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Interdisciplinary investigations of the first

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Quaternary International xxx (2012) 1e12

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Interdisciplinary investigations of the rst reported laminated lacustrine

sediments in Romania
M. Mndrescu a, *, A.I. Cristea a, S.M. Hutchinson b, G. Florescu a, A. Feurdean c
a

University of Suceava, Department of Geography, Universitatii Street, Suceava 720229, Romania

School of Environment and Life Sciences, University of Salford, Salford M5 4WT, UK
c
Senckenberg Research Institute and Natural History Museum & Biodiversity and Climate Research Centre (BiK-F), Senckenberganlage 25, 60325 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
b

a r t i c l e i n f o

a b s t r a c t

Article history:
Available online xxx

An interdisciplinary study (cartographic and historical records, geomorphological, geological and

bathymetric survey, water analysis, sediment coring and analysis and AMS radiocarbon dating) of two
u) in Obcina Feredeului Mountains, northeastern
small and previously unreported lakes (Iezer and Bol
ata
Romania, provides new data into the environmental history and possible human impacts over the last
millennium in this region. The rst recorded historical reference to Iezer Lake dates to 1594 AD, and to
ta
u Lake to 1806 AD. Two sediment cores (420 cm for Iezer and 540 cm for Bola
t 
Bola
au) of nely banded
lake sediments and a radiocarbon age estimate at Iezer Lake suggest that this lake may represent the
oldest landslide lake in Romania. The geomorphological, geological, and morphometric surveys indicate
that these lakes origins relate to landslide activity. Coarse grained, lighter sediment bands are generally
characterized by higher values in magnetic susceptibility, Saturation Isothermal Remanent Magnetisation (SIRM), as well in geochemical indicators such as Ti and Zr, and low organic content, possibly
indicating periods of increased runoff. Conversely, ner-grained, dark sediment bands show lower values
in magnetic susceptibility, SIRM, Ti and Zr and higher organic content, and are likely to suggest quieter
deposition periods. However, there are two signicant episodes of markedly increased surface erosion. The
oldest occurs between 100 and 110 cm, and might be coincident with the terminal part of Little Ice Age
(LIA), whereas the youngest in the top 30 cm coincides with recent land use. These lakes hold signicant
potential in providing an important perspective on the environmental conditions over the last millennium
and, more specically, to supply new information about the Medieval Warm Period (MWP) and LIA signals
in the NE Romanian Carpathians. These two landslide-dammed lakes should be dened as scientic
reserves to ensure their protection and to enhance their use as a scientic and educational resource.
2012 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

birth if the event was both observed and recorded. Linked to the
palaeolimnological record provided by their sediments, landslide
dammed lakes may also provide an important opportunity to
reconstruct the environmental changes that have affected the water
body as it has developed. In turn, these insights can be useful in
understanding catchmentelake interactions and thereby the environmental management of the site (Birks and Birks, 2006).
Determining the formation of lakes has a long history of research
(Cohen, 2003) and Hutchinson (1957), for example, recognised
eleven categories of lake origins. Most lakes may be classed as
having been formed by glacial, tectonic, or uvial processes
according to this classication. Other types of lake (including those
formed by landslide damming) account for a relatively small
proportion of the present day lakes (Cohen, 2003). Nevertheless,
lakes formed by landslide damming can be common in upland areas.
In Romania the most well-known lake formed following landsliding
is Red Lake, which is located in the Eastern Carpathian Mountains. It

Lakes are important elements in the landscape and may have

a range of uses, from sources of drinking water and irrigation to ood
control and shing. Occasionally, reference to lakes can also be found
within local folklore. In the case of the two lakes presented in this
study, the larger (e.g., Iezer Lake) is also known as the Eye of Hell
due to the fate that many animals have met in attempting to cross or
drink from it. When references to such lakes become incorporated
within the historical record they can also provide a means to track
their development and usage over time. Water bodies may be
formed due to a variety of processes that modify the land surface and
impede draining including landsliding. When a lake is formed by
such processes, it may also effectively have a documented date of
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: marcel.mindrescu@gmail.com (M. Mndrescu).
1040-6182/$ e see front matter 2012 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2012.08.2105

Please cite this article in press as: Mndrescu, M., et al., Interdisciplinary investigations of the rst reported laminated lacustrine sediments in
Romania, Quaternary International (2012), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2012.08.2105

M. Mndrescu et al. / Quaternary International xxx (2012) 1e12

was formed in 1837 AD and is now a popular tourist destination

(Pandi, 2004). Lakes formed as a consequence of landsliding are not
uncommon in this region, due to the instability of the underlying
u Lakes have been
ysch geology. However, to date, Iezer and Bol
ata
only briey mentioned in the scientic literature.
The rst aim of this study is to detail the origins and development over time of these two water bodies. The historical evidence
for their formation will be evaluated with preliminary information
provided by the sedimentary record. Secondly, for the rst time
the bathymetry of the two basins will be described, and combined
with sediment composition and physical parameters in order to
provide a preliminary palaeoenvironmental reconstruction in NE
Romania. Lastly, the data will also provide the basis for future
recommendations on the environmental management and the
sustainable use of these water bodies. These sites are signicant as

they may provide a model of the evolution of older landslides in

the Romanian Carpathians.
2. Study area and site descriptions
 ta
u Lakes are located in the northern section of
Iezer and Bola
Eastern Carpathians, northeastern Romania (Fig. 1). They lie at the
southwestern extremity of the Obcina Feredeului to the west of
Feredeului Peak (1364 m) and the Poiana Prislop saddle (1102 m) in
the River Sadova drainage basin (a tributary of the River Moldova).
Administratively, the lakes belong to the Sadova Commune, about
14.5 km from Cmpulung Moldovenesc town within the County of
Suceava. Iezer Lake (930 m) is located on a tributary of the River
 ta
u Lake (1137 m) lies on the next tributary
Sadova, whereas Bola
 t
upstream on the River Sadova. The tributary is also called Bola
au

u Lakes. Insert (bottom left) shows their position within the Romanian Carpathians. Insert (top right) shows the study area within Suceava County.
Fig. 1. Location of Iezer and Bol
ata
The main map provides details of the area around the lakes within the Obcina Feredeului.

Please cite this article in press as: Mndrescu, M., et al., Interdisciplinary investigations of the rst reported laminated lacustrine sediments in
Romania, Quaternary International (2012), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2012.08.2105

M. Mndrescu et al. / Quaternary International xxx (2012) 1e12

(the upper course of this river is known by the name Holohosca)

(Fig. 1). In order to avoid confusion and to make a necessary
distinction from similar toponyms in different location in Romania,
it is suggested that the lakes in the present study are referred to as
 ta
u-Feredeu and Iezer-Feredeu. Details of the geographical
Bola
settings of the two lakes are given in Table 1.
Table 1
Lake basin characteristics.
Variable

Iezer Lake

Information about lakes

Latitude, N
47
360 1300
Longitude, E
25
260 5800
Altitude, m
930
Catchment area (ha)
355.2
Catchment perimeter (km)
8.04
Lake area in 1981 (on map) (m2)
18,200
Lake area in 2010 (by GPS) (m2)
7500
Water volume (m3) in 2010
11,911
Max. water depth (m)
4.47
Sediment thickness (m)
3.93
Water depth at core point (m)
3.80
Estimated max. water depth of
12a
initial lake (m)
Estimated max. basin depth
8a
(water sediment) (m)
Sediment rates based on C-14 date, 386 cm/1035 yr
Estimated rate of sedimentation
3.73
(mm a1)
1
Estimated sediment yield (t ha a ),
0.127
using lake area from 1981
Trophic state of the lakes (March 2010)
pH, in 1960
6.0e6.5
pH
7.45
O2, mg/l
10.99

NO3 eN, mg/l
1.179
PO
0.153
4 eP, mg/l
a

ta
u Lake
Bola
47
370 2100
25
250 5400
1137
29.57
2.37
2280
2350
5699
5
5.40
4.10
14a
9.50a

5.12a
0.264a

e
7.11
9.98
0.901
0.014

Estimated values.

In order to ascertain the trophic state of the lakes, chemical

analysis of both water bodies March 2010 were compared with
previous estimates from 1981 (Decei, 1981). An increase in the pH
of the water of Iezer Lake occurred between 1981 and 2010, from

pH 6.0 to 6.5 to pH 7.45, as well as an augmentation in the oxygen

concentration from 9.72 mg/l in 1981 to 10.99 mg/l in 2010
(Table 1). The analyses showed that there are slight differences
between the lakes in terms of the concentration of nitrates and
phosphates. Consequently, Iezer Lake falls into quality grade II
 ta
u Lake is classied as quality grade I (Mndrescu
whereas Bola
et al., 2010a). Both lakes are eutrophic at present. Observations
also indicated that the water column becomes stratied and that
thermal stratication is most marked during the summer.
Geologically, the southwestern extremity of the Obcina Feredeului belongs to the Audia Nappe comprising ysch deposits of
ndulescu, 1984). Flysch typically
the Eastern Carpathians (see Sa
consists of a sequence of shales rhythmically interbedded with thin
bands of sandstone. The stratigraphy of this region comprises
mostly Cretaceous and Palaeogene deposits (Fig. 2). The Cretaceous
deposits are predominantly clayey, and the Palaeogene are mostly
represented by uniform layers of sandstone, with small intercalations of clays and marly clays. The study catchments are situated
within the westernmost sub-unit (Black Shales Formation) of the
Audia Nappe comprising shales of Cretaceous age. These strata are
highly susceptible to landsliding as they comprise alternations of
black marly shales, glauconitic, siliceous or calcareous sandstones,
red, green, striped, and grey clays (Ionesi, 1971). The geological
section in Fig. 2 also shows that these deposits are highly folded
and are oriented near-vertically, and in line with the valley of the
River Sadova. Holocene deposits in the area include signicant
landslide and other debris deposits (Kratner et al., 1975).
The climate in NE Romania is temperate continental. According
to the data provided by the meteorological station in Cmpulung
Moldovenesc (Fig. 1), the annual mean temperature of the sites is
6.4
C (16.5
C in July and 5.2
C in January; for the period 1934e
1987). The maximum monthly temperature amplitude occurs
during the cold season, especially in March (range: 48.6
C) and the
minimum amplitude during summer, respectively. The long-term
annual precipitation volume ranges between 696 mm (Cmpuu, 1572 m a.s.l.). The distrilung, 642 m a.s.l.) and 902 mm (Rara
bution of the precipitation throughout the year shows that 73% of
the rainfall occurs during the warm season, between April and

Fig. 2. Geological details of the study area (after the Geological Map of Romania, 1:50,000 scale, Pojorta sheet) (after Kratner et al., 1975).

Please cite this article in press as: Mndrescu, M., et al., Interdisciplinary investigations of the rst reported laminated lacustrine sediments in
Romania, Quaternary International (2012), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2012.08.2105

M. Mndrescu et al. / Quaternary International xxx (2012) 1e12

September. The maximum monthly precipitation occurs in July

(262 mm) and the minimum in December (62 mm). The highest
amount of precipitation in 24 h was 67.9 mm in July 1947 in Cmpulung, whereas the highest value documented in the area was in
Vatra Dornei, 260 mm in September 1912. The number of days per
year whereby the rainfall exceeds 10 mm is 21 days in Cmpulung
u Mts., respectively. As regards the duration of
and 28 in the Rara
u Mts. are included in
precipitation during the warm season, Rara
the zone of maximum duration of rainfall within the Romanian
territory (over 190 min of rain) (Rusu, 2002). Thus, considering the
climatic conditions in the area, it may be inferred that, in addition
to the nature of the bedrock, the consistently high precipitation
levels and the occurrence of heavy rainfall events may further
increase susceptibility of the regional geology to landsliding.
The regional forests at the elevation where the study sites are
situated are composed of a mixture of Fagus sylvatica and Picea
abies forests (Toader and Dumitru, 2004; Feurdean et al., 2011).
P. abies forests dominate the surrounding slopes at both sites.
3. Methods
3.1. Cartographic records

Table 2
Maps of Bucovina made during the AustroeHungarian rule (1778e1880).
No

Map name

Date of print

Scale

Section

Plans des Bukowiner Districts,

72 Sections
Topographische Bukowiner
Kreis-Carte, 55 Sections
Franziszeische Urmappe

1778

1:28,800

XLIX

1790

1:28,800

134

1854e1856

1:2880

1880

1:75,000

Sadowa
sheet
12 XXXIII

3
4

Specialkarte der k.u.k.

sterreichisch-Ungarischen
Monarchie im Mastab

3.3. Bathymetric survey

In 2010 a Garmin 525 sounder was used to determine the
bathymetry of the lake. The data points in this survey (more than
1000 for each site) were registered in the Stereo 70 coordinate
system and superimposed on the corresponding orthophoto. This
was done in order to verify the accuracy of the topographic
mapping and the lakes contour extraction. On the perimeter of the
lakes, points of 0 depth value were automatically created and used
for better interpolation. In order to obtain isobaths and a 3D model
of the lake basins, a method that caused the least deformation of
the measured depths and which represented as accurately as
possible the situation in the eld was required. After a review of the
methods available in ArcGIS 9.2, data point interpolation and
generation of a digital model of the basin were undertaken using
the Topo-to-Raster method. This method worked well for other
lakes i.e., Stiol lake (Mindrescu et al., 2010b).
3.4. Sediment coring and analysis

Cartographic sources such as old maps can provide a source of

historical information about elements within the landscape such as
water bodies and catchments land use and cover. In order to
document the evolution of the two sites based on cartographic
sources, we used the maps of Bucovina (historical region) made
during Austro-Hungarian rule (Table 2). They were devised mainly
for military use, and thus contained valuable cadastral data. The
rst set of maps made for Bucovina during the late 18th century
were on a scale (1:28,800) which was suitable for detailed representations of numerous elements of the landscape and contained
a large density of toponyms. During the early 19th century, the
reforms regarding tax collection made under Francis I were followed by more accurate triangulations, which were the base for
a new set of large scale cadastral maps (1:2880). Both sets of maps
provide important information regarding the existence of the lakes
during the 18th and 19th centuries (Table 2).

historical sources may prove to be valuable for environment,

climate and human impact reconstruction in northern Romania
during the last ve centuries (Feurdean et al., 2009).

3.2. Historical records

In order to evaluate the age of the lakes and the likely human
impact on these landscapes, historical documents, mainly estate
registers, were also used. The estate boundaries were established
based on elements of the local topography and other elements of
the landscape, such as rivers, lakes and springs. Due to an enduring
monastic life in northern Romania, several monasteries were built
and endowed with land properties in the surrounding areas
(Documente privind Istoria Romniei, 1952). In this context,
historical documents, such as monastery registers or other

The sediment cores (sections 60 cm long) from Iezer (length

 ta
u (length 540 cm) were taken with a Russian
410 cm) and Bola
corer from the frozen surface of the water bodies in March 2010.
Immediately after the cores retrieval, lithostratigraphic descriptions were made based on the visual inspection of the colour,
texture, and presence of laminations. Both cores were subsequently
cleaned, photographed digitally, and scanned.
In order to evaluate the input of minerogenic sediment into the
basins and lake productivity, each sediment core was subsampled
(1 cm intervals), dried, and the uppermost section (120 cm) of Iezer
Lake was subjected to the following analyses: geochemical analysis,
mineral magnetic measurement, total organic content and particle
size determination.
The geochemistry of samples was determined using a handheld
Niton XL3t 900 X-Ray Fluorescence analyser (pXRF). This technique
has been employed for the rapid analysis of a range of environmental samples (Kalnicky and Singhvi, 2001), but only the Ti and Zr
content are reported here as proxies for mineral material inwashed into the lake. The Fe/Mn ratio and the Pb concentrations
provide additional information.
The magnetic susceptibility was measured using a Bartington
Instruments Ltd MS2 system with a B sensor. SIRM (Saturation
Isothermal Remanent Magnetisation) was induced in a Molspin Ltd
Pulse Magnetiser at 1000 mT and measured in a ux gate magnetometer (Walden et al., 1999). Both parameters indicate the mineral
magnetic concentration of samples and can therefore reect sediment sources (e.g. Hu et al., 2002).
To estimate the organic matter content, 1 cm3 of sediment were
dried overnight at 105
C, carefully weighed and combusted for 4 h
at 550
C. Reweighing after combustion permitted the calculation
of loss on ignition, which is widely accepted as reecting the total
organic content of sediment samples (Heiri et al., 2001).
Sediment particle size was determined by laser based Horiba
Partica LA-950V2. The Horiba laser scattering method uses Mie scattering theory over the entire size range of the particles (Horiba, 2009).
The median particle size (based on volume) down prole is reported.
Samples were previously ashed and the data points presented are
taken from three repeat measurements following ultrasonication.
The identication of depositional layers was based on image
digital analysis of the 60 cm cores sections (Fig. 3). Digital grayscale
images were used and the graphic processing was performed using

Please cite this article in press as: Mndrescu, M., et al., Interdisciplinary investigations of the rst reported laminated lacustrine sediments in
Romania, Quaternary International (2012), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2012.08.2105

Fig. 3. Digital analysis of core sections (Iezer Lake).

M. Mndrescu et al. / Quaternary International xxx (2012) 1e12

Please cite this article in press as: Mndrescu, M., et al., Interdisciplinary investigations of the rst reported laminated lacustrine sediments in
Romania, Quaternary International (2012), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2012.08.2105

M. Mndrescu et al. / Quaternary International xxx (2012) 1e12

UTHSCSA Image Tool 3.0 software which has been specically

designed to identify lacustrine varves (Ridge, 2011). The methodology involved drawing several longitudinal prole lines (with
a width of 10 pixels) for each core and identifying the mean value
corresponding to intersected pixels. The RGB values obtained
indicate the presence (in relation to depth) of darker or lighter
layers (from 0 for black to 768 for white). By plotting these data, the
colour contrasts (1 pixel is equivalent to 0.03 cm) were used to
estimate the thickness and number of sediment layers.
One AMS 14C measurement was performed on a P. abies wood
fragment found at 386 cm at Iezer Lake (lab-code: UBA-18397;
Belfast Radiocarbon Laboratory, Northern Ireland).

ysch areas are generally highly susceptible to landslides (Ichim and

doane, 1996). This is especially the case where the geological
Ra
strata have been folded to a near vertical orientation, exposing the
different rock layers to the elements and weakening any lateral
support of the individual units (see Fig. 2). In the 1960s studies of
landslides in the region, including this area (upper catchment of
Sadova River), were undertaken (e.g., Georgescu and Georgescu,
1965). The results highlighted several major features as a result of
dams created by landslides. Moreover, the entire western slope of
Obcina Feredeului has been affected by several landslides and there
is extensive evidence of slope movements in both catchments
(Fig. 4).

4. Results and discussion

4.2. Cartographic records and lake basin evolution

4.1. General considerations

The earliest detailed cartography referring to Bucovina, probably printed in 1778, was made by engineers of the Habsburg
Imperial Army at a scale of 1:28,800 and is known as the Plans of
the Bukowina District (Plans des Bukowiner Districts). However, it
does not mention the existence of a lake in Obcina Feredeului.

Both lakes are located in an area with numerous ancient landslides, some of which are still active (Georgescu and Georgescu,
1965). Moreover, owing to their poorly cemented and friable rocks,

ta
u Lakes.
Fig. 4. Distribution of landslides in the basins of Iezer and Bola

Please cite this article in press as: Mndrescu, M., et al., Interdisciplinary investigations of the rst reported laminated lacustrine sediments in
Romania, Quaternary International (2012), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2012.08.2105

M. Mndrescu et al. / Quaternary International xxx (2012) 1e12

This omission may be attributed to the haste with which these

surveys were carried out during 1773e1775 in a territory which,
at that time, did not politically belong to the Habsburg Empire.
However, Iezer Lake can be distinguished on the cadastral map
(the Topographische Bukowiner Kreis-Carte), made at the same
scale and printed in 1790. This lake also appears in the Austrian
cartographic documents of the following century, for example the
1850s 1:28,800 scale cadastral map and the 1880s 1:75,000 scale
topographic map. Romanian maps show only Iezer Lake on the
polychrome 1:50,000 topographic map (1973 edition), but both
lakes are represented on the 1:25,000 polychrome map (1985
edition).
The rst map with the approximate location of the Iezer Lake in
1790 showed an uncertain area (Fig. 5a). In 1856 the lake was
shown as roughly rectangular shaped with an area of 2.13 ha

4.3. Historical documents

The oldest historical document in which Iezer Lake is mentioned
 (Table 3). This
is dated 12th July 1594 during the reign of Aron Voda
gura Mountain had been offered as
document states that the Ma
a gift to the monastery by Arons father (Alexandru Lapusneanu,
who ruled between 1552e1561 AD and 1564e1568 AD), where the
lake is referred to as part of the boundary of the estate. Subsequently, Izvorul Iezerului stream and indirectly the homonymous
lake (i.e., Iezer) are mentioned in another document dated 16th
August 1762 (Stefanelli, 1915, 66e67). According to the documentary evidence, it may therefore be considered that Iezer Lake was
formed prior to 1594 AD. It is thus possibly one of the oldest
landslide dammed lake (Mindrescu et al., 2010c), that can be traced
in a historical archive in Romania.

Table 3
Earliest references to the lakes in historical documents.
Lake

Date of
document

Original text in Romanian/Translated into English

Iezer

12 June 1594

u
Bol
ata

21 May 1737

rit [.] sntei mn

Io Aron voevod, [.] domn al t
arii Moldovei. Am dat si am nta
astiri din Homor [.] un munte care se
chiam
a M
agura, cu toate poenile si izvoarele, care sunt mprejurul lui, care [.] este danie sntei mn
astiri din Homor dela
posatul pa
rintele domniei mele, Alexandru voevod [.]. Iar hotarul acelui munte mai nainte numit, care se chiam
ra
a M
agura,
 la Feredeu si de aici tot la deal Obcina [.] iar
cu toate poenile si izvoarele, ncepnd dela Iazer merge pna
asi pn
a la Iazer [.]
(Documente privind Istoria Romniei/D.I.R., 1952, p. 112).
I, voivode Aron (.), lord of the Moldavia country. I gave and made lawful (.) to the holy monastery of Homor (.) a
mountain called M
agura with all the glades and springs surrounding it, which (.) is benecence to the holy monastery of Homor
from the late lamented father of my lordship, voivode Alexandru. (.) and the bounds of the mountain previously mentioned,
gura, with all the glades and springs, starting from Iezer and going to Feredeu, and from here straight uphill the
which is called Ma
Obcina (.) and again to Iezer (.). (Documente privind Istoria Romniei, 1952, 112 p.).
lug
trni de cca. 70 de ani- n.n.) cau tinut cu adeat acel munte a m
sterii anume Ma
gura ct tine
au m
arturisit (doi ca
ari ba
ana
 n Feredeu si din Feredeu n Prislopu Secului si opcina cea mare n gios pn
de la eazer (lacul Iezer- n.n.) pna
a la fntn
a si
ture cu Neagra pn
 n Moldova si
la alt ezer si pe piciorul lui P
aliean pn
a la prag si din prag dealul ala
a n gura Negrei pna
 n gura Breazi si Breaza pna
 la ezer... (21 mai 1737) (Stefanelli, 1915, 36e37).
Moldova n sus pna
gura, from
have confessed (two old monks of about 70 years old) that they kept that mountain of the monastery, namely Ma
the eazer (Iezer lake) to Feredeu and from Feredeu to Prislopul Secului (Poiana Prislop) and the big ridge downhill to the fountain
and to other ezer and to P
aliean Foot to the threshold and from the threshold the hill next to Neagra, to the Neagra rivers
mouth to Moldova and Moldova upstream to Breaza rivers mouth and Breaza to the ezer (Stefanelli, 1915, 36e37).

(Fig. 5b), but by the 1880s it had become smaller and hook-shaped
with an area of w1.10 ha (Fig. 5c) This marked change in form may
be the result of the input of material (such as a debris cone) into the
lake from the landslide area that originally formed the lake. In the
1930s the Iezer lake appears to have again increased its surface area
to 2.5 ha and has a regular shape (Ociul Judetean de Turism, 1935).
However, by the 1960s is described as small (less than 2 ha) and
partly silted (Georgescu and Georgescu, 1964). A signicant recent
change occurred in 1965 when the lake was drained to allow the
construction of a dam wall across its outow, and subsequently
outow was controlled. This increased the surface are of the lake to
approximately 2 ha (Decei, 1981). By the early 1980s, the lakes
surface area slightly decreased to 1.8 ha (Fig. 5d). Currently, the lake
is rapidly silting and has decreased to its smallest size since its
formation (0.75 ha), with more than half covered by marsh vegetation composed by a mixture of sedges, grasses, and mosses
(Fig. 6). The dam wall is now degraded and the overow mechanism is inoperative. Consequently the lake is returning to the hookshape of the 1880s.
 ta
u Lake, both cartographic and historical references
For Bola
information are limited and it rst appears on Romanian topographic plans only in the 1980s. As a relatively small and more
isolated lake, it is less likely to have been mapped (especially at the
mapping scales used in older surveys) and, given its location within
a relatively remote, forested area, it is unlikely to have became
a local landmark and consequently to have been recorded in
historical documents.

 t
 ta
u Dairy (most likely
Bola
au Lake is rst mentioned as Bola
a glade with a temporary shelter for shepherds, an abode or
stockyard) in 1806 AD (Stefanelli, 1915, 322e323). However,
according to another historical document dated 21st May 1737 AD
ta
u Lake could be older (Table 3).
(Stefanelli, 1915, 36e37), Bola
Therefore, in the early eighteenth century at least two lakes from
the western slope of the Obcina Feredeului are recorded in histor ta
u
ical sources, and it is assumed that these are Iezer and Bola
Lakes.
4.4. Sediment coring and analysis
4.4.1. Age and origin of the lakes
In order to determine the age of Iezer Lake, a 14C measurement
was performed on spruce found on the bottom part of the sediment
prole. The radiocarbon age obtained (913  21 14C) was converted
into calendar years AD with Calib Rev 6.0 (Stuiver and Reimer, 1993)
using the INTCAL09 data set of Reimer et al. (2009). This suggests
a calibrated data range (2s) of 1035e1176 cal AD. As spruce
fragments are likely to be detrital and were therefore carried into
the lake basin by the landslide, this date probably provides the
upper constraint for the formation of the lake basin.
Use of the UTHSCSA Image Tool 3.0 software and 7 digital images
of the 60 cm long cores for Iezer Lake (0e60, 60e120, 120e180, 180e
240, 240e300, 300e360 and 360e420 cm), identied a large
number of layers, 1350e1450. On the basis of the radiocarbon date
and layer count, it is apparent that Iezer Lake is at least 1035 years

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M. Mndrescu et al. / Quaternary International xxx (2012) 1e12

Fig. 5. Location of the Iezer lake according to old maps. a. The approximate location of Iezer Lake on the Austrian cadastral map of 1790 (Topographische Bukowiner Kreis-Carte,
1:28,800, 1790); b. Position and dimensions of Iezer Lake (section no. 134) on the Austrian cadastral map (Sadova sheet) of 1856 (Franziszeische Urmappe e Sadowa, 1:2880, 1856);
c. Location and shape of Iezer Lake on the Austrian map of 1880. Insert: note the hook-like shape of the lake (Specialkarte der k.u.k. sterreichisch-Ungarischen Monarchie im
Mastab 1:75,000 der Natur, 1880); d. Iezer Lake on the Romanian topographic plan of 1981e1982 (Planul topograc romnesc, 1:5000, 1981e1982).

old, and thus 600 years older than the maps and historical documents have indicated. Based on the geomorphological observations
it is apparent that Iezer Lake was formed as a result of a landslide,
which barred the valley, and thus Iezerul Lake could be the oldest

landslide-dammed lake in Romania. Both the upstream and downstream ends of this lake are delineated by landslide debris (Fig. 4).
Directly below the landslide, the river channel becomes deeply
incised, cutting into both the landslide body and the bedrock. This

ta
u Lakes.
Fig. 6. Bathymetric maps of Iezer and Bola

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M. Mndrescu et al. / Quaternary International xxx (2012) 1e12

landslide is the largest in the area and has a surface of approximately

35 ha, displacing around 10 M m3 of material.
 ta
u Lake was formed by a landslide that barred a deep and
Bola
narrow valley and which led to the formation of a relatively small,
but deep lake (currently 5.4 m deep). The landslide affected an area
of almost 23 ha and displaced a volume of about 9 M m3 of rock
(Fig. 4).
The question that remains, however, is the condition under
which these lakes were formed; whether as a result of geomorphological events due to the climatic conditions alone or coupled
with major deforestation. The impact of humans in the upland
forests of the Romanian Carpathians is documented to have
become strongly visible from the Middle Age onwards (i.e. during
the last millennium) with a sudden increase from about 1500 AD
based on pollen and charcoal records (Farcas et al., 2003; Feurdean
u et al., 2011). Another important shift in
et al., 2009, 2010; Tanta
the management of the upland forests took place around 1850 AD
with the introduction of large-scale wood industrial exploitation
(Feurdean et al., 2009). The period of Iezer Lakes formation could
therefore be coincident with the onset of strong human impact in
the forests of the region. There are a number of landslide dammed
lakes in Romania which were formed around the time of the
introduction of industrial wood exploitation. These include Red
smas Mountains which formed in 1837 AD (Pandi,
Lake in the Ha
 ta
u Lake in the Nemira Mountains which formed in
2004), Bola
1883 AD (Gstescu, 1971), but also involve more recent examples
t Lake in the Maramuresului Mountains which formed
such as Nova
in 1957 AD (Ciornei, 1959) and Cuejdel Lake (also called Crucii Lake)
nisoara Mountains which formed in 1991 AD (Ichim and
in the Sta
doane, 2002e2003; Rusu et al., 2002).
R
adoane, 1996; Ra
4.4.2. Change in bathymetric and sedimentary characteristics
Table 1 shows the current dimensions of both lakes, including
information on their contrasting catchment and basin characteristics. Whereas the area of Iezer Lake has decreased markedly
between the 1980s map and the survey in 2010, the dimensions of
 ta
u Lake appear largely unchanged over recent decades. This is
Bola
consistent with the data provided by the longer term historical maps
of the area, which suggest that Iezer Lake has previously changed in
size and shape (Fig. 5). Based the topography at the site of the lake,
the initial lake bed (Fig. 4) at Iezer Lake reached a maximum water
level and size (4 ha and a depth of 12 m) soon after the landslide
occurred, and has subsequently reduced in size and depth as an
 ta
u
outlet to the lake formed and deepened (Fig. 4). The depth of Bola
Lake (5.4 m at present) at the time of its formation may have been up
to 14 m (Fig. 4). Therefore, although there has been little change in
the surface area of this lake, it has decreased signicantly in depth by
approximately 60% (Fig. 6). It is evident that Iezer Lake has a more
 t
complex shape and bottom topography. Bola
au Lake is steepersided in cross section with two marked deep points.
The lacustrine sediments in both cores are characterised by
laminar (varve-like) lighter and darker bands (see Fig. 7). Signicantly, this banding occurs throughout the entire sediment column.
The width of these layers varies, but they suggest repeated, relatively rapid changes in sedimentation with contrasting mineral
versus organic content. The banding may therefore reect strong
seasonal contrasts (e.g. ice cover vs. spring-summer oods),
changes in catchment hydrology affecting inputs to the lake and
discrete events such as ood episodes.
To objectively describe the banding a digital photo of the long
section of each core section was scanned to produce the sediment
core proles shown in Fig. 3. Changes in colour are shown as pixel
values and clearly highlight the laminations in the sediments.
Lower pixel values correspond to darker bands, for example,
between 6 and 8 cm, 12 and 14 cm and 19 and 21 cm. Finer, lighter

u (b).
Fig. 7. Laminated sediments sections of Iezer (a) and Bolata

coloured bands (with higher pixel counts) can be seen in the

middle part of the core (20e50 cm).
The particle size analysis and the organic content show clear
anti-phase variation through the sediment i.e., coarser grain size
correlated with lower organic content and vice versa (Fig. 8a and b).
There is also a clear, positive correlation between peaks in particle
size and the lighter coloured parts of the core deposited between
1e6, 8e12, 25e35, and 39e50, ca. 70, 80, 85e90, and 110 cm
(Fig. 8a and b). The organic content, on the other hand, increases
where the core is darker in appearance i.e., between 6e8, 12e14,
19e21, 75e78, 82, 98e102 and 105e110 cm. This suggests that
the lighter bands comprise coarser grained (presumably higher
energy event related) sediments, whereas the darker bands may
represent more quiescent periods of accumulation. The hypothesis
of increased runoff and deposition of the light colour, coarser
material is supported by the rise in magnetic concentration shown
by magnetic susceptibility and SIRM and also geochemical indicators such as Ti and Zr (Figs. 8c, d, g and h). In contrast, magnetic
concentration and Ti and Zr values decrease markedly in the darker
sections, characterized by enriched values in organic content and
smaller particle size (Fig. 8).
Generally there would appear to be a trend of increasing Ti
and Zr concentrations from the base to the top of the core
sections illustrated. However, the mineral magnetic and
geochemical properties of the sediments also indicate the
occurrence of two signicant episodes where the sedimentary
regime of the lake has been perturbed, suggesting an increase in
surface erosion The oldest occurs between 100 and 110 cm
whereas the youngest in the top 30 cm (Fig. 8). At these depths
there is a major change (from low to high values) in the Fe/Mn
ratio suggesting a change in the nature of inputs to the lake basin
at these times. The Pb concentration prole is included as an
indicator of the pollution status of the lake. Throughout the
prole the concentrations remain relatively low and in line with
the values expected as a function of the geology of the catchment
(cf. Krauskopf and Bird, 1994). The down-core uctuations in
concentration also support the notion that the origins of this
element in the sediment column are natural, rather than
anthropogenic. There are no direct sources of such inputs within
the catchment (Fig. 1), although the surface layer of the core has
the maximum level reecting recent atmospheric inputs to the
site (Akinyemi et al., in this issue). Based on the single basal
radiocarbon date at Iezer Lake (1035 years at 368 cm from a total
core length of 420 cm) and the number of sediment laminations

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10

M. Mndrescu et al. / Quaternary International xxx (2012) 1e12

Fig. 8. Lacustrine sediments analyses (Iezer Lake).

identied (1350e1450), if a constant sediment accumulation rate

is assumed it appears that rst erosional event may have taken
place around 250e300 years ago. Tentatively, this should coincide with the terminal part of the Little Ice Age (LIA), a cold and
moist interval occurring between 1400 and 1840 AD (Moberg
et al., 2005). Other regional climate and environmental records
from the Carpathians depict the cooling trend during the LIA. For
example, dendrochronological analysis of stone pine (Pinus cembra L.) samples from an upper timberline forest located nearby in
limani Mts (Popa and Kern, 2009) show a decline of about
the Ca
2
C in summer temperature between 1370 and 1840 AD. The
stable oxygen isotope and pollen record from the Apuseni
Mountains show cooler and moister conditions and a corresponding reduction in grazing activity between 1400 and 1700
(Feurdean et al., 2009, 2011; Persoiu et al., 2011), whereas in the
lowlands of Transylvania the LIA is recorded between 1285 and
gurici Cave, NW Romania (Geanta
 et al., 2012). The
1755 in Ma
second episode of apparent erosion (at 20e30 cm) is relatively
recent and is likely to be the result of recent land use changes in
the last 50e100 years. During this time period engineering work
was undertaken (1965) on the impoundment that maintains the
current level of the lake.

Both lakes have a considerable thickness of sediment, greater in

 ta
u Lake (5.4 m) despite the relatively small size of
the case of Bola
its catchment. Assuming constant sediment deposition, the rate of
sedimentation is 3.73 mm a1 for Iezer Lake, high compared to
other upland Romanian lakes (Table 1). For example, the rates of
sedimentation that have been computed for two upland lakes
limani and T
nogutii) range between 0.28 and
(Iezerul Ca
aul Za
0.30 mm a1 (Mndrescu et al., 2010b). According to Cohen (2003),
sedimentation rates are typically high in lakes dammed by landsliding in mountainous areas. Mndrescu et al. (2010b) calculated
the rate of sedimentation in an upland lake (Stiol Lake, Rodna Mts),
which was recently affected by a water level change due to the
construction of a dam, as 6.25 mm a1. The rates of sedimentation
estimated for two further lakes, a landslide-dammed lake formed in
u Mts (e.g., Izvorul Alb Lake), and
1976 AD (Rusu, 2002) in the Rara
a collector lake for log-rafting dating to 1906 AD on the Crlibaba
nis Mts (e.g., Bu
valley, Mesteca
aescu Lake), were 15.4 mm a1 and
1
14.42 mm a respectively.
The yield values obtained for the two study sites (0.127 t ha a1
ta
u) are relatively low compared
for Iezer and 0.264 t ha a1 for Bola
doane and Ra
doane
to the sediment yield values obtained by Ra
(2005) based on their calculations of sediment production derived

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M. Mndrescu et al. / Quaternary International xxx (2012) 1e12

from measurements of silting in 136 reservoirs across Romania

(0.51e1.0 t ha a1 for the area in question). However using the
ground-penetrating radar technique (GPR), Lesenciuc et al. (2010)
obtained a total volume of sediments of 89,200 m3 accumulated
in the Iezer basin, leading to a sediment yield value of 0.15 t ha a1.
5. Concluding remarks
As yet, the worldwide distribution of published varved sediment
records over the past 100 years (Ojala et al., 2012) does not include
any reference to such sediments documented in Romania or the
 ta
u
surrounding countries. Thus, the two sites, Iezer Lake and Bola
Lake, provide the rst laminated lacustrine sediments (varve-like)
reported and documented in within the Romanian territory.
Moreover, the age of the Iezer Lake (ca. 1035 cal BP) shows that it
may be the oldest landslide-dammed lake in Romania.
This study comprised an interdisciplinary approach employing
historical and cartographical sources, geomorphological and
geological information, AMS radiocarbon dating, bathymetry and
sediment investigations and has provided a preliminary insight
into the lakes origins and the time of their formation as well as lake
basin morphometric changes. The location of the lakes on the
eastern slope of Eastern Romanian Carpathians indicates that
climatic, hydrological and ecological conditions as a strong
summer-winter temperature contrast, ice cover persistence for
several months during winter (up to 40 cm thickness), stratication
of the water column during summer and spring-summer oods,
which may act as key factors inuencing the occurrence of laminated sediments. The soft geology (ysch), the hydrology (several
inows), the land cover and land use dynamics (especially deforestation) together with the lake morphometry are additional
conditions increasing the potential for the formation of nely
banded lake sediments.
 ta
u Lakes, given their age and the nature of the
Iezer and Bola
sediments, have an inherent scientic and potential heritage and
amenity value and thus merit protection and enhancement through
appropriate environmental management strategies. This might
include their declaration as scientic reserves and making them
available for further study in the Eastern Romanian Carpathians
u et al., 2011; Feurdean et al., 2012), as an appropriate site
(e.g. Tanta
for the detailed analysis of varved sediments (e.g. Moore et al.
2001). There are also certain practical steps that might be taken
 t
to protect these sites. Although Bola
au Lake is relatively inaccessible and to date has remained almost untouched by direct human
activities, Iezer Lake has been dammed. This structure has
now fallen into disrepair so that the water level is no longer
maintained.
The two lakes hold signicant potential for developing a quantitative, high-resolution climate reconstruction model (decadal and
multidecadal variability) over the past 1000 years for in the
Northern Romanian Carpathians. In a more ample context, these
sites could be integrated into a regional climate model in order to
supply new information about the Medieval Warm Period (MWP)
and Little Ice Age (LIA) signals in laminated lacustrine sediments
from Romanian Carpathians.
Acknowledgments
We thank the students from the Department of Geography,
University of Suceava for their participation in the eld work for
this project. The authors appreciate the useful comments of the
reviewers. Marcel Mindrescu thanks the Erasmus Programme
for their support. Angelica Feurdean acknowledges the German
Research Foundation grant FE-1096/2-1.

11

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Please cite this article in press as: Mndrescu, M., et al., Interdisciplinary investigations of the rst reported laminated lacustrine sediments in
Romania, Quaternary International (2012), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2012.08.2105