REPORT

Optical Communication & Telecom Technologies of

PGCIL

Chaitanya Vig
01415002812
ECE II (Morning)
Seventh Semester

Index
.
1)Introduction _____________________________________________4

Power Grid Corporation of India Ltd.

Telecom Business: POWERTEL
Types of Transmission

2)Optical Fibres_____________________________________________10

Definition
Advantages and Disadvantages
Working Principle
Construction
OPGW
Losses
Connections of Fibre Optic Cables
Fibre Optics Cable Technology

3)Existing Transmission Technologies____________________________27

SDH
- Definition
- Link Capacities
2

 WDM/DWDM
- Definitions
- FDM vs. TDM
- Transponders

4)Some Packet Switching Technologies___________________________44

MPLS
- Definitions
- Layered Model
- Types
- Power Grids Upcoming MPLS Network

5)NOFN____________________________________________________49

Introduction
Concept Diagram
Technology Used

6)Network Management System_________________________________52

Introduction

7)Bibliography_______________________________________________54

Introduction
POWERGRID Corporation of India Ltd.
PGCIL (POWERGRID), the Central Transmission Utility (CTU) of the country under
Ministry of Power, is engaged in power transmission business with the responsibility for
planning, coordination, supervision and control over inter-State transmission system and
operation of National & Regional Power Grids.

The Company owns and operates about 92,950 ckt kms of transmission lines at 800/765kV,
400kV, 220kV & 132kV EHVAC & +500kV HVDC levels and 150 sub-stations with
transformation capacity of about 1,24,525 MVA (As on March 31, 2012,). This gigantic
transmission network, spread over length and breadth of the country, is consistently
maintained at an availability of over 99%.

The mission of the corporation is establishment and operation of regional and national
power grids to facilitate transfer of electric power within and across the regions with
reliability, security and economy, on sound commercial principles.

POWERGRID s primary commitments are:

I.

Establish and maintain an efficient and effective "national grid " with due regard to time,
cost, technology, and value additions.

II.

Sustainable development through conservation of natural resources and adopting

environment friendly technology on principle of avoidance, minimisation and mitigation.

III. Ensure safe, occupational hazard free and healthy work environment, to the satisfaction
of stake holders in all areas of its activities and shall endeavour to continually improve its
management systems and practices in conformity to legal and regulatory provisions.

In the snapshot products of the company is given as Generation, transmission and distribution.
But POWERGRID is in the business of Bulk power transmission, Telecom and providing
consultancy services to Power Utilities (both domestic and International)

Telecom Business: POWERTEL

With the vision to bridge the digital divide in the country and ensure that benefits of
information revolution reach the entire length and breadth of the country, POWERGRID has
diversified into Telecom utilising right of way on its Extra High Voltage Power Transmission
Network infrastructure in the country with its brand name as POWERTEL. Among the
telecom players, POWERGRID is the only utility in the country having overhead optic fibre
network using OPGW (Optical Ground Wire) on power transmission lines. POWERGRID has
an all India Broad Band Telecom Network of about 25000 Kms which is likely to be doubled
in 2-3 years with multiple self resilient rings for backbone as well as intra city access
networks connecting more than 200 cities and town across the country and ensuring a
reliability of more than 99.9%.

Unique Features of POWERGRIDs Telecom Network:

Most of the POWERGRIDs optic fibre backbone network is laid overhead on the extra high
voltage Power transmission lines .The Telecom network on the Transmission lines has proved
to be sturdy and secure, rodent menace free, vandalism proof which offers it distinct
advantage over the underground optic fibre. The other advantages of leasing bandwidth
capacity on POWERGRIDs Telecom route are:
Instant bandwidth allocation on POWERGRIDs Telecom route
End to end connectivity
Instant upgradation to higher capacity
Better Service Level
Services catering to the specific needs of the customers
High reliability, high quality service in a cost effective manner.

POWERTEL: A synergy that brings out best of POWER and TELECOM

To provide total solution to customers through state-of-the-art Broadband Telecom Network
and contribute in bridging the digital divide by accelerating the process of Convergence in

urban and rural areas and enable the common man living in remotest and uneconomical areas
become a part of the global village.

Services offered:

End to End bandwidth

Ethernet private leased line
Internet services
MPLS-VPN services
Telecom Tower Infrastructure

The inherent Communication infrastructure coupled with right of way along its extensive
Power Transmission network have made it possible to leverage these characteristics in

creating convergence of Power Transmission and Telecom technologies. POWERGRIDs

telecom network of 50,000 kms, connecting about 60 major cities/ Metros is nearing
completion. POWERGRIDs telecom network provides a robust telecom highway at
affordable cost with ultra modern and eco-friendly implementation techniques. POWERGRID
is one of the few telecom players with a marked presence in remote areas viz. North Eastern
Region, Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, etc.
POWERGRID has a 24X7 Real time monitoring of the telecom network through
National Level Control Centre (NTCC): Delhi
Regional Level Control Centres (RTCC): Kolkata, Bangalore, Mumbai, Delhi

Technology deployed:

UGOFC Underground optic fibre has been provided to create PoP where s/s or
overhead line is not available

 OPGW Optical Fibre Ground Wire over high voltage Transmission line

MPLS Multi Protocol Label Switching

SDH Synchronous Digital Hierarchy

WDM Wavelength Division Multiplexing

TRANSMISSION TYPES

Asynchronous transmission

Plesiochronous transmission

Synchronous transmission

Asynchronous transmission

Asynchronous transmission is a transmission of data in which time intervals between

transmitted characters may be of unequal length. Transmission is controlled by start and stop
bits at the beginning and end of each character. Transition of signals does not occur at the
same nominal rate generally free running quartz oscillators derive the clock. There is no
timing pulse sent from transmitter to receiver.

Plesiochronous transmission

Plesiochronous is a Greek word meaning Almost Synchronous, but not fully synchronous.
The digital transitions in the signals occur at almost the same rate. There may be a phase
difference between the transitions of the two signals, and this would lie on specified limits.

Synchronous transmission

The Digital transitions in the signals occur at exactly the same rate. There will be no phase
difference between the transitions of the two signals. And this would lie on specified limits. In
a synchronous network, all the clocks are traceable to one primary reference clock (PRC).

OPTICAL FIBRE
Definition
An optical fibre is a flexible, transparent fibre made of glass (silica) or plastic, slightly thicker
than a human hair. It functions as a waveguide, or light pipe, to transmit light between the
two ends of the fibre. Optical fibres are widely used in fibre-optic communications, which
permits transmission over longer distances and at higher bandwidths than other forms of
communication. Fibres are also used for illumination, and are wrapped in bundles so that they
may be used to carry images, thus allowing viewing in confined spaces. Specially-designed
fibres are used for a variety of other applications, including sensors and fibre lasers.

Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages
Low attenuation, large bandwidth allowing long distance (>100 km) at high bit rates (>
10Gb/s)
10

 Small physical size

Low physical mass, low material cost
Cables can be made non-conducting, thus eliminating electromagnetic
Interference, shock hazards and providing electrical isolation
Negligible crosstalk between fibre channels in the same cable
High security, since tapping is very difficult
Upgrade potential to higher bit rates is excellent

Disadvantages
Jointing fibre can be more difficult and expensive
Fibre is not as mechanically robust as copper wire
Limited source power for systems, limiting operating distance
Not suited to ternary transmission, i.e. light cannot have negative values
So coding schemes using positive and negative levels cannot be used
Fibres are not directly suited to multi-access use, limiting their use in
local area networks for example
Susceptible to ionising radiation
Receivers suffer from relatively high noise levels, limiting sensitivity.

Working Principle
An Optical Fibre works on the fundamental principle of Total Internal Reflection. Light rays
are reflected and guided down the length of an optical fibre.

Snells Law

When a ray of light passes from one transparent medium to another, for example, at the
surface of a pool of water, it generally bends at the boundary. This phenomenon is well
known: a stick poked into water appears to bend. The bending of the ray at the boundary is
11

described by Snells law, a simple relationship between the sines of the angles that the ray
makes on the two sides of the boundary. Mathematically, Snells law can be written as:
n1sin 1=n2sin 2
where 1 is the angle of the ray on one side of the boundary, as shown in Figure , and 2 is
the angle on the other side. The quantities n1 and n2 are the refractive indices of the media on
opposite sides of the boundary.

Total Internal Reflection (TIR) and the Critical Angle

At some angle of incidence 1, called the critical angle c, the angle of refraction 2 is 90
degrees. If 1 is greater than the critical angle then the ray returns or is refracted back into the
high refractive index medium

12

The numerical aperture of the fibre is closely related to the critical angle and is often used in
the specification for optical fibre and the components that work with it
The numerical aperture is given by the formula:

N . A. = n12 n22
The angle of acceptance is twice that given by the numerical aperture.

Construction
A main purpose of a fibre optic cable is to protect the fibre core inside the cable that carries
the light signal transmission. The following diagram shows the construction of a fibre optic
cable.

13

Core
The fibre core is made of silica glass and is the central part of the fibre optic cable that carries
the light signal. They are hair-thin in size and the diameter of the fibre core is typically 8 m
for single mode fibre, and 50 m or 62.5 m for multi mode fibre.

Cladding
The cladding is also made of glass, and is the layer that surrounds the fibre core. Together,
they form a single solid fibre of glass that is used for the light transmission. The diameter of
the cladding is typically 125 m.

Primary Coating
After the cladding, there is the primary coating that is also known as the primary buffer. This
layer provides protection to the fibre core and cladding. They are made of plastic and only
provide mechanical protection. They do not interfere with the light transmission of the core
and the cladding.

Strength Members
The next layer is strength members. They are strands of aramid yarn, or better known as
Kevlar. They are added to the fibre optic cable to prevent the breakage of the fibre glass
during installation. When fibre is pulled through a duct, the outer cover would stretch and the
pulling load would be rested on the fibre. The strength members prevent this as their material
is designed to take the strain.

Cable Jacket
The last layer is the cable jacket, which are comprised of different materials depending on the
choice of the end user and the application in use. Like the primary coating, they serve only as
14

a mechanical protection to the fibre core and cladding inside. Common types of fibre optic
cable jacket ratings are:
OFNP (Optical Fibre, Nonconductive, Plenum)
OFNR (Optical Fibre, Nonconductive, Riser)
LSZH (Low Smoke Zero Halogen)

OPTICAL GROUND WIRE

An optical ground wire (also known as an OPGW or, in the IEEE standard, an optical fibre
composite overhead ground wire) is a type of cable that is used in the construction of electric
power transmission and distribution lines. Such cable combines the functions of grounding
and communications. An OPGW cable contains a tubular structure with one or more optical
fibres in it, surrounded by layers of steel and aluminium wire. The OPGW cable is run
between the tops of high-voltage electricity pylons. The conductive part of the cable serves to
bond adjacent towers to earth ground, and shields the high-voltage conductors from lightning
strikes. The optical fibres within the cable can be used for high-speed transmission of data,
either for the electrical utility's own purposes of protection and control of the transmission
line, for the utility's own voice and data communication, or may be leased or sold to third
parties to serve as a high-speed fibre interconnection between cities.
The optical fibre itself is an insulator and protects against power transmission line and
lightning induction, external noise and cross-talk. Typically OPGW cables contain singlemode optical fibres with low transmission loss, allowing long distance transmission at high
speeds. The outer appearance of OPGW is similar to ACSR cable usually used for shield
wires.

Construction
Several different styles of OPGW are made. In one type, between 8 and 48 glass optical fibres
are placed in a plastic tube. The tube is inserted into a stainless steel, aluminium, or
aluminium-coated steel tube, with some slack length of fibre allowed to prevent strain on the
glass fibres. The buffer tubes are filled with grease to protect the fibre unit from water and to
15

protect the steel tube from corrosion; the interstices of the cable are filled with grease. The
tube is stranded into the cable with aluminium, aluminium alloy or steel strands, similar to an
ACSR cable. The steel strands provide strength, and the aluminium strands provide electrical
conductivity. For very large fibre counts, up to 144 fibres in one cable, multiple tubes are
used.
In other types, an aluminium rod has several spiral grooves around the outside, in which
fibres in buffer tubes are laid. The fibre unit is covered with a plastic or steel tape, and the
whole surrounded with aluminium and steel strands.
Individual fibres may be in "loose buffer" tubes, where the inside diameter of the tube is
greater than the fibre outside diameter, or may be "tight buffered" where the plastic buffer is
coated directly on to the glass. Fibres for OPGW are single-mode type.

16

Installation
Installation of OPGW requires some additional planning because it is impractical to splice an
OPGW cable in mid-span; the lengths of cable purchased must be coordinated with the spans
between towers to prevent waste. Where fibres must be joined between lengths, a
weatherproof splice box is installed on a tower; a similar box is used to transition from the
OPGW to an outside plant fibre-only cable to connect the fibres to terminal equipment.

Attenuation in Optical Fibres

Attenuation is the reduction of signal strength or light power over the length of the lightcarrying medium. Fibre attenuation is measured in decibels per kilometre (dB/km).
Optical fibre offers superior performance over other transmission media because it combines
high bandwidth with low attenuation. This allows signals to be transmitted over longer
distances while using fewer regenerators or amplifiers, thus reducing cost and improving
signal reliability.

The attenuation in a fibre is caused by the following factors:

Light Absorption
Rayleigh Scattering
Bending Losses
Insertion Losses
Return Losses
Light Absorption
Absorption may be defined as the conversion of light energy to heat, and is related to the
resonances in the fibre material. There are intrinsic absorptions (due to fibre material and
molecular resonance) and extrinsic absorptions (due to impurities such as OH- ions at around
1240 nm and 1390 nm). In modern fibres, extrinsic factors are almost negligible.

17

Rayleigh Scattering
Scattering, primarily Rayleigh scattering, also contributes to attenuation. Scattering causes the
light energy to be dispersed in all directions, with some of the light escaping the fibre core. A
small portion of this light energy is returned down the core and is termed backscattering

Backscattering Effect

Bending losses
These are caused by light escaping the core due to imperfections at the core/clad boundary
(microbending), or the angle of incidence of the light energy at the core/cladding boundary
exceeding the Numerical Aperture of the fibre due to bending of the fibre (macrobending).
For a fibre optic span, passive components and connection losses have to be added to obtain
the total signal attenuation.

Types of Bending

The attenuation, for a given wavelength, is defined as the ratio between the input power and
the output power of the fibre being measured. It is generally expressed in decibels (dB). This
attenuation depends on the fibre and on the wavelength. Rayleigh scattering is inversely

18

proportional to the fourth power of the wavelength. If we look at the absorption spectrum of a
fibre against the wavelength of the laser, we can notice some characteristics.
The optical attenuation in a fibre does not remain constant over the wavelength of a
transmitted signal. There are three regions of locally low attenuation which are suitable for the
transportation of telecommunication signals. They are known as the first (around 850 nm),
second (around 1310 nm) and third (around 1550 nm) optical windows.
The following graph illustrates the relationship between the wavelengths of the injected light
and the total fibre attenuation.

Attenuation vs. wavelength

Insertion Losses
Insertion loss is the most important performance indicator of a fibre optic interconnection.
This is the loss of light signal, measured in decibels (dB), during the insertion of a fibre optic
connector.
Some of the common causes of insertion losses include:
(i) The misalignment of ferrules during connection,
(ii) The air gap between two mating ferrules, and
(iii) Absorption loss from impurities such as scratches and oil contamination
Insertion loss can be minimised by proper selection of interconnect materials, good polishing
and termination process of fibre connectors.

19

Return Losses
Return loss, which is also known as back reflection, is the loss of light signal that is reflected
back to the original light source. This occurs as the light is reflected off the connector and
travels back along the fibre to the light source. This phenomenon is also known as the Fresnel
reflection. It occurs also when there are changes in the refractive index of materials in which
the light travels, such as the fibre core and the air gap between fibre interconnection. When
light passes through these two different refractive indexes, some of the light signal is reflected
back.
As a general rule, the greater the difference between two materials refractive index, the higher
the loss. When reading return loss figures, the higher the absolute value of the decibel unit
means the better the performance of the interconnection.

Connection Of Fibre Cable

Joints in fibre are needed for a number of reasons:
Fibre is available and can only be installed in lengths up to about 2km, for longer
spans a joint is needed
For the repair of damaged fibre
For test purposes at terminal equipment

$
Fig 27: Fibre joint

The connection techniques currently in use and development are:

Demountable Fibre connectors

Fibre Fusion splice, permanent connection

Mechanical splice

20

$
Alignment of a joint

Connectors

The Connector is a mechanical device mounted on the end of a fibre optic cable, light source,
Receiver or housing. It allows it to be mated to a similar device. The Transmitter provides the
Information bearing light to the fibre optic cable through a connector. The Receiver gets the
Information bearing light from the fibre optic cable through a connector.

The connector must direct light and collect light and must be easily attached and detached
from equipment. The connector can be disconnected.
A connector marks a place in the premises fibre optic data link where signal power can be lost
and the BER can be affected. It marks a place in the premises fibre optic data link where
reliability can be affected by a mechanical connection. There are many different connector
types.

21

Splicing

A splice is a device to connect one fibre optic cable to another permanently. It is the attribute
of permanence that distinguishes a splice from connectors. Nonetheless, some vendors offer
splices that can be disconnected that are not permanent so that they can be disconnected for
repairs or rearrangements. The terminology can get confusing.

Splices may be required at building entrances, wiring closets, couplers and literally any
intermediary point between Transmitter and Receiver. At first glance you may think that
splicing two fibre optic cables together is like connecting two wires. To the contrary, the
requirements for a fibre-optic connection and a wire connection are very different.
Prior to splicing both fibres must be prepared:
Remove plastic buffer coatings on both fibres
Cleave fibre end and clean with isopropyl alcohol

Good fibre end preparation is vital if a low loss splice is to be achieved.

There are two principal types of splices:

Fusion
Mechanical

Fusion splices
These use an electric arc to weld two fibre optic cables together. The splices offer
sophisticated, computer controlled alignment of fibre optic cables to achieve losses as low
as 0.05 dB. This comes at a high cost.

22

$
Fusion Splicing

Mechanical splices
This splices all share common elements. They are easily applied in the field, require little or
no tooling and offer losses of about 0.2 dB.

!
Mechanical Splicing

23

Fibre Optic Cable Technology

Fibre Optic Cable Installations

The fibre optic cables will have required number of fibres (6, 12, 24, 48, 96 etc) inside the
cable. These optical fibres are completely shielded (mechanically, electrically and optically)
from the outer layers. The construction of the cable depends upon the application and its place
of installation. There are two types of cables:
Loose tube
Tight buffer tube
Fibre optic cables are installed either overhead or underground based upon the applications
and requirement. Generally loose tube type construction is preferred for the overhead and
underground cables to avoid strain on the cable. For installation of optical fibres in short
distances, viz. installation inside the equipment room, tight buffer tube design cables used as
patch cords, pigtails, etc. being easier to handle in those forms.

Overhead Fibre Optic Cable

These fibre optic cables are designed for overhead applications. The cables are suitably
attached with the overhead structures such as transmission towers or poles at appropriate
24

height with suitable fixtures. The down lead clamps are used to clamp the overhead cables
with the towers/structures while bringing them down at the splicing locations.

Advantages

Faster rollout and installation, especially in difficult terrain like Bhutan

No clearance required from any other Govt. authorities

Rodent menace and vandalism proof as the cables are installed on top of the
transmission lines

Live line installation is possible without disruption of power flow in the transmission
line

Optimal utilisation of national resources by sharing of infrastructure for various

applications

No digging of roads, cutting of roads and no disruption of traffic

Less maintenance requirement because of inherent reliability

Safeguard of Fibre Optic cables when road is dug by other utilities for their
applications

Underground Fibre Optic Cables

Underground fibre optic cables are designed to be buried under the ground at suitable depths.
There are two types of underground fibre optic cables armoured and unarmored. Unarmored
fibre optic cables are always laid inside HDPE pipes (mainly using blowing techniques)
because of less mechanical strength whereas armoured cables may be buried and laid directly
in the ground or laid inside HDPE duct. GI and RCC pipes are used at various crossings such
as road, agricultural field, river, bridge etc. to protect the Fibre Optic cables. As these cables
are laid inside the ground, route markers, joint markers and electronic markers are also
installed along the Fibre Optic cable route at suitable intervals for detection of the Fibre Optic
cables at later date for maintenance. Warning tapes are also installed over the Fibre Optic
cables to indicate the Fibre Optic cable route to other utilities for careful digging, who will be
laying Fibre Optic cable on the same route subsequently.
25

Manholes are provided on the

routes to keep the joint boxes and also to tap off from the main underground cable. The cables
are jointed inside the joint boxes and kept in the manholes for protection of joint boxes and
easy maintenance. Certain cable loops are also kept inside the manholes at crossing and joint
locations for future maintenance.

26

Transmission Technologies
SYNCHRONOUS DIGITAL HIERARCHY
Introduction
The ITU established the international standard known as the Synchronous Digital Hierarchy
(SDH), in 1988. It is based on the Synchronous Optical Network (SONET) transmission
hierarchy, which was standardised by ANSI.
SDH and SONET refer to a group of fibre-optic transmission rates that can transport digital
signals with different capacities.
SDH has provided transmission networks with a vendor-independent and sophisticated signal
structure that has a rich feature set. This has resulted in new network applications, the
deployment of new equipment in new network topologies, and management by operations
systems of much greater power than previously seen in transmission networks.
As digital networks increased in complexity, demand from network operators and their
customers grew for features that could not be readily provided within the existing
transmission standards. These features were based on high-order multiplexing through a
hierarchy of increasing bit rates up to 140 Mbps or 565 Mbps in Europe and
Their features were constrained by the high costs of transmission bandwidth and digital
devices. The multiplexing technique allowed for the combining of slightly non- synchronous
rates, referred to as plesiochronous, which lead to the term which lead to the term
Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy (PDH).

27

$
Plesiochronous transmission rates
The development of optical fibre transmission and large scale integrated circuits made more
complex standards possible. There were demands for improved and increasingly sophisticated
services that required large bandwidth, better performance monitoring facilities, and greater
network flexibility.
It was widely accepted that the new multiplexing method should be synchronous and based
not on bit interleaving as was the PDH, but on byte interleaving, as are the multiplexing
structures from 64 kbps to the primary rates of 1,544 kbps (1.5 Mbps) and 2,048 kbps (2
Mbps). By these means the new multiplexing method was to give a similar level of switching
flexibility both above and below primary rates (though most SDH products do not implement
flexibility below primary rate). In addition, it was to have comprehensive management
options to support new services and more centralised network control.
Advantages of SDH:
High transmission rates
Simplified add and drop function
High availability and capacity matching
Reliability and Future-proof platform for new services
28

SDH Layer Model

!
SDH Layer Model

$
Path section designations

SDH transmission rates in the Synchronous Digital Hierarchy are referred to as Synchronous
Transport Modules (STM) and a suffix to designate the level of multiplexing. These are:

STM-1..155 Mbps

STM-4..622 Mbps

29

STM-162.5 Gbps

STM-6410 Gbps

STM-256..40 Gbps

Some Components of SDH Network

Regenerator
Terminal Multiplexer
Add-Drop Multiplexer
Digital Cross-Connects
Regenerator
Regenerators, as the name implies, have the job of regenerating the clock and amplitude
relationships of the incoming data signals which have been attenuated and distorted by
dispersion. They derive their clock signals from the incoming data stream.

Terminal multiplexer
Terminal multiplexers are used to combine plesiochronous and synchronous input signals into
higher bit rate STM-N signals.

Add-Drop multiplexer (ADM)

Plesiochronous and lower bit rate synchronous signals can be extracted from or inserted into
high-speed SDH bit streams by means of ADMs. This feature makes it possible to set up ring
structures, which have the advantage that in the event of a fault, automatic back-up path
switching is possible using elements in the ring.

Digital cross-connects (DXC)

This element has the widest range of functions. It allows mapping of PDH tributary signals
into virtual containers as well as the switching of various containers up to and including
VC-4.
30

The STM-1 frame format

A frame with a bit rate of 155.52 Mbps is defined in ITU-T recommendation G.707 and is
known as the synchronous transport module (STM). Since this frame is the first level of the
synchronous digital hierarchy, it is known as STM-1. It comprises a byte matrix of 9 rows and
270 columns. Transmission is row by row, starting with the byte in the upper left corner and
ending with the byte in the lower right corner. The frame repetition rate is 125s. Each byte in
the payload represents a 64-kbps channel.

$
Schematic diagram of STM-1 frame

Section overhead (SOH)

The first nine bytes in each of the nine rows are called the overhead. G.707 makes a
distinction between the regenerator section overhead (RSOH) and the multiplex section
overhead (MSOH). The reason for this is so that the functions of certain overhead bytes can
be coupled with the network architecture.

31

Payload overhead (POH)

The path overhead (POH) when combined with a container forms a virtual container. The
POH has the task of monitoring quality and indicating the type of container. The format and
size of the POH depends on the container type. A distinction is made between two different
POH types VC-3/4 POH and VC-11/12 POH.
Synchronous
Transport
Module

STM-N Frame

One SOH
AU pointers for every VC-4
N VC-4s

Line Rate
Mbit/s

STM-1

155.520

STM-4

622.080

STM-16

2488.320

STM-64

9953.280

270 N columns (bytes)

9N

261 N

Section overhead
SOH

3
4

Administrative unit pointer(s)

STM-N payload

9 rows

Section overhead
SOH
9
T1518000-95

32

PDH, STM and IP Transportation methods using SDH

The heterogeneous nature of modern network structures has made it necessary for all PDH,
ATM (Asynchronous Transport Module) and IP signals to be transported over the SDH
network. The process of matching the signals to the network is called Mapping. The container
is the basic package unit for tributary channels. A special container (C-n) is provided for each
PDH tributary signal and is always significantly larger than the payload to be transported. The
remaining capacity is partly used for justification (stuffing) in order to equalise out timing
inaccuracies in the PDH signals.
Where synchronous tributaries are mapped, fixed fill bytes are inserted instead of justification
bytes. A virtual container (VC-n) is made up of the container formed, together with the path
overhead (POH). This is transmitted unchanged over a path through the network. The next
step towards formation of a complete STM-N signal is the addition of a pointer indicating the
start of the POH. The unit formed by the pointer and the virtual container is referred to as the
administrative unit (AU-n) or tributary unit (TU-n).
Several TUs together form a tributary unit group (TUG-n) that in turn is collected together
into a VC. One or more AUs form an administrative unit group (AUG). Finally, the AUG plus
the SOH form the STM-N.

$
Inserting a 140-Mbps tributary into an STM-1
33

In a synchronous network, all equipment is synchronised to an overall network clock, but the
timing of the plesiochronous signals that make up the virtual containers may vary slightly in
frequency and/ or phase with the network clock. VCs are always put into TUs or AUs and
these structures also contain the pointer which indicates the position of the beginning of the
VC in relation to TU or AU, as appropriate.

DENSE WAVELENGTH DIVISION MULTIPLEXING

Dense wavelength division multiplexing (DWDM) is a fibre optic transmission technique that
employs light wavelengths to transmit data parallel-by-bit or serial-by-character.
Data traffic overtakes voice traffic, (voice 13% n data 300%) and at the same time users also
increases. Therefore, the options for increasing Bandwidth (capacity):
More fibres (which is impractical)
Multiplexing (increasing the number of wavelength per fibre)
Multiple channels of information carried over the same fibre, each using an individual
wavelength.
Attractive multiplexing technique

- High aggregate bit rate without high speed electronics or modulation

- Low dispersion penalty for aggregate bit rate
- Very useful for upgrades to installed fibres
- Realisable using commercial components
Loss, crosstalk and non-linear effects are potential problems

34

Wavelength-Division Multiplexing (WDM)

In fibre-optic communications, WDM is a technology which multiplexes a number of optical
carrier signals onto a single optical fibre by using different wavelengths (i.e. colours)
of laser light. This technique enables bidirectional communications over one strand of fibre,
as well as multiplication of capacity.

Types of WDM
Currently, there are two types of WDM in existence today:
CWDM (Coarse Wavelength-Division Multiplexing)
Multiplex from 4-8 wavelengths per fibre, sometimes more. It is designed for shortmedium
haul networks. The spacing between wavelengths in CWDM is about 10-20nm.

DWDM (Dense Wavelength-Division Multiplexing)

A typical DWDM system supports 8 or more wavelengths. It is designed for long haul
networks. The spacing between wavelengths in DWDM is about 1-2nm

SDH Multiplexing and Mapping

35

DWDM :Benefits over CWDM

Development of DWDM Technology

Early WDM began in the late 1980s using the two widely spaced wavelengths in the 1310 nm
and 1550 nm (or 850 nm and 1310 nm) regions, sometimes called Coarse WDM. The early
1990s saw a second generation of WDM, sometimes called Dense WDM, in which two to
eight channels were used. These channels were now spaced at an interval of about 400 GHz in
the 1550-nm window. By the mid-1990s, dense WDM (DWDM) systems were emerging with
16 to 40 channels and spacing from 100 to 200 GHz. By the late 1990s DWDM systems had
evolved to the point where they were capable of 64 to 160 parallel channels, densely packed
at 50 or even 25 GHz intervals.The progression of the technology can be seen as an increase
in the number of wavelengths accompanied by a decrease in the spacing of the wavelengths.
Along with increased density of wavelengths, systems also advanced in their flexibility of
configuration, through add-drop functions, and management capabilities.

36

CWDM

DWDM

Short-range communication

Long-haul communication

Uses wide-range frequencies

Uses narrow-frequencies

Wavelengths spread far apart

Tightly packed wavelengths

Breaks the spectrum into big chunks

Dices the spectrum into small pieces

Light signal in not amplified

Signal amplification is used

Low cost as compared to DWDM

High cost

Simple implementation

Complex implementation

CDWM vs. DWDM

DWDM System
DWDM combines multiple optical signals so that they can be amplified as a group and
transported over a single fibre to increase capacity. Each signal carried can be at a different
rate and in a different format (SDH/SONET, ATM, data, etc.) The technology that allows this
high-speed, high-volume transmission is in the optical amplifier. Optical amplifiers operate in
a specific band of the frequency spectrum and are optimised for operation with existing fibre,
making it possible to boost light wave signals and thereby extend their reach without
converting them back to electrical form. Demonstrations have been made of ultra wide band
optical-fibre amplifiers that can boost light wave signals carrying over 100 channels (or
wavelengths) of light. A network using such an amplifier could easily handle a terabit of
information. At that rate, it would be possible to transmit all the world's TV channels at once
or about half a million movies at the same time.
The typical configuration of DWDM system is shown below:

37

$
DWDM System

Components of DWDM
Transponder
Transponders receive optical signals and send them out carrying digital information at
predefined wavelengths in accordance with the ITU-T guidelines. A single channel transmitter
typically consists of a high power distributed feedback (DFB) laser followed by a modulator
and power amplifier (also referred to as a post-amplifier or booster). Direct modulation of the
laser is only possible up to 2.5 Gbps. For higher transmission rates as a result of laser chirp,
an external modulator must be used.

Multiplexer (MUX)
MUX are deployed in DWDM systems to combine the signals at different wavelengths onto a
single fibre through which they then travel simultaneously. Each wavelength carries its own
information and represents a channel. An ideal MUX requires uniformly high transmission
across the passband with a very high drop at the edge.

Fibre
The fibre is one of the most critical components of a DWDM system as it provides the
physical transportation medium.

Amplifier
Amplifiers boost signals travelling down a fibre so they can cover longer spans. In the early
stages of fibre optic telecommunications, lasers emitted relatively low power which led to the
signal having to be frequently electrically regenerated. These amplifiers receive the optical
38

signal and convert it into an electrical signal (O/E conversion) which is then reshaped, retimed
and regeneration. This is the so called 3R regenerator. Finally, the signal is converted back to
an optical signal (E/O conversion).
In DWDM systems, the multiplexed signal has to be demultiplexed before each channel is
regenerated, emitted by a laser and then multiplexed again. This is a process which is both
complex and expensive. Optical fibre amplifiers (OFAs) can be used to provide a more
economical solution. These can work solely in the optical domain, performing a 1R (optical
regeneration). OFAs simultaneously amplify each wavelength of the DWDM signal without
the need for demultiplexing and remultiplexing. One major advantage of OFAs is their
transparency to signal speed and data type.

$
Principle of Amplifiers

Semiconductor optical amplifiers (SOA)

SOAs are based on the semiconductor laser technology principle and use semiconductor
material as the active medium. SOAs are not pumped by lasers.
Current SOAs have the disadvantage of having high noise figures which cause distortion of
the signal if more than one channel is transmitted. A future application for these amplifiers
could be in optical cross connects (OXC).

Raman fibre amplifiers (RFA)

39

RFAs use the Raman Effect or stimulated Raman scattering (SRS) as described under
limiting factors to transfer power from the pump laser at a shorter wavelength to the optical
signal. It uses either the embedded fibre as the active medium (distributed Raman
amplification), or a part of the fibre inside a structure (discrete Raman amplification). The
optical fibre is commonly counter pumped (pumped backwards) with a 600 mW laser which
is most efficient with a wavelength difference of 100 nm (13.2 THz) to the signal.
RFAs are mostly used as preamplifiers (pumped backwards) for bringing up the signal and
therefore covering longer spans.
Besides amplifying the data signals, spontaneous emission of photons also occurs in fibre
amplifiers. These photons in turn are also amplified adding to the noise. The resulting
spurious signal known as amplified spontaneous emission (ASE) has a large magnitude with
the power of several mW. This effect becomes critical with the intense use of EDFAs
(cascaded EDFAs).

Characteristics

EDFA

SOA

RFA

Gain Bandwidth

40nm

Approx. 50nm

Approx 150nm

Wavelength

One for C-Band

Over entire

Over entire region for

region

another for L-

region

excitation lasers, with

Band

100 nm (13.2 THz)

difference to
the signal

Typical gain

20-30dB

22-30dB

Typical output

21dB

13dB

Used as preamplifiers

Noise figure

4-5dB

8-10dB

3-4dB

Gain slope

For C-band None

Slight slope

Dependent on

power

for L-band

distribution of (several)
lasers

Amplifier Characteristics

40

Demultiplexer (DEMUX)
DEMUXs unscramble multiplexed channels before they are fed into their corresponding
receivers. They work similarly to MUXs but operate in the reverse direction. It is common to
preamplify optical signals before they are separated by the optical filters of the demultiplexer.
The performance of a MUX or DEMUX is related to its capability to filter each incoming
signal. The Bragg grating is currently the most popular technique used in DWDM systems.

Receiver
Receivers are used to convert optical signals into electrical signals. The light pulses
transmitted over the optical fibre are received by a light sensitive device known as a photo
diode which is made of semi-conductor material. Either avalanche photo diodes (APD) or PIN
diodes can be used.

Optical Add Drop Multiplexer (OADM)

OADM are used for extracting or reinserting one or more channels.

$
Optical Add Drop Multiplexer (OADM)

Optical Crossconnects (OXC)

OXCs are used for redirecting or rerouting of optical channels.

$
Optical Crossconnects

41

Limitations
DWDM systems are limited by fibre characteristics and the boundaries derived from other
components. Crosstalk occurs in devices that filter and separate wavelengths. A small
proportion of the optical power which should have been sent to a particular channel,
(particular filter output), can actually be found in either an adjacent or different channel.
Crosstalk is critical in DWDM systems, since it generates additional noise which can affect
the optical signal to- noise ratio (OSNR) and thus create bit-errors.
The insertion loss of the signal entering into a network system device, and the back reflection
of a part of the signal at a border both reduce the quality of the signal.

DWDM Benefits:
Capacity increase: Large aggregate transmission capacity
Upgradability: Consumer growth without requiring additional fibre to be laid
Flexibility: Use of OADM and OXC
Scalability: The possibility to add new nodes to the networks
Network Transparency: Independence of data rate, format and protocols.

DWDM Drawbacks:

Not cost-effective for low channel numbers. Fixed cost of mux/demux, transponder,
other system components

Introduces another element, the frequency domain, to network design and

management

SONET/SDH network management systems not well equipped to handle DWDM

topologies

DWDM performance monitoring and protection methodologies developing

42

DWDM Commercial Issues:

DWDM installed on a large scale first in the USA: Larger proportion of longer
>1000km links.
Market is gathering momentum in Europe: Increase in date traffic has existing
operators deploying DWDM.
New entrants particularly keen to use DWDM in Europe

- Need a scaleable infrastructure to cope with demand as it grows

- DWDM allows incremental capacity increases
DWDM is viewed as an integral part of a market entry strategy

43

Some Packet Switching Technologies

MPLS
Introduction

Multi-protocol Label Switching (MPLS) is a mechanism in high-performance

telecommunications networks that directs data from one network node to the next based on
short path labels rather than long network addresses, avoiding complex lookups in a routing
table. The labels identify virtual links (paths) between distant nodes rather than endpoints.
MPLS can encapsulate packets of various network protocols. MPLS supports a range of
access technologies, including T1/E1, ATM, Frame Relay, and DSL.
The fundamental concept behind MPLS is that of labelling packets. In a traditional routed IP
network, each router makes an independent forwarding decision for each packet based solely
on the packets network-layer header. Thus, every time a packet arrives at a router, the router
has to think through where to send the packet next.
With MPLS, the first time the packet enters a network, its assigned to a specific forwarding
equivalence class (FEC), indicated by appending a short bit sequence (the label) to the packet.
Each router in the network has a table indicating how to handle packets of a specific FEC
type, so once the packet has entered the network, routers dont need to perform header
analysis. Instead, subsequent routers use the label as an index into a table that provides them
with a new FEC for that packet. This gives the MPLS network the ability to handle packets
with particular characteristics (such as coming from particular ports or carrying traffic of
particular application types) in a consistent fashion. Packets carrying real-time traffic, such as
voice or video, can easily be mapped to low-latency routes across the network something
thats challenging with conventional routing. The key architectural point with all this is that
the labels provide a way to attach additional information to each packet information
above and beyond what the routers previously had.

44

The primary benefit is to eliminate dependence on a particular OSI model data link layer
technology, such as Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM), Frame Relay, Synchronous Optical
Networking (SONET) or Ethernet, and eliminate the need for multiple layer-2 networks to
satisfy different types of traffic. MPLS belongs to the family of packet-switched networks.
MPLS operates at a layer that is generally considered to lie between traditional definitions of
layer 2 (data link layer) and layer 3 (network layer), and thus is often referred to as a "layer
2.5" protocol. It was designed to provide a unified data-carrying service for both circuit-based
clients and packet-switching clients which provide a datagram service model. It can be used to
carry many different kinds of traffic, including IP packets, as well as native ATM, SONET,
and Ethernet frames.
A number of different technologies were previously deployed with essentially identical goals,
such as Frame Relay and ATM. Frame Relay and ATM use it to move frames or cells
throughout a network. The header of the ATM cell and the Frame Relay frame refer to the
virtual circuit that the cell or frame resides on. The similarity between Frame Relay and ATM
is that at each hop throughout the network, the label value in the header is changed. This is
different from the forwarding of IP packets. MPLS technologies have evolved with the
strengths and weaknesses of ATM in mind. Many network engineers agree that ATM should
be replaced with a protocol that requires less overhead, while providing connection-oriented
services for variable-length frames. MPLS is currently replacing some of these technologies
in the marketplace. It is highly possible that MPLS will completely replace these technologies
in the future, thus aligning these technologies with current and future technology needs.

MPLS Operation
MPLS works by prefixing packets with an MPLS header, containing one or more labels. This
is called a label stack. Each label stack entry contains four fields:
A 20-bit label value. A label with the value of 1 represents the router alert label.
A 3-bit Traffic Class field for QoS (quality of service) priority (experimental) and ECN
(Explicit Congestion Notification).
A 1-bit bottom of stack flag. If this is set, it signifies that the current label is the last in the
stack.
An 8-bit TTL (time to live) field.
45

These MPLS-labeled packets are switched after a label lookup/switch instead of a lookup into
the IP table. As mentioned above, when MPLS was conceived, label lookup and label
switching were faster than a routing table or RIB (Routing Information Base) lookup because
they could take place directly within the switched fabric and not the CPU.
The presence of such a label has, however, to be indicated to the router/switch. In the case of
Ethernet frames this is done through the use of Ether Type values 0x8847 and 0x8848, for
uni-cast and multicast connections respectively.

Different types of MPLS

The version of MPLS thats generally used to encapsulate connection-oriented frame relay
and ATM services is called pseudo Wire Edge to Edge Emulation (PWE3). PWE3 defines
point-to-point tunnels across the MPLS backbone, and thus works well for circuit-oriented
networking protocols. PWE3 can also be used to support connectionless LAN protocols, but
its not the preferred solution.
For connectionless protocols (primarily Ethernet) theres a different specification, called
virtual private LAN service (VPLS). VPLS addresses some of the specific challenges with
extending Ethernet across the metropolitan area or WAN, most notably scalability and
availability. Another emerging spec is the ITUs transport-MPLS (T-MPLS), which is
designed to simplify deployment of Ethernet services.
Finally, a variant of MPLS called Generalised Multi protocol Label Switching (GMPLS)
gives routers the ability intelligently signal the optical layer, enabling providers to establish,

46

change or tear down optical links in real time. Thus, service providers can provision optical
wavelength services based on MPLS.

MPLS and IP
MPLS works in conjunction with IP and its routing protocols, such as the Interior Gateway
Protocol (IGP). MPLS LSPs provide dynamic, transparent virtual networks with support for
traffic engineering, the ability to transport layer-3 (IP) VPNs with overlapping address spaces,
and support for layer-2 pseudo-wires using Pseudo-wire Emulation Edge-to-Edge (PWE3)
that are capable of transporting a variety of transport payloads (IPv4, IPv6, ATM, Frame
Relay, etc.). MPLS-capable devices are referred to as LSRs. The paths an LSR knows can be
defined using explicit hop-by-hop configuration, or are dynamically routed by the constrained
shortest path first (CSPF) algorithm, or are configured as a loose route that avoids a particular
IP address or that is partly explicit and partly dynamic.
In a pure IP network, the shortest path to a destination is chosen even when the path becomes
congested. Meanwhile, in an IP network with MPLS Traffic Engineering CSPF routing,
constraints such as the RSVP bandwidth of the traversed links can also be considered, such
that the shortest path with available bandwidth will be chosen. MPLS Traffic Engineering
relies upon the use of TE extensions to Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) or Intermediate
System to Intermediate System (IS-IS) and RSVP. In addition to the constraint of RSVP
bandwidth, users can also define their own constraints by specifying link attributes and
special requirements for tunnels to route (or not to route) over links with certain attributes.
For end-users the use of MPLS is not visible directly, but can be assumed when doing a traceroute: only nodes that do full ip routing are shown as hops in the path, thus not the MPLS
nodes used in between, therefore when you see that a packet hops between two very distant
nodes and hardly any other 'hop' is seen in that providers network (or AS) it is very likely that
network uses MPLS.

MPLS VPN
MPLS VPN is a family of methods for harnessing the power of multi-protocol label switching
(MPLS) to create virtual private networks (VPNs). MPLS VPN gives network engineers the
flexibility to transport and route several types of network traffic using the technologies of a
MPLS backbone.
There are three types of MPLS VPNs deployed in networks:
47

 Point-to-point (Pseudo-wire)
Layer 2 (VPLS)
Layer 3 (VPRN)

Point-to-point (pseudo-wire)
Point-to-point MPLS VPNs employ VLL (virtual leased lines) for providing Layer2 point-topoint connectivity between two sites. Ethernet, TDM, and ATM frames can be encapsulated
within these VLLs.
Some examples of how point-to-point VPNs might be used by utilities include:
Encapsulating TDM T1 circuits attached to Remote Terminal Units
Forwarding non-routed DNP3 traffic across the backbone network to the SCADA
master controller.

Layer 2 VPN (VPLS)

Layer 2 MPLS VPNs, or VPLS (virtual private LAN service), offers a switch in the cloud
style VPLS service. VPLS provides the ability to span VLANs between sites. L2 VPNs are
typically used to route voice, video, and AMI traffic between substation and data centre
locations.

Layer 3 VPN (VPRN)

Layer 3, or VPRN (virtual private routed network), utilises layer 3 VRF (VPN/virtual routing
and forwarding) to segment routing tables for each customer utilising the service. The
customer peers with the service provider router and the two exchange routes, which are placed
into a routing table specific to the customer. Multi-protocol BGP (MP-BGP) is required in the
cloud to utilise the service, which increases complexity of design and implementation. L3
VPNs are typically not deployed on utility networks due to their complexity;however, a L3
VPN could be used to route traffic between corporate or datacenter locations.

48

National Optical Fibre Network(NOFN)

Introduction

The NOFN project aims to bring internet connectivity to the grass root level in India, to all
Gram Panchayats, for the purposes of providing medical services, administrative services,
internet and communication services to rural areas in India.
At present OFC (Optical Fibre Cable) connectivity is available in all State Capitals, Districts
Head Quarters and upto the Block Level. There are 2.5 lac Gram Panchayats in India. The
plan is to connect all the Gram panchayats in the country. This will be done by utilising
existing fibres of PSUs (BSNL, Railtel and Power Grid) and laying incremental optical fibres
to connect to Gram Panchayats wherever necessary. This will be called the National Optical
Fibre Network (NOFN). Thus, connectivity gap between Gram Panchayats and Blocks will be
filled. Non-discriminatory access to the NOFN will be provided to all the Service Providers.
These service providers like Telecom Service Providers(TSPs), ISPs, Cable TV operators and
Content providers can launch various services in rural areas. Various categories of
applications like e-health, e-education and e-governance etc. can be provided by these
operators. The NOFN project is estimated to cost about Rs. 20,000 Cr. It is proposed to be
completed in 2 years time. The project will be funded by the Universal Service Obligation
Fund (USOF).

49

NOFN Concept Diagram:

Technology to be used:
In NOFN the technology called GPON (Gigabit Passive Optical Network Technology) will be
utilised.
A passive optical network (PON) is a network architecture that brings fibre cabling and
signals to the home using a point-to-multipoint scheme that enables a single optical fibre to
serve multiple premises. Encryption maintains data security in this shared environment. The
architecture uses passive (unpowered) optical splitters, reducing the cost of equipment
compared to point-to-point architectures.
The GPON (gigabit passive optical network) standard differs from other PON standards in
that it achieves higher bandwidth and higher efficiency using larger, variable-length packets.
GPON offers efficient packaging of user traffic, with frame segmentation allowing higher
quality of service (QoS) for delay-sensitive voice and video communications traffic.
50

The main components of GPON technology are:

OLT (Public Land Mobile Telephony)
ONT (Optical Network Terminal ), is a type of NID(Network Interface Device) used
with fiber-to-the-premises application
Splitters
Optical Fibre cables

51

NETWORK MANAGEMENT
SYSTEM
Introduction
Network management is essential element of communication systems since it is responsible
for ensuring the efficient, secure and continuous functioning of any network.
Functions of network management:
Configuration Management
Fault Management
Performance Management
Accounting Management
Security Management
Fault

Configuration

Accounting

Performance

Security

Management

Management

Management

Management

Management

Alarm

System Turn-

Track

Data

Control Ne

Handling

Up

Service

Collection

Access

Usage
Trouble

Network

Bill For

Report

Enable Ne

Detection

Provisioning

Services

Generation

Functions

Trouble

Auto discovery

Data Analysis

Access Logs

Correction
Test And

Backup And

Acceptance

Restore

Network

Database

Recovery

Handling
52

Subsets of FCAPs functionality

An element management system (EMS) manages one or more of a specific type of
telecommunications network element (NE). Typically, the EMS manages the functions and
capabilities within each NE but does not manage the traffic between different NEs in the
network. To support management of the traffic between itself and other NEs, the EMS
communicates upward to higher-level network management systems (NMS) as described in the
Telecommunications Management Network (TMN) layered model. The EMS provides the
foundation to implement TMN-layered operations support system (OSS) architectures that
enable service providers to meet customer needs for rapid deployment of new services, as well
as meeting stringent quality of service (QoS) requirements. The TelManagement Forum
common object request broker architecture (CORBA) EMS to NMS interface heralds a new era
in OSS interoperability by making the TMN architecture a practical reality.

NEs

NEs

Network Management System

NMS: Network Management System
EMS: Element Management System
NEs: Network Elements

53

NEs

Bibliography
"Why an IP/MPLS Network Makes Sense for Smart Grids." TechZine. N.p., 29 Jan.
2013. Web. 17 July 2015.
"Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH or SONET)." Technology Watch. N.p., n.d.
Web. 17 July 2015.
"National Optical Fibre Network(NOFN)." Bharat Broadband Network Limited.
Bbnl, n.d. Web. 10 July 2015.
JDSU. "SDH Pocket Guide." SDH (n.d.): n. pag. Web. 17 July 2015.

54