

FF
Dissolution
(m3/g mol/d)

Baseline
Upscale 1
Upscale 2
Upscale 3
Upscale 4
Upscale 5
Upscale 6
Upscale 7
Upscale 8

Fine
Coarse
Coarse
Coarse
Coarse
Coarse
Coarse
Coarse
Coarse

0.0005
0.0005
0.00005
0.05
0.5
0.05
0.0005
0.0005
0.0005

CSI Cumulative Oil at End of

CycleFull Well Basis (m3)

Net Propane/Oil
(liquid m3/m3)

FF
Exsolution
(day1)

Dispersion
Coefficient
(m)

Cycle 1

Cycle 2

Cycle 3

Cycle 1

Cycle 2

Cycle 3

0.0005
0.0005
0.00005
0.05
0.5
0.0005
0.05
0.0005
0.0005

0.005
0.005
0.005
0.005
0.005
0.005
0.005
0
0.1

4,139
322
3,003
4,206
4,871
4,059
4,382
4,198
4,339

9,041
1,343
4,792
7,584
7,245
7,982
8,688
8,830
8,872

13,769
2,788

10,968
9,199
11,651
12,285
11,763
13,510

0.15
2.08
0.16
0.04
0.00
0.05
0.11
0.13
0.12

0.03
0.68
0.30
0.03
0.00
0.04
0.08
0.03
0.11

0.03
0.36

0.05
0.00
0.04
0.07
0.00
0.09

July 2013 Journal of Canadian Petroleum Technology

257

TABLE 5ISOTHERMAL VS. NONISOTHERMAL PREDICTIONS

Fine grid
Upscale 1
Upscale 2
Upscale 3
Upscale 4
Upscale 5
Upscale 6
Upscale 7
Upscale 8

3,000

Isothermal
Nonisothermal

2,000

1,000

0
0

200

400
Time (days)

600

800

Fig. 14Upscaling simulation results of cumulative oil production (one-quarter well basis).

exsolution FF value means gas exsolves quickly and its effect is

primarily solution gas drive. It is intended to improve upscaling
of gridblocks for CSI simulations.
Isothermal vs. Nonisothermal Simulations. Specific heat and
thermal properties used in the nonisothermal simulations were
taken from the STARS manual. The temperature dependency of
the rate constants was not introduced in these simulations because
there are only small temperature changes in the process, which
are localized. Performing nonisothermal simulations resulted in
increased oil production in Cycle 1 by 17% (from 3524 to 4139
m3, as shown in Table 5), but the net propane/oil ratio (propane
left in reservoir oil produced) was unchanged at 0.15 at liquid m3/
m3. Because of the heat of solution, the temperature rises during
solvent dissolution in the oil and falls during solvent exsolution.
During solvent dissolution, the rising temperature affects predictions because it causes a decrease in both the viscosity of the liveoil components (dead oil, dissolved methane, and dissolved pro-

(a)
4,000

(b)

Well BHP (kPa)

Nonequilibrium
3,000

Equilibrium

2,000
1,000
0

200
400
Time (days)

Net Propane/Oil
(liquid m3/m3)

3524
4139

0.15
0.15

600,000
500,000
400,000

Equilibrium

300,000
Nonequilibrium

200,000
100,000
0

Oil Production
(m3)

pane) and the solubility of methane and propane. Allowing for

nonisothermal behaviour typically slows down simulations; therefore, this must be considered when deciding whether to use it.
Unless stated otherwise, the simulations discussed in this paper
were conducted on the basis of nonisothermal conditions.
Equilibrium vs. Nonequilibrium Solubility. Ignoring nonequilibrium behaviour impacts predictions significantly. The use of
instant equilibrium results in more-rapid gas exsolution when the
pressure is decreased during production and low oil production
because of the severe reduction in the reservoir pressure and the
elimination of bubble creation and foamy-oil drive. In addition,
the initial high gas-flow rate negatively impacts oil production.
When it was assumed that equilibrium solvent solubility was
obtained immediately during both gas dissolution and exsolution,
lower injection pressures (Fig. 15a), greater gas injection (Fig.
15b), lower oil production (Fig. 16a), and greater gas production
(Fig. 16b) were obtained during CSI. Oil production was marginally greater in Cycle 1 for the instant equilibrium situation, but
was significantly lower in Cycles 2 and 3.
Because propane dissolved significantly more rapidly in oil for
the instant equilibrium solubility simulations, these simulations
predicted significantly lower reservoir pressures during an injection
period than did nonequilibrium solubility simulations (Fig. 17).
This also resulted in reduced injection pressure similar to that
shown in Fig. 4. The 2D IJ profiles are shown for Layer 4 because
this was the layer with a high-effective permeability, where I
refers to the gridblock number in the x-direction and J to the gridblock number in the y -irection. During a production period, the

Cumulative Gas SC (m3)

Cumulative Oil SC (m )

4,000

600

200
400
Time (days)

600

Fig. 15Impact of equilibrium vs. nonequilibrium on (a) BHP and (b) gas injection (one-quarter well basis).

(b)
800,000

3,000

Nonequilibrium

2,000

Equilibrium

1,000
0

200
400
Time (days)

600

Cumulative Gas SC (m3)

Cumulative Oil SC (m3)

(a)
4,000

Equilibrium
600,000
400,000
200,000
Nonequilibrium
0
0

200
400
Time (days)

600

Fig. 16Impact of equilibrium vs. nonequilibrium on (a) oil and (b) gas production (one-quarter well basis).
258

July 2013 Journal of Canadian Petroleum Technology

Equilibrium (210 days)

Dissolved Gas

Small Bubbles
Bubble
Destruction
kPaa

Bubble
Destruction

2,510
2,180
1,850

Nonequilibrium (210 days)

Free Gas

Dissolved Gas

1,520
1,190
860
530
200

Fig. 172D (IJ) pressure profile in high-permeability Layer 4 at

end of first injection and production periods.

pressure decreased more slowly in the instant equilibrium simulations as propane came rapidly out of solution and helped maintain
the reservoir pressure. In contrast, much of the propane was produced in the oil phase in the nonequilibrium simulations.
Effect of Extra Exsolution Reaction. Foamy oil behaviour
during exsolution is represented in AITF CSI models by assuming
that each dissolved component first forms small gas bubbles dispersed in the oil phase before entering the free gas. A refined parallel model allows for cases where rapid gas exsolution occurs. An
extra bypass reaction was added to the model to allow for gas to
come out of the solution and join the free gas phase without forming bubbles. This parallel bubble-destruction reaction can also
remove small bubbles created during CHOPS before solvent injection. Rate parameters for bubble-forming reactions were based on
previous modelling (including history matches) and examinations
of the predicted bubble oil phase mole fraction profiles.
Use of the reaction bypassing bubble formation resulted in
greater gas production in Cycle 1 because gas could come out of
solution more quickly (Fig. 18a). Oil production over two cycles
was increased by 9% from 9041 to 9871 m3 (Fig. 18b) by incorporating the extra gas exsolution reaction. Production of gaseous propane (C3H8G) and dissolved propane (C3H8L) was also increased
(Figs. 19a and 19b) when the extra reaction was used. Although
the new reaction (dissolved gas to free gas) competed with the
bubble-forming reaction, it actually increased the amount of both
propane and methane bubbles (Figs. 19c and 19d) produced at the
well as a result of its effect in increasing the pressure drawdown
rate during production because of enhanced gas production. It
should be noted that the bypass reaction (as shown in the following
reactions) was only included in the simulation discussed in this
section and not in any of the other simulations in this paper.
(a)

Alternative Post-CHOPS Characterizations

Reservoir Models Considered. Different CHOPS models have
been developed in the last 20 years. AITF has 2D and 3D effective-permeability-CHOPS models which incorporate both sandtransport and foamy-oil behaviour mechanisms. On the basis of
sand production, the models substantially increase the permeability in regions where wormholes are formed and these are represented as high-effective-permeability regions. AITF can also
convert its effective-permeability model into a dual-permeability
model where the fractures represent the wormhole structure. SRC
has a CHOPS model that results in wormholes growing from the
vertical well similar to spokes in a wheel. Other conceptual models, including a dilated region around the vertical wells and spokes
with/without branches, were also considered in this study.
In addition to the AITF effective-permeability model discussed in the preceding section, CSI performance was predicted
using the other post-CHOPS configurations in Fig. 5 after first
performing primary-production simulations. The intent was to
examine how different post-CHOPS configurations would generally affect CSI predicted behaviour. For the dual-permeability,
dilated-zone, spokes, and spokes-and-branches models, the simulations started at the initial pre-CHOPS pressure, temperature, and
saturations with the pressure being drawn down before the initiation of CSI. Nonequilibrium solubility conditions were used for
most of the effective-permeability-model simulations and for the
spokes and spokes-and-branches simulations.
Dual-Permeability Model. A dual-permeability model (Fig.
5b) was set up with fractures in Layer 4. The matrix represents
the intact reservoir, and the fractures represent the wormhole network. The fluid flow between the matrix and fracture represents
the fluid flow between the intact reservoir and the wormhole network. The fracture porosity (which is equal to fracture volume/
block volume) selected was 0.0067 and the fracture permeability
was 10,000 darcies. The horizontal fractures were spaced 10 cm
apart in the vertical direction. The initial properties (pressure,
temperature, permeability, porosity, and saturations) in the reservoir matrix were the same as the pre-CHOPS values that were
used to obtain the initial (post-CHOPS) reservoir for the effective-permeability model. Primary production was modelled without sand production and instant equilibrium solubility behaviour
was assumed because simulation of nonequilibrium behaviour
was slow and unstable. Different tuning parameters can be used in
(b)

4e+5

3,000

3e+5

Extra reaction

2e+5
1e+5
0e+0

No extra reaction
0

100

200

Time (days)

300

400

3
Cumulative Oil SC (m )

Cumulative Gas SC (m3)

Small Bubbles

Free Gas

3,500
3,170
2,840

Nonequilibrium (30 days)

Bubble
Formation

Bypass

Equilibrium (30 days)

2,500

Extra reaction

2,000
1,500
1,000

No extra reaction

500
0

100

200

300

400

Time (days)

Fig. 18Impact of extra exsolution (bypass of bubble formation) reaction on (a) gas and (b) oil production (one-quarter well
basis).
July 2013 Journal of Canadian Petroleum Technology

259

(b)

8e+4

6e+4

Extra reaction

4e+4
2e+4
0e+0

No extra reaction
0

100

200

300

400

3
Cumulative Gas (C3H8L) SC (m )

Cumulative Gas (C3H8G) SC (m3)

(a)

6e+4
5e+4

Extra reaction

4e+4
3e+4

No extra
reaction

2e+4
1e+4
0e+0

100

(d)

C3H8 Bubbles SC (m3)

(c)
Extra reaction

600

400

200

No extra
reaction
0

100

200

200

300

400

Time (days)
Cumulative Gas (SBubCH4) SC (m )

Time (days)

300

400

Time (days)

250

Extra reaction

200
150
100
50
0

No extra
reaction
0

100

200

300

400

Time (days)

Fig. 19Impact of extra exsolution (bypass of bubble formation) reaction on production of (a) C3H8G, (b) C3H8L, (c) SBubC3H8, and
(d) SBubCH4 (one-quarter well basis).

STARS for the fracture and matrix, but in this study the same tuning parameters were used.
Dilated-Zone Model. In the dilated zone model (Fig. 5c), it
was assumed that there was dilation in a region (153.28
m  153.28 m 23 525 m2 on a full-well basis) around the well
causing a high permeability (1,000 darcies) and that there was no
wormhole formation. As a result of slow run times, an instant
equilibrium model was used to represent CSI. The high-permeability region was in place at the beginning of primary
production.
Spokes Model. In the spokes model, it was assumed that wormholes emanated from the well (Fig. 5d). This model was not the
SRC model. The spokes were only in Layer 4 because it was
assumed that this was the only layer with high enough porosity and
permeability for wormholes to propogate during CHOPS. The
spokes were represented by 20-cm-diameter source/sink horizontal
wells, whose length increased with time during primary production, as shown in Table 6. There was no dilated region around the
spokes. They were assigned a minimum BHP during primary production and CSI production periods of 150 kPaa and a maximum
BHP during CSI injection periods of 3500 kPaa. It was assumed

that if large-diameter wormholes did exist, then the pressure drop

in them would be low and they could be represented by source/sink
horizontal wells. Representation of the spokes as shut-in horizontal
wells where backflow is permitted is an alternative approach that
may be evaluated in the future. Also, the use of CMG s wellbore
model Flexwell to represent large wormholes may be an option.
Spokes-and-Branches Model. The spokes-and-branches model
included 20-cm-diameter spokes extending in Layer 4 from the CSI
well with offshoot 20-cm-diameter branches emanating from the
spokes (Table 6 and Fig. 5e). The branches were orthogonal to the
spokes from which they emanated. There was no dilated region
around the spokes or branches. They were assigned a minimum
BHP during primary production and CSI production periods of
150 kPaa and a maximum BHP during CSI injection periods of
3500 kPaa.
Results for Alternative Post-CHOPS Characterizations.
Primary Production. Gas injection and oil, water, and gas production during primary production and CSI are summarized in
Table 7 for the different models. As outlined previously, the

TABLE 6LENGTH OF SPOKES AND BRANCHES VS. TIME

260

Time
(days)

Spoke 1
Length (m)

Spoke 2
Length (m)

Spoke 3
Length (m)

Branch 1
Length (m)

Branch 2
Length (m)

0
12
26
40
54
68
83
98
114
122
3,657

0.2
8.4
21.4
34.4
47.3
60.3
73.3
86.3
99.3
105.7
105.7

0.2
8.4
21.4
34.4
47.3
60.3
73.3
86.3
99.3
105.7
105.7

3.2
11.9
30.2
48.6
66.9
85.3
103.7
122.0
140.4
149.5
149.5

0
8.4
21.4
34.4
34.4
34.4
34.4
34.4
34.4
34.4
34.4

0
8.4
21.4
34.4
34.4
34.4
34.4
34.4
34.4
34.4
34.4

July 2013 Journal of Canadian Petroleum Technology

Model

Oil (m )

Effective permeability
Dual permeability
Dilated zone
Spokes
Spokes and branches

Water (m )

15 677
14 606
5460
10 518
6005

Cumulative Oil (m3)

Gas (std m )

3593
228
33
2946
1512

568 901
929 036
35 708
99 874
79 580

7000

eP
fectiv

Cumulative Gas Injected SC (m3)

6.E+05

on
yN

ilit

eab

erm

5000

Ef

4000

rium
Equilib um
ri
erm
Dual P Nonequilib
es

3000

ches
Spok
and Bran
Spokes
librium
Nonequi
ilated zone

2000
1000

D
0

CSI

ilibriu

equ

6000

0
CHOPS

CSI

CHOPS CHOPS
Production

8000

EP
E
qm
.

TABLE 7PRIMARY PRODUCTION (FULL-WELL BASIS)

FOR DIFFERENT MODELS

500

1000

1500 2000

2500

3000

3500

4000

Time (days)

EPEqm.

Fig. 20Cumulative oil produced for different models (onequarter well basis).

EP nonequilibrium (NE)

5.E+05
4.E+05

SPokes
Dual Perm

3.E+05

For the effective-permeability nonequilibrium simulations, the

solvent penetrated to near the edge of the reservoir although at
low concentrations (Figs. 22 and 23, note the log scale used in
these figures), whereas for the instant equilibrium version of this
model, the propane moved vertically from Layer 4 but there was
much less lateral penetration beyond the high-permeability region
than for the effective-permeability nonequilibrium model. This
was probably because the instant equilibrium solubility conditions, which were assumed in these latter simulations, allowed
rapid dissolution of injected propane and therefore it remained
closer to the well.
As compared with both the effective-permeability nonequilibrium and instant equilibrium models, the dual-permeability model
resulted in the same gas injection in Cycle 1, more gas injection in
Cycle 2, and less gas injection in Cycle 3. For the latter model, oil
was produced at a similar rate during CSI as it had been during primary
production
(Fig.
20).
Although
the
dualpermeability and effective-permeability models both matched
the specified primary oil production, there was substantially less oil
production for three CSI cycles for the dual-permeability model
(1968 m3) as compared with the effective-permeability models (13
769 m3 for nonequilibrium and 9988 m3 for instant equilibrium).
The high oil saturation (Fig. 24) in the fracture network
reduced gas injectivity in Cycle 3 of the dual-permeability simulation (Fig. 21). The oil saturation in the matrix adjoining the fractures was reduced to approximately 70% during primary
production and to approximately 60% during CSI. Although the
oil saturations were significantly different in the matrix and fractures, their propane mole fractions in the oil phase were similar
(Fig. 23). As for the effective-permeability instant equilibrium
model, the propane did move vertically from Layer 4 in the dualpermeability model, but there was much less penetration beyond
the high-permeability region.
Gas injection during CSI for the dilated-zone model was oneseventh of that obtained with the effective-permeability model,
where instant equilibrium was also assumed (Fig. 21). As a result,

2.E+05

Spokes and Branches

1.E+05

Dilated zone

0.E+05
0

500

1000

1500 2000

2500

3000

3500

4000

Time (days)
Fig. 21Cumulative gas injected for different models (onequarter well basis).

effective-permeability instant equilibrium and nonequilibrium

CSI models started with the post-CHOPS reservoir characterization determined using AITFs CHOPS model. For the other models, an attempt was made to match the specified primaryproduction oil rates.
For the dual-permeability model, the oil rate was specified to
be the actual field value for the first part of the primary-production
simulations. The match of sand-production values was obtained
as part of the AITF CHOPS model from which the dual-permeability characterization was derived. The oil rate was averaged
during the latter half of the dual-permeability primary-production
simulations in order that a constant rate would speed up the simulations. A match of the specified production was achieved.
The dilated-zone model resulted in a significant underprediction of oil, water, and gas rates during primary production. For
both the spokes and the spokes-and-branches models, the specified oil production during primary production could not be
achieved during primary production (Table 7 and Fig. 20), even
though the oil rate was a well-control parameter. No sand-transport behaviour was represented in the model.
CSI Process. The greater contact area caused by wormhole
formation resulted in high gas injectivity, particularly for the
effective-permeability models (Fig. 21). For these models, the oil
rate was much higher during CSI than during primary production.
(a)

(b)

(c)
5

< 1 10

< 1 10

End Inj. 3
< 0.000015
5

< 1 10
End Prod. 3

< 1 10

1.00e+0
4.64e1
2.15e1
1.00e1
4.64e2
2.15e2
1.00e2
4.64e3
2.15e3
1.00e3
4.64e4
2.15e4
1.00e4
4.64e5
2.15e5
1.00e5

Fig. 22Propane mole fraction in oil phase for (a) effective-permeability (nonequilibrium), (b) effective-permeability (equilibrium),
and (c) dual-permeability (equilibrium) models.
July 2013 Journal of Canadian Petroleum Technology

261

Effective-Permeability Model

Spokes Model

End Injection 2

Dual-Permeability Model

< 0.00001
Equilibrium

Matrix

Fracture

End Production 2

Nonequilibrium

< 0.00001
Nonequilibrium

Equilibrium

Matrix

Fracture
1.00e+0

4.64e1

2.15e1

1.00e1

4.64e2

2.15e2

1.00e2

4.64e3

2.15e3

1.00e3

4.64e4

2.15e4

1.00e4

4.64e5

2.15e5

1.00e5

Fig. 23Propane mole fraction in oil phase in CSI Cycle 2 for different CHOPS models.

oil production for the former model was approximately one-third

of that obtained for the latter model (Fig. 20).
For the Spokes model, significantly lower rates were obtained
during CSI as compared with the effective-permeability model.
The oil rate was a little lower in the first CSI cycle than at the end
of primary production, but it was significantly higher in Cycle 2
(Fig. 20). As compared with the effective-permeability instant
equilibrium model, propane dissolution in oil in the spokes model
was limited to the region near the spokes (Figs. 23 and 25a), and
the extent of this region was actually increased during production
periods.
Predicted oil production for two CSI cycles with the spokes
model was only 3235 m3 as compared with 9041 m3 for two
cycles with the effective-permeability nonequilibrium model. Oiland gas-saturation changes were mainly limited to areas where the
spokes were located (Figs. 26a and 26b). Oil flowed from the
outer regions of the reservoir to the spokes in the high-permeability Layer 4. This flow occurred even during injection periods as a
Matrix

Fractures

0 days

3,227 days, end of

Primary Production

3,707 days, end of

Injection Period 3

1.00
0.95
0.90
0.85
0.80
0.75
0.70
0.65
0.60
0.55
0.50
0.45
0.40
0.35
0.30
0.25
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00

3,887 days, end of

Production Period 3

Fig. 24Dual-permeability model. Oil saturation in Layer 4

matrix and fractures.
262

result of the high pressure at the outer regions of the reservoir.

Although not shown here, this oil flow from the outer regions toward a CSI well also occurred in effective-permeability simulations during injection periods until the outer reservoir pressure had
been somewhat depleted. In Layer 4, most of the pressure changes
during CSI injection and production periods occurred where the
spokes were located (Fig. 27a). There was limited gas-phase flow
from the outer regions toward the spokes (Fig. 26b) because methane remained in solution when the pressure was still high. There
was low gas saturation at the end of primary production and little
gas formation during CSI for the spokes model. Similar behaviour
was observed for the spokes-and-branches model.
For Cycle 1 with the spokes-and-branches model, the desired
gas-injection rate of 20 000 std m3/d (full-well basis) was maintained for the entire 30-day injection period. Despite this, predicted oil production for Cycle 1 was only 168 m3 as compared
with 4139 and 630 m3, respectively, for the effective-permeability
and spokes models. The branches were too close to the vertical
well and as a result had a negative rather than a positive impact
on oil production.
The production-period pressure profiles for the spokes and
spokes-and-branches models were similar except for the region
near the branches, which had lower pressure values even during
the injection period. There was little pressure buildup during the
injection period of the spokes-and-branches-model simulation.
The low pressure values obtained during injection resulted in the
minimal oil production during CSI. The pressure from Layer 4
was transmitted vertically; thefore, a pressure profile for any layer
was similar to that for Layer 4 (Fig. 27b).
The net propane/oil ratio was considerably higher for the
spokes and spokes-and-branches models as compared with the
effective-permeability predictions (Table 8). The branches in the
spokes-and-branches model changed where the propane dissolved
as compared with when the spokes model was used (Fig. 25b).
The propane did not penetrate as far along the middle spoke as it
did when there were no branches (spokes model). In the former
case, there was more propane dissolved nearer the vertical well. If
branches were farther from the vertical well and extended into oil
sand that would not be contacted by the main spokes, then
increased oil production could be expected although interference
between the spokes and branches could still occur.
Conclusions
Changing the FFs for gas exsolution and/or dissolution and/or
changing the dispersion-coefficient values is an effective
July 2013 Journal of Canadian Petroleum Technology

(a) Spokes

(b) Spokes and Branches

< 0.00001

< 0.00001

End Inj. 1

< 0.00001

< 0.00001

End Prod. 1

1.00e+0
4.64e1
2.15e1
1.00e1
4.64e2
2.15e2
1.00e2
4.64e3
2.15e3
1.00e3
4.64e4
2.15e4
1.00e4
4.64e5
2.15e5
1.00e5

Fig. 25Propane mole fraction in oil phase for (a) spokes and
(b) spokes-and-branches models.

upscaling strategy. As compared with fine gridblocks, the use of

coarse gridblocks in effective-permeability-model simulations
resulted in a much quicker reduction in BHP during production
and much lower oil rates as a result of rapid reservoir depressurization. One needs to adjust parameter(s) to compensate for this
behaviour if using coarse gridblocks. Adjustments of dissolution
and exsolution rate parameters and of dispersion coefficients can
compensate for changes in predicted production caused by
increasing the size of gridblocks. For example, increasing the
dispersion coefficients by a factor of 20 from 0.5 to 10 cm
resulted in a good match of oil production (Upscale 1). Alterna-

(a)

tively, increasing the reaction rate constants for the exsolution

reactions by a factor of 100 produced a reasonable approximation to the fine grid case in terms of oil production (Upscale 2).
Ignoring nonequilibrium behaviour impacts predictions significantly, especially for large gridblocks. The use of instant equilibrium results in rapid gas exsolution during production and
low oil production as a result of the severe reduction of the reservoir pressure and the elimination of foamy oil behaviour.
Increasing the reaction rate constants (FFs) from 0.0005 to 0.05
increased propane injectivity and decreased the BHP during an
injection period. The impact on oil production was small
(decreased by only 2%).
Gas exsolution rates were increased when an extra reaction was
used to bypass gas-bubble formation during gas exsolution. It
resulted in a 9% increase in oil production. The new reaction
increased the amount of free bubbles produced at the well because
it increased the pressure drawdown rate during production.
As compared with isothermal simulations, nonisothermal simulations decreased the injection BHP and the amount of gas
injected and resulted in increased oil production by 17%.
Allowing for nonisothermal behaviour typically slows down
simulations; therefore, this must be considered when deciding
whether to use it.
Although the dual-permeability and effective-permeability
models both matched specified primary oil production, there
was an order of magnitude less oil production during CSI for

(b)
End of Injection Period 1

End of Production Period 1

End of Injection Period 2

End of Production Period 2

End of Injection Period 2

End of Production Period 2

1.00
0.95
0.90
0.85
0.80
0.75
0.70
0.65
0.60
0.55
0.50
0.45
0.40
0.35
0.30
0.25
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00

End of Production Period 1

1.00
0.95
0.90
0.85
0.80
0.75
0.70
0.65
0.60
0.55
0.50
0.45
0.40
0.35
0.30
0.25
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00

End of Injection Period 1

Fig. 26Spokes model (a) oil saturation and oil velocity vectors and (b) gas saturation and gas velocity vectors in high-permeability Layer 4.

(a) Spokes

Spokes and Branches

kPaa
3750

(b) Spokes

Spokes and Branches

3,227 days. End of

Primary Production

3375

kPaa
3,600
3,260

3000

2,920

2625

2,580

2250

3,257 days. End of

Injection Period 1

1875
1500

2,240
1,900
1,560

1125

1,220

750

880

375

540

3,437 days. End of

Production Period 1

200

Fig. 27(a) Pressure in Layer 4 and (b) reservoir pressure for spokes and spokes-and-branches models.
July 2013 Journal of Canadian Petroleum Technology

263

TABLE 8COMPARISON OF EFFECTIVE-PERMEABILITY-, DUAL-PERMEABILITY-, DILATEDZONE-, SPOKES-, AND SPOKES-AND-BRANCHES-MODEL PREDICTIONS FOR FIRST CYCLE

Effective permeability
Effective permeability
Dual permeability
Dilated zone
Spokes
Spokes and branches

Eqm or NE

Oil
Production (m3)

Net Propane/Oil
(liquid m3/m3)

NE
Eqm
Eqm
Eqm
NE
NE

4,139
4,849
656
1,281
630
168

0.15
0.07
0.82
0.00
1.14
4.91

Eqm instant equilibrium solubility.

NE Nonequilibrium solubility.
Net Propane/Oil Ratio (propane injected propane produced)/oil produced.

the dual-permeability model using instant equilibrium solubility

conditions as compared with nonequilibrium or instant equilibrium effective-permeability-model predictions.
For both the spokes and spokes-and-branches models, the predicted primary oil production was significantly less than the
actual field values, even though the oil rate was used as a well
control. Significantly lower oil rates were also obtained during
CSI as compared with the effective-permeability model.
Predicted oil production for two CSI cycles with the spokes
model was approximately one-third of that predicted by the
effective-permeability model.
Predicted oil production for one CSI cycle with the spokes-andbranches model was approximately one-seventh of that predicted by the effective-permeability model.
The reservoir model chosen for CHOPS has a profound effect on
CSI predictions. Therefore, a number of different post-CHOPS
reservoir realizations can be used for CSI simulations in a postCHOPS reservoir in order to evaluate the uncertainty involved.
A single cycle should not be used to estimate solvent recovery
because it will be low from an unrecoverable (by pressure
reduction alone) solvent inventory being built up in the part of
the reservoir into which solvent penetrates. In later cycles, a
greater percentage of the injected solvent is recovered because
the total solvent retention at the end of each cycle increases
only by a relatively small amount.
Oil recovery from CSI is mostly limited to high-permeability
regions created during CHOPS.

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Jeannine Chang is a reservoir engineer at Devon Canada
Corporation. Before joining Devon, she was a senior research
scientist at AITF. In the past Chang also worked as an environmental consultant focusing on environmental hydrogeology and petroleum contaminant remediation. Her work has
been focused primarily on primary and thermal heavy-oil
July 2013 Journal of Canadian Petroleum Technology

development, reservoir simulation, and laboratory experiments of enhanced-oil-recovery (EOR) technologies, including
cyclic injection processes (solvent, steam, steam/solvent, and
steam/air), steam-assisted gravity drainage, CHOPS, VAPEX,
and steam additives.
John Ivory is the Heavy Oil and Oil Sands Subsurface Portfolio
Manager at AITF in the areas of EOR (primarily solvent, steam,

July 2013 Journal of Canadian Petroleum Technology

steam/solvent, and in-situ combustion processes) and leads

AITFs Reservoir Simulation Group. He has extensive expertise in
designing experiments, performing numerical simulations, and
being involved in field pilots related to enhanced heavy-oil- and
bitumen-recovery processes in clastic and carbonate reservoirs.
Ivory also has investigated gas separation/purification using
membranes, adsorption, and absorption technologies, and has
been involved in investigating wax deposition in flowlines.

265