Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
MECHANICS
u = u0 + at
1 2
at
2
+ 2 a ( x - x0 )
x = x0 + u0 t +
u = u0
2
F = Fnet = ma
dp
F=
dt
J = F dt = Dp
p = mv
F fric mN
W = F dr
1
K = mu 2
2
dW
P=
dt
P = Fv
DUg = mgh
ac =
u2
= w2 r
r
t = rF
t = t net = I a
I = r dm = mr
rcm = mr m
2
u = rw
L = r p = Iw
1
K = I w2
2
w = w0 + at
q = q0 + w0t +
1 2
at
2
a =
F =
f =
h =
I =
J =
K =
k =
l =
L =
m=
N =
P =
p =
r =
r =
T =
t =
U=
u =
W=
x =
m=
q =
t =
w =
a =
acceleration
force
frequency
height
rotational inertia
impulse
kinetic energy
spring constant
length
angular momentum
mass
normal force
power
momentum
radius or distance
position vector
period
time
potential energy
velocity or speed
work done on a system
position
coefficient of friction
angle
torque
angular speed
angular acceleration
F
q
dV
dr
1
V=
4 p 0
E=
UE = qV =
Q
V
k A
C= 0
d
C p = Ci
C=
1
1
=
Cs
i Ci
dQ
dt
1
1
Uc = QV = CV 2
2
2
rl
R=
A
V = IR
I=
Rs = Ri
i
1
1
=
Rp
i Ri
P = IV
1
Us = kx 2
2
2p
1
T =
=
f
w
FM = qv B
m
k
l
Tp = 2 p
g
Gm1m2
FG = r
r2
Gm1m2
UG = r
qi
ri
1 q1 q 2
4 p 0 r
Fs = - k x
Ts = 2 p
Q
0
E dA =
B d = m0 I
F = I d B
Bs = m0 nI
fm = B dA
df
e= m
dt
dI
e = L
dt
1
U L = LI 2
2
A
B
C
d
E
F
I
L
l
n
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
P =
Q=
q =
R =
r =
t =
U=
V =
u =
r =
fm =
k =
area
magnetic field
capacitance
distance
electric field
emf
force
current
inductance
length
number of loops of wire
per unit length
power
charge
point charge
resistance
distance
time
potential or stored energy
electric potential
velocity or speed
resistivity
magnetic flux
dielectric constant
b
c
tan q =
a
b
A=
C=
V=
S =
b =
h =
l=
w=
r =
CALCULUS
area
circumference
volume
surface area
base
height
length
width
radius
a
90
q
b
d f d f du
=
dx du dx
d n
( x ) = nxn-1
dx
d x
(e ) = ex
dx
d
(1n x) = 1
dx
x
d
(sin x) = cos x
dx
d
(cos x) = -sin x
dx
1 n +1
xn dx =
x , n -1
n +1
ex dx = ex
dx
x = ln x
cos xdx = sin x
sin xdx = - cos x
u = u 0 + at
UNITS
1 u = 1.66 10
-27
= 931 MeV/c
Proton mass,
Neutron mass,
Electron mass,
Magnitude of the electron charge,
m p = 1.67 10
Name
27
me = 9.11 10
kg
e = 1.60 10 19 C
N0 = 6.02 10 23 mol 1
R = 8.31 J / ( mol K )
k B = 1.38 10
23
giga
kilogram
kg
10 6
mega
10 3
kilo
centi
milli
micro
J/K
s
A
10
kelvin
10 3
hertz
Hz
10 9
nano
10 12
pico
h = 6.63 10 34 J s
pascal
Pa
= 1.24 10 3 eV nm
Magnetic constant,
Universal gravitational constant,
Acceleration due to gravity
at the Earths surface,
1 atmosphere pressure,
0 = 8.85 10 12 C 2 / N m 2
k = 1 / 4 0 = 9.0 10 N m / C
9
0 = 4 10 7 (T m ) / A
k
= 0 / 4 = 10 7 (T m ) / A
G
= 6.67 10 -11 m 3 / kg s 2
g = 9.8 m / s
1 atm = 1.0 10 5 N / m 2
= 1.0 10 5 Pa
1 electron volt,
1 eV = 1.60 10 19 J
10
mol
Plancks constant,
hc = 1.99 10 25 J m
mole
= 4.14 10 15 eV s
ampere
newton
Vacuum permeability,
Symbol
10 9
c = 3.00 10 8 m / s
Prefix
Speed of light,
Vacuum permittivity,
Factor
meter
second
Avogadros number,
Boltzmanns constant,
Symbol
kg
mn = 1.67 10 27 kg
31
PREFIXES
2
= u 0 + 2a x - x 0
2
kg
watt
coulomb
volt
ohm
henry
farad
tesla
electronvolt
F = Fnet = ma
F fric mN
ac =
t = rF sin q
p = mv
VALUES OF TRIGONOMETRIC
FUNCTIONS FOR COMMON ANGLES
joule
degree
Celsius
1 2
at
2
x = x0 + u0 t +
J = FDt =
Dp
sin
cos
tan
1
K = mu 2
2
30o
1/2
3 /2
3 /3
DUg = mgh
37o
3/5
4/5
3/4
W = F Dr = FDr cos q
45o
2 /2
2 /2
Pavg =
53o
4/5
3/5
4/3
eV
60
90o
3 /2
1/2
W
Dt
P = F v = Fu cos q
Fs = - k x
1 2
kx
2
Us =
acceleration
force
frequency
height
impulse
kinetic energy
spring constant
length
mass
normal force
power
momentum
radius or distance
position vector
period
time
potential energy
velocity or speed
work done on a system
position
coefficient of friction
angle
torque
1 q1 q 2
F=
4 p 0 r 2
F
E=
q
UE = qV =
E avg =
V
d
1
V=
4 p 0
qi
ri
Q
V
A
C= 0
d
1
1
Uc = QV = CV 2
2
2
C=
I avg =
DQ
Dt
l
R=
A
V = IR
P = IV
i
1
1
=
Cs
i Ci
1
f
Gm1m2
UG = -
Gm1m2
r
area
magnetic field
capacitance
distance
electric field
e emf
F
force
I
current
l
length
P
power
Q
charge
q
point charge
R
resistance
r
distance
t
time
U
potential (stored) energy
V
electric potential or
potential difference
u = velocity or speed
r = resistivity
fm = magnetic flux
P=
PV = nRT
K avg =
urms =
3
k T
2 B
3RT
=
M
3k B T
m
W = - P DV
DU = Q + W
e=
W
QH
ec =
TH - TC
TH
A = area
e = efficiency
F = force
h = depth
Kavg = average molecular
kinetic energy
l = length
M = molecular mass
n = number of moles
P = pressure
Q = heat transferred to a system
T = temperature
U = internal energy
V = volume
u = velocity or speed
urms = root-mean-square
velocity
W = work done on a system
y = height
a = coefficient of linear
expansion
m = mass of molecule
r = density
u = fl
n =
1
1
=
Rp
i Ri
n 1 sin q1 = n 2 sin q 2
B=
FG = -
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
Rs = Ri
FB = BIl sin
*Not on the Table of Information for Physics C, since Thermodynamics is not a Physics C topic.
A
B
C
d
E
C p = Ci
FB = qu B sin
l
Tp = 2 p
g
1 q1 q 2
4 p 0 r
m
Ts = 2 p
k
T =
a =
F =
f =
h =
J =
K =
k =
l =
m =
N =
P =
p =
r =
r =
T =
t =
U =
u =
W=
x =
m =
q =
t =
m0 I
2p r
fm = B A = BA cos
eavg =
e = Blu
Dfm
Dt
sin q c =
n2
n1
1
1
1
+
=
si
s0
f
h
s
M = i = - i
s0
h0
f =
R
2
d sin q = ml
xm
ml L
d
d = separation
f = frequency or focal
length
h = height
L = distance
M = magnification
m = an integer
n = index of refraction
R = radius of curvature
s = distance
u = speed
x = position
l = wavelength
q = angle
E = hf = pc
Kmax = hf f
l =
h
p
DE = ( Dm) c 2
E=
f =
K=
m=
p =
l=
f=
energy
frequency
kinetic energy
mass
momentum
wavelength
work function
A=
C=
V=
S =
b =
h =
l=
w=
r =
area
circumference
volume
surface area
base
height
length
width
radius
a
90
q
b
u = u 0 + at
UNITS
1 u = 1.66 10
-27
= 931 MeV/c
Proton mass,
Neutron mass,
Electron mass,
Magnitude of the electron charge,
m p = 1.67 10
Name
27
me = 9.11 10
kg
e = 1.60 10 19 C
N0 = 6.02 10 23 mol 1
R = 8.31 J / ( mol K )
k B = 1.38 10
23
giga
kilogram
kg
10 6
mega
10 3
kilo
centi
milli
micro
J/K
s
A
10
kelvin
10 3
hertz
Hz
10 9
nano
10 12
pico
h = 6.63 10 34 J s
pascal
Pa
= 1.24 10 3 eV nm
Magnetic constant,
Universal gravitational constant,
Acceleration due to gravity
at the Earths surface,
1 atmosphere pressure,
0 = 8.85 10 12 C 2 / N m 2
k = 1 / 4 0 = 9.0 10 N m / C
9
0 = 4 10 7 (T m ) / A
k
= 0 / 4 = 10 7 (T m ) / A
G
= 6.67 10 -11 m 3 / kg s 2
g = 9.8 m / s
1 atm = 1.0 10 5 N / m 2
= 1.0 10 5 Pa
1 electron volt,
1 eV = 1.60 10 19 J
10
mol
Plancks constant,
hc = 1.99 10 25 J m
mole
= 4.14 10 15 eV s
ampere
newton
Vacuum permeability,
Symbol
10 9
c = 3.00 10 8 m / s
Prefix
Speed of light,
Vacuum permittivity,
Factor
meter
second
Avogadros number,
Boltzmanns constant,
Symbol
kg
mn = 1.67 10 27 kg
31
PREFIXES
2
= u 0 + 2a x - x 0
2
kg
watt
coulomb
volt
ohm
henry
farad
tesla
electronvolt
F = Fnet = ma
F fric mN
ac =
t = rF sin q
p = mv
VALUES OF TRIGONOMETRIC
FUNCTIONS FOR COMMON ANGLES
joule
degree
Celsius
1 2
at
2
x = x0 + u0 t +
J = FDt =
Dp
sin
cos
tan
1
K = mu 2
2
30o
1/2
3 /2
3 /3
DUg = mgh
37o
3/5
4/5
3/4
W = F Dr = FDr cos q
45o
2 /2
2 /2
Pavg =
53o
4/5
3/5
4/3
eV
60
90o
3 /2
1/2
W
Dt
P = F v = Fu cos q
Fs = - k x
1 2
kx
2
Us =
acceleration
force
frequency
height
impulse
kinetic energy
spring constant
length
mass
normal force
power
momentum
radius or distance
position vector
period
time
potential energy
velocity or speed
work done on a system
position
coefficient of friction
angle
torque
1 q1 q 2
F=
4 p 0 r 2
F
E=
q
UE = qV =
E avg =
V
d
1
V=
4 p 0
qi
ri
Q
V
A
C= 0
d
1
1
Uc = QV = CV 2
2
2
C=
I avg =
DQ
Dt
l
R=
A
V = IR
P = IV
i
1
1
=
Cs
i Ci
1
f
Gm1m2
UG = -
Gm1m2
r
area
magnetic field
capacitance
distance
electric field
e emf
F
force
I
current
l
length
P
power
Q
charge
q
point charge
R
resistance
r
distance
t
time
U
potential (stored) energy
V
electric potential or
potential difference
u = velocity or speed
r = resistivity
fm = magnetic flux
P=
PV = nRT
K avg =
urms =
3
k T
2 B
3RT
=
M
3k B T
m
W = - P DV
DU = Q + W
e=
W
QH
ec =
TH - TC
TH
A = area
e = efficiency
F = force
h = depth
Kavg = average molecular
kinetic energy
l = length
M = molecular mass
n = number of moles
P = pressure
Q = heat transferred to a system
T = temperature
U = internal energy
V = volume
u = velocity or speed
urms = root-mean-square
velocity
W = work done on a system
y = height
a = coefficient of linear
expansion
m = mass of molecule
r = density
u = fl
n =
1
1
=
Rp
i Ri
n 1 sin q1 = n 2 sin q 2
B=
FG = -
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
Rs = Ri
FB = BIl sin
*Not on the Table of Information for Physics C, since Thermodynamics is not a Physics C topic.
A
B
C
d
E
C p = Ci
FB = qu B sin
l
Tp = 2 p
g
1 q1 q 2
4 p 0 r
m
Ts = 2 p
k
T =
a =
F =
f =
h =
J =
K =
k =
l =
m =
N =
P =
p =
r =
r =
T =
t =
U =
u =
W=
x =
m =
q =
t =
m0 I
2p r
fm = B A = BA cos
eavg =
e = Blu
Dfm
Dt
sin q c =
n2
n1
1
1
1
+
=
si
s0
f
h
s
M = i = - i
s0
h0
f =
R
2
d sin q = ml
xm
ml L
d
d = separation
f = frequency or focal
length
h = height
L = distance
M = magnification
m = an integer
n = index of refraction
R = radius of curvature
s = distance
u = speed
x = position
l = wavelength
q = angle
E = hf = pc
Kmax = hf f
l =
h
p
DE = ( Dm) c 2
E=
f =
K=
m=
p =
l=
f=
energy
frequency
kinetic energy
mass
momentum
wavelength
work function
A=
C=
V=
S =
b =
h =
l=
w=
r =
area
circumference
volume
surface area
base
height
length
width
radius
a
90
q
b
u = u 0 + at
UNITS
1 u = 1.66 10
-27
= 931 MeV/c
Proton mass,
Neutron mass,
Electron mass,
Magnitude of the electron charge,
m p = 1.67 10
Name
27
me = 9.11 10
kg
e = 1.60 10 19 C
N0 = 6.02 10 23 mol 1
R = 8.31 J / ( mol K )
k B = 1.38 10
23
giga
kilogram
kg
10 6
mega
10 3
kilo
centi
milli
micro
J/K
s
A
10
kelvin
10 3
hertz
Hz
10 9
nano
10 12
pico
h = 6.63 10 34 J s
pascal
Pa
= 1.24 10 3 eV nm
Magnetic constant,
Universal gravitational constant,
Acceleration due to gravity
at the Earths surface,
1 atmosphere pressure,
0 = 8.85 10 12 C 2 / N m 2
k = 1 / 4 0 = 9.0 10 N m / C
9
0 = 4 10 7 (T m ) / A
k
= 0 / 4 = 10 7 (T m ) / A
G
= 6.67 10 -11 m 3 / kg s 2
g = 9.8 m / s
1 atm = 1.0 10 5 N / m 2
= 1.0 10 5 Pa
1 electron volt,
1 eV = 1.60 10 19 J
10
mol
Plancks constant,
hc = 1.99 10 25 J m
mole
= 4.14 10 15 eV s
ampere
newton
Vacuum permeability,
Symbol
10 9
c = 3.00 10 8 m / s
Prefix
Speed of light,
Vacuum permittivity,
Factor
meter
second
Avogadros number,
Boltzmanns constant,
Symbol
kg
mn = 1.67 10 27 kg
31
PREFIXES
2
= u 0 + 2a x - x 0
2
kg
watt
coulomb
volt
ohm
henry
farad
tesla
electronvolt
F = Fnet = ma
F fric mN
ac =
t = rF sin q
p = mv
VALUES OF TRIGONOMETRIC
FUNCTIONS FOR COMMON ANGLES
joule
degree
Celsius
1 2
at
2
x = x0 + u0 t +
J = FDt =
Dp
sin
cos
tan
1
K = mu 2
2
30o
1/2
3 /2
3 /3
DUg = mgh
37o
3/5
4/5
3/4
W = F Dr = FDr cos q
45o
2 /2
2 /2
Pavg =
53o
4/5
3/5
4/3
eV
60
90o
3 /2
1/2
W
Dt
P = F v = Fu cos q
Fs = - k x
1 2
kx
2
Us =
acceleration
force
frequency
height
impulse
kinetic energy
spring constant
length
mass
normal force
power
momentum
radius or distance
position vector
period
time
potential energy
velocity or speed
work done on a system
position
coefficient of friction
angle
torque
1 q1 q 2
F=
4 p 0 r 2
F
E=
q
UE = qV =
E avg =
V
d
1
V=
4 p 0
qi
ri
Q
V
A
C= 0
d
1
1
Uc = QV = CV 2
2
2
C=
I avg =
DQ
Dt
l
R=
A
V = IR
P = IV
i
1
1
=
Cs
i Ci
1
f
Gm1m2
UG = -
Gm1m2
r
area
magnetic field
capacitance
distance
electric field
e emf
F
force
I
current
l
length
P
power
Q
charge
q
point charge
R
resistance
r
distance
t
time
U
potential (stored) energy
V
electric potential or
potential difference
u = velocity or speed
r = resistivity
fm = magnetic flux
P=
PV = nRT
K avg =
urms =
3
k T
2 B
3RT
=
M
3k B T
m
W = - P DV
DU = Q + W
e=
W
QH
ec =
TH - TC
TH
A = area
e = efficiency
F = force
h = depth
Kavg = average molecular
kinetic energy
l = length
M = molecular mass
n = number of moles
P = pressure
Q = heat transferred to a system
T = temperature
U = internal energy
V = volume
u = velocity or speed
urms = root-mean-square
velocity
W = work done on a system
y = height
a = coefficient of linear
expansion
m = mass of molecule
r = density
u = fl
n =
1
1
=
Rp
i Ri
n 1 sin q1 = n 2 sin q 2
B=
FG = -
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
Rs = Ri
FB = BIl sin
*Not on the Table of Information for Physics C, since Thermodynamics is not a Physics C topic.
A
B
C
d
E
C p = Ci
FB = qu B sin
l
Tp = 2 p
g
1 q1 q 2
4 p 0 r
m
Ts = 2 p
k
T =
a =
F =
f =
h =
J =
K =
k =
l =
m =
N =
P =
p =
r =
r =
T =
t =
U =
u =
W=
x =
m =
q =
t =
m0 I
2p r
fm = B A = BA cos
eavg =
e = Blu
Dfm
Dt
sin q c =
n2
n1
1
1
1
+
=
si
s0
f
h
s
M = i = - i
s0
h0
f =
R
2
d sin q = ml
xm
ml L
d
d = separation
f = frequency or focal
length
h = height
L = distance
M = magnification
m = an integer
n = index of refraction
R = radius of curvature
s = distance
u = speed
x = position
l = wavelength
q = angle
E = hf = pc
Kmax = hf f
l =
h
p
DE = ( Dm) c 2
E=
f =
K=
m=
p =
l=
f=
energy
frequency
kinetic energy
mass
momentum
wavelength
work function
A=
C=
V=
S =
b =
h =
l=
w=
r =
area
circumference
volume
surface area
base
height
length
width
radius
a
90
q
b
u = u0 + at
1 2
at
2
+ 2 a ( x - x0 )
x = x0 + u0 t +
u = u0
2
F = Fnet = ma
dp
F=
dt
J = F dt = Dp
p = mv
F fric mN
W = F dr
1
K = mu 2
2
dW
P=
dt
P = Fv
DUg = mgh
ac =
u2
= w2 r
r
t = rF
t = t net = I a
I = r dm = mr
rcm = mr m
2
u = rw
L = r p = Iw
1
K = I w2
2
w = w0 + at
q = q0 + w0t +
1 2
at
2
a =
F =
f =
h =
I =
J =
K =
k =
l =
L =
m=
N =
P =
p =
r =
r =
T =
t =
U=
u =
W=
x =
m=
q =
t =
w =
a =
acceleration
force
frequency
height
rotational inertia
impulse
kinetic energy
spring constant
length
angular momentum
mass
normal force
power
momentum
radius or distance
position vector
period
time
potential energy
velocity or speed
work done on a system
position
coefficient of friction
angle
torque
angular speed
angular acceleration
F
q
dV
dr
1
V=
4 p 0
E=
UE = qV =
Q
V
k A
C= 0
d
C p = Ci
C=
1
1
=
Cs
i Ci
dQ
dt
1
1
Uc = QV = CV 2
2
2
rl
R=
A
V = IR
I=
Rs = Ri
i
1
1
=
Rp
i Ri
P = IV
1
Us = kx 2
2
2p
1
T =
=
f
w
FM = qv B
m
k
l
Tp = 2 p
g
Gm1m2
FG = r
r2
Gm1m2
UG = r
qi
ri
1 q1 q 2
4 p 0 r
Fs = - k x
Ts = 2 p
Q
0
E dA =
B d = m0 I
F = I d B
Bs = m0 nI
fm = B dA
df
e= m
dt
dI
e = L
dt
1
U L = LI 2
2
A
B
C
d
E
F
I
L
l
n
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
P =
Q=
q =
R =
r =
t =
U=
V =
u =
r =
fm =
k =
area
magnetic field
capacitance
distance
electric field
emf
force
current
inductance
length
number of loops of wire
per unit length
power
charge
point charge
resistance
distance
time
potential or stored energy
electric potential
velocity or speed
resistivity
magnetic flux
dielectric constant
b
c
tan q =
a
b
A=
C=
V=
S =
b =
h =
l=
w=
r =
CALCULUS
area
circumference
volume
surface area
base
height
length
width
radius
a
90
q
b
d f d f du
=
dx du dx
d n
( x ) = nxn-1
dx
d x
(e ) = ex
dx
d
(1n x) = 1
dx
x
d
(sin x) = cos x
dx
d
(cos x) = -sin x
dx
1 n +1
xn dx =
x , n -1
n +1
ex dx = ex
dx
x = ln x
cos xdx = sin x
sin xdx = - cos x
u = u0 + at
1 2
at
2
+ 2 a ( x - x0 )
x = x0 + u0 t +
u = u0
2
F = Fnet = ma
dp
F=
dt
J = F dt = Dp
p = mv
F fric mN
W = F dr
1
K = mu 2
2
dW
P=
dt
P = Fv
DUg = mgh
ac =
u2
= w2 r
r
t = rF
t = t net = I a
I = r dm = mr
rcm = mr m
2
u = rw
L = r p = Iw
1
K = I w2
2
w = w0 + at
q = q0 + w0t +
1 2
at
2
a =
F =
f =
h =
I =
J =
K =
k =
l =
L =
m=
N =
P =
p =
r =
r =
T =
t =
U=
u =
W=
x =
m=
q =
t =
w =
a =
acceleration
force
frequency
height
rotational inertia
impulse
kinetic energy
spring constant
length
angular momentum
mass
normal force
power
momentum
radius or distance
position vector
period
time
potential energy
velocity or speed
work done on a system
position
coefficient of friction
angle
torque
angular speed
angular acceleration
F
q
dV
dr
1
V=
4 p 0
E=
UE = qV =
Q
V
k A
C= 0
d
C p = Ci
C=
1
1
=
Cs
i Ci
dQ
dt
1
1
Uc = QV = CV 2
2
2
rl
R=
A
V = IR
I=
Rs = Ri
i
1
1
=
Rp
i Ri
P = IV
1
Us = kx 2
2
2p
1
T =
=
f
w
FM = qv B
m
k
l
Tp = 2 p
g
Gm1m2
FG = r
r2
Gm1m2
UG = r
qi
ri
1 q1 q 2
4 p 0 r
Fs = - k x
Ts = 2 p
Q
0
E dA =
B d = m0 I
F = I d B
Bs = m0 nI
fm = B dA
df
e= m
dt
dI
e = L
dt
1
U L = LI 2
2
A
B
C
d
E
F
I
L
l
n
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
P =
Q=
q =
R =
r =
t =
U=
V =
u =
r =
fm =
k =
area
magnetic field
capacitance
distance
electric field
emf
force
current
inductance
length
number of loops of wire
per unit length
power
charge
point charge
resistance
distance
time
potential or stored energy
electric potential
velocity or speed
resistivity
magnetic flux
dielectric constant
b
c
tan q =
a
b
A=
C=
V=
S =
b =
h =
l=
w=
r =
CALCULUS
area
circumference
volume
surface area
base
height
length
width
radius
a
90
q
b
d f d f du
=
dx du dx
d n
( x ) = nxn-1
dx
d x
(e ) = ex
dx
d
(1n x) = 1
dx
x
d
(sin x) = cos x
dx
d
(cos x) = -sin x
dx
1 n +1
xn dx =
x , n -1
n +1
ex dx = ex
dx
x = ln x
cos xdx = sin x
sin xdx = - cos x