National Academy of Sports Medicine

Chapter 4:
Basic Biomechanics
 Basic Biomechanics

Objectives
After completing this chapter you will be able to:

• Define basic anatomical locations, planes of motion, and joint motion.

• Describe the muscle action spectrum.

• Classify muscles as movers.

• Describe and understand levers.

• Describe and understand common muscle synergies.

Key Terms
Biomechanics Flexion Muscle action spectrum

Superior Extension Eccentric

Inferior Frontal plane Isometric

Proximal Abduction Concentric

Distal Adduction Agonist

Anterior Transverse plane Synergist

Posterior Internal rotation Stabilizer

Medial External rotation Antagonist

Lateral Scapular retraction First-class levers

Contralateral Scapular protraction Second-class levers

Ipsilateral Scapular repression Third-class levers

Sagittal Scapular elevation

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Introduction to Biomechanics
Biomechanics uses principles of physics to quantitatively study
how forces interact within a living body. Specifically, this chapter Biomechanics:
focuses on the motions that the kinetic chain produces and the The scientific study of internal or
forces that act upon it. (1, 2) This includes basic anatomical external forces placed upon the body.
terminology, planes of motion, joint motions, muscle action,
functional anatomy, levers, and common muscle synergies.

Terminology
All industries have language that is specific to their needs. Because Health and Fitness Professionals deal with
human motion and the human body, they must understand the basic anatomical terminology to allow effective
communication. This section will review anatomical locations, planes of motion, and joint motions.

Anatomical location refers to terms that describe locations on the body. These include medial, lateral,
contralateral, ipsilateral, anterior, posterior, proximal, distal, inferior, and superior.

Figure 4.1
Anatomical locations
Superior

Proximal

Lateral

Medial
Distal

Contralateral

Ipsilateral

Inferior

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Superior:
Positioned above a point of reference.
Inferior:
Positioned below a point of reference.
Proximal:
Positioned nearest the center of
the body, or point of reference.
Distal:
Positioned farthest from the center
of the body, or point of reference.
Anterior:
On the front of the body.
Posterior:
On the back of the body.
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Basic Biomechanics
Superior refers to a position above a reference point. The
femur (thigh bone) is superior to the tibia (shin bone).
Inferior refers to a position below a reference point. The foot
is inferior to the knee.
Proximal refers to a position nearest the center of the body
or point of reference. The proximal portion of the femur (thigh
bone) is located at the hip.
Distal refers to a position farthest from the center of the body
or point of reference. The distal portion of the femur (thigh
bone) is located at the knee.
Anterior refers to a position on the front or toward the
front of the body. The quadriceps are located on the anterior
aspect of the thigh.
Posterior refers to a position on the back or toward the
back of the body. The hamstrings are located on the posterior
aspect of the thigh.
Basic Biomechanics

Medial refers to a position relatively closer to the midline of

the body. The medial side of the knee is the side closest to Medial:
the other knee. Positioned near the
middle of the body.
Lateral refers to a position relatively farther away from the
midline of the body or toward the outside of the body. The
lateral side of the knee is the outside of the knee. Lateral:
Toward the outside of the body.
Contralateral refers to a position on the opposite side of the
body. The right foot is contralateral to the left hand.

Ipsilateral refers to a position on the same side of the body. Contralateral:

The right foot is ipsilateral to the right hand. Positioned on the opposite
side of the body.

Ipsilateral:
Positioned on the same
side of the body.

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Planes of Motion and Joint Motions

The universally used method of describing human movements in three dimensions is based on a system of
planes and axis. Three imaginary planes are positioned through the body at right angles so they intersect
at the body’s center of mass. They include the sagittal, frontal, and transverse planes. Movement is said
to occur more predominantly in a specific plane if it is actually along the plane or parallel to it. Although
movements can be one-plane dominant, no motion occurs strictly in one plane of motion. Movement in a
plane occurs on an axis running perpendicular to that plane, much like the axle that a car wheel revolves
around. This is known as joint motion, or arthrokinematics. Joint motions are termed for their action in each
of the three planes of motion.

Figure 4.2
Planes of motion

Sagittal Plane
Frontal Plane

Transverse Plane

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Sagittal plane
The sagittal plane bisects the body into right and left halves and
Sagittal:
consists of predominantly front-to-back movements. Movements
An imaginary bisector that divides
in the sagittal plane are termed flexion and extension. Flexion the body into left and right halves.
is a bending movement where the relative angle between two
adjacent segments decreases. (2, 3) Extension is a straightening
movement where the relative angle between two adjacent seg- Flexion:
ments increases. (2, 3) Flexion and extension occur in many The bending of a joint, causing the
joints in the body, including vertebral, shoulder, elbow, wrist, angle to the joint to decrease.

hip, knee, foot, and hand. At the ankle, flexion is referred to as

dorsiflexion, and extension is plantarflexion. (1–3) Examples of
Extension:
predominantly sagittal-plane movements include biceps curls,
The straightening of a joint, causing
triceps pushdowns, squats, front lunges, calf raises, walking, run-
the angle to the joint to increase.
ning, vertical jumps, climbing stairs, and shooting a basketball.

Figure 4.3 Figure 4.4 Figure 4.5 Figure 4.6

Vertebral flexion Vertebral extension Shoulder flexion Shoulder extension

           

Figure 4.7 Figure 4.8 Figure 4.9 Figure 4.10

Elbow flexion Elbow extension Hip flexion Hip extension

           

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 Basic Biomechanics

Figure 4.11 Figure 4.12

Knee flexion Knee extension

   

Figure 4.13 Figure 4.14

Ankle plantarflexion Ankle dorsiflexion

   

Frontal plane
The frontal plane bisects the body to create front and back halves and predominately consist of side-to-
side motions. Movements in the frontal plane include abduction and adduction in the limbs (relative to the
trunk), lateral flexion in the spine, and eversion and inversion
Frontal plane: at the foot and ankle complex. (1–4) Abduction is a movement
An imaginary bisector that divides away from the midline of the body or, similar to extension, it
the body into front and back halves.
is an increase in the angle between two adjoining segments,
but in the frontal plane. (1–4) Adduction is a movement of the
segment toward the midline of the body or, like flexion, it is
Abduction:
a decrease in the angle between two adjoining segments, but
Movement of a body part away
from the middle of the body. in the frontal plane. (1–4) Lateral flexion is the bending of the
spine from side to side. Eversion and inversion follow the same
principle but relate more specifically to the movement of the
Adduction: foot and ankle in the frontal plane. Examples of predominantly
Movement of a body part toward frontal plane exercises include side lateral dumbbell raises, side
the middle of the body. lunges, and side shuffling.

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Figure 4.15 Figure 4.16 Figure 4.17 Figure 4.18

Shoulder abduction Shoulder adduction Hip abduction Hip adduction

           

Figure 4.19 Figure 4.20 Figure 4.21

Foot eversion Foot inversion Lateral spine flexion

       

Transverse plane:
Transverse plane
An imaginary bisector that divides the
The transverse plane bisects the body to create upper and body into top and bottom halves.

lower halves and consists primarily of rotational movements.

Movements in the transverse plane include internal rotation
Internal rotation:
and external rotation of the limbs, right and left rotation of
Rotation of a joint toward
the head and trunk, and radioulnar (forearm) pronation and the middle of the body.
supination. (1, 2, 4) Examples of transverse plane exercises
include cable rotations, turning lunges, throwing a ball, golfing,
and swinging a bat. External rotation:
Rotation of a joint away from
the middle of the body.

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Figure 4.22 Figure 4.24

Shoulder external Figure 4.23 Hip external Figure 4.25
rotation Internal rotation rotation Hip internal rotation

           

Figure 4.28
Trunk rotation
Figure 4.26 Figure 4.27
Radioulnar pronation Radioulnar supination

   

   

Scapular retraction: Scapular motion

Shoulder blades are pulled together.
Scapular protraction:
Shoulder blades are pulled apart.
Scapular depression:
Shoulder blades are pulled
together and downward.
Motions of the shoulder blade (or scapulae) are important for
the fitness professional to be familiar with to ensure proper
movement of the shoulder complex. Scapular movements are
primarily retraction, protraction, elevation, and depression.
Scapular retraction occurs when the shoulder blades come
closer together. Scapular protraction occurs when the shoulder
blades move farther apart. Scapular depression occurs when

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the shoulder blades move downward while scapular elevation

occurs when the shoulder blades move upward toward the Scapular elevation:
ears. The photographs below illustrate these four scapular Shoulder blades are pulled
movements. apart and upward.

Figure 4.29 Figure 4.30 Figure 4.31 Figure 4.32

Scapula retraction Scapula protraction Scapula depression Scapula elevation

        

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Muscle Actions
Muscles produce a variety of actions to effectively manipulate gravity, ground reaction forces, momentum,
and external resistance. The three different contractions that muscles produce are:

• Eccentric

Muscle-action spectrum: • Isometric

Combination of eccentric, isometric, • Concentric
and concentric muscle actions.
This range of muscle action is known as the muscle-action
spectrum and is necessary to produce efficient movement.

Eccentric
When a muscle contracts eccentrically, it is exerting less force
Eccentric: than is being placed upon it. This results in a lengthening of the
The lengthening of a muscle. muscle. In reality, the lengthening of the muscle usually refers
to its return to a resting length and not actually increasing in its
length as if it were being stretched. (3) An eccentric motion is commonly referred to as the “negative” in
gym and health club settings. An eccentric motion is synonymous with deceleration and can be observed
in many movements, such as landing from a jump. More commonly, it is seen in a gym when lowering a
weight during a resistance exercise.

Isometric
When a muscle contracts isometrically, it is exerting force equal
Isometric: to that placed upon it. This results in no appreciable change
A muscle maintaining a certain length. in the muscle length. (2, 3) In functional activities, such as
daily movements and/or sports, isometric actions are used
to dynamically stabilize the body. For example, the rotator cuff muscles help stabilize the shoulder joint
during a pushup. An isometric contraction can easily be observed when an individual pauses during a
resistance-training exercise in between the lifting and lowering phases.

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Concentric
When a muscle contracts concentrically, it is exerting more
force than is being placed upon it. This results in a shortening
Concentric:
of the muscle. A concentric muscle action is synonymous with
The shortening of a muscle.
acceleration and can be observed in many movements, such as
jumping upward and the lifting phase during resistance-training
exercises.

Let’s use the example of a bicep curl exercise to illustrate muscle actions. The initial movement requires
the bicep to shorten to generate force to overcome the weight of the dumbbell in the individual’s hand,
allowing the dumbbell to move up toward the front of the shoulder (see Figure 4.33). This is the concentric
phase of the exercise. Once the dumbbell is raised to the front of the shoulder, the individual holds this
position. Because the length of the muscle does not change while holding this position, this is considered
the isometric portion of the exercise. As one lowers the dumbbell back down to the starting position, the
muscle must now lengthen (under the control of the nervous system) to decelerate the force of lowering
the dumbbell. This is the eccentric portion of the exercise (see Figure 4.34).

Figure 4.33 Figure 4.34

Bicep curl concentric Bicep curl eccentric

    

Concentric force production is emphasized in many traditional routines. It is important, however, for
Health and Fitness Professionals to train muscles to be strong not only concentrically, but also eccentri-
cally and isometrically to maximize strength potential, maintain proper joint range of motion, and prevent
injury. In essence, the entire muscle action-spectrum must be emphasized.

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Functional Anatomy
The traditional perception of muscles is that they work concentrically and predominantly in one plane
of motion. However, in order to more effectively understand motion and design efficient training pro-
grams, it is imperative to view muscles functioning in all planes of motion and through the entire muscle-
contraction spectrum (eccentrically, isometrically, and concentrically). The following section describes the
origin (proximal attachment toward the center of the body), the insertion (distal attachment away from
the center of the body), and muscle-action spectrum of the major muscles of the body. (5, 6)

Anterior tibialis
Origin: Outside the tibia

Insertion: Top of foot below the big toe

Muscle actions
Concentrically accelerates dorsiflexion

Eccentrically decelerates plantarflexion

Isometrically stabilizes the arch of the foot

Anterior tibialis

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Gastrocnemius
Origin: Back and lower portion of femur

Insertion: Back of the heel (calcaneous)

Muscle actions
Concentrically accelerates plantarflexion

Decelerates ankle dorsiflexion

Isometrically stabilizes the foot and ankle complex

Gastrocnemius

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Quadriceps
Origin: Front of pelvis, front of femur

Insertion: Front and top of tibia

Muscle actions
Concentrically accelerates knee extension, hip flexion

Eccentrically decelerates knee flexion, hip extension

Isometrically stabilizes the knee, hip and low back

Quadriceps

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Basic Biomechanics

Hamstrings
Origin: Ischium

Insertion: Tibia and fibula

Muscle actions
Concentrically accelerates knee flexion, hip extension, and lower leg external rotation

Eccentrically decelerates knee extension, hip flexion, and lower leg internal rotation

Isometrically stabilizes the hips, low back, and knee

Hamstrings

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Adductors
Origin: Pubis (lower portion of pelvis) and ischium (lower back part of hip bone)

Insertion: Inside and back of femur

Muscle actions
Concentrically accelerates hip adduction, flexion, and internal rotation

Eccentrically decelerates hip abduction, extension, and external rotation

Isometrically stabilizes the hip, low back, and knee

Adductors

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Gluteus maximus
Origin: Ilium (dorsal, upper, and largest of the three principal pelvic bones) sacrum (lower part of the
vertebral column)

Insertion: Back and top of femur and IT band (large piece of fascia running down the lateral aspect of the
thigh)

Muscle actions
Concentrically accelerates hip extension and external rotation

Eccentrically decelerates hip flexion and internal rotation

Isometrically stabilizes the hips, low back, and knee

Gluteus maximus

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Gluteus medius
Origin: Side of the ilium (dorsal, upper, and largest of the three principal pelvic bones)

Insertion: Side and top of femur

Muscle actions
Concentrically accelerates hip extension and external rotation

Eccentrically decelerates hip flexion and internal rotation

Isometrically stabilizes the hips, low back, and knee (during side-to-side movements)

Gluteus medius

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Erector spinae
Origin: Pelvis, thoracic, and cervical spine

Insertion: Spine and back of skull

Muscle actions
Concentrically accelerates spine extension

Eccentrically decelerates spine flexion

Isometrically stabilizes the hips and low back

Erector spinae

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Multifidus
Origin: Sacrum, lumbar, thoracic, and cervical spine

Insertion: Lumbar, thoracic, and cervical spine

Muscle actions
Concentrically accelerates spine extension and rotation

Eccentrically decelerates spine flexion and rotation

Isometrically stabilizes the spine

Multifidus

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Rectus abdominus
Origin: Pubis

Insertion: Ribs and sternum

Muscle actions
Concentrically accelerates spine flexion

Eccentrically decelerates spine extension

Isometrically stabilizes the hips, low back, and trunk

Rectus abdominus

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Internal oblique
Origin: Top and back of ilium, thoracolumbar fascia (fascia covering deep muscles of low back)

Insertion: Pubis, ribs, linea alba (fibrous band in the center of the anterior abdominal wall)

Muscle actions
Concentrically accelerates spine flexion, rotation

Eccentrically decelerates spine extension, rotation

Isometrically stabilizes the spine and pelvis

Internal oblique

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Transverse abdominus
Origin: Top and back of ilium

Insertion: Pubis, linea alba (fibrous band in the center of the anterior abdominal wall)

Muscle actions
Isometrically stabilizes the pelvis and lumbar spine (low back)

Transverse abdominus

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External oblique
Origin: External surface of ribs 5 through 12

Insertion: Anterior iliac crest of pelvis, linea alba (fibrous band in the center of the anterior abdominal wall)

Muscle actions
Concentrically accelerates spinal flexion, lateral flexion, and contralateral rotation

Eccentrically decelerates spinal extension, lateral flexion, and rotation

Isometrically stabilizes the hips and low back

External oblique

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Latissimus dorsi
Origin: Pelvis, ribs, lumbar, and thoracic spine

Insertion: Front of humerus, scapulae

Muscle actions
Concentrically accelerates shoulder extension, adduction, and internal rotation

Eccentrically decelerates shoulder flexion, abduction, and external rotation

Isometrically stabilizes the shoulder and low back

Latissimus dorsi

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Pectorals
Origin: Clavicle and sternum

Insertion: Front of humerus

Muscle actions
Concentrically accelerates shoulder flexion, horizontal adduction, and internal rotation

Eccentrically decelerates shoulder extension, horizontal abduction, and external rotation

Isometrically stabilizes the shoulder

Pectorals

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Deltoids (anterior, middle, posterior)

Origin: Clavicle and scapulae

Insertion: Side of humerus

Muscle actions
Anterior: Concentrically accelerates shoulder flexion and internal rotation

Anterior: Eccentrically decelerates shoulder extension and external rotation

Anterior: Isometrically stabilizes the shoulder girdle

Middle: Concentrically accelerates shoulder abduction

Middle: Eccentrically decelerates shoulder adduction

Middle: Isometrically stabilizes the shoulder girdle

Posterior: Concentrically accelerates shoulder extension and external rotation

Posterior: Eccentrically decelerates shoulder flexion and internal rotation

Posterior: Isometrically stabilizes the shoulder girdle

Anterior deltoid Medial deltoid Posterior deltoid

   

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Trapezius (upper, middle, lower)

Origin: Bottom of skull and cervical and thoracic spine

Insertion: Clavicle and scapulae

Muscle actions
Upper: Concentrically accelerates scapular elevation

Upper: Eccentrically decelerates scapular depression

Upper: Isometrically stabilizes the cervical spine and scapula

Middle: Concentrically accelerates scapular retraction

Middle: Eccentrically decelerates scapular elevation

Middle: Isometrically stabilizes the scapulae

Lower: Concentrically accelerates scapular depression

Lower: Eccentrically decelerates scapular elevation

Lower: Isometrically stabilizes the scapulae

Upper trapezius Middle trapezius Lower trapezius

   

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Biceps brachii
Origin: Scapulae

Insertion: Radius (lateral forearm bone)

Muscle actions
Concentrically accelerates elbow and shoulder flexion

Eccentrically decelerates elbow and shoulder extension

Isometrically stabilizes the elbow and shoulder girdle

Biceps brachii

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Triceps brachii
Origin: Scapulae and back of humerus

Insertion: Ulna (medial forearm and elbow bone)

Muscle actions
Concentrically accelerates elbow and shoulder extension

Eccentrically decelerates elbow and shoulder flexion

Isometrically stabilizes the elbow and shoulder girdle

Triceps brachii

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Muscles as Movers
Now that we have a better understanding of the individual capabilities of the major muscles of the body,
let’s take a closer look at how muscles work together to perform movement. Muscles provide the human
body with a variety of functions that allow for the manipulation of forces placed on the body, such as pro-
ducing and decelerating movement. These muscle functions categorize a muscle as an agonist, antagonist,
synergist or stabilizer.

Agonist muscles are muscles that act as prime movers; in other

words, they are the muscles most responsible for a particular Agonist:
movement. For example, the triceps muscle is an agonist for Muscles that act as prime movers.
elbow extension (as seen in a triceps extension exercise).

Figure 4.35
Triceps extension

Antagonist muscles perform the opposite action of the

Antagonist:
prime mover. For example, the triceps are the antagonist of
Muscles that perform the opposite
elbow flexion (as seen in rowing). See Table 4-1 for more action of the prime mover.
examples.

Figure 4.36
Row

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Synergist muscles assist prime movers during movement.

Synergist: For example, the hamstrings are synergistic with the gluteals
Muscles that assist prime during a squat.
movers during movement.

Figure 4.37
Squat

Stabilizer muscles support or stabilize the body (or joint),

Stabilizer:
while the prime movers and the synergists perform the move-
Muscles that support or
stabilize the body.
ment patterns. For example, the rotator cuff stabilizes the
shoulder joint during a pushup.

Figure 4.38
Pushup

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Table 4-1
Muscles as Movers
Muscle Type Muscle Function Exercise Muscle(s) Used
Agonist Prime mover Chest press Pectoralis major
Overhead press Deltoid
Row Latissimus dorsi
Gluteus maximus,
Squat
quadriceps
Synergist Assist prime mover Chest press Anterior deltoid, triceps
Overhead press Triceps
Row Posterior deltoid, biceps
Squat Hamstrings
Stabilizer Stabilize while prime Chest press Rotator cuff
mover and synergist Overhead press Rotator cuff
work
Row Rotator cuff
Squat Transversus abdominus
Antagonist Oppose prime Chest press Posterior deltoid
mover Overhead press Latissimus dorsi
Row Pectoralis major
Squat Psoas (hip flexor)

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Levers
In addition to identifying the classification of muscles during movement, understanding human movement
also requires a rudimentary knowledge of levers. The musculoskeletal system is comprised of bones,
muscles, tendons, and ligaments, all of which create a series of levers and pulleys that generate force
against external objects. Skeletal muscles are attached to bones by tendons and produce movement by
bending the skeleton at moveable joints. Joint motion is caused by muscles pulling on bones, because
muscles cannot actively push. Particular attachments of muscles to bones will determine how much force
the muscle is capable of generating. For example, the quadriceps muscles can produce more force than
muscles of the hand.

Most motion uses the principle of levers. A lever consists of a rigid “bar” that pivots around a stationary
fulcrum (pivot point). In the human body, the fulcrum is the joint axis, bones are the levers, muscles cre-
ate the motion (effort), and resistance can be the weight of a body part or of an object (such as a barbell
and dumbbell). (7)

Levers are divided into first, second, and third class, depending upon the relations among the fulcrum,
the effort, and the resistance.
First-class lever:
First-class levers have the fulcrum in the middle, like a seesaw.
Has the fulcrum in between
the effort and resistance. Nodding the head is an example of a first-class lever, with the
top of the spinal column as the fulcrum (joint axis).

Figure 4.39
First-class lever

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Second-class levers have a resistance in the middle (with the ful-

crum and effort on either side), like a load in a wheelbarrow. The Second-class lever:
body acts as second-class lever when one engages in a full-body Has the resistance in between
the fulcrum and effort.
pushup. The foot is the fulcrum, the body weight is the resistance,
and the effort is applied by the hands against the ground.

Figure 4.40
Second-class lever

Third-class levers have the effort placed between the resis-

tance and the fulcrum. The effort always travels a shorter dis-
tance and must be greater than the resistance. Most limbs of the Third-class lever:

human body are operated as third-class levers. (7) An example Has the effort in between the
resistance and fulcrum.
of a third-class lever is the human forearm: the fulcrum is the
elbow, the effort is applied by the biceps, and the load is in the
hand, such as dumbbell, when performing a biceps curl.

Figure 4.41
Third-class lever

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Muscle Synergies
Now that we have an understanding of muscle actions, levers, and classification of muscles as movers, it is
equally important to understand how muscles work together in a synergistic fashion to produce optimum
movement. Muscles produce a force that is transmitted to bones through connective tissues (tendons).
However, muscles rarely work in isolation, but rather, in groups (controlled by the nervous system). This
simplifies movement by allowing muscles and joints to operate as a functional unit. In the end, through
practice of proper movement patterns (proper exercise technique), these synergies become more fluent
and automated. Table 4-2 illustrates common muscle synergies for some popular exercises.

Figure 4.43 Figure 4.44

Overhead press Cable row
Figure 4.42 Figure 4.45
Squat Chest press

     

Table 4-2
Common Muscle Synergies
Exercise Muscle Synergies
Quadriceps, hamstrings,
Squat
gluteus maximus
Overhead press Deltoid, rotator cuff, trapezius
Latissimus dorsi, rhomboids,
Cable row
posterior deltoid
Pectoralis major, anterior deltoid,
Chest press
triceps brachii

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Summary
Biomechanics uses principles of physics to quantitatively study how forces interact within a living body.
In order to understand the body and communicate about it effectively, a Health and Fitness Professional
must know the terminology for the various anatomical locations. It is also important to know and express
how the body moves in all planes of motion and associated joint motions, the muscle-action spectrum,
levers, and muscle synergies.

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References

1. Hamill J, Knutzen JM. Biomechanical Basis of Human Movement. Baltimore: Lippincott Williams &
Wilkins; 1995.

2. Norkin CC, Levangie PK. Joint Structure and Function: A Comprehensive Analysis. 2nd ed. Philadelphia:
FA Davis Company; 1992.

3. Luttgens K, Hamilton N. Kinesiology: Scientific Basis of Human Motion. 9th ed. Dubuque: Brown &
Benchmark Publishers; 1997.

4. Kendall FP, McCreary EK, Provance PG. Muscles Testing and Function. 4th ed. Baltimore: Lippincott
Williams & Wilkins; 1993.

5. Brooks VB. The Neural Basis of Motor Control. New York: Oxford University Press; 1986.

6. Gambetta V. Everything in Balance. Training and Conditioning. 1996;1(2):15–21.

7. Harman E. The Biomechanics of Resistance Exercise. In: Baechle TR, ed. Essentials of Strength
Training and Conditioning. Omaha: Human Kinetics; 1994:25–27.

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