Kimia Info

chemistry 1
stokiometry
Contents
1
John Dalton
1.1
Early life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2
Early careers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3
Scientic contributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.1
Meteorology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.2
Colour blindness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.3
Measuring mountains in the Lake District . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.4
Gas laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.5
Atomic theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.6
Atomic weights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.7
Other investigations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.8
Experimental approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4
Other publications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.5
Public life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.6
Personal life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.7
Disability and death . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.8
Legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.9
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.10 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.11 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.12 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Atomic theory
2.1
History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.1
Philosophical atomism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.2
Dalton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.3
Avogadro . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10
2.1.4
Brownian Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10
2.1.5
Discovery of subatomic particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11
2.1.6
Discovery of the nucleus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11
2.1.7
First steps toward a quantum physical model of the atom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12
2.1.8
Discovery of isotopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12
2.1.9
Discovery of nuclear particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12
ii
CONTENTS
2.1.10 Quantum physical models of the atom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13
2.2
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13
2.3
Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13
2.4
Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14
2.5
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14
Lake District
15
3.1
Lake District National Park . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15
3.1.1
16
3.2
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16
3.2.1
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16
3.2.2
Settlement
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16
3.2.3
Communications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16
Physical geography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17
3.3.1
Valleys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18
3.3.2
Woodlands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18
3.3.3
Fells (hills) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18
3.3.4
Lakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20
3.4
Geology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20
3.5
Climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21
3.6
Wildlife . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21
3.7
Economy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23
3.7.1
Agriculture and forestry
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23
3.7.2
Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23
3.7.3
Development of tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24
3.7.4
Gastronomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25
3.8
Literature and art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25
3.9
Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26
3.10 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26
3.11 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26
3.12 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27
3.13 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
28
Vacuum
29
4.1
Etymology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30
4.2
Historical interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30
4.3
Classical Field Theories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
31
4.3.1
Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
31
4.3.2
Electromagnetism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
31
4.4
Quantum mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
31
4.5
Outer space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
32
4.6
Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
32
3.3
Proposed extension to the National Park . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Human geography
CONTENTS
4.6.1
Relative versus absolute measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
33
4.6.2
Measurements relative to 1 atm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
33
4.6.3
Measuring instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
33
Uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
34
4.7.1
Vacuum-driven machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
34
4.7.2
Outgassing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
35
4.7.3
Pumping and ambient air pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
35
4.8
Eects on humans and animals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36
4.9
Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36
4.10 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36
4.11 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36
4.12 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
39
Atmosphere of Earth
44
5.1
Composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
45
5.2
Structure of the atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
45
5.2.1
Principal layers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
45
5.2.2
Other layers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
47
Physical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
48
5.3.1
Pressure and thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
48
5.3.2
Temperature and speed of sound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
49
5.3.3
Density and mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
49
Optical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
50
5.4.1
Scattering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
50
5.4.2
Absorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
50
5.4.3
Emission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
50
5.4.4
Refractive index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
50
5.5
Circulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
51
5.6
Evolution of Earths atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
51
5.6.1
Earliest atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
51
5.6.2
Second atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
51
5.6.3
Third atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
51
5.6.4
Air pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
52
5.7
Images from space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
52
5.8
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
52
5.9
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
53
5.10 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
54
Evaporation
55
4.7
5.3
5.4
iii
6.1
Theory
6.1.1
6.2
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Evaporative equilibrium
55
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
56
Factors inuencing the rate of evaporation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
56
iv
CONTENTS
6.3
Thermodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
57
6.4
Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
57
6.4.1
Combustion vaporization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
57
6.4.2
Pre-combustion vaporization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
57
6.4.3
Film deposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
57
6.5
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
57
6.6
References
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
57
6.7
Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
57
Thermal expansion
58
7.1
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
58
7.1.1
Predicting expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
58
7.1.2
Contraction eects (negative thermal expansion) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
58
7.1.3
Factors aecting thermal expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
58
Coecient of thermal expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
59
7.2.1
General volumetric thermal expansion coecient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
59
Expansion in solids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
59
7.3.1
Linear expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
59
7.3.2
Area expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
60
7.3.3
Volume expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
60
7.3.4
Anisotropic materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
61
7.4
Isobaric expansion in gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
61
7.5
Expansion in liquids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
61
7.6
Expansion in mixtures and alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
61
7.7
Apparent and absolute expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
62
7.8
Examples and applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
62
7.9
Thermal expansion coecients for various materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
63
7.10 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
64
7.11 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
64
7.12 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
65
Pressure
66
8.1
Denition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
66
8.1.1
Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
66
8.1.2
Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
67
8.1.3
Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
68
8.1.4
Scalar nature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
68
Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
69
8.2.1
Fluid pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
69
8.2.2
Explosion or deagration pressures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
69
8.2.3
Negative pressures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
69
8.2.4
Stagnation pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
70
7.2
7.3
8.2
CONTENTS
8.2.5
Surface pressure and surface tension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
70
8.2.6
Pressure of an ideal gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
70
8.2.7
Vapor pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
71
8.2.8
Liquid pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
71
8.2.9
Direction of liquid pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
72
8.2.10 Kinematic pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
72
8.3
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
72
8.4
Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
73
8.5
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
73
8.6
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
73
GayLussac law
74
9.1
Law of combining volumes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
74
9.2
Pressure-temperature law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
74
9.3
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
75
9.4
References
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
75
9.5
Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
76
9.6
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
76
10 Charless law
77
10.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
77
10.2 Relation to absolute zero . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
78
10.3 Relation to kinetic theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
78
10.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
79
10.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
79
10.6 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
79
10.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
80
11 Mercury (element)
81
11.1 Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
81
11.1.1 Physical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
81
11.1.2 Chemical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
82
11.1.3 Isotopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
82
11.2 Etymology and history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
82
11.3 Occurrence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
83
11.4 Chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
84
11.4.1 Compounds of mercury(I) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
84
11.4.2 Compounds of mercury(II) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
84
11.4.3 Higher oxidation states . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
85
11.4.4 Organomercury compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
85
11.5 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
85
11.5.1 Medicine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
85
vi
CONTENTS
11.5.2 Production of chlorine and caustic soda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
86
11.5.3 Laboratory uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
86
11.5.4 Niche uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
87
11.5.5 Historic uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
87
11.6 Toxicity and safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
89
11.6.1 Releases in the environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
89
11.6.2 Occupational exposure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
90
11.6.3 Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
90
11.6.4 Fish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
91
11.7 Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
91
11.7.1 International . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
91
11.7.2 United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
91
11.7.3 European Union . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
91
11.7.4 Norway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
91
11.7.5 Sweden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
92
11.7.6 Denmark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
92
11.8 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
92
11.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
92
11.10Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
96
11.11External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
96
12 Daltons law
97
12.1 Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
97
12.2 Volume-based concentration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
97
12.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
97
12.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
97
13 Nitrous oxide
98
13.1 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
98
13.1.1 Rocket motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
98
13.1.2 Internal combustion engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
99
13.1.3 Aerosol propellant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
99
13.1.4 Medicine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
99
13.1.5 Recreational use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

13.2 Mechanism of action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
13.2.1 Anxiolytic eect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
13.2.2 Analgesic eect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
13.2.3 Euphoric eect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
13.2.4 Neurotoxicity and neuroprotection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
13.3 Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
13.3.1 Chemical/physical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
13.3.2 Biological . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
CONTENTS
vii
13.3.3 Environmental . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

13.4 Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
13.4.1 As a byproduct . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
13.4.2 Other routes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
13.4.3 Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
13.5 Properties and reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
13.6 Occurrence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
13.7 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
13.7.1 Early use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
13.7.2 Anaesthetic use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
13.8 Legality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
13.9 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
13.10References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
13.11External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
14 Nitrogen dioxide
112
14.1 Molecular properties
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
14.2 Preparation and reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112

14.2.1 Main reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
14.3 Safety and pollution considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
14.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
14.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
14.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
15 Thomas Thomson (chemist)
116
15.1 Life and work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116

15.2 Honours . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
15.3 Selected writings
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
15.4 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

15.5 References
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
15.6 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

15.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
16 Chemical reaction
118
16.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118

16.2 Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
16.3 Elementary reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
16.4 Chemical equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
16.5 Thermodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
16.6 Kinetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
16.7 Reaction types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
16.7.1 Four basic types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
viii
CONTENTS
16.7.2 Oxidation and reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
16.7.3 Complexation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
16.7.4 Acid-base reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
16.7.5 Precipitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
16.7.6 Solid-state reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
16.7.7 Reactions at the solid|gas interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
16.7.8 Photochemical reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
16.8 Catalysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
16.9 Reactions in organic chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
16.9.1 Substitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
16.9.2 Addition and elimination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
16.9.3 Other organic reaction mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
16.10Biochemical reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
16.11Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
16.12Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
16.13See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
16.14References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
16.15Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
17 Law of multiple proportions
132
17.1 Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132

17.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
18 Relative atomic mass
133
18.1 Denition (and closely related term)
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
18.1.1 Current denition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134

18.1.2 Historical amu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
18.2 Diering terms referring to the mass of single atoms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
18.3 Naming controversy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
18.4 Determination of relative atomic mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
18.5 Periodic table with relative atomic masses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
18.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
18.7 References
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
18.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137

19 Arsenic
19.1 Characteristics
138
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
19.1.1 Physical characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138

19.1.2 Isotopes
19.1.3 Chemistry
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
19.2 Compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139

19.2.1 Inorganic compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
CONTENTS
ix
19.2.2 Organoarsenic compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139

19.3 Occurrence and production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
19.4 History
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
19.5 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141

19.5.1 Agricultural . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
19.5.2 Medical use
19.5.3 Alloys
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
19.5.4 Military . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142

19.5.5 Other uses
19.6 Biological role
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
19.6.1 Bacteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143

19.7 Essential trace element in higher animals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
19.7.1 Heredity
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
19.7.2 Biomethylation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143

19.8 Environmental issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
19.8.1 Exposure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
19.8.2 Occurrence in drinking water
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
19.8.3 Redox transformation of arsenic in natural waters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145

19.8.4 Wood preservation in the US . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
19.8.5 Mapping of industrial releases in the US . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
19.8.6 Bioremediation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
19.9 Toxicity and precautions
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
19.9.1 Classication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146

19.9.2 Legal limits, food, and drink . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
19.9.3 Occupational exposure limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
19.9.4 Toxicity in animals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
19.9.5 Biological mechanism
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
19.9.6 Exposure risks and remediation

19.9.7 Treatment
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
19.10See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148

19.11References
19.12Bibliography
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
19.13Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153

19.14External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
20 James Prescott Joule
155
20.1 Early years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155

20.2 The mechanical equivalent of heat
20.3 Reception and priority
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
20.4 Kinetic theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157

20.5 Honours . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
CONTENTS
20.7 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
20.8 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
20.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
21 Atomic mass unit
161
21.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161

21.2 Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
21.3 Relationship to SI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
21.4 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
21.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
21.6 Notes and references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
21.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
22 Wilhelm Ostwald
164
22.1 Early life and education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164

22.2 Career and research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
22.3 Awards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
22.4 Personal life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
22.5 In ction
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
22.6 Publications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165

22.7 Works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
22.8 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
22.9 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
22.10References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
22.11External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
23 Carbon-12
23.1 History
167
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
23.2 Hoyle state
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
23.3 Isotopic purication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167

23.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
23.5 References
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
24 Isotopes of carbon
169
24.1 Carbon-11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169

24.2 Natural isotopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
24.3 Paleoclimate
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
24.4 Tracing food sources and diets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169

24.5 Table
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
24.5.1 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170

24.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
24.7 References
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
CONTENTS
xi
25 Isotopes of boron
25.1 Table
172
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
25.1.1 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172

25.2 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
25.2.1 Boron-10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
25.3 References
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
25.3.1 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172

25.3.2 General references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
26 Isotopes of nitrogen
174
26.1 Natural isotopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174

26.1.1 Nitrogen-14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
26.1.2 Nitrogen-15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
26.2 Table
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
26.2.1 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175

26.3 References
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
27 Decay chain
176
27.1 History
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
27.2 Types of decay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177

27.3 Actinide alpha decay chains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
27.3.1 Thorium series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
27.3.2 Neptunium series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
27.3.3 Uranium series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
27.3.4 Actinium series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
27.4 Beta decay chains in ssion products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
27.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
27.6 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
27.7 References
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
27.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180

28 Carbon-13
181
28.1 Detection by mass spectrometry
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
28.2 Uses in earth science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181

28.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
28.4 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
29 Ampere
183
29.1 Denition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183

29.2 History
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
29.3 Realization
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
29.4 Proposed future denition
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
29.5 Everyday examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
xii
CONTENTS
29.5.1 Portable gadgets
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
29.5.2 Motor vehicles 12 V DC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184

29.5.3 North American domestic supply 120 V AC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
29.5.4 European & Commonwealth domestic supply 230-240 V AC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
29.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
29.7 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
29.8 References
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
29.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185

30 Candela
186
30.1 Denition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186

30.2 Explanation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
30.2.1 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
30.3 Origin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
30.4 SI photometric light units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
30.4.1 Relationships between luminous intensity, luminous ux, and illuminance . . . . . . . . . . 187
30.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
30.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
31 Mole (unit)
189
31.1 Denition and related concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189

31.2 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
31.3 The mole as a unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
31.4 Other units called mole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
31.6 Related units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191

31.7 The units holiday . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
31.8 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
31.10External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
32 Coulomb
193
32.1 Name and notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193

32.2 Denition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
32.3 SI prexes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
32.4 Conversions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
32.5 Relation to elementary charge
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
32.6 In everyday terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194

32.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
33 Henry (unit)
195
33.1 Denition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
CONTENTS
xiii
33.2 Yrneh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195

33.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
33.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
34 Ohm
196
34.1 Denition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196

34.2 Conversions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
34.3 Power as a function of resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
34.4 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
34.4.1 Historical units of resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
34.5 Realization of standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
34.6 Symbol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
34.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
34.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
35 Radian
200
35.1 Denition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200

35.2 History
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
35.3 Conversions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201

35.3.1 Conversion between radians and degrees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
35.3.2 Conversion between radians and gradians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
35.4 Advantages of measuring in radians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
35.5 Dimensional analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
35.6 Use in physics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
35.7 Multiples of radian units
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
35.8 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203

35.10External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
36 Steradian
204
36.1 Denition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204

36.2 Other properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
36.3 Analogue to radians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
36.4 SI multiples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
36.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
37 Volt
207
37.1 Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207

37.2 Denition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
37.2.1 Josephson junction denition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
37.3 Water ow analogy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
xiv
CONTENTS
37.4 Common voltages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
37.5 History
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
37.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209

37.7 References
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
37.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209

38 Watt
210
38.1 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210

38.2 Origin and adoption as an SI unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
38.3 Multiples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
38.3.1 Femtowatt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
38.3.2 Picowatt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
38.3.3 Nanowatt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
38.3.4 Microwatt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
38.3.5 Milliwatt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
38.3.6 Kilowatt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
38.3.7 Megawatt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
38.3.8 Gigawatt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
38.3.9 Terawatt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
38.3.10 Petawatt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
38.4 Electrical and thermal watts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
38.5 Confusion of watts, watt-hours and watts per hour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
38.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
38.7 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
38.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
38.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
39 Weber (unit)
214
39.1 Denition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214

39.2 History
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214

40 Astronomical unit
216
40.1 Symbol usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216

40.2 Development of unit denition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
40.3 Usage and signicance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
40.4 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
40.5 Developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
40.6 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
40.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
40.8 References
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
40.9 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
CONTENTS
xv
40.10External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222

41 Inductor
223
41.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223

41.1.1 Constitutive equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
41.1.2 Lenzs law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
41.1.3 Ideal and real inductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
41.2 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
41.3 Inductor construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
41.4 Types of inductor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
41.4.1 Air core inductor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
41.4.2 Ferromagnetic core inductor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
41.4.3 Variable inductor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
41.5 Circuit theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
41.5.1 Reactance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
41.5.2 Laplace circuit analysis (s-domain) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
41.5.3 Inductor networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
41.5.4 Stored energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
41.6 Q factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
41.7 Inductance formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
41.8 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
41.9 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
41.10References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
41.11External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
41.12Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
41.12.1 Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
41.12.2 Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
41.12.3 Content license . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
Chapter 1
John Dalton
1.3 Scientic contributions
For other people named John Dalton, see John Dalton

(disambiguation).
1.3.1 Meteorology
John Dalton FRS (6 September 1766 27 July 1844)

was an English chemist, physicist, and meteorologist. He
is best known for his pioneering work in the development
of modern atomic theory; and his research into colour
blindness, sometimes referred to as Daltonism, in his honour.
Daltons early life was highly inuenced by a prominent

Eagleseld Quaker named Elihu Robinson,[4] a competent meteorologist and instrument maker, who got him
interested in problems of mathematics and meteorology.
During his years in Kendal, Dalton contributed solutions
of problems and questions on various subjects to The
Ladies Diary and the Gentlemans Diary. In 1787 at age
21 he began to keep a meteorological diary in which,
during the succeeding 57 years, he entered more than
200,000 observations.[5] He also rediscovered George
Hadley's theory of atmospheric circulation (now known
as the Hadley cell) around this time.[6] Daltons rst publication was Meteorological Observations and Essays at age
27 in 1793, which contained the seeds of several of his
later discoveries. However, in spite of the originality of
his treatment, little attention was paid to them by other
scholars. A second work by Dalton, Elements of English
Grammar, was published at age 35 in 1801.
1.1 Early life

John Dalton was born into a Quaker family at the settlement of Eagleseld, near the town of Cockermouth, in
the county of Cumberland, England in 1766.[1] His father was a weaver. He received his early education from
his father and from Quaker John Fletcher, who ran a private school at Pardshaw Hall. With his family too poor
to support him for long, he began to earn his living at
the age of ten in the service of a wealthy local Quaker,
Elihu Robinson.[2][3] It is said he began teaching at a local school at age 12, and was procient in Latin at age
14.
1.3.2 Colour blindness
1.2 Early careers
In 1794 at age 28, shortly after his arrival in Manchester,

Dalton was elected a member of the Manchester Literary
and Philosophical Society, the Lit & Phil, and a few
weeks later he communicated his rst paper on Extraordinary facts relating to the vision of colours, in which he
postulated that shortage in colour perception was caused
by discoloration of the liquid medium of the eyeball. In
fact, a shortage of colour perception in some people had
not even been formally described or ocially noticed until Dalton wrote about his own. Since both he and his
brother were colour blind, he recognized that this condition must be hereditary.[7]
He joined his older brother Jonathan at age 15 in running a Quaker school at Stramongate in Kendal, about
forty ve miles from his home.[2] Around age 23 Dalton
may have considered studying law or medicine, but his
relatives did not encourage him, perhaps because being
a Dissenter (a Christian opposed to a state religion and
mandatory membership in the Church of England), he
was barred from attending English universities. He acquired much scientic knowledge from informal instruction by John Gough, a blind philosopher who was gifted in
the sciences and arts. At age 27 he was appointed teacher
of mathematics and natural philosophy at the New College in Manchester, a dissenting academy. He remained
there until age 34, when the colleges worsening nancial
situation led him to resign his post and begin a new career
as a private tutor for mathematics and natural philosophy.
Although Daltons theory lost credence in his own lifetime, the thorough and methodical nature of his research into his own visual problem was so broadly recognized that Daltonism became a common term for
colour blindness.[8] Examination of his preserved eyeball in 1995 demonstrated that Dalton actually had a
1
CHAPTER 1. JOHN DALTON
less common kind of colour blindness, deuteroanopia,

in which medium wavelength sensitive cones are missing (rather than functioning with a mutated form of their
pigment, as in the most common type of colour blindness, deuteroanomaly).[7] Besides the blue and purple of
the optical spectrum he was able to recognize only one
colour, yellow, or, as he says in his paper,
that part of the image which others call red
appears to me little more than a shade or defect of light. After that the orange, yellow and
green seem one colour which descends pretty
uniformly from an intense to a rare yellow,
making what I should call dierent shades of
yellow
1.3.3
Measuring mountains in the Lake

District
Dalton regularly holidayed in the Lake District where his

study of meteorology involved a lot of mountain climbing: until the advent of aeroplanes and weather balloons,
the only way to make measurements of temperature and
humidity at altitude was to climb a mountain. The altitude achieved was estimated using a barometer. This
meant that, until the Ordnance Survey started publishing their maps for the Lake District in the 1860s, Dalton
was one of the few sources of such information.[9] Dalton
was often accompanied by Jonathan Otley, who was one
of the few other authorities on the heights of the Lake
District mountains. He became both an assistant and a
friend.[10]
1.3.4
Gas laws
In 1800, at age 34 Dalton became a secretary of the

Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society, and in
the following year he orally presented an important series
of papers, entitled Experimental Essays on the constitution of mixed gases; on the pressure of steam and other
vapours at dierent temperatures, both in a vacuum and
in air; on evaporation; and on the thermal expansion of
gases. These four essays were published in the Memoirs
of the Lit & Phil in 1802.
The second of these essays opens with the striking remark,
There can scarcely be a doubt entertained
respecting the reducibility of all elastic uids of
whatever kind, into liquids; and we ought not to
despair of eecting it in low temperatures and by
strong pressures exerted upon the unmixed gases
further.
After describing experiments to ascertain the pressure
of steam at various points between 0 and 100 C (32
and 212 F), Dalton concluded from observations on the

vapour pressure of six dierent liquids, that the variation of vapour pressure for all liquids is equivalent, for the
same variation of temperature, reckoning from vapour of
any given pressure.
In the fourth essay he remarks,[11]
I see no sucient reason why we may
not conclude that all elastic uids under the
same pressure expand equally by heat and that
for any given expansion of mercury, the corresponding expansion of air is proportionally
something less, the higher the temperature. It
seems, therefore, that general laws respecting
the absolute quantity and the nature of heat are
more likely to be derived from elastic uids than
from other substances.
He thus enunciated Gay-Lussacs law or J.A.C. Charless
law, published in 1802 at age 36 by Joseph Louis GayLussac. In the two or three years following the reading of
these essays, Dalton published several papers on similar
topics, that on the absorption of gases by water and other
liquids (1803), containing his law of partial pressures now
known as Daltons law.
1.3.5 Atomic theory

The most important of all Daltons investigations are
those concerned with the atomic theory in chemistry.
While his name is inseparably associated with this theory, the origin of Daltons atomic theory is not fully
understood.[12] It has been proposed that this theory was
suggested to him either by researches on ethylene (oleant gas) and methane (carburetted hydrogen) or by analysis of nitrous oxide (protoxide of azote) and nitrogen dioxide (deutoxide of azote), both views resting on the authority of Thomas Thomson.[13] However, a study of Daltons
own laboratory notebooks, discovered in the rooms of the
Lit & Phil,[14] concluded that so far from Dalton being
led by his search for an explanation of the law of multiple proportions to the idea that chemical combination
consists in the interaction of atoms of denite and characteristic weight, the idea of atoms arose in his mind as
a purely physical concept, forced upon him by study of
the physical properties of the atmosphere and other gases.
The rst published indications of this idea are to be found
at the end of his paper on the absorption of gases already
mentioned, which was read on 21 October 1803, though
not published until 1805. Here he says:
Why does not water admit its bulk of every
kind of gas alike? This question I have duly considered, and though I am not able to satisfy myself completely I am nearly persuaded that the
circumstance depends on the weight and number of the ultimate particles of the several gases.
1.3. SCIENTIFIC CONTRIBUTIONS
The main points of Daltons atomic theory were:
phosphorus, with the atom of hydrogen conventionally

assumed to weigh 1. Dalton provided no indication in this
1. Elements are made of extremely small particles rst paper how he had arrived at these numbers. However, in his laboratory notebook under the date 6 Septemcalled atoms.
ber 1803[15] there appears a list in which he sets out the
2. Atoms of a given element are identical in size, mass, relative weights of the atoms of a number of elements, deand other properties; atoms of dierent elements rived from analysis of water, ammonia, carbon dioxide,
dier in size, mass, and other properties.
etc. by chemists of the time.
3. Atoms cannot be subdivided, created, or destroyed.
4. Atoms of dierent elements combine in simple
whole-number ratios to form chemical compounds.
5. In chemical reactions, atoms are combined, separated, or rearranged.
Dalton proposed an additional rule of greatest simplicity that created controversy, since it could not be independently conrmed.
When atoms combine in only one ratio, "..it
must be presumed to be a binary one, unless
some cause appear to the contrary.
This was merely an assumption, derived from faith in the
simplicity of nature. No evidence was then available to
scientists to deduce how many atoms of each element
combine to form compound molecules. But this or some
other such rule was absolutely necessary to any incipient
theory, since one needed an assumed molecular formula
in order to calculate relative atomic weights. In any case,
Daltons rule of greatest simplicity caused him to assume that the formula for water was OH and ammonia
was NH, quite dierent from our modern understanding
(H2 O, NH3 ).
Despite the uncertainty at the heart of Daltons atomic
theory, the principles of the theory survived. To be sure,
the conviction that atoms cannot be subdivided, created,
or destroyed into smaller particles when they are combined, separated, or rearranged in chemical reactions
is inconsistent with the existence of nuclear fusion and
nuclear ssion, but such processes are nuclear reactions
and not chemical reactions. In addition, the idea that all
atoms of a given element are identical in their physical
and chemical properties is not precisely true, as we now
know that dierent isotopes of an element have slightly
varying weights. However, Dalton had created a theory of
immense power and importance. Indeed, Daltons innovation was fully as important for the future of the science
as Antoine Laurent Lavoisier's oxygen-based chemistry
had been.
1.3.6
Atomic weights
It appears, then, that confronted with the problem of calculating the relative diameter of the atoms of which, he
was convinced, all gases were made, he used the results
of chemical analysis. Assisted by the assumption that
combination always takes place in the simplest possible
way, he thus arrived at the idea that chemical combination takes place between particles of dierent weights,
and it was this which dierentiated his theory from the
historic speculations of the Greeks, such as Democritus
and Lucretius.
The extension of this idea to substances in general necessarily led him to the law of multiple proportions, and
the comparison with experiment brilliantly conrmed his
deduction.[16] It may be noted that in a paper on the proportion of the gases or elastic uids constituting the atmosphere, read by him in November 1802, the law of multiple proportions appears to be anticipated in the words:
The elements of oxygen may combine with a certain portion of nitrous gas or with twice that portion, but with no
intermediate quantity, but there is reason to suspect that
this sentence may have been added some time after the
reading of the paper, which was not published until 1805.
Compounds were listed as binary, ternary, quaternary,
etc. (molecules composed of two, three, four, etc. atoms)
in the New System of Chemical Philosophy depending on
the number of atoms a compound had in its simplest, empirical form.
He hypothesized the structure of compounds can be represented in whole number ratios. So, one atom of element X combining with one atom of element Y is a binary compound. Furthermore, one atom of element X
combining with two elements of Y or vice versa, is a
ternary compound. Many of the rst compounds listed
in the New System of Chemical Philosophy correspond to
modern views, although many others do not.
Dalton used his own symbols to visually represent the
atomic structure of compounds. These were depicted
in theNew System of Chemical Philosophy, where Dalton
listed twenty elements and seventeen simple molecules.
1.3.7 Other investigations
Dalton published papers on such diverse topics as rain and

dew and the origin of springs (hydrosphere); on heat, the
Dalton proceeded to print his rst published table of rel- color of the sky, steam, and the reection and refraction
ative atomic weights. Six elements appear in this table, of light; and on the grammatical subjects of the auxiliary
namely hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, sulfur, and verbs and participles of the English language.

even when they had been superseded by the more accurate determinations of other chemists.
He always objected to the chemical notation devised by
Jns Jakob Berzelius, although most thought that it was
much simpler and more convenient than his own cumbersome system of circular symbols.
1.4 Other publications

For Reess Cyclopdia Dalton contributed articles on
Chemistry and Meteorology, but the topics are not
known.
He contributed 117 Memoirs of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester, from 1817 until his death
in 1840, while president of that organization. Of these
the earlier are the most important. In one of them, read
in 1814, he explains the principles of volumetric analysis, in which he was one of the earliest workers. In 1840 a
paper on the phosphates and arsenates, often regarded as
a weaker work, was refused by the Royal Society, and he
was so incensed that he published it himself. He took the
same course soon afterwards with four other papers, two
of which (On the quantity of acids, bases and salts in different varieties of salts and On a new and easy method of
analysing sugar) contain his discovery, regarded by him
as second in importance only to the atomic theory, that
certain anhydrates, when dissolved in water, cause no increase in its volume, his inference being that the salt enters into the pores of the water.
Various atoms and molecules as depicted in John Daltons A New
System of Chemical Philosophy (1808).
1.3.8
Experimental approach
As an investigator, Dalton was often content with rough

and inaccurate instruments, even though better ones were
obtainable. Sir Humphry Davy described him as a very
coarse experimenter, who almost always found the results he required, trusting to his head rather than his
hands. On the other hand, historians who have replicated
some of his crucial experiments have conrmed Daltons
skill and precision.
1.5 Public life

Before he had propounded the atomic theory, he had
already attained a considerable scientic reputation. In
1803, he was chosen to give a course of lectures on natural philosophy at the Royal Institution in London, and he
delivered another course of lectures there in 18091810.
However, some witnesses reported that he was decient
in the qualities that make an attractive lecturer, being
harsh and indistinct in voice, ineective in the treatment
of his subject, and singularly wanting in the language and
power of illustration.
In 1810, Sir Humphry Davy asked him to oer himself

as a candidate for the fellowship of the Royal Society,
but Dalton declined, possibly for nancial reasons. However, in 1822 he was proposed without his knowledge,
and on election paid the usual fee. Six years previously
he had been made a corresponding member of the French
Acadmie des Sciences, and in 1830 he was elected as one
of its eight foreign associates in place of Davy. In 1833,
at age 67 Earl Grey's government conferred on him a penHe held unconventional views on chlorine. Even after its sion of 150, raised in 1836 to 300. He was elected a
elementary character had been settled by Davy, he per- Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of
sisted in using the atomic weights he himself had adopted, Arts and Sciences in 1834 at age 68.[17]
In the preface to the second part of Volume I of his New
System, he says he had so often been misled by taking for
granted the results of others that he determined to write
as little as possible but what I can attest by my own experience, but this independence he carried so far that it
sometimes resembled lack of receptivity. Thus he distrusted, and probably never fully accepted, Gay-Lussac's
conclusions as to the combining volumes of gases.
1.8. LEGACY
A young James Prescott Joule, who later studied and published (1843) on the nature of heat and its relationship to
mechanical work, was a famous pupil of Dalton in his last
years.
1.6 Personal life
Bust of Dalton by Francis Legatt Chantrey, 1854
Dalton in later life by Thomas Phillips, National Portrait Gallery,

London (1835).
Dalton never married and had only a few close friends.

All in all as a Quaker he lived a modest and unassuming
personal life.[18]
For the twenty-six years prior to Daltons death, he lived
in a room in the home of the Rev. (and Mrs.) W. Johns, a
published botanist, in George Street, Manchester. Dalton
and Johns died in the same year - 1844.
Daltons daily round of laboratory work and tutoring in
Manchester was broken only by annual excursions to the
Lake District and occasional visits to London. In 1822
he paid a short visit to Paris, where he met many distinguished resident men of science. He attended several of
the earlier meetings of the British Association at York,
Oxford, Dublin and Bristol.
1.7 Disability and death

Dalton suered a minor stroke in 1837, and a second one
in 1838 left him with a speech impairment, though he
remained able to perform experiments. In May 1844 he
had yet another stroke; on 26 July 1844 he recorded with
trembling hand his last meteorological observation. On

27 July 1844, in Manchester, Dalton fell from his bed
and was found lifeless by his attendant.
Dalton was accorded a civic funeral with full honours.
His body was laid in state in Manchester Town Hall
for four days and more than 40,000 people led past
his con. The funeral procession included representatives of the citys major civic, commercial, and scientic
bodies.[19][20] He was buried in Manchester in Ardwick
cemetery. The cemetery is now a playing eld, but pictures of the original grave may be found in published
materials.[21][22]
1.8 Legacy
A bust of Dalton, by Chantrey, was publicly subscribed for[23] and placed in the entrance hall of the
Royal Manchester Institution. Chantrey also crafted
a large statue of Dalton: it was erected while Dalton
was still alive and it has been said: "He is probably
the only scientist who got a statue in his lifetime".[20]
It was placed in Manchester Town Hall after its construction in 1877 and remains there today.
In honour of Daltons work, many chemists and
biochemists use the (as yet unocial) designation

dalton (abbreviated Da) to denote one atomic mass
unit (1/12 the weight of a neutral atom of carbon12).
There is a John Dalton Street connecting Deansgate
and Albert Square in the centre of Manchester.
Manchester Metropolitan University named a building after John Dalton; it is occupied by the Faculty
of Science and Engineering. A statue of Dalton, the
work of William Theed, was erected in Piaccadily
in 1855, and moved in 1966 to outside this building.
A lunar crater was named after Dalton.

Daltonism became a common term for colour
blindness and Daltonien is the actual French word
for colour blind.
The inorganic section of the UKs Royal Society
of Chemistry is named after Dalton (Dalton Division), and the Societys academic journal for inorganic chemistry also bears his name (Dalton Transactions).
Many Quaker schools name buildings after Dalton:
for example, one of the school houses in Coram
House, the primary sector of Ackworth School, is
called Dalton.
Much of his written works were collected at the
Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society, but
were damaged during a bombing on 24 December
1940. This event prompted Isaac Asimov to say,
John Daltons records, carefully preserved for a
century, were destroyed during the World War II
bombing of Manchester. It is not only the living who
are killed in war. The damaged papers are now in
the John Rylands Library.
1.9 See also

Atomic mass unit (dalton) the atomic mass unit
Dalton Minimum a period of low solar activity
Daltonism
Democritus
Pneumatic chemistry
Statue of Dalton, by Francis Leggatt Chantrey in the Manchester
Town Hall.
The University of Manchester has a hall of residence

called Dalton Hall; it also established two Dalton
Chemical Scholarships, two Dalton Mathematical
Scholarships, and a Dalton Prize for Natural History. There is a Dalton Medal, awarded thus far only
twelve times by the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society.
Dalton Township in southern Ontario was named
for Dalton. It 2001 the name was lost when the
township was absorbed into the City of Kawartha
Lakes; however in 2002 the Dalton name was afxed a massive new park there: Dalton Digby Wildlands Provincial Park.
1.10 References
[1] John Dalton. Chemical Heritage Foundation. Retrieved
19 January 2014.
[2] John Dalton (1766-1844)". Retrieved 18 January 2015.
[3] Pardshaw - Quaker Meeting House. Retrieved 18 January 2015.
[4] Davis, Peter. Robinson, Elihu. Oxford Dictionary of
National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press.
doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/53552. (Subscription or UK public
library membership required.)
[5] Smith, R. Angus (1856). Memoir of John Dalton and History of the Atomic Theory. London: H. Bailliere. p. 279.
ISBN 1-4021-6437-8. Retrieved 24 December 2007.
1.11. SOURCES
[6] George Hadley Encyclopdia Britannica. Accessed 30

April 2009.
[7] Life and work of John Dalton Colour Blindness. BBC
News. Retrieved 2011-11-09.
[8] Dalton believed that his vitreous humour possessed an
abnormal blue tint, causing his anomalous colour perception, and he gave instructions for his eyes to be examined
on his death, to test this hypothesis. His wishes were duly
carried out, but no blue coloration was found, and Daltons
hypothesis was refuted. However, the shrivelled remains
of one eye have survived to this day, and now belong to
the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society. see
John Daltons Colour Vision Legacy Book Review by
Benedict Regan at bjo.bmj.com
[9] Thomas Wests Guide to the Lakes, 1778/1821. Retrieved 18 January 2015.
[10] Thomas Fletcher Smith Jonathan Otley, Man of Lakeland,
publ. Bookcase, 2007ISBN 978-1-904147-23-7
[11] J. Dalton (1802) Essay IV. On the expansion of elastic
uids by heat, Memoirs of the Literary and Philosophical
Society of Manchester, vol. 5, pt. 2, pages 595-602; see
page 600.
[12] Thackray, Arnold W. (1966). The Origin of Daltons
Chemical Atomic Theory: Daltonian Doubts Resolved.
Isis (The University of Chicago Press on behalf of The
History of Science Society) 57: 3555. ISSN 0021-1753.
[23] Millington, John Price (1906). John Dalton. London: J.

M. Dent & Company. pp. 201208. Retrieved 24 December 2007.
[24] Author Query for 'Jn.Dalton'".
Names Index.
International Plant
1.11 Sources
Greenaway, Frank (1966). John Dalton and the
Atom. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press.
Henry, William C. (1854). Memoirs of the Life
and Scientic Researches of John Dalton. London:
Cavendish Society. Retrieved 24 December 2007.
Hunt, D. M.; Dulai, K. S.; Bowmaker, J.
K.; Mollon, J. D. (1995). The Chemistry of
John Daltons Color Blindness.
Science 267
(5200): 984988. Bibcode:1995Sci...267..984H.
doi:10.1126/science.7863342. PMID 7863342.
Lonsdale, Henry (1874). The Worthies of Cumberland: John Dalton. George Routledge and Sons:
George. Retrieved 24 December 2007.
Millington, John Price (1906). John Dalton. London: J. M. Dent & Company. Retrieved 24 December 2007.
[13] Thomson, Thomas (1810). The Elements of Chemistry. .

J. & AY Humphreys. p. 480.
Patterson, Elizabeth C. (1970). John Dalton and the

Atomic Theory. Garden City, New York: Anchor.
[14] Roscoe, Henry E.; Arthur Harden (1896). A New View of

the Origin of Daltons Atomic Theory. London: Macmillan. ISBN 1-4369-2630-0. Retrieved 24 December 2007.
Rocke, A. J. (2005). In Search of El Dorado: John

Dalton and the Origins of the Atomic Theory. Social Research 72: 125158. Retrieved 24 December
2007.
[15] Laboratory notebook in ibid., p. 248

[16] Roscoe, Henry E.; Arthur Harden (1896). A New View of
the Origin of Daltons Atomic Theory. London: Macmillan. pp. 5051. ISBN 1-4369-2630-0. Retrieved 24 December 2007.
[17] Book of Members, 17802010: Chapter D (PDF).
American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Retrieved 7
August 2014.
[18] John Dalton | Chemical Heritage. chemheritage.org.
Retrieved 2011-11-09.
[19]
[20] King, Kristine (10 October 2003). Science celebrates
'father of nanotech'". BBC News. Retrieved 2011-11-09.
[21] Patterson, Elizabeth C. (1970). John Dalton and the
Atomic Theory. Garden City, New York: Doubleday.
[22] Elliott, T. Lenton (1953).
John Daltons
Journal of Chemical Education 30
Grave.
(11):
569.
Bibcode:1953JChEd..30..569E.
doi:10.1021/ed030p569.
Archived from the original on 8 December 2008. Retrieved 24 December
2007.
Roscoe, Henry E. (1895). John Dalton and the Rise

of Modern Chemistry. London: Macmillan. Retrieved 24 December 2007.
Roscoe, Henry E.; Arthur Harden (1896). A New
View of the Origin of Daltons Atomic Theory. London: Macmillan. ISBN 1-4369-2630-0. Retrieved
24 December 2007.
Smith, R. Angus (1856). Memoir of John Dalton
and History of the Atomic Theory. London: H. Bailliere. ISBN 1-4021-6437-8. Retrieved 24 December 2007.
Smyth, A. L. (1998). John Dalton, 17661844: A
Bibliography of Works by and About Him, With an
Annotated List of His Surviving Apparatus and Personal Eects. ISBN 1-85928-438-8.- Original edition published by Manchester University Press in
1966
Thackray, Arnold (1972). John Dalton: Critical Assessments of His Life and Science. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-47525-9.
1.12 External links

Media related to John Dalton at Wikimedia Commons
Works written by or about John Dalton at
Wikisource
"Dalton, John (17661844)". Dictionary of National Biography. London: Smith, Elder & Co.
18851900.
Dalton, John (1834). Meteorological Observations
and Essays (2 ed.). Manchester: Harrison and Croseld. Retrieved 24 December 2007.
Dalton, John (1893). Foundations of the Atomic
Theory. Edinburgh: William F. Clay. Retrieved 24
December 2007. Alembic Club reprint with some
of Daltons papers, along with some by William
Hyde Wollaston and Thomas Thomson
Dalton, John (1808). A new system of chemical philosophy. ISBN 1-153-05671-2. Retrieved 8 July
2008.
Chapter 2
Atomic theory
Atomic model redirects here. For the unrelated term
in mathematical logic, see Atomic model (mathematical
logic).
This article is about the historical models of the atom.
For a history of the study of how atoms combine to form
molecules, see History of molecular theory.
ous subatomic particles (chiey, electrons, protons and

neutrons) which can exist separately from each other. In
fact, in certain extreme environments, such as neutron
stars, extreme temperature and pressure prevents atoms
from existing at all. Since atoms were found to be divisible, physicists later invented the term "elementary particles" to describe the uncuttable, though not indestructible, parts of an atom. The eld of science which studies subatomic particles is particle physics, and it is in this
eld that physicists hope to discover the true fundamental
nature of matter.
1 fm
2.1 History
2.1.1 Philosophical atomism
Main article: Atomism
The idea that matter is made up of discrete units is a
very old one, appearing in many ancient cultures such as
Greece and India. However, these ideas were founded in
philosophical and theological reasoning rather than evi1 = 100,000 fm
dence and experimentation. Because of this, they could
not convince everybody, so atomism was but one of a
The current theoretical model of the atom involves a dense nu- number of competing theories on the nature of matter.
It was not until the 19th century that the idea was emcleus surrounded by a probabilistic cloud of electrons
braced and rened by scientists, as the blossoming science of chemistry produced discoveries that could easily
In chemistry and physics, atomic theory is a scientic
be explained using the concept of atoms.
theory of the nature of matter, which states that matter
is composed of discrete units called atoms. It began as a
philosophical concept in ancient Greece and entered the 2.1.2 Dalton
scientic mainstream in the early 19th century when discoveries in the eld of chemistry showed that matter did Near the end of the 18th century, two laws about chemindeed behave as if it were made up of atoms.
ical reactions emerged without referring to the notion of
The word atom comes from the Ancient Greek adjective atomos, meaning uncuttable.[1] 19th century
chemists began using the term in connection with the
growing number of irreducible chemical elements. While
seemingly apropos, around the turn of the 20th century, through various experiments with electromagnetism
and radioactivity, physicists discovered that the so-called
uncuttable atom was actually a conglomerate of vari-
an atomic theory. The rst was the law of conservation

of mass, formulated by Antoine Lavoisier in 1789, which
states that the total mass in a chemical reaction remains
constant (that is, the reactants have the same mass as the
products).[2] The second was the law of denite proportions. First proven by the French chemist Joseph Louis
Proust in 1799,[3] this law states that if a compound is broken down into its constituent elements, then the masses of
9
10
CHAPTER 2. ATOMIC THEORY
the constituents will always have the same proportions, was published in 1805, but he did not discuss there exregardless of the quantity or source of the original sub- actly how he obtained these gures.[5] The method was
stance.
rst revealed in 1807 by his acquaintance Thomas ThomJohn Dalton studied and expanded upon this previous son, in the third edition of Thomsons textbook, A System
work and developed the law of multiple proportions: if of Chemistry. Finally, Dalton published a full account in
two elements can be combined to form a number of pos- his own textbook, A New System of Chemical Philosophy,
sible compounds, then the ratios of the masses of the 1808 and 1810.
second element which combine with a xed mass of the
rst element will be ratios of small whole numbers. For
example: Proust had studied tin oxides and found that
their masses were either 88.1% tin and 11.9% oxygen or
78.7% tin and 21.3% oxygen (these were tin(II) oxide and
tin dioxide respectively). Dalton noted from these percentages that 100g of tin will combine either with 13.5g
or 27g of oxygen; 13.5 and 27 form a ratio of 1:2. Dalton found that an atomic theory of matter could elegantly
explain this common pattern in chemistry. In the case of
Prousts tin oxides, one tin atom will combine with either
one or two oxygen atoms.[4]
Dalton also believed atomic theory could explain why water absorbed dierent gases in dierent proportions - for
example, he found that water absorbed carbon dioxide far
better than it absorbed nitrogen.[5] Dalton hypothesized
this was due to the dierences in mass and complexity
of the gases respective particles. Indeed, carbon dioxide molecules (CO2 ) are heavier and larger than nitrogen
molecules (N2 ).
Dalton proposed that each chemical element is composed
of atoms of a single, unique type, and though they cannot
be altered or destroyed by chemical means, they can combine to form more complex structures (chemical compounds). This marked the rst truly scientic theory of
the atom, since Dalton reached his conclusions by experimentation and examination of the results in an empirical
fashion.
Dalton estimated the atomic weights according to the

mass ratios in which they combined, with the hydrogen
atom taken as unity. However, Dalton did not conceive
that with some elements atoms exist in molecules e.g.
pure oxygen exists as O2 . He also mistakenly believed
that the simplest compound between any two elements is
always one atom of each (so he thought water was HO,
not H2 O).[6] This, in addition to the crudity of his equipment, awed his results. For instance, in 1803 he believed
that oxygen atoms were 5.5 times heavier than hydrogen
atoms, because in water he measured 5.5 grams of oxygen for every 1 gram of hydrogen and believed the formula for water was HO. Adopting better data, in 1806 he
concluded that the atomic weight of oxygen must actually
be 7 rather than 5.5, and he retained this weight for the
rest of his life. Others at this time had already concluded
that the oxygen atom must weigh 8 relative to hydrogen
equals 1, if one assumes Daltons formula for the water
molecule (HO), or 16 if one assumes the modern water
formula (H2 O).[7]
2.1.3 Avogadro
The aw in Daltons theory was corrected in principle
in 1811 by Amedeo Avogadro. Avogadro had proposed
that equal volumes of any two gases, at equal temperature and pressure, contain equal numbers of molecules (in
other words, the mass of a gass particles does not aect
the volume that it occupies).[8] Avogadros law allowed
him to deduce the diatomic nature of numerous gases by
studying the volumes at which they reacted. For instance:
since two liters of hydrogen will react with just one liter
of oxygen to produce two liters of water vapor (at constant pressure and temperature), it meant a single oxygen
molecule splits in two in order to form two particles of
water. Thus, Avogadro was able to oer more accurate
estimates of the atomic mass of oxygen and various other
elements, and made a clear distinction between molecules
and atoms.
2.1.4 Brownian Motion

In 1827, the British botanist Robert Brown observed that
dust particles inside pollen grains oating in water conVarious atoms and molecules as depicted in John Dalton's A New stantly jiggled about for no apparent reason. In 1905,
System of Chemical Philosophy (1808).
Albert Einstein theorized that this Brownian motion was
caused by the water molecules continuously knocking the
In 1803 Dalton orally presented his rst list of relative grains about, and developed a hypothetical mathematical
atomic weights for a number of substances. This paper model to describe it.[9] This model was validated exper-
2.1. HISTORY
11
imentally in 1908 by French physicist Jean Perrin, thus 2.1.6 Discovery of the nucleus
providing additional validation for particle theory (and by
extension atomic theory).
Main article: Rutherford model
Thomsons plum pudding model was disproved in 1909
2.1.5
Discovery of subatomic particles
THOMSON MODEL
RUTHERFORD MODEL
Main articles: Electron and Plum pudding model
gold foil
alpha particle source
gold foil
alpha particle source
OBSERVED RESULT
The cathode rays (blue) were emitted from the cathode,

sharpened to a beam by the slits, then deected as they
passed between the two electried plates.
The Geiger-Marsden experiment

Left: Expected results: alpha particles passing through the plum
pudding model of the atom with negligible deection.
Right: Observed results: a small portion of the particles were
deected by the concentrated positive charge of the nucleus.
Atoms were thought to be the smallest possible division

of matter until 1897 when J.J. Thomson discovered the
electron through his work on cathode rays.[10]
by one of his former students, Ernest Rutherford, who
A Crookes tube is a sealed glass container in which two discovered that most of the mass and positive charge of
electrodes are separated by a vacuum. When a voltage an atom is concentrated in a very small fraction of its volume, which he assumed to be at the very center.
is applied across the electrodes, cathode rays are generated, creating a glowing patch where they strike the glass In the GeigerMarsden experiment, Hans Geiger and
at the opposite end of the tube. Through experimenta- Ernest Marsden (colleagues of Rutherford working at his
tion, Thomson discovered that the rays could be deected behest) shot alpha particles at thin sheets of metal and
by an electric eld (in addition to magnetic elds, which measured their deection through the use of a uorescent
was already known). He concluded that these rays, rather screen.[13] Given the very small mass of the electrons,
than being a form of light, were composed of very light the high momentum of the alpha particles, and the low
negatively charged particles he called corpuscles (they concentration of the positive charge of the plum pudding
would later be renamed electrons by other scientists). He model, the experimenters expected all the alpha particles
measured the mass-to-charge ratio and discovered it was to pass through the metal foil without signicant deec1800 times smaller than that of hydrogen, the smallest tion. To their astonishment, a small fraction of the alatom. These corpuscles were a particle unlike any other pha particles experienced heavy deection. Rutherford
previously known.
concluded that the positive charge of the atom must be
Thomson suggested that atoms were divisible, and that concentrated in a very tiny volume to produce an electric
the corpuscles were their building blocks.[11] To explain eld suciently intense to deect the alpha particles so
the overall neutral charge of the atom, he proposed that strongly.
the corpuscles were distributed in a uniform sea of positive charge; this was the plum pudding model[12] as
the electrons were embedded in the positive charge like
plums in a plum pudding (although in Thomsons model
they were not stationary).
This led Rutherford to propose a planetary model in

which a cloud of electrons surrounded a small, compact
nucleus of positive charge. Only such a concentration of
charge could produce the electric eld strong enough to
cause the heavy deection.[14]
12
2.1.7
First steps toward a quantum physi- 2.1.8 Discovery of isotopes

cal model of the atom
Main article: Isotope
Main article: Bohr model

The planetary model of the atom had two signicant
shortcomings. The rst is that, unlike planets orbiting
a sun, electrons are charged particles. An accelerating
electric charge is known to emit electromagnetic waves
according to the Larmor formula in classical electromagnetism. An orbiting charge should steadily lose energy and spiral toward the nucleus, colliding with it in a
small fraction of a second. The second problem was that
the planetary model could not explain the highly peaked
emission and absorption spectra of atoms that were observed.
While experimenting with the products of radioactive decay, in 1913 radiochemist Frederick Soddy discovered
that there appeared to be more than one element at each
position on the periodic table.[16] The term isotope was
coined by Margaret Todd as a suitable name for these elements.
That same year, J.J. Thomson conducted an experiment
in which he channeled a stream of neon ions through magnetic and electric elds, striking a photographic plate at
the other end. He observed two glowing patches on the
plate, which suggested two dierent deection trajectories. Thomson concluded this was because some of the
neon ions had a dierent mass.[17] The nature of this differing mass would later be explained by the discovery of
neutrons in 1932.
2.1.9 Discovery of nuclear particles

Main article: Atomic nucleus
In 1917 Rutherford bombarded nitrogen gas with alpha
particles and observed hydrogen nuclei being emitted
from the gas (Rutherford recognized these, because he
had previously obtained them bombarding hydrogen with
alpha particles, and observing hydrogen nuclei in the
The Bohr model of the atom
products). Rutherford concluded that the hydrogen nuatoms themQuantum theory revolutionized physics at the beginning clei emerged from the nuclei of the nitrogen
[18]
selves
(in
eect,
he
had
split
a
nitrogen).
of the 20th century, when Max Planck and Albert Einstein postulated that light energy is emitted or absorbed From his own work and the work of his students Bohr and
in discrete amounts known as quanta (singular, quantum). Henry Moseley, Rutherford knew that the positive charge
In 1913, Niels Bohr incorporated this idea into his Bohr of any atom could always be equated to that of an intemodel of the atom, in which an electron could only orbit ger number of hydrogen nuclei. This, coupled with the
the nucleus in particular circular orbits with xed angular atomic mass of many elements being roughly equivalent
momentum and energy, its distance from the nucleus (i.e., to an integer number of hydrogen atoms - then assumed to
their radii) being proportional to its energy.[15] Under this be the lightest particles - led him to conclude that hydromodel an electron could not spiral into the nucleus be- gen nuclei were singular particles and a basic constituent
cause it could not lose energy in a continuous manner; inof all atomic nuclei. He named such particles protons.
stead, it could only make instantaneous "quantum leaps" Further experimentation by Rutherford found that the nubetween the xed energy levels.[15] When this occurred, clear mass of most atoms exceeded that of the protons it
light was emitted or absorbed at a frequency proportional possessed; he speculated that this surplus mass was comto the change in energy (hence the absorption and emis- posed of hitherto unknown neutrally charged particles,
sion of light in discrete spectra).[15]
which were tentatively dubbed "neutrons".
Bohrs model was not perfect. It could only predict the
spectral lines of hydrogen; it couldn't predict those of
multielectron atoms. Worse still, as spectrographic technology improved, additional spectral lines in hydrogen
were observed which Bohrs model couldn't explain. In
1916, Arnold Sommerfeld added elliptical orbits to the
Bohr model to explain the extra emission lines, but this
made the model very dicult to use, and it still couldn't
explain more complex atoms.
In 1928, Walter Bothe observed that beryllium emitted

a highly penetrating, electrically neutral radiation when
bombarded with alpha particles. It was later discovered
that this radiation could knock hydrogen atoms out of
paran wax. Initially it was thought to be high-energy
gamma radiation, since gamma radiation had a similar
eect on electrons in metals, but James Chadwick found
that the ionization eect was too strong for it to be due to
electromagnetic radiation, so long as energy and momen-
2.2. SEE ALSO

tum were conserved in the interaction. In 1932, Chadwick exposed various elements, such as hydrogen and nitrogen, to the mysterious beryllium radiation, and by
measuring the energies of the recoiling charged particles,
he deduced that the radiation was actually composed of
electrically neutral particles which could not be massless like the gamma ray, but instead were required to
have a mass similar to that of a proton. Chadwick now
claimed these particles as Rutherfords neutrons.[19] For
his discovery of the neutron, Chadwick received the Nobel Prize in 1935.
2.1.10
13
ter the theoretical physicist Werner Heisenberg, who rst
described it and published it in 1927.[24] This invalidated
Bohrs model, with its neat, clearly dened circular orbits.
The modern model of the atom describes the positions of
electrons in an atom in terms of probabilities. An electron
can potentially be found at any distance from the nucleus,
but, depending on its energy level, exists more frequently
in certain regions around the nucleus than others; this pattern is referred to as its atomic orbital. The orbitals come
in a variety of shapes-sphere, dumbbell, torus, etc.-with
the nucleus in the middle.[25]
Quantum physical models of the 2.2

atom
Main article: Atomic orbital

In 1924, Louis de Broglie proposed that all moving par-
See also
History of the molecule

Discoveries of the chemical elements
Introduction to quantum mechanics
Kinetic theory
Atomism
The Physical Principles of the Quantum Theory
The ve lled atomic orbitals of a neon atom separated and arranged in order of increasing energy from left to right, with the
last three orbitals being equal in energy. Each orbital holds up to
two electrons, which most probably exist in the zones represented
by the colored bubbles. Each electron is equally present in both
orbital zones, shown here by color only to highlight the dierent
wave phase.
2.3 Notes
[1] Berryman, Sylvia, Ancient Atomism, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2008 Edition), Edward N.
Zalta (ed.), http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2008/
entries/atomism-ancient/
ticles particularly subatomic particles such as electrons exhibit a degree of wave-like behavior. Erwin
Schrdinger, fascinated by this idea, explored whether
or not the movement of an electron in an atom could
be better explained as a wave rather than as a particle.
Schrdingers equation, published in 1926,[20] describes
an electron as a wavefunction instead of as a point particle. This approach elegantly predicted many of the spectral phenomena that Bohrs model failed to explain. Although this concept was mathematically convenient, it
was dicult to visualize, and faced opposition.[21] One of
its critics, Max Born, proposed instead that Schrdingers
wavefunction described not the electron but rather all its
possible states, and thus could be used to calculate the
probability of nding an electron at any given location
around the nucleus.[22] This reconciled the two opposing
theories of particle versus wave electrons and the idea of
waveparticle duality was introduced. This theory stated
that the electron may exhibit the properties of both a wave
and a particle. For example, it can be refracted like a
wave, and has mass like a particle.[23]
[2] Weisstein, Eric W. Lavoisier, Antoine (1743-1794)".

scienceworld.wolfram.com. Retrieved 2009-08-01.
A consequence of describing electrons as waveforms is

that it is mathematically impossible to simultaneously derive the position and momentum of an electron. This became known as the Heisenberg uncertainty principle af-
[8] Avogadro, Amedeo (1811). Essay on a Manner of Determining the Relative Masses of the Elementary Molecules
of Bodies, and the Proportions in Which They Enter into
These Compounds. Journal de Physique 73: 5876.
[3] Proust, Joseph Louis. "Researches on Copper", excerpted

from Ann. chim. 32, 26-54 (1799) [as translated and reproduced in Henry M. Leicester and Herbert S. Klickstein, A Source Book in Chemistry, 14001900 (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard, 1952)]. Retrieved on
August 29, 2007.
[4] Andrew G. van Melsen (1952). From Atomos to Atom.
Mineola, N.Y.: Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-495841.
[5] Dalton, John. "On the Absorption of Gases by Water and
Other Liquids", in Memoirs of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester. 1803. Retrieved on August 29,
2007.
[6] Johnson, Chris. Avogadro - his contribution to chemistry. Archived from the original on 27 June 2009. Retrieved 2009-08-01.
[7] Alan J. Rocke (1984). Chemical Atomism in the Nineteenth Century. Columbus: Ohio State University Press.
14
[9] Einstein, A. (1905). "ber die von der molekularkinetischen Theorie der Wrme geforderte Bewegung von in
ruhenden Flssigkeiten suspendierten Teilchen. Annalen
der Physik 322 (8): 549. Bibcode:1905AnP...322..549E.
doi:10.1002/andp.19053220806.
[24] Heisenberg, W. (1927).

"ber den anschaulichen
Inhalt der quantentheoretischen Kinematik und
Mechanik. Zeitschrift fr Physik (in German) 43
(34):
172198.
Bibcode:1927ZPhy...43..172H.
doi:10.1007/BF01397280.
[10] Thomson, J.J. (1897). Cathode rays ([facsimile from

Stephen Wright, Classical Scientic Papers, Physics
(Mills and Boon, 1964)]). Philosophical Magazine 44
(269): 293. doi:10.1080/14786449708621070.
[25] Milton Orchin, Roger Macomber, Allan Pinhas, R. Wilson. The Vocabulary and Concepts of Organic Chemistry, Second Edition, (PDF). Retrieved 2010-06-14.
[11] Whittaker, E. T. (1951), A history of the theories of aether

and electricity. Vol 1, Nelson, London
[12] Thomson, J.J. (1904).
On the Structure of the
Atom: an Investigation of the Stability and Periods
of Oscillation of a number of Corpuscles arranged at
equal intervals around the Circumference of a Circle; with Application of the Results to the Theory of
Atomic Structure. Philosophical Magazine 7 (39): 237.
doi:10.1080/14786440409463107.
[13] Geiger, H (1910). The Scattering of the -Particles by
Matter. Proceedings of the Royal Society A 83: 492504.
[14] Rutherford, Ernest (1911).
The Scattering of
and Particles by Matter and the Structure
of the Atom (PDF). Philosophical Magazine
21 (4):
669.
Bibcode:2012PMag...92..379R.
doi:10.1080/14786435.2011.617037.
[15] Bohr, Niels (1913). On the constitution of atoms
and molecules (PDF). Philosophical Magazine 26 (153):
476502. doi:10.1080/14786441308634993.
[16] Frederick Soddy, The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1921.
Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2008-01-18.
[17] Thomson, J.J. (1913).
Rays of positive electricity.
Proceedings of the Royal Society A 89
(607):
120.
Bibcode:1913RSPSA..89....1T.
doi:10.1098/rspa.1913.0057. [as excerpted in Henry A.
Boorse & Lloyd Motz, The World of the Atom, Vol. 1
(New York: Basic Books, 1966)]. Retrieved on August
29, 2007.
[18] Rutherford, Ernest (1919). Collisions of alpha Particles with Light Atoms. IV. An Anomalous Eect
in Nitrogen. Philosophical Magazine 37 (222): 581.
doi:10.1080/14786440608635919.
[19] Chadwick, James (1932).
Possible Existence
of a Neutron (PDF). Nature 129 (3252): 312.
Bibcode:1932Natur.129Q.312C. doi:10.1038/129312a0.
[20] Schrdinger, Erwin (1926).
Quantisation as an
Eigenvalue Problem.
Annalen der Physik 81
(18):
109139.
Bibcode:1926AnP...386..109S.
doi:10.1002/andp.19263861802.
[21] Mahanti, Subodh. Erwin Schrdinger: The Founder of
Quantum Wave Mechanics. Retrieved 2009-08-01.
[22] Mahanti, Subodh. Max Born: Founder of Lattice Dynamics. Retrieved 2009-08-01.
[23] Greiner, Walter. Quantum Mechanics: An Introduction. Retrieved 2010-06-14.
2.4 Further reading

Bernard Pullman (1998) The Atom in the History of
Human Thought, trans. by Axel Reisinger. Oxford
Univ. Press.
Eric Scerri (2007) The Periodic Table, Its Story and
Its Signicance, Oxford University Press, New York.
Charles Adolphe Wurtz (1881) The Atomic Theory,
D. Appleton and Company, New York.
2.5 External links

Atomism by S. Mark Cohen.
Atomic Theory - detailed information on atomic
theory with respect to electrons and electricity.
Chapter 3
Lake District
This article is about England. For other uses, see Lake The Lake District National Park includes nearly all
District (disambiguation).
of the Lake District, though the town of Kendal and
the Lakeland Peninsulas are currently outside the park
The Lake District, also known as The Lakes or Lake- boundary.
land, is a mountainous region in North West England.
A popular holiday destination, it is famous for its lakes,
forests and mountains (or fells) and its associations with
the early 19th century writings of William Wordsworth
and the other Lake Poets.
Historically split between Cumberland, Westmorland and
Lancashire, the Lake District is now entirely in Cumbria.
All the land in England higher than three thousand feet
(914.4 m) above sea level lies within the National Park,
including Scafell Pike, the highest mountain in England.
It also contains the deepest and longest lakes in England,
Wastwater and Windermere.
The area, which was designated a national park on 9

May 1951 (less than a month after the rst UK national
park designation the Peak District), is the most visited national park in the United Kingdom with 15.8 million annual visitors and more than 23 million annual
day visits,[1] the largest of the thirteen national parks in
England and Wales, and the second largest in the UK after
the Cairngorms.[2] Its aim is to protect the landscape by
restricting unwelcome change by industry or commerce.
Most of the land in the park is in private ownership, with
about 55% registered as agricultural land. Landowners
include:
Individual farmers and other private landowners,
with more than half of the agricultural land farmed
by the owners.[3]
3.1 Lake District National Park
The National Trust owns about a quarter of the total

area (including some lakes and land of signicant
landscape value).
The Forestry Commission and other investors in
forests and woodland. [4]
United Utilities owns 8%
Lake District National Park Authority (3.9%) The
National Park Authority is based at oces in
Kendal. It runs a visitor centre on Windermere at a
former country house called Brockhole,[5] Coniston
Boating Centre and Information Centres. It is reducing its landholding.
In common with all other national parks in England, there
is no restriction on entry to, or movement within the park
along public routes, but access to cultivated land is usually restricted to public footpaths, bridleways and byways.
Much of the uncultivated land has statutory open access
rights - which cover around 50% of the park.
Lake District National Park (shown as number 2) in a map of
national parks in England and Wales.
The lakes and mountains combine to form impressive

scenery. Farmland and settlement add aesthetic value to
the natural scenery with an ecology modied by human
15
16
CHAPTER 3. LAKE DISTRICT
inuence for millennia and including important wildlife

habitats. The Lake District has failed to be approved as
a natural World Heritage Site, because of human activities, such as commercial forestry, which have adversely
impacted the parks assessment. Another bid is being prepared for World Heritage Status, this time in the category
of cultural landscape.[6]
3.1.1
Proposed extension to the National

Park
In December 2009, Natural England proposed extending the National Park in the direction of the Yorkshire
Dales National Park.[7] This would include land of high
landscape value in the Lune Valley. The proposal was opposed by Cumbria County Council who said it would lead
to less democratic control and would make local housing less aordable.[8] A public inquiry is being held into
the proposals which will require a decision by the Secretary of State.[9] No decision has yet been made as of July
2015.[10]
3.2 Human geography

3.2.1
General
north to south,[11] with areas such as the Lake District

Peninsulas to the south lying outside the National Park.[12]
3.2.2 Settlement
The Lake District is one of the most highly populated national parks. There are, however, only a handful of major settlements within this mountainous area, the towns
of Keswick, Windermere, Ambleside, and Bowness-onWindermere being the four largest. Signicant towns
immediately outside the boundary of the national park
include Millom, Barrow-in-Furness, Kendal, Ulverston,
Cockermouth, Penrith, and Grange-over-Sands; each of
these has important economic links with the area. Villages such as Coniston, Threlkeld, Glenridding, Pooley
Bridge, Broughton-in-Furness, Grasmere, Newby Bridge,
Staveley, Lindale, Gosforth and Hawkshead act as more
local centres. The economies of almost all are intimately
linked with tourism. Beyond these are a scatter of hamlets and innumerable isolated farmsteads, some of which
are still tied to agriculture, others now function as part of
the tourist economy.[13]
3.2.3 Communications
Roads
The A591 road as it passes through the countryside between Ambleside and Grasmere
The location of the Lake District, shown in white, within

Northern England
The precise extent of the Lake District was not dened

traditionally, but is slightly larger than that of the National
Park, the total area of which is about 885 square miles
(2,292 km2 ). The park extends just over 32 miles (51
km) from east to west and nearly 40 miles (64 km) from
The Lake District National Park is almost contained

within a box of trunk routes. It is anked to the east by
the A6 road which runs from Kendal to Penrith). The
A590 which connects the M6 to Cumbrias largest town,
Barrow-in-Furness, and the A5092 trunk roads cut across
its southern fringes and the A66 trunk road between Penrith and Workington cuts across its northern edge. Finally
the A595 trunk road runs through the coastal plains to the
west of the area linking the A66 with the A5092.
Besides these, a few A roads penetrate the area itself, notably the A591 which runs north westwards from Kendal
to Windermere and then on to Keswick. It continues up
the east side of Bassenthwaite Lake. The A591, Grasmere, Lake District was short-listed in the 2011 Google
Street View awards in the Most Romantic Street category. The A593 and A5084 link the Ambleside and Con-
3.3. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

iston areas with the A590 to the south whilst the A592
and A5074 similarly link Windermere with the A590.
The A592 also continues northwards from Windermere
to Ullswater and Penrith by way of the Kirkstone Pass.
17
3.3 Physical geography
Some of those valleys which are not penetrated by A

roads are served by B roads. The B5289 serves Lorton
Vale and Buttermere and links via the Honister Pass with
Borrowdale. The B5292 ascends the Whinlatter Pass
from Lorton Vale before dropping down to Braithwaite
near Keswick. The B5322 serves the valley of St Johns
in the Vale whilst Great Langdale is served by the
B5343. Other valleys such as Little Langdale, Eskdale
and Dunnerdale are served by minor roads. The latter
connects with the former two by way of the Wrynose
and Hardknott passes respectively - both of these passes
are known for their steep gradients and are one of the
most popular climbs in the United Kingdom for cycling
enthusiasts.[14] A minor road through the Newlands Valley connects via Newlands Hause with the B5289 at Buttermere. Wasdale is served by a cul-de-sac minor road
as is Longsleddale and the valleys at Haweswater and
Kentmere. There are intricate networks of minor roads in
the lower-lying southern part of the area connecting numerous communities between Kendal, Windermere and
Coniston.[13]
A panorama from the summit of Scafell Pike, August

2007
Railways and ferries
The West Coast Main Line skirts the eastern edge of

the Lake District and the Cumbrian Coast Line passes
through the southern and western fringes of the area. A
single line, the Windermere Branch Line, penetrates from
Kendal to Windermere via Staveley. Lines once served
Broughton-in-Furness and Coniston (closed to passengers
in 1958) and another ran from Penrith to Cockermouth
via Keswick (closed west of Keswick in 1966 and completely in 1972). The track of the latter has been adopted
in part for use by the improved A66 trunk road.
As the highest ground in England, Scafell Pike naturally has a very extensive view, ranging from the Mourne
Mountains in Northern Ireland to Snowdonia in Wales.
The Lake District takes the form of a roughly circular upland massif deeply dissected by a broadly radial pattern
of major valleys whose character is largely the product of
repeated glaciations over the last 2 million years. Most
of these valleys display the U-shape cross-section characteristic of glacial origin, and often contain elongate lakes
occupying sizeable bedrock hollows often with tracts of
relatively at ground at their heads. Smaller lakes known
as tarns occupy glacial cirques at higher elevations. It is
the abundance of both which has led to the area becoming
known as the Lake District.
The mountains of the Lake District are also known as

the Cumbrian Mountains, although this name is less
frequently used than terms like the Lake District or
the Lakeland Fells. Many of the higher fells are rocky
in character, while moorland predominates at lower altitudes. Vegetation cover across better drained areas includes bracken and heather, though much of the land is
boggy, due to the high rainfall. Deciduous native woodA vehicle-carrying cable ferry, the Windermere Ferry land occurs on many steeper slopes below the tree line,
runs frequent services across Windermere. There are also but with native oak supplemented by extensive conifer
seasonal passenger ferries on Coniston Water, Derwent plantations in many areas, particularly Grizedale Forest
in the generally lower southern part of the area.
Water and Ullswater.
The narrow gauge Ravenglass and Eskdale Railway runs
from Ravenglass on the west coast up Eskdale as far
as Dalegarth Station near the hamlet of Boot, catering
for tourists. Another heritage railway, the Lakeside and
Haverthwaite Railway runs between the two villages encompassed within its name, tourists being able to connect
with the Windermere passenger ferry at Lakeside.
18
3.3.2 Woodlands
Below the tree line are wooded areas, including British
and European native oak woodlands and introduced softwood plantations. The woodlands provide habitats for native English wildlife. The native red squirrel is found in
the Lake District and in a few other parts of England. In
parts of the Lake District the rainfall is higher than in
any other part of England. This gives Atlantic mosses,
ferns, lichen, and liverworts the chance to grow. There
is some ancient woodland in the National Park. Management of the woodlands varies: some are coppiced, some
pollarded, some left to grow naturally, and some provide
grazing and shelter.
3.3.3 Fells (hills)

Panorama of the Wasdale screes descending into Wastwater, the deepest lake in England.
3.3.1
Valleys
The impressive bulk of the Scafell massif, the highest ground in

England, seen over Wasdale.
See also: list of fells in the Lake District and list of hills
in the Lake District
The four highest mountains in the Lake District exceed
3,000 ft (910 m). These are:
Scafell Pike, 978 m (3,209 ft)
Scafell, 965 m (3,166 ft)
The Tongue Valley (looking from Dollywaggon Pike)
The principal radial valleys are (clockwise from the

south) those of Dunnerdale, Eskdale, Wasdale, Ennerdale, Lorton Vale and the Buttermere valley, the
Derwent Valley and Borrowdale, the valleys containing
Ullswater and Haweswater, Longsleddale, the Kentmere
valley and those radiating from the head of Windermere
including Great Langdale. The valleys serve to break the
mountains up into separate blocks which have been described by various authors in dierent ways. The most
frequently encountered approach is that made popular
by Alfred Wainwright who published seven separate area
guides to the Lakeland Fells.
Helvellyn, 951 m (3,120 ft)

Skiddaw, 931 m (3,054 ft)
Northern Fells
The Northern Fells are a readily dened range of
hills contained within a 13-km diameter circle between
Keswick in the south west and Caldbeck in the north east.
They culminate in the 931 m (3,054 ft) peak of Skiddaw.
Other notable peaks are those of Blencathra (also known
as Saddleback) (868 m; 2,848 ft) and Carrock Fell.
Bassenthwaite Lake occupies the valley between this massif and the North Western Fells.
3.3. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
19
North Western Fells

The North Western Fells lie between Borrowdale and
Bassenthwaite Lake to the east and Buttermere and
Lorton Vale to the west. Their southernmost point is at
Honister Pass. This area includes the Derwent Fells above
the Newlands Valley and hills to the north amongst which
are Dale Head, Robinson. To the north stand Grasmoor
- highest in the range at 852 m (2,795 ft), Grisedale Pike
and the hills around the valley of Coledale, and in the far The village of Glenridding and Ullswater lake
north west is Thornthwaite Forest and Lords Seat. The
fells in this area are rounded Skiddaw slate, with few tarns
Eastern Fells
and relatively few rock faces.
Western Fells
The Eastern Fells consist of a long north-to-south ridge,

the Helvellyn range, running from Clough Head to Seat
Sandal with the 3,118-foot (950 m) Helvellyn at its highest point. The western slopes of these summits tend to
be grassy, with rocky corries and crags on the eastern
side. The Faireld group lies to the south of the range,
and forms a similar pattern with towering rock faces
and hidden valleys spilling into the Patterdale valley. It
culminates in the height of Red Screes overlooking the
Kirkstone Pass.
Far Eastern Fells
The view from the cairn built by the Westmorland brothers in

1876 to the SW of the summit of Great Gable, which they considered the nest view in the district.
The Western Fells lie between Buttermere and Wasdale,

with Sty Head forming the apex of a large triangle.
Ennerdale bisects the area, which consists of the High
Stile ridge north of Ennerdale, the Loweswater Fells in
the far north west, the Pillar group in the south west, and
Great Gable (2,949 feet or 899 metres) near Sty Head.
Other tops include Seatallan, Haystacks and Kirk Fell.
This area is craggy and steep, with the impressive pinnacle of Pillar Rock its showpiece. Wastwater, located in
this part, is Englands deepest lake.
Central Fells
Haweswater Reservoir from Harter Fell
The Central Fells are lower in elevation than surrounding

areas of fell, peaking at 762 m (2,500 ft) at High Raise.
They take the form of a ridge running between Derwent
Water in the west and Thirlmere in the east, from Keswick
in the north to Langdale Pikes in the south. A spur extends south east to Loughrigg Fell above Ambleside. The
central ridge running north over High Seat is exceptionally boggy.
The Far Eastern Fells refer to all of the Lakeland fells to

the east of Ullswater and the A592 road running south
to Windermere. At 828 m (2,717 ft), the peak known as
High Street is the highest point on a complex ridge which
runs broadly north-south and overlooks the hidden valley of Haweswater to its east. In the north of this region
are the lower fells of Martindale Common and Bampton
Common whilst in the south are the fells overlooking the
20
Kentmere valley. Further to the east, beyond Mardale and South eastern area
Longsleddale is Shap Fell, an extensive area consisting of
high moorland, more rolling and Pennine in nature than The south eastern area is the territory between Coniston
the mountains to the west.
Water and Windermere and east of Windermere towards
Kendal and south to Lindale. There are no high summits
in this area which is mainly low hills, knolls and limestone
cuestas such as Gummers How and Whitbarrow. Indeed,
it rises only as high as 333 m at Top o' Selside east of
Southern Fells
Coniston Water; the wide expanse of Grizedale Forest
stands between the two lakes. Kendal and Morecambe
Bay stand at the eastern and southern edges of the area.
3.3.4 Lakes
Coniston Water from Holme Fell
The Southern Fells occupy the south western quarter of

the Lake District. They can be regarded as comprising
a northern grouping between Wasdale, Eskdale and the
two Langdale valleys, a south eastern group east of Dunnerdale and south of Little Langdale and a south western
group bounded by Eskdale to the north and Dunnerdale
to the east.
The rst group includes Englands highest mountains;
Scafell Pike in the centre, at 3,209 feet (978 m) and
Scafell one mile (1.6 km) to the south west. Though
it is slightly lower it has a 700-foot (210 m) rockface,
Scafell Crag, on its northern side. It also includes the
Wastwater Screes overlooking Wasdale, the Glaramara
ridge overlooking Borrowdale, the three tops of Crinkle
Crags, Bowfell and Esk Pike. The core of the area is
drained by the infant River Esk. Collectively these are
some of the Lake Districts most rugged hillsides.
The second group, otherwise known as the Furness Fells
or Coniston Fells, have as their northern boundary the
steep and narrow Hardknott and Wrynose passes.
The third group to the west of the Duddon includes Harter
Fell and the long ridge leading over Whitfell to Black
Combe and the sea. The south of this region consists
of lower forests and knolls, with Kirkby Moor on the
southern boundary. The south western Lake District
ends near the Furness peninsula and Barrow-in-Furness, a
town which many Lake District residents rely on for basic
amenities.
Derwent Water, one of 21 large water bodies in the Lake

District
See also: List of lakes in the Lake District
Only one of the lakes in the Lake District is called by
that name, Bassenthwaite Lake. All the others such as
Windermere, Coniston Water, Ullswater and Buttermere
are meres, tarns and waters, with mere being the least
common and water being the most common. The major
lakes and reservoirs in the National Park are given below.
3.4 Geology
The Lake Districts geology is very complex but wellstudied.[15] A granite batholith beneath the area is responsible for this upland massif, its relatively low density causing the area to be buoyed up. The granite can be seen
at the surface as the Ennerdale, Skiddaw, Carrock Fell,
Eskdale and Shap granites.
Broadly speaking the area can be divided into three
3.5. CLIMATE
21
ularly at places like Whitbarrow Scar and Scout Scar.
[16][17]
3.5 Climate
The Lake Districts location on the north west coast of
England, coupled with its mountainous geography, makes
it the wettest part of England. The UK Met Oce reports average annual precipitation of more than 2,000
millimetres (80 in), but with very large local variation.
Although the entire region receives above average rainfall, there is a wide disparity between the amount of rainfall in the western and eastern lakes, as the Lake District
experiences relief rainfall. Seathwaite in Borrowdale is
the wettest inhabited place in England with an average of
3,300 millimetres (130 in) of rain a year,[18] while nearby
Sprinkling Tarn is even wetter, recording over 5,000 millimetres (200 in) per year; by contrast, Keswick, at the
end of Borrowdale receives 1,470 millimetres (60 in) every year, and Penrith (just outside the Lake District) only
Geological map of Cumberland, by William Smith (1824)
870 millimetres (30 in). March to June tend to be the
driest months, with October to January the wettest, but
at low levels there is relatively little dierence between
bands, the divisions between which run south west to
months.
north east. Generally speaking the rocks become younger
from north west to south east. The north western band Although sheltered valleys experience gales on an averis composed of early to mid-Ordovician sedimentary age of only ve days a year, the Lake District is generally
rocks, largely mudstones and siltstones of marine ori- very windy with the coastal areas having 20 days of gales,
gin. Together they comprise the Skiddaw Group and in- and the fell tops around 100 days of gales per year. The
clude the rocks traditionally known as the Skiddaw Slates. maritime climate means that the Lake District experiTheir friability generally leads to mountains with rela- ences relatively moderate temperature variations through
the year. Mean temperature in the valleys ranges from
tively smooth slopes such as Skiddaw itself.
about 3 C (37 F) in January to around 15 C (59 F)
The central band is a mix of volcanic and sedimentary
in July. (By comparison, Moscow, at the same latitude,
rocks of mid-to-late Ordovician age comprising the lavas
ranges from 10 to 19 C (14 to 66 F).)
and tus of the Borrowdale Volcanic Group, erupted as
the former Iapetus Ocean was subducted beneath what is The relatively low height of most of the fells means that,
now the Scottish border during the Caledonian orogeny. while snow is expected during the winter, they can be free
The northern central peaks, such as Great Rigg, were of snow at any time of the year. Normally, signicant
produced by considerable lava ows. These lava erup- snow fall only occurs between November and April. On
tions were followed by a series of pyroclastic eruptions average, snow falls on Helvellyn 67 days per year. During
which produced a series of calderas, one of which in- the year, valleys typically experience 20 days with snow
cludes present-day Scafell Pike. These pyroclastic rocks falling, a further 200 wet days, and 145 dry days. Hill
give rise to the craggy landscapes typical of the central fog is common at any time of year, and the fells average
only around 2.5 hours of sunshine per day, increasing to
fells.[15]
around 4.1 hours per day on the coastal plains.
The south eastern band comprises the mudstones and
wackes of the Windermere Supergroup and which includes (successively) the rocks of the Dent, Stockdale,
Tranearth, Coniston and Kendal groups. These are gen- 3.6 Wildlife
erally a little less resistant to erosion than the rocks sequence to the north and underlie much of the lower land- The Lake District is home to a great variety of wildlife,
scapes around Coniston and Windermere.
due to its range of varied topography, lakes and forests.
Later intrusions have formed individual outcrops of
igneous rock in each of these groups. Around the edges of
these Ordovician and Silurian rocks on the northern, eastern and southern fringes of the area is a semi-continuous
outcrop of Carboniferous Limestone seen most spectac-
It provides a home for the red squirrel and colonies of

sundew and butterwort, two of the few carnivorous plants
native to Britain. The Lake District is a major sanctuary
for the red squirrel and has the largest population in England (out of the estimated 140,000 red squirrels in the
22

time in over 150 years near Bassenthwaite Lake during
2001. Ospreys now frequently migrate north from Africa
in the spring to nest in the Lake District, and a total
of 23 chicks have edged in The Lakes since 2001.[26]
Another bird species which has had recolonisation attempts is the red kite which, as of 2012, have a population of approximately 90 in the dense forest areas near
Grizedale.[27] Conservationists hope the re-introduction
will create a large red kite population in the Lake District
and in North West England where the red kite population
is low.[28] Other bird species resident to the Lake District
include the buzzard, dipper, peregrine and raven.[29] Seasonal birds include the ring ouzel and the redstart.[30]
Road warning signals for red squirrels; the Lake District is one
of the few places in England where red squirrels have a sizeable
population.[20]
The lakes of the Lake District support three rare and endangered species of sh: the vendace, which can be found
only in Derwent Water and until 2008 in Bassenthwaite
Lake.[31] Vendace have struggled in recent years with
naturally-occurring algae becoming a threat and the lakes
gradually getting warmer.[32] Vendace have been moved
to higher lakes on a number of occasions to preserve the
species, notably in 2005 and 2011.[33][34] The Lakes are
also home to two other rare species: the schelly, which
lives in Brothers Water, Haweswater, Red Tarn and Ullswater, and the Arctic charr, which can be found in Buttermere, Coniston Water, Crummock Water, Ennerdale
Water, Haweswater, Loweswater, Thirlmere, Wast Water, and Windermere.
The vendace (Coregonus vandesius) is Englands rarest species

of sh, and is only found in the Lake District.
A wild Fell pony on the fells, native to North West England
United Kingdom, compared with about 2.5 million grey

squirrels).[21]
The Lake District is home to a range of bird species,[22]
and the RSPB maintain a reserve in Haweswater.[23] Englands only nesting pair of golden eagles can be found in
the Lake District. The female golden eagle has not been
seen since 2004 although the male still remains.[24] Conservationists believe he is now the only resident golden
eagle in England.[25] Following recolonisation attempts,
a pair of ospreys nested in the Lake District for the rst
In recent years, some important changes have been made

to sheries byelaws covering the north west region of
England, to help protect some of the rarest sh species.
In 2002, the Environment Agency introduced a new sheries byelaw, banning the use of all freshwater sh as
live or dead bait in 14 of the lakes in the Lake District. Anglers not complying with the new byelaw can
face nes of up to 2,500. There are 14 lakes in the
Lake District which are aected. These are: Bassenthwaite Lake, Brothers Water, Buttermere, Coniston Water, Crummock Water, Derwent Water, Ennerdale Water,
Haweswater, Loweswater, Red Tarn, Thirlmere, Ullswater, Wast Water and Windermere.
The lakes and waters of the Lake District do not naturally
support as many species of sh as other similar habitats in
the south of the country and elsewhere in Europe. Some
sh that do thrive there are particularly at risk from intro-
3.7. ECONOMY
duction of new species.
The introduction of non-native sh can lead to the predation of the native sh fauna or competition for food.
There is also the risk of disease being introduced, which
can further threaten native populations. In some cases,
the introduced species can disturb the environment so
much that it becomes unsuitable for particular sh. For
example, a major problem has been found with rue.
This non-native sh has now been introduced into a number of lakes in recent years. It is known that rue eat
the eggs of vendace, which are particularly vulnerable because of their long incubation period. This means that
they are susceptible to predators for up to 120 days. The
eggs of other sh, for example roach, are only at risk for
as little as three days.
23
knowledge has to be re-learnt and some of the fells have
had discreet electric fences strung across them for a period of ve years, to allow the sheep to re-heaf.[36] At
the time of the outbreak, worries existed about the future
of certain species of sheep such as Ryeland and Herdwick
in the district,[37] however these fears have been allayed
and sheep now occupy the district in abundance.[38]
3.7 Economy
3.7.1
Agriculture and forestry

A Herdwick grazing above Thirlmere.
Forestry has also assumed greater importance over the

course of the last century with the establishment of extensive conifer plantations around Whinlatter Pass, in
Ennerdale and at Grizedale Forest amongst other places.
There are extensive plantations of non-native pine trees.
3.7.2 Industry
Forestry operations on Harter Fell
Farming, and in particular sheep farming, has been the

major industry in the region since Roman times. The
breed most closely associated with the area is the tough
Herdwick, with Rough Fell and Swaledale sheep also
common. Sheep farming remains important both for the
economy of the region and for preserving the landscape
which visitors want to see. Features such as dry stone
walls, for example, are there as a result of sheep farming.
Some land is also used for silage and dairy farming.
The area was badly aected by the outbreak of foot-andmouth disease across the United Kingdom in 2001. The
outbreak started in Surrey in February, but had spread to
Cumbria by end of March.[35] Thousands of sheep, include the native Herdwicks which graze on the fellsides
across the district, were destroyed. In replacing the sheep,
one problem to overcome was that many of the lost sheep
were heafed, that is, they knew their part of the unfenced
fell and did not stray, with this knowledge being passed
between generations. With all the sheep lost at once, this
With its wealth of rock types and their abundance in the

landscape, mining and quarrying have long been signicant activities in the Lake District economy. In Neolithic
times, the Lake District was a major source of stone axes,
examples of which have been found all over Britain. The
primary site, on the slopes of the Langdale Pikes, is sometimes described as a stone axe factory of the Langdale
axe industry. Some of the earliest stone circles in Britain
are connected with this industry.
Mining, particularly of copper, lead (often associated
with quantities of silver), baryte, graphite and slate, was
historically a major Lakeland industry, mainly from the
16th to 19th centuries. Coppiced woodland was used extensively to provide charcoal for smelting. Some mining
still takes place today; for example, slate mining continues at the Honister Mines, at the top of Honister Pass.
Abandoned mine-workings can be found on fell-sides
throughout the district. The locally mined graphite led to
the development of the pencil industry, especially around
Keswick.
In the middle of the 19th century, half the world textile industrys bobbin supply came from the Lake District
area. Over the past century, however, tourism has grown
rapidly to become the areas primary source of income.
24
A typical Lake District scene
Claife Station on the western shore of Windermere
3.7.3
A Guide to the Lakes, which began the era of modern

tourism.
Development of tourism
Early visitors to the Lake District, who travelled for the

education and pleasure of the journey, include Celia Fiennes who in 1698 undertook a journey the length of England, including riding through Kendal and over Kirkstone
Pass into Patterdale. Her experiences and impressions
were published in her book Great Journey to Newcastle
and Cornwall:
As I walked down at this place I was walled
on both sides by those inaccessible high rocky
barren hills which hang over ones head in some
places and appear very terrible; and from them
springs many little currents of water from the
sides and clefts which trickle down to some
lower part where it runs swiftly over the stones
and shelves in the way, which makes a pleasant rush and murmuring noise and like a snowball is increased by each spring trickling down
on either side of those hills, and so descends
into the bottoms which are a Moorish ground
in which in many places the waters stand, and
so form some of those Lakes as it did here.[39]
West listed stations, viewpoints where tourists could enjoy the best views of the landscape, being encouraged to
appreciated the formal qualities of the landscape and to
apply aesthetic values. At some of these stations, buildings were erected to help this process. The remains of
Claife Station (on the western shore Windermere below
Claife Heights) can be visited today.
William Wordsworth published his Guide to the Lakes in
1810, and by 1835 it had reached its fth edition, now
called A Guide Through the District of the Lakes in the
North of England. This book was particularly inuential
in popularising the region. Wordsworths favourite valley was Dunnerdale or the Duddon Valley nestling in the
south west of the Lake District.
The railways led to another expansion in tourism. The

Kendal and Windermere Railway was the rst to penetrate the Lake District, reaching Kendal in 1846 and
Windermere in 1847. The line to Coniston opened
in 1848 (although until 1857 this was only linked to
the national network with ferries between Fleetwood
and Barrow-in-Furness); the line from Penrith through
Keswick to Cockermouth in 1865; and the line to
Lakeside at the foot of Windermere in 1869. The railIn 1724, Daniel Defoe published the rst volume of A
ways, built with traditional industry in mind, brought with
Tour Thro' the Whole Island of Great Britain. He comthem a huge increase in the number of visitors, thus conmented on Westmorland that it was:
tributing to the growth of the tourism industry. Railway
services were supplemented by steamer boats on the major lakes of Ullswater, Windermere, Coniston Water, and
the wildest, most barren and frightful of
Derwent Water.
any that I have passed over in England, or even
Wales itself; the west side, which borders on
The growth in tourist numbers continued into the age of
Cumberland, is indeed bounded by a chain of
the motor car, when railways began to be closed or run
almost unpassable mountains which, in the landown. The formation of the Lake District National Park
guage of the country, are called fells.
in 1951 recognised the need to protect the Lake District
Towards the end of the 18th century, the area was becoming more popular with travellers. This was partly a result
of wars in Continental Europe, restricting the possibility
of travel there. In 1778 Father Thomas West produced
environment from excessive commercial or industrial exploitation, preserving that which visitors come to see,
without any restriction on the movement of people into
and around the district. The M6 Motorway helped bring
trac to the Lakes, passing up its eastern ank. The nar-
3.8. LITERATURE AND ART
25
on by venues such as Theatre by the Lake in Keswick
with its summer season of six plays in repertoire, Christmas and Easter productions, and the many literature, lm,
mountaineering, jazz and creative arts festivals, such as
the Kendal Mountain Festival and the Keswick Mountain
Festival.
3.7.4 Gastronomy
A steamer on Ullswater
The Lake District has been regarded as one of the

best places to eat in Britain.[42] The region has two
row roads present a challenge for trac ow and, from Michelin Star restaurants: L'Enclume and The Samling in Ambleside. In addition, Cumbria has more
the 1960s, certain areas have been very congested.
microbreweries than any other county in Britain and toWhilst the roads and railways provided easier access to gether with Jennings Brewery supply a variety of ales to
the area, many people were drawn to the Lakes by the pubs and restaurants throughout the region.
publication of the Pictorial Guide to the Lakeland Fells
by Alfred Wainwright. First published between 1955 and
1966, these books provided detailed information on 214
fells across the region, with carefully hand-drawn maps 3.8 Literature and art
and panoramas, and also stories and asides which add to
the colour of the area. They are still used by many visitors The Lake District is intimately associated with English litto the area as guides for walking excursions, with the ul- erature of the 18th and 19th centuries. Thomas Gray was
timate goal of bagging the complete list of Wainwrights. the rst to bring the region to attention, when he wrote
The famous guides were revised by Chris Jesty between a journal of his Grand Tour in 1769, but it was William
2005 and 2009 to reect changes, mainly in valley ac- Wordsworth whose poems were most famous and inucess and paths, and are currently being revised by Clive ential. Wordsworths poem "I Wandered Lonely as a
Hutchby, the author of The Wainwright Companion. The Cloud", inspired by the sight of daodils on the shores
rst of the revised volumes, Book One: The Eastern Fells, of Ullswater, remains one of the most famous in the Enwas published in March 2015.[40]
glish language. Out of his long life of eighty years, sixty
Since the early 1960s, the National Park Authority has were spent amid its lakes and mountains, rst as a schoolemployed rangers to help cope with increasing tourism boy at Hawkshead, and afterwards living in Grasmere
and development, the rst being John Wyatt, who has (17991813) and Rydal Mount (181350). Wordsworth,
since written a number of guide books. He was joined Coleridge and Southey became known as the Lake Poets.
two years later by a second, and since then the number of The poet and his wife lie buried in the churchyard of
rangers has been rising.
Grasmere and very near to them are the remains of
The area has also become associated with writer Beatrix Hartley Coleridge (son of the poet Samuel Taylor CoPotter. A number of tourists visit to see her family home, leridge), who himself lived for many years in Keswick,
Ambleside and Grasmere. Robert Southey, the Poet
with particularly large numbers coming from Japan.
Laureate and friend of Wordsworth (who would succeed
Tourism has now become the parks major industry, with Southey as Laureate in 1843), was a resident of Keswick
about 12 million visitors each year, mainly from the UKs for forty years (180343), and was buried in Crosthwaite
larger settlements, China, Japan, Spain, Germany and the churchyard. Samuel Taylor Coleridge lived for some time
US.[41] Windermere Lake Steamers are Cumbrias most in Keswick, and also with the Wordsworths at Grasmere.
popular charging tourist attraction with about 1.35 mil- From 1807 to 1815 John Wilson lived at Windermere.
lion paying customers each year, and the local economy is Thomas de Quincey spent the greater part of the years
dependent upon tourists. The negative impact of tourism 1809 to 1828 at Grasmere, in the rst cottage which
has been seen, however. Soil erosion, caused by walking, Wordsworth had inhabited. Ambleside, or its environs,
is now a signicant problem, with millions of pounds be- was also the place of residence both of Thomas Arnold,
ing spent to protect over-used paths. In 2006, two tourist who spent there the vacations of the last ten years of his
information centres in the National Park were closed.
life and of Harriet Martineau, who built herself a house
Cultural tourism is becoming an increasingly important there in 1845. At Keswick, Mrs Lynn Linton (wife of
part of the wider tourist industry. The Lake Districts William James Linton) was born, in 1822. Brantwood,
links with a wealth of artists and writers and its strong a house beside Coniston Water, was the home of John
history of providing summer theatre performances in the Ruskin during the last years of his life. His assistant W.
old Blue Box of Century Theatre are strong attractions G. Collingwood the author, artist and antiquarian lived
for visiting tourists. The tradition of theatre is carried nearby, and wrote Thorstein of the Mere, set in the Norse
26
period.
area oers the reader a precise view of the natural beauty

In addition to these residents or natives of the Lake Dis- of the Lake District.
trict, a variety of other poets and writers made visits Some students of Arthurian lore identify the Lake District
to the Lake District or were bound by ties of friend- with the Grail kingdom of Listeneise.
ship with those already mentioned above. These inThe former Keswick School of Industrial Art at Keswick
clude Percy Bysshe Shelley, Sir Walter Scott, Nathaniel was started by Canon Rawnsley, a friend of John Ruskin.
Hawthorne, Arthur Hugh Clough, Henry Crabb Robinson, Conversation Sharp, Thomas Carlyle, John Keats,
Lord Tennyson, Matthew Arnold, Felicia Hemans, and
3.9 Nomenclature
Gerald Massey.
During the early 20th century, the childrens author
A number of words and phrases are local to the Lake DisBeatrix Potter was in residence at Hill Top Farm, settrict and are part of the Cumbrian dialect, though many
ting many of her famous Peter Rabbit books in the Lake
are shared by other northern dialects. These include:
District. Her life was made into a biopic lm, starring
Rene Zellweger and Ewan McGregor. Arthur Ransome
Fell from Old Norse fjallr, brought to England by
lived in several areas of the Lake District, and set ve
Viking invaders and close to modern Norwegian fjell
of his Swallows and Amazons series of books, published
and Swedish fjll meaning mountain
between 1930 and 1947, in a ctionalised Lake District
setting. So did Georey Trease with his ve Black Ban Howe place name from the Old Norse haugr
ner school stories (194956), starting with No Boats on
meaning hill, knoll, or mound
Bannermere.
Tarn a word that has been taken to mean a small
The novelist Sir Hugh Walpole lived at Brackenburn
lake situated in a corrie (the local name for which
on the lower slopes of Catbells overlooking Derwent Wais cove), a local phrase for any small pool of water.
ter from 1924 until his death in 1941. Whilst living at
The word is derived from the Old Norse, Norwegian
Brackenburn he wrote The Herries Chronicle detailing
and Swedish word tjern/tjrn, meaning small lake.
the history of a ctional Cumbrian family over two centuries. The noted author and poet Norman Nicholson
Yan tan tethera the name for a system of sheep
came from the south west lakes, living and writing about
counting which was traditionally used in the Lake
Millom in the 20th century he was known as the last
District. Though now rare, it is still used by some
of the Lake Poets and came close to becoming the Poet
and taught in local schools.
Laureate.
Heaf (a variant of heft) the home territory of a
The Lakes has been an inspirations for many notable
ock of sheep
artists. Some of the most famous artists to depict the region in their work have been Alfred Heaton Cooper and
William Heaton Cooper.
3.10 See also
Writer and author Melvyn Bragg was brought up in the

region and has used it as the setting for some of his work,
such as his novel A Time to Dance, later turned into a
television drama.
The Lake District has been the setting for crime novels by
Reginald Hill, Val McDermid and Martin Edwards. The
region is also a recurring theme in Ernest Hemingway's
1926 novella The Torrents of Spring and features prominently in Ian McEwan's Amsterdam, which won the 1998
Booker Prize.
Geology of England
Geology of the United Kingdom
3.11 References
[1] National Park facts and gures. nationalparks.gov.uk.
Retrieved 1 September 2012.
The Lake District is mentioned in Jane Austen's Pride and

Prejudice; Elizabeth Bennet looks forward to a holiday
there with her aunt and uncle and is excessively disappointed upon learning they cannot travel that far.
[2] Lake District National Park Home page. Lakedistrict.gov.uk. 6 April 2005. Retrieved 21 April 2010.
Film director Ken Russell lived in the

Keswick/Borrowdale area until 2007[43] and used it
in lms such as Tommy and Mahler.
[4] Forestry Commission Cumbria.
The Lake District is the setting for the 1977 Richard

Adams novel The Plague Dogs. Adams knowledge of the
[6] Lake District National Park - World Heritage Inscription for the Lake District. Lakeswhs.co.uk. Retrieved on
2014-04-12.
[3] The state of farming and land management in the Lake

District.
[5] Brockhole. Retrieved 22 June 2012.
3.12. FURTHER READING
[7] , Announcement, 11 December 2009

[8] County will ght national park extension 'tooth and nail',
The Grough, 2011-09-29
[9] Lakes to Dales Landscape Designation Project, Natural
England
[10] Tories dragging their heels over plan to join up two national parks, The Observer, July 30 2015
[11] OS 1:50,000 scale mapping
27
[32] Algae threatens rare sh. BBC News. 27 November

2002. Retrieved 3 September 2012.
[33] Endangered sh take to the air. BBC News. 30 November 2005. Retrieved 3 September 2012.
[34] Llamas move sh to cooler waters in Lake District. BBC
News. 12 April 2011. Retrieved 3 September 2012.
[35] Cadwalladr, Carole (26 March 2001). Lake District
'nightmare' as fell farm is infected. The Telegraph. Retrieved 27 August 2012.
[12] South Lakeland District Council website.

[13] Ordnance Survey 1:50,000 scale Landranger map sheets
89, 90, 96 & 97
[14] Warren, Simon (20 July 2012). Britains top 10 toughest cycle climbs. The Guardian. Retrieved 6 September
2012.
[15] Gannon, Rock Trails Lakeland
[16] British Geological Survey Regional memoir Northern
England 5th edn 2010
[17] http://www.lakedistrict.gov.uk/factsheet_geology.pdf
[18] met oce report
[19] Keswick Climate Period 1981-2010. Met Oce. Retrieved 4 November 2013.
[20] Red squirrels. Forestry Commission. Retrieved 26 August 2012.
[21] Prince launches innovative new drive to protect red squirrels. The Telegraph. 17 February 2011. Retrieved 26
August 2012.
[22] Cumbria Bird Club. Cumbria Bird Club. Retrieved 3
September 2012.
[23] Reserves - Haweswater. RSPB. Retrieved 3 September
2012.
[24] Golden Eagle - Population Trends. RSPB. Retrieved 26
August 2012.
[25] Bignell, Paul (29 April 2007). Golden Boy: Englands
last golden eagle. The Independent. Retrieved 26 August
2012.
[26] Osprey spotted in Cumbria at start of nesting season.
BBC News. 2 April 2012. Retrieved 3 September 2012.
[27] Red kites returned to Cumbria forest after 160 years.
BBC News. 3 August 2010. Retrieved 3 September 2012.
[28] Grizedale Forest sees reintroduction of red kites. BBC
News. 15 May 2012. Retrieved 3 September 2012.
[29] Haweswater - Star species. RSPB. Retrieved 3 September 2012.
[30] Haweswater - Seasonal highlights. RSPB. Retrieved 3
September 2012.
[31] Ancient vendace sh saved from edge of extinction. The
Telegraph. 9 July 2009. Retrieved 3 September 2012.
[36] Grin, Harry (11 April 2001). "'If they go, it is the end
of Lakeland'". The Guardian. Retrieved 27 August 2012.
[37] MacClean, Matt (21 March 2001). Rare breeds 'could
be lost'". BBC News. Retrieved 27 August 2012.
[38] Clarke, Tom (9 February 2011). Sheep breed resurrected decade on from foot and mouth. Channel 4 News.
Retrieved 27 August 2012.
[39] An Anthology of Womens Travel Writing - Google
Books. Books.google.com. Retrieved on 2014-04-12.
[40] Wainwright, Martin (13 June 2005). Famed fells guides
join the 21st century. The Guardian.
[41] Desintations: Lake District. BBC\. 27 January 2005.
Archived from the original on 31 January 2005.
[42] Wallop, Harry (15 January 2010). [*100 best restaurants
in the UK - Features, Food & Drink - The Independent.
web.archive.org. Retrieved 19 May 2014. 100"]. London: The Independent. Retrieved 4 May 2011. the Lake
District is becoming one of the best places to eat in Britain
[43] Coombe Cottage. Thelakedistrict.info. 11 July 2006.
Archived from the original on 18 February 2009. Retrieved 21 April 2010.
3.12 Further reading

Gannon, P. Rock Trails Lakeland: A Hillwalkers
Guide to the Geology and Scenery, 2008, Pesda
Press, ISBN 978-1-906095-15-4
Hollingsworth, S. '"The Geology of the Lake District: a review, Proc. Geologists Assoc., 65 (Part 4)
1954
Moseley, F. Geology of the Lake District, Yorkshire
Geologic
Lake District Tours, A Collection of Travel Writings and Guide Books in the Romantic Era in 6 vols.,
edited by Tomoya Oda, Eureka Press, 2008.
Chilton, Steve (2013). Its a hill, get over it: fell runnings history and characters. Dingwall: Sandstone
Press. ISBN 978-1-908737-57-1.
28
3.13 External links

Lake District National Park Authority
Lake District at DMOZ
Lake District National Park travel guide from
Wikivoyage
Coordinates: 5430N 310W / 54.500N 3.167W
Chapter 4
Vacuum
This article is about empty physical space or the absence
of matter. For the appliance, see vacuum cleaner. For
other uses, see Vacuum (disambiguation).
Free space redirects here. For other uses, see Free
space (disambiguation).
Vacuum is space void of matter. The word stems from
Outer space is an even higher-quality vacuum, with the

equivalent of just a few hydrogen atoms per cubic meter on average.[5] According to modern understanding,
even if all matter could be removed from a volume, it
would still not be empty due to vacuum uctuations,
dark energy, transiting gamma- and cosmic rays, neutrinos, along with other phenomena in quantum physics. In
the electromagnetism in the 19th century, vacuum was
thought to be lled with a medium called aether. In modern particle physics, the vacuum state is considered the
ground state of matter.
Vacuum has been a frequent topic of philosophical debate
since ancient Greek times, but was not studied empirically until the 17th century. Evangelista Torricelli produced the rst laboratory vacuum in 1643, and other experimental techniques were developed as a result of his
theories of atmospheric pressure. A torricellian vacuum is created by lling with mercury a tall glass container closed at one end and then inverting the container
into a bowl to contain the mercury.[6]
Vacuum became a valuable industrial tool in the 20th century with the introduction of incandescent light bulbs and
Pump to demonstrate vacuum
vacuum tubes, and a wide array of vacuum technology
the Latin adjective vacuus for vacant or void. An ap- has since become available. The recent development of
proximation to such vacuum is a region with a gaseous human spaceight has raised interest in the impact of vacpressure much less than atmospheric pressure.[1] Physi- uum on human health, and on life forms in general.
cists often discuss ideal test results that would occur in a
perfect vacuum, which they sometimes simply call vacuum or free space, and use the term partial vacuum
to refer to an actual imperfect vacuum as one might have
in a laboratory or in space. In engineering and applied
physics on the other hand vacuum refers to any space in
which the pressure is lower than atmospheric pressure.[2]
The Latin term in vacuo is used to describe an object as
being in what would otherwise be a vacuum.
The quality of a partial vacuum refers to how closely it
approaches a perfect vacuum. Other things equal, lower
gas pressure means higher-quality vacuum. For example, a typical vacuum cleaner produces enough suction
to reduce air pressure by around 20%.[3] Much higherquality vacuums are possible. Ultra-high vacuum chambers, common in chemistry, physics, and engineering, operate below one trillionth (1012 ) of atmospheric pressure A large vacuum chamber
(100 nPa), and can reach around 100 particles/cm3 .[4]
29
30
CHAPTER 4. VACUUM
4.1 Etymology
at length, its successful reication by force elds and ever

more sophisticated geometric structure, the anachronism
[10]
The word vacuum comes from Latin an empty space, of empty space widened until a seething ferment of
void, noun use of neuter of vacuus, meaning empty, quantum activity in the 20th century lled the vacuum
with a virtual pleroma.
related to vacare, meaning be empty.
Vacuum is one of the few words in the English language The explanation of a clepsydra or water clock was a popular topic in the Middle Ages. Although a simple wine
that contains two consecutive letter u's.[7]
skin suced to demonstrate a partial vacuum, in principle, more advanced suction pumps had been developed
in Roman Pompeii.[11]
4.2 Historical interpretation
Historically, there has been much dispute over whether

such a thing as a vacuum can exist. Ancient Greek
philosophers debated the existence of a vacuum, or void,
in the context of atomism, which posited void and atom
as the fundamental explanatory elements of physics. Following Plato, even the abstract concept of a featureless
void faced considerable skepticism: it could not be apprehended by the senses, it could not, itself, provide additional explanatory power beyond the physical volume
with which it was commensurate and, by denition, it was
quite literally nothing at all, which cannot rightly be said
to exist. Aristotle believed that no void could occur naturally, because the denser surrounding material continuum
would immediately ll any incipient rarity that might give
rise to a void.
In his Physics, book IV, Aristotle oered numerous arguments against the void: for example, that motion through
a medium which oered no impediment could continue
ad innitum, there being no reason that something would
come to rest anywhere in particular. Although Lucretius
argued for the existence of vacuum in the rst century
BC and Hero of Alexandria tried unsuccessfully to create
an articial vacuum in the rst century AD,[8] it was European scholars such as Roger Bacon, Blasius of Parma
and Walter Burley in the 13th and 14th century who focused considerable attention on these issues. Eventually
following Stoic physics in this instance, scholars from the
14th century onward increasingly departed from the Aristotelian perspective in favor of a supernatural void beyond
the connes of the cosmos itself, a conclusion widely acknowledged by the 17th century, which helped to segregate natural and theological concerns.[9]
Almost two thousand years after Plato, Ren Descartes
also proposed a geometrically based alternative theory
of atomism, without the problematic nothingeverything
dichotomy of void and atom. Although Descartes agreed
with the contemporary position, that a vacuum does not
occur in nature, the success of his namesake coordinate
system and more implicitly, the spacialcorporeal component of his metaphysics would come to dene the philosophically modern notion of empty space as a quantied
extension of volume. By the ancient denition however,
directional information and magnitude were conceptually
distinct. With the acquiescence of Cartesian mechanical
philosophy to the brute fact of action at a distance, and
In the medieval Middle Eastern world, the physicist and

Islamic scholar, Al-Farabi (Alpharabius, 872950), conducted a small experiment concerning the existence of
vacuum, in which he investigated handheld plungers in
water.[12] He concluded that airs volume can expand
to ll available space, and he suggested that the concept of perfect vacuum was incoherent.[13] However, according to Nader El-Bizri, the physicist Ibn al-Haytham
(Alhazen, 9651039) and the Mu'tazili theologians disagreed with Aristotle and Al-Farabi, and they supported
the existence of a void. Using geometry, Ibn al-Haytham
mathematically demonstrated that place (al-makan) is
the imagined three-dimensional void between the inner
surfaces of a containing body.[14] According to Ahmad
Dallal, Ab Rayhn al-Brn also states that there is
no observable evidence that rules out the possibility of
vacuum.[15] The suction pump later appeared in Europe
from the 15th century.[16][17][18]
Medieval thought experiments into the idea of a vacuum
considered whether a vacuum was present, if only for an
instant, between two at plates when they were rapidly
separated.[19] There was much discussion of whether the
air moved in quickly enough as the plates were separated,
or, as Walter Burley postulated, whether a 'celestial agent'
prevented the vacuum arising. The commonly held view
that nature abhorred a vacuum was called horror vacui.
Speculation that even God could not create a vacuum if
he wanted to was shut down by the 1277 Paris condemnations of Bishop Etienne Tempier, which required there
to be no restrictions on the powers of God, which led to
the conclusion that God could create a vacuum if he so
wished.[20] Jean Buridan reported in the 14th century that
teams of ten horses could not pull open bellows when the
port was sealed.[8]
The 17th century saw the rst attempts to quantify measurements of partial vacuum.[21] Evangelista Torricelli's
mercury barometer of 1643 and Blaise Pascal's experiments that both demonstrated a partial vacuum.
In 1654, Otto von Guericke invented the rst vacuum
pump[22] and conducted his famous Magdeburg hemispheres experiment, showing that teams of horses could
not separate two hemispheres from which the air had been
partially evacuated. Robert Boyle improved Guerickes
design and with the help of Robert Hooke further developed vacuum pump technology. Thereafter, research into
the partial vacuum lapsed until 1850 when August Toe-
4.4. QUANTUM MECHANICS
31
pler invented the Toepler Pump and Heinrich Geissler invented the mercury displacement pump in 1855, achieving a partial vacuum of about 10 Pa (0.1 Torr). A number
of electrical properties become observable at this vacuum
level, which renewed interest in further research.
(technically, these phenomena are the components of the

Weyl tensor). The black hole (with zero electric charge)
is an elegant example of a region completely lled with
vacuum, but still showing a strong curvature.
While outer space provides the most rareed example of

a naturally occurring partial vacuum, the heavens were
originally thought to be seamlessly lled by a rigid indestructible material called aether. Borrowing somewhat
from the pneuma of Stoic physics, aether came to be regarded as the rareed air from which it took its name,
(see Aether (mythology)). Early theories of light posited
a ubiquitous terrestrial and celestial medium through
which light propagated. Additionally, the concept informed Isaac Newton's explanations of both refraction
and of radiant heat.[23] 19th century experiments into this
luminiferous aether attempted to detect a minute drag on
the Earths orbit. While the Earth does, in fact, move
through a relatively dense medium in comparison to that
of interstellar space, the drag is so minuscule that it could
not be detected. In 1912, astronomer Henry Pickering
commented: While the interstellar absorbing medium
may be simply the ether, [it] is characteristic of a gas,
and free gaseous molecules are certainly there.[24]
4.3.2 Electromagnetism
In 1930, Paul Dirac proposed a model of the vacuum

as an innite sea of particles possessing negative energy,
called the Dirac sea. This theory helped rene the predictions of his earlier formulated Dirac equation, and
successfully predicted the existence of the positron, conrmed two years later. Werner Heisenberg's uncertainty
principle formulated in 1927, predict a fundamental limit
within which instantaneous position and momentum, or
energy and time can be measured. This has far reaching consequences on the emptiness of space between
particles. In the late 20th century, so-called virtual particles that arise spontaneously from empty space were conrmed.
4.3 Classical Field Theories
In classical electromagnetism, the vacuum of free space,

or sometimes just free space or perfect vacuum, is a standard reference medium for electromagnetic eects.[25][26]
Some authors refer to this reference medium as classical
vacuum,[25] a terminology intended to separate this concept from QED vacuum or QCD vacuum, where vacuum
uctuations can produce transient virtual particle densities and a relative permittivity and relative permeability
that are not identically unity.[27][28][29]
In the theory of classical electromagnetism, free space has
the following properties:
Electromagnetic radiation travels, when unobstructed, at the speed of light, the dened value
299,792,458 m/s in SI units.[30]
The superposition principle is always exactly
true.[31] For example, the electric potential generated by two charges is the simple addition of the potentials generated by each charge in isolation. The
value of the electric eld at any point around these
two charges is found by calculating the vector sum
of the two electric elds from each of the charges
acting alone.
The permittivity and permeability are exactly the
electric constant 0 [32] and magnetic constant 0 ,[33]
respectively (in SI units), or exactly 1 (in Gaussian
units).
The characteristic impedance () equals the
impedance of free space Z 0 376.73 .[34]
The vacuum of classical electromagnetism can be
viewed as an idealized electromagnetic medium with the
constitutive relations in SI units:[35]
The strictest criteria to dene a vacuum is a region of

space and time where all the components of the stress
energy tensor are zero. It means that this region is empty D(r, t) = 0 E(r, t)
of energy and momentum, and by consequence, it must
1
B(r, t)
be empty of particles and other physical elds (such as H(r, t) =
0
electromagnetism) that contain energy and momentum.
relating the electric displacement eld D to the electric
eld E and the magnetic eld or H-eld H to the magnetic
induction or B-eld B. Here r is a spatial location and t is
4.3.1 Gravity
time.
In general relativity, a vanishing stress-energy tensor implies, through Einstein eld equations, the vanishing of
all the components of the Ricci tensor. Vacuum does not 4.4 Quantum mechanics
mean that the curvature of space-time is necessarily at:
the gravitational eld can still produce curvature in a vac- For more details on this topic, see QED vacuum, QCD
uum in the form of tidal forces and gravitational waves vacuum, Vacuum state.
32
In quantum mechanics and quantum eld theory, the
vacuum is dened as the state (that is, the solution to the
equations of the theory) with the lowest possible energy
(the ground state of the Hilbert space). In quantum electrodynamics this vacuum is referred to as 'QED vacuum'
to distinguish it from the vacuum of quantum chromodynamics, denoted as QCD vacuum. QED vacuum is a
state with no matter particles (hence the name), and also
no photons. As described above, this state is impossible
to achieve experimentally. (Even if every matter particle could somehow be removed from a volume, it would
be impossible to eliminate all the blackbody photons.)
Nonetheless, it provides a good model for realizable vacuum, and agrees with a number of experimental observations as described next.
CHAPTER 4. VACUUM
ents of pressure, temperature and composition, and varies
greatly due to space weather. Astrophysicists prefer to
use number density to describe these environments, in
units of particles per cubic centimetre.
But although it meets the denition of outer space, the

atmospheric density within the rst few hundred kilometers above the Krmn line is still sucient to produce
signicant drag on satellites. Most articial satellites operate in this region called low earth orbit and must re
their engines every few days to maintain orbit. The drag
here is low enough that it could theoretically be overcome
by radiation pressure on solar sails, a proposed propulsion
system for interplanetary travel. Planets are too massive
for their trajectories to be signicantly aected by these
forces, although their atmospheres are eroded by the solar
QED vacuum has interesting and complex properties. winds.
In QED vacuum, the electric and magnetic elds have All of the observable universe is lled with large numzero average values, but their variances are not zero.[36] bers of photons, the so-called cosmic background radiAs a result, QED vacuum contains vacuum uctuations ation, and quite likely a correspondingly large number
(virtual particles that hop into and out of existence), and of neutrinos. The current temperature of this radiation
a nite energy called vacuum energy. Vacuum uctua- is about 3 K, or 270 degrees Celsius or 454 degrees
tions are an essential and ubiquitous part of quantum eld Fahrenheit.
theory. Some experimentally veried eects of vacuum
uctuations include spontaneous emission and the Lamb
shift.[20] Coulombs law and the electric potential in vacuum near an electric charge are modied.[37]
Theoretically, in QCD vacuum multiple vacuum states
can coexist.[38] The starting and ending of cosmological
ination is thought to have arisen from transitions between dierent vacuum states. For theories obtained by
quantization of a classical theory, each stationary point of
the energy in the conguration space gives rise to a single
vacuum. String theory is believed to have a huge number
of vacua the so-called string theory landscape.
4.5 Outer space

Main article: Outer space
Outer space has very low density and pressure, and is
the closest physical approximation of a perfect vacuum.
But no vacuum is truly perfect, not even in interstellar
space, where there are still a few hydrogen atoms per cubic meter.[5]
Stars, planets and moons keep their atmospheres by gravitational attraction, and as such, atmospheres have no
clearly delineated boundary: the density of atmospheric
gas simply decreases with distance from the object. The
Earths atmospheric pressure drops to about 3.2102 Pa
at 100 kilometres (62 mi) of altitude,[39] the Krmn line,
which is a common denition of the boundary with outer
space. Beyond this line, isotropic gas pressure rapidly
becomes insignicant when compared to radiation pressure from the sun and the dynamic pressure of the solar
wind, so the denition of pressure becomes dicult to
interpret. The thermosphere in this range has large gradi-
4.6 Measurement
Main article: Pressure measurement

The quality of a vacuum is indicated by the amount of
matter remaining in the system, so that a high quality vacuum is one with very little matter left in it. Vacuum is
primarily measured by its absolute pressure, but a complete characterization requires further parameters, such
as temperature and chemical composition. One of the
most important parameters is the mean free path (MFP)
of residual gases, which indicates the average distance
that molecules will travel between collisions with each
other. As the gas density decreases, the MFP increases,
and when the MFP is longer than the chamber, pump,
spacecraft, or other objects present, the continuum assumptions of uid mechanics do not apply. This vacuum
state is called high vacuum, and the study of uid ows
in this regime is called particle gas dynamics. The MFP
of air at atmospheric pressure is very short, 70 nm, but at
100 mPa (~1103 Torr) the MFP of room temperature
air is roughly 100 mm, which is on the order of everyday
objects such as vacuum tubes. The Crookes radiometer
turns when the MFP is larger than the size of the vanes.
Vacuum quality is subdivided into ranges according to the
technology required to achieve it or measure it. These
ranges do not have universally agreed denitions, but a
typical distribution is shown in the following table.[40][41]
As we travel into orbit, outer space and ultimately intergalactic space, the pressure varies by several orders of
magnitude.
4.6. MEASUREMENT
33
Atmospheric pressure is variable but standardized where ground level atmospheric pressure is much higher
at 101.325 kPa (760 Torr).
than on Earth, much higher relative vacuum readings
would be possible. On the surface of the moon with al Low vacuum, also called rough vacuum or coarse most no atmosphere, it would be extremely dicult to
vacuum, is vacuum that can be achieved or mea- create a measurable vacuum relative to the local environsured with rudimentary equipment such as a vacuum ment.
cleaner and a liquid column manometer.
Similarly, much higher than normal relative vacuum read Medium vacuum is vacuum that can be achieved ings are possible deep in the Earths ocean. A submarine
with a single pump, but the pressure is too low to maintaining an internal pressure of 1 atmosphere submeasure with a liquid or mechanical manometer. merged to a depth of 10 atmospheres (98 metres; a 9.8
It can be measured with a McLeod gauge, thermal metre column of seawater has the equivalent weight of
gauge or a capacitive gauge.
1 atm) is eectively a vacuum chamber keeping out the
crushing exterior water pressures, though the 1 atm in High vacuum is vacuum where the MFP of residside the submarine would not normally be considered a
ual gases is longer than the size of the chamber or
vacuum.
of the object under test. High vacuum usually requires multi-stage pumping and ion gauge measure- Therefore, to properly understand the following discusment. Some texts dierentiate between high vac- sions of vacuum measurement, it is important that the
reader assumes the relative measurements are being done
uum and very high vacuum.
on Earth at sea level, at exactly 1 atmosphere of ambient
Ultra high vacuum requires baking the chamber atmospheric pressure.
to remove trace gases, and other special procedures.
British and German standards dene ultra high vacuum as pressures below 106 Pa (108 Torr).[42][43] 4.6.2 Measurements relative to 1 atm
Deep space is generally much more empty than any
articial vacuum. It may or may not meet the definition of high vacuum above, depending on what
region of space and astronomical bodies are being
considered. For example, the MFP of interplanetary space is smaller than the size of the solar system, but larger than small planets and moons. As
a result, solar winds exhibit continuum ow on the
scale of the solar system, but must be considered a
bombardment of particles with respect to the Earth
and Moon.
The SI unit of pressure is the pascal (symbol Pa), but

vacuum is often measured in torrs, named for Torricelli,
an early Italian physicist (16081647). A torr is equal
to the displacement of a millimeter of mercury (mmHg)
in a manometer with 1 torr equaling 133.3223684 pascals above absolute zero pressure. Vacuum is often also
measured on the barometric scale or as a percentage
of atmospheric pressure in bars or atmospheres. Low
vacuum is often measured in millimeters of mercury
(mmHg) or pascals (Pa) below standard atmospheric
pressure. Below atmospheric means that the absolute
Perfect vacuum is an ideal state of no particles at pressure is equal to the current atmospheric pressure.
all. It cannot be achieved in a laboratory, although In other words, most low vacuum gauges that read, for exthere may be small volumes which, for a brief mo- ample 50.79 Torr. Many inexpensive low vacuum gauges
ment, happen to have no particles of matter in them. have a margin of error and may report a vacuum of 0 Torr
Even if all particles of matter were removed, there but in practice this generally requires a two-stage rotary
would still be photons and gravitons, as well as dark vane or other medium type of vacuum pump to go much
energy, virtual particles, and other aspects of the beyond (lower than) 1 torr.
quantum vacuum.
Hard vacuum and soft vacuum are terms that
4.6.3 Measuring instruments
are dened with a dividing line dened dierently
[44][45]
or 0.1
by dierent sources, such as 1 Torr,
Many devices are used to measure the pressure in a vacTorr,[46] the common denominator being that a hard
uum, depending on what range of vacuum is needed.[47]
vacuum is a higher vacuum than a soft one.
Hydrostatic gauges (such as the mercury column
manometer) consist of a vertical column of liquid in a
4.6.1 Relative versus absolute measure- tube whose ends are exposed to dierent pressures. The
column will rise or fall until its weight is in equilibrium
ment
with the pressure dierential between the two ends of the
Vacuum is measured in units of pressure, typically as a tube. The simplest design is a closed-end U-shaped tube,
subtraction relative to ambient atmospheric pressure on one side of which is connected to the region of interest.
Earth. But the amount of relative measurable vacuum Any uid can be used, but mercury is preferred for its
varies with local conditions. On the surface of Jupiter, high density and low vapour pressure. Simple hydrostatic
34
gauges can measure pressures ranging from 1 torr (100
Pa) to above atmospheric. An important variation is the
McLeod gauge which isolates a known volume of vacuum and compresses it to multiply the height variation of
the liquid column. The McLeod gauge can measure vacuums as high as 106 torr (0.1 mPa), which is the lowest
direct measurement of pressure that is possible with current technology. Other vacuum gauges can measure lower
pressures, but only indirectly by measurement of other
pressure-controlled properties. These indirect measurements must be calibrated via a direct measurement, most
commonly a McLeod gauge.[48]
The kenotometer is a particular type of hydrostatic gauge,
typically used in power plants using steam turbines. The
kenotometer measures the vacuum in the steam space of
the condenser, that is, the exhaust of the last stage of the
turbine.[49]
Mechanical or elastic gauges depend on a Bourdon tube,
diaphragm, or capsule, usually made of metal, which will
change shape in response to the pressure of the region
in question. A variation on this idea is the capacitance
manometer, in which the diaphragm makes up a part of
a capacitor. A change in pressure leads to the exure of
the diaphragm, which results in a change in capacitance.
These gauges are eective from 103 torr to 104 torr, and
beyond.
Thermal conductivity gauges rely on the fact that the
ability of a gas to conduct heat decreases with pressure.
In this type of gauge, a wire lament is heated by running
current through it. A thermocouple or Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD) can then be used to measure the
temperature of the lament. This temperature is dependent on the rate at which the lament loses heat to the
surrounding gas, and therefore on the thermal conductivity. A common variant is the Pirani gauge which uses a
single platinum lament as both the heated element and
RTD. These gauges are accurate from 10 torr to 103 torr,
but they are sensitive to the chemical composition of the
gases being measured.
CHAPTER 4. VACUUM
vacuums will usually be unpredictable, so a mass spectrometer must be used in conjunction with the ionization
gauge for accurate measurement.[50]
4.7 Uses
Vacuum is useful in a variety of processes and devices.
Its rst widespread use was in the incandescent light bulb
to protect the lament from chemical degradation. The
chemical inertness produced by a vacuum is also useful
for electron beam welding, cold welding, vacuum packing and vacuum frying. Ultra-high vacuum is used in
the study of atomically clean substrates, as only a very
good vacuum preserves atomic-scale clean surfaces for a
reasonably long time (on the order of minutes to days).
High to ultra-high vacuum removes the obstruction of
air, allowing particle beams to deposit or remove materials without contamination. This is the principle behind chemical vapor deposition, physical vapor deposition, and dry etching which are essential to the fabrication
of semiconductors and optical coatings, and to surface
science. The reduction of convection provides the thermal insulation of thermos bottles. Deep vacuum lowers
the boiling point of liquids and promotes low temperature outgassing which is used in freeze drying, adhesive
preparation, distillation, metallurgy, and process purging.
The electrical properties of vacuum make electron microscopes and vacuum tubes possible, including cathode ray
tubes. The elimination of air friction is useful for ywheel
energy storage and ultracentrifuges.
4.7.1 Vacuum-driven machines
Vacuums are commonly used to produce suction, which

has an even wider variety of applications. The Newcomen
steam engine used vacuum instead of pressure to drive
a piston. In the 19th century, vacuum was used for
traction on Isambard Kingdom Brunel's experimental
Ion gauges are used in ultrahigh vacuum. They come atmospheric railway. Vacuum brakes were once widely
in two types: hot cathode and cold cathode. In the hot used on trains in the UK but, except on heritage railways,
cathode version an electrically heated lament produces they have been replaced by air brakes.
an electron beam. The electrons travel through the gauge
Manifold vacuum can be used to drive accessories on
and ionize gas molecules around them. The resulting ions
automobiles. The best-known application is the vacuum
are collected at a negative electrode. The current depends
servo, used to provide power assistance for the brakes.
on the number of ions, which depends on the pressure in
Obsolete applications include vacuum-driven windscreen
the gauge. Hot cathode gauges are accurate from 103
wipers and Autovac fuel pumps. Some aircraft instrutorr to 1010 torr. The principle behind cold cathode verments (Attitude Indicator (AI) and the Heading Indicator
sion is the same, except that electrons are produced in a
(HI)) are typically vacuum-powered, as protection against
discharge created by a high voltage electrical discharge.
loss of all (electrically powered) instruments, since early
Cold cathode gauges are accurate from 102 torr to 109
aircraft often did not have electrical systems, and since
torr. Ionization gauge calibration is very sensitive to conthere are two readily available sources of vacuum on
struction geometry, chemical composition of gases being
a moving aircraftthe engine and an external venturi.
measured, corrosion and surface deposits. Their calibraVacuum induction melting uses electromagnetic induction can be invalidated by activation at atmospheric prestion within a vacuum.
sure or low vacuum. The composition of gases at high
Maintaining a vacuum in the Condenser is an important
4.7. USES
aspect of the ecient operation of steam turbines. A
steam jet ejector or liquid ring vacuum pump is used for
this purpose. The typical vacuum maintained in the Condenser steam space at the exhaust of the turbine (also
called Condenser Backpressure) is in the range 5 to 15
kPa (absolute), depending on the type of condenser and
the ambient conditions.
4.7.2
Outgassing
Main article: Outgassing

Evaporation and sublimation into a vacuum is called
outgassing. All materials, solid or liquid, have a small
vapour pressure, and their outgassing becomes important
when the vacuum pressure falls below this vapour pressure. In man-made systems, outgassing has the same effect as a leak and can limit the achievable vacuum. Outgassing products may condense on nearby colder surfaces,
which can be troublesome if they obscure optical instruments or react with other materials. This is of great concern to space missions, where an obscured telescope or
solar cell can ruin an expensive mission.
The most prevalent outgassing product in man-made vacuum systems is water absorbed by chamber materials. It
can be reduced by desiccating or baking the chamber, and
removing absorbent materials. Outgassed water can condense in the oil of rotary vane pumps and reduce their net
speed drastically if gas ballasting is not used. High vacuum systems must be clean and free of organic matter to
minimize outgassing.
Ultra-high vacuum systems are usually baked, preferably
under vacuum, to temporarily raise the vapour pressure
of all outgassing materials and boil them o. Once the
bulk of the outgassing materials are boiled o and evacuated, the system may be cooled to lower vapour pressures
and minimize residual outgassing during actual operation.
Some systems are cooled well below room temperature
by liquid nitrogen to shut down residual outgassing and
simultaneously cryopump the system.
4.7.3
Pumping and ambient air pressure
Main article: Vacuum pump

Fluids cannot generally be pulled, so a vacuum cannot be
created by suction. Suction can spread and dilute a vacuum by letting a higher pressure push uids into it, but the
vacuum has to be created rst before suction can occur.
The easiest way to create an articial vacuum is to expand
the volume of a container. For example, the diaphragm
muscle expands the chest cavity, which causes the volume
of the lungs to increase. This expansion reduces the pressure and creates a partial vacuum, which is soon lled by
air pushed in by atmospheric pressure.
35
To continue evacuating a chamber indenitely without
requiring innite growth, a compartment of the vacuum
can be repeatedly closed o, exhausted, and expanded
again. This is the principle behind positive displacement
pumps, like the manual water pump for example. Inside
the pump, a mechanism expands a small sealed cavity to
create a vacuum. Because of the pressure dierential,
some uid from the chamber (or the well, in our example) is pushed into the pumps small cavity. The pumps
cavity is then sealed from the chamber, opened to the atmosphere, and squeezed back to a minute size.
The above explanation is merely a simple introduction to
vacuum pumping, and is not representative of the entire
range of pumps in use. Many variations of the positive
displacement pump have been developed, and many other
pump designs rely on fundamentally dierent principles.
Momentum transfer pumps, which bear some similarities
to dynamic pumps used at higher pressures, can achieve
much higher quality vacuums than positive displacement
pumps. Entrapment pumps can capture gases in a solid
or absorbed state, often with no moving parts, no seals
and no vibration. None of these pumps are universal;
each type has important performance limitations. They
all share a diculty in pumping low molecular weight
gases, especially hydrogen, helium, and neon.
The lowest pressure that can be attained in a system is
also dependent on many things other than the nature of
the pumps. Multiple pumps may be connected in series,
called stages, to achieve higher vacuums. The choice of
seals, chamber geometry, materials, and pump-down procedures will all have an impact. Collectively, these are
called vacuum technique. And sometimes, the nal pressure is not the only relevant characteristic. Pumping systems dier in oil contamination, vibration, preferential
pumping of certain gases, pump-down speeds, intermittent duty cycle, reliability, or tolerance to high leakage
rates.
In ultra high vacuum systems, some very odd leakage
paths and outgassing sources must be considered. The
water absorption of aluminium and palladium becomes
an unacceptable source of outgassing, and even the adsorptivity of hard metals such as stainless steel or titanium
must be considered. Some oils and greases will boil o
in extreme vacuums. The permeability of the metallic
chamber walls may have to be considered, and the grain
direction of the metallic anges should be parallel to the
ange face.
The lowest pressures currently achievable in laboratory
are about 1013 torr (13 pPa).[51] However, pressures as
low as 51017 Torr (6.7 fPa) have been indirectly measured in a 4 K cryogenic vacuum system.[4] This corresponds to 100 particles/cm3 .
36
CHAPTER 4. VACUUM
4.8 Eects on humans and animals
of the lungs.[56] Eardrums and sinuses may be ruptured

by rapid decompression, soft tissues may bruise and seep
blood, and the stress of shock will accelerate oxygen conSee also: Eect of spaceight on the human body
sumption leading to hypoxia.[60] Injuries caused by rapid
Humans and animals exposed to vacuum will lose
decompression are called barotrauma. A pressure drop
consciousness after a few seconds and die of hypoxia
of 13 kPa (100 Torr), which produces no symptoms if it
within minutes, but the symptoms are not nearly as
is gradual, may be fatal if it occurs suddenly.[56]
graphic as commonly depicted in media and popular culture. The reduction in pressure lowers the temperature Some extremophile microrganisms, such as tardigrades,
at which blood and other body uids boil, but the elastic can survive vacuum for a period of days or weeks.[61]
pressure of blood vessels ensures that this boiling point remains above the internal body temperature of 37 C.[52]
Although the blood will not boil, the formation of gas 4.9 Examples
bubbles in bodily uids at reduced pressures, known as
ebullism, is still a concern. The gas may bloat the body
See also: vacuum pump
to twice its normal size and slow circulation, but tis[53]
sues are elastic and porous enough to prevent rupture.
Swelling and ebullism can be restrained by containment
in a ight suit. Shuttle astronauts wore a tted elastic garment called the Crew Altitude Protection Suit (CAPS) 4.10 See also
which prevents ebullism at pressures as low as 2 kPa (15
Decay of the vacuum (Pair production)
Torr).[54] Rapid boiling will cool the skin and create frost,
particularly in the mouth, but this is not a signicant haz Engine vacuum
ard.
False vacuum
Animal experiments show that rapid and complete recovery is normal for exposures shorter than 90 seconds, while
Helium mass spectrometer technical instrumentalonger full-body exposures are fatal and resuscitation has
tion to detect a vacuum leak
[55]
never been successful. There is only a limited amount
of data available from human accidents, but it is consis Joining materials
tent with animal data. Limbs may be exposed for much
Pneumatic tube transport system using vacuum or
longer if breathing is not impaired.[56] Robert Boyle was
pressure to move containers in tubes
the rst to show in 1660 that vacuum is lethal to small
animals.
Rarefaction reduction of a mediums density
An experiment indicates that plants are able to survive
Suction creation of a partial vacuum
in a low pressure environment (1.5 kPa) for about 30
minutes.[57][58]
During 1942, in one of a series of experiments on human
subjects for the Luftwae, the Nazi regime experimented
on prisoners in Dachau concentration camp by exposing
them to low pressure.[59]
Cold or oxygen-rich atmospheres can sustain life at pressures much lower than atmospheric, as long as the density
of oxygen is similar to that of standard sea-level atmosphere. The colder air temperatures found at altitudes of
up to 3 km generally compensate for the lower pressures
there.[56] Above this altitude, oxygen enrichment is necessary to prevent altitude sickness in humans that did not
undergo prior acclimatization, and spacesuits are necessary to prevent ebullism above 19 km.[56] Most spacesuits
use only 20 kPa (150 Torr) of pure oxygen. This pressure
is high enough to prevent ebullism, but decompression
sickness and gas embolisms can still occur if decompression rates are not managed.
Rapid decompression can be much more dangerous than
vacuum exposure itself. Even if the victim does not hold
his or her breath, venting through the windpipe may be
too slow to prevent the fatal rupture of the delicate alveoli
Vacuum angle
Vacuum cementing natural process of solidifying
homogeneous dust in vacuum
Vacuum deposition process of depositing atoms
and molecules in a sub-atmospheric pressure environment
Vacuum engineering
Vacuum ange
4.11 Notes
[1] Chambers, Austin (2004). Modern Vacuum Physics.
Boca Raton: CRC Press. ISBN 0-8493-2438-6. OCLC
55000526.
[2] Harris, Nigel S. (1989). Modern Vacuum Practice.
McGraw-Hill. p. 3. ISBN 0077070992.
[3] Campbell, Je (2005). Speed cleaning. p. 97. ISBN 159486-274-5. Note that 1 inch of water is 0.0025 atm.
4.11. NOTES
[4] Gabrielse, G.; Fei, X.; Orozco, L.; Tjoelker, R.; Haas,
J.; Kalinowsky, H.; Trainor, T.; Kells, W. (1990).
Thousandfold improvement in the measured antiproton mass. Physical Review Letters 65 (11): 1317.
doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.65.1317.
[5] Tadokoro, M. (1968).
A Study of the Local
Group by Use of the Virial Theorem.
Publications of the Astronomical Society of Japan 20: 230.
Bibcode:1968PASJ...20..230T. This source estimates a
density of 71029 g/cm3 for the Local Group. An atomic
mass unit is 1.661024 g, for roughly 40 atoms per cubic
meter.
[6] How to Make an Experimental Geissler Tube, Popular Science monthly, February 1919, Unnumbered page. Bonnier Corporation
[7] What words in the English language contain two us in a
row?". Oxford Dictionaries Online. Retrieved 2011-10-23
[8] Genz, Henning (1994). Nothingness, the Science of Empty
Space (translated from German by Karin Heusch ed.).
New York: Perseus Book Publishing (published 1999).
ISBN 978-0-7382-0610-3. OCLC 48836264.
[9] Barrow, J.D. (2002). The Book of Nothing: Vacuums,
Voids, and the Latest Ideas About the Origins of the Universe. Vintage Series. Vintage. pp. 7172, 77. ISBN
9780375726095. LCCN 00058894.
[10] Davies, P. (1985). Superforce. A Touchstone Book. Simon & Schuster. p. 105. ISBN 9780671605735. LCCN
84005473. What might appear to be empty space is,
therefore, a seething ferment of virtual particles. A vacuum is not inert and featueless, but alive with throbbing
energy and vitality. A 'real' particle such as an electron
must always be viewed against this background of frenetic
activity. When an electron moves through space, it is actually swimming in a sea of ghost particles of all varieties
virtual leptons, quarks, and messengers, entangled in a
complex mle. The presence of the electron will distort
this irreducible vacuum activity, and the distortion in turn
reacts back on the electron. Even at rest, an electron is not
at rest: it is being continually assaulted by all manner of
other particles from the vacuum.
[11] Institute and Museum of the History of Science. Pompeii:
Nature, Science, and Technology in a Roman Town
[12] Zahoor, Akram (2000). Muslim History: 5701950 C.E.
Gaithersburg, MD: AZP (ZMD Corporation). ISBN 9780-9702389-0-0.
[13] Arabic and Islamic Natural Philosophy and Natural Science, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
[14] El-Bizri, Nader (2007). In Defence of the Sovereignty
of Philosophy: Al-Baghdadis Critique of Ibn alHaythams Geometrisation of Place. Arabic Sciences
and Philosophy (Cambridge University Press) 17: 5780.
doi:10.1017/S0957423907000367.
[15] Dallal, Ahmad (20012002). The Interplay of Science
and Theology in the Fourteenth-century Kalam. From
Medieval to Modern in the Islamic World, Sawyer Seminar at the University of Chicago. Retrieved 2008-02-02.
37
[16] Donald Routledge Hill, Mechanical Engineering in the

Medieval Near East, Scientic American, May 1991, pp.
6469 (cf. Donald Routledge Hill, Mechanical Engineering)
[17] Hassan, Ahmad Y. The Origin of the Suction Pump: AlJazari 1206 A.D. Retrieved 2008-07-16.
[18] Donald Routledge Hill (1996), A History of Engineering
in Classical and Medieval Times, Routledge, pp. 143 &
1502.
[19] Grant, Edward (1981). Much ado about nothing: theories
of space and vacuum from the Middle Ages to the scientic revolution. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780-521-22983-8.
[20] Barrow, John D. (2000). The book of nothing : vacuums,
voids, and the latest ideas about the origins of the universe
(1st American ed.). New York: Pantheon Books. ISBN
0-09-928845-1. OCLC 46600561.
[21] The Worlds Largest Barometer. Retrieved 2008-04-30.
[22] Encyclopdia Britannica:Otto von Guericke
[23] Robert Hogarth Patterson, Essays in History and Art 10,
1862
[24] Pickering, W. H. (1912). Solar system, the motion of the, relatively to the interstellar absorbing
medium. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 72: 740. Bibcode:1912MNRAS..72..740P.
doi:10.1093/mnras/72.9.740.
[25] Werner S. Weiglhofer (2003). " 4.1 The classical vacuum as reference medium. In Werner S. Weiglhofer;
Akhlesh Lakhtakia. Introduction to complex mediums for
optics and electromagnetics. SPIE Press. pp. 28, 34.
ISBN 978-0-8194-4947-4.
[26] Tom G. MacKay (2008). Electromagnetic Fields in Linear Bianisotropic Mediums. In Emil Wolf. Progress in
Optics 51. Elsevier. p. 143. ISBN 978-0-444-52038-8.
[27] Gilbert Grynberg; Alain Aspect; Claude Fabre (2010).
Introduction to Quantum Optics: From the Semi-Classical
Approach to Quantized Light. Cambridge University
Press. p. 341. ISBN 0-521-55112-9. ...deals with the
quantum vacuum where, in contrast to the classical vacuum, radiation has properties, in particular, uctuations,
with which one can associate physical eects.
[28] For a qualitative description of vacuum uctuations and
virtual particles, see Leonard Susskind (2006). The cosmic landscape: string theory and the illusion of intelligent
design. Little, Brown and Co. pp. 60 . ISBN 0-31601333-1.
[29] The relative permeability and permittivity of eldtheoretic vacuums is described in Kurt Gottfried; Victor Frederick Weisskopf (1986). Concepts of particle
physics 2. Oxford University Press. p. 389. ISBN 019-503393-0. and more recently in John F. Donoghue;
Eugene Golowich; Barry R. Holstein (1994). Dynamics
of the standard model. Cambridge University Press. p.
47. ISBN 0-521-47652-6. and also R. Keith Ellis; W. J.
38
CHAPTER 4. VACUUM
Stirling; B. R. Webber (2003). QCD and collider physics.

Cambridge University Press. pp. 2729. ISBN 0-52154589-7. Returning to the vacuum of a relativistic eld
theory, we nd that both paramagnetic and diamagnetic
contributions are present. QCD vacuum is paramagnetic,
while QED vacuum is diamagnetic. See Carlos A. Bertulani (2007). Nuclear physics in a nutshell. Princeton University Press. p. 26. ISBN 0-691-12505-8.
[30] Speed of light in vacuum, c, c0 ". The NIST reference
on constants, units, and uncertainty: Fundamental physical
constants. NIST. Retrieved 2011-11-28.
[31] Chattopadhyay, D. & Rakshit, P.C. (2004). Elements of
Physics 1. New Age International. p. 577. ISBN 81-2241538-5.
[32] Electric constant, 0 ". The NIST reference on constants,
units, and uncertainty: Fundamental physical constants.
NIST. Retrieved 2011-11-28.
[43] DIN 28400: Vakuumtechnik Bennenungen und Denitionen, 1972.

[44] Vacuum Measurements. Pressure Measurement Division. Setra Systems, Inc. 1998. Archived from the original on 2011-01-01.
[45] A look at vacuum pumps 14-9. eMedicine. McNally
Institute. Retrieved 2010-04-08.
[46] 1500 Torr Diaphragm Transmitter (PDF). Vacuum
Transmitters for Diaphragm & Pirani Sensors 24 VDC
Power. Vacuum Research Corporation. 2003-07-26. Retrieved 2010-04-08.
[47] John H., Moore; Christopher Davis; Michael A. Coplan &
Sandra Greer (2002). Building Scientic Apparatus. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. ISBN 0-8133-4007-1. OCLC
50287675.
[33] Magnetic constant, 0 ". The NIST reference on constants,

units, and uncertainty: Fundamental physical constants.
NIST. Retrieved 2011-11-28.
[48] Beckwith, Thomas G.; Roy D. Marangoni & John H.

Lienhard V (1993). Measurement of Low Pressures.
Mechanical Measurements (Fifth ed.). Reading, MA:
Addison-Wesley. pp. 591595. ISBN 0-201-56947-7.
[34] Characteristic impedance of vacuum, Z 0 ". The NIST reference on constants, units, and uncertainty: Fundamental
physical constants. NIST. Retrieved 2011-11-28.
[49] Kenotometer Vacuum Gauge. Edmonton Power Historical Foundation. 22 November 2013. Retrieved 3 February 2014.
[35] Mackay, Tom G & Lakhtakia, Akhlesh (2008). "3.1.1

Free space. In Emil Wolf. Progress in Optics 51. Elsevier. p. 143. ISBN 0-444-53211-0.
[50] Robert M. Besanon, ed. (1990). Vacuum Techniques.

The Encyclopedia of Physics (3rd ed.). Van Nostrand
Reinhold, New York. pp. 12781284. ISBN 0-44200522-9.
[36] For example, see Craig, D. P. & Thirunamachandran, T.

(1998). Molecular Quantum Electrodynamics (Reprint of
Academic Press 1984 ed.). Courier Dover Publications.
p. 40. ISBN 0-486-40214-2.
[37] In eect, the dielectric permittivity of the vacuum of classical electromagnetism is changed. For example, see Zeidler, Eberhard (2011). "19.1.9 Vacuum polarization in
quantum electrodynamics. Quantum Field Theory III:
Gauge Theory: A Bridge Between Mathematicians and
Physicists. Springer. p. 952. ISBN 3-642-22420-2.
[38] Altarelli, Guido (2008). Chapter 2: Gauge theories and
the Standard Model. Elementary Particles: Volume 21/A
of Landolt-Brnstein series. Springer. pp. 23. ISBN 3540-74202-6. The fundamental state of minimum energy,
the vacuum, is not unique and there are a continuum of
degenerate states that altogether respect the symmetry...
[39] Squire, Tom (September 27, 2000). U.S. Standard Atmosphere, 1976. Thermal Protection Systems Expert and
Material Properties Database (NASA). Retrieved 201110-23
[40] American Vacuum Society. Glossary. AVS Reference
Guide. Retrieved 2006-03-15.
[41] National Physical Laboratory, UK. What do 'high vacuum' and 'low vacuum' mean? (FAQ Pressure)". Retrieved 2012-04-22.
[42] BS 2951: Glossary of Terms Used in Vacuum Technology. Part I. Terms of General Application. British Standards Institution, London, 1969.
[51] Ishimaru, H (1989). Ultimate Pressure of the Order

of 1013 torr in an Aluminum Alloy Vacuum Chamber. Journal of Vacuum Science and Technology 7 (3II):
24392442. doi:10.1116/1.575916.
[52] Landis, Georey (7 August 2007). Human Exposure to
Vacuum. georeylandis.com. Retrieved 2006-03-25.
[53] Billings, Charles E. (1973). Chapter 1) Barometric Pressure. In Parker, James F.; West, Vita R. Bioastronautics
Data Book (Second ed.). NASA. p. 5. NASA SP-3006.
Retrieved 2012-09-23. 33.1 MB PDF
[54] Webb P. (1968). The Space Activity Suit: An Elastic
Leotard for Extravehicular Activity. Aerospace Medicine
39 (4): 376383. PMID 4872696.
[55] Cooke, J. P.; Bancroft, R. W. (1966). Some cardiovascular responses in anesthetized dogs during repeated decompressions to a near-vacuum. Aerospace medicine 37
(11): 114852. PMID 5972265.
[56] Harding, Richard M. (1989). Survival in Space: Medical Problems of Manned Spaceight. London: Routledge.
ISBN 0-415-00253-2. OCLC 18744945..
[57] Wheeler, R.M.; Wehkamp, C.A.; Stasiak, M.A.;
Dixon, M.A.; Rygalov, V.Y. (2011). Plants survive rapid decompression: Implications for bioregenerative life support.
Advances in Space Research
Bibcode:2011AdSpR..47.1600W.
47 (9): 16007.
doi:10.1016/j.asr.2010.12.017.
4.12. EXTERNAL LINKS
39
[58] Ferl, RJ; Schuerger, AC; Paul, AL; Gurley, WB; Corey,
K; Bucklin, R (2002). Plant adaptation to low atmospheric pressures: Potential molecular responses. Life
Support & Biosphere Science 8 (2): 93101. PMID
11987308.
Roberts, Mark D. (2000). Vacuum Energy. High

Energy Physics Theory. arXiv:hep-th/0012062.
Bibcode:2000hep.th...12062R.
[59] Geidobler, Carolin (31 January 2004). Die Menschenversuche im KZ Dachau [The human experiments at
Dachau] (PDF) (in German). pp. 1520. Retrieved
2012-09-23.
Much Ado About Nothing by Professor John D.

Barrow, Gresham College
[60] Czarnik, Tamarack R. (1999). EBULLISM AT 1

MILLION FEET: Surviving Rapid/Explosive Decompression. unpublished review by Landis, Georey A. georeylandis.
[61] Jnsson, K. Ingemar; Rabbow, Elke; Schill, Ralph O.;
Harms-Ringdahl, Mats & Rettberg, Petra (9 September 2008). Tardigrades survive exposure to space in
low Earth orbit. Current Biology 18 (17): R729R731.
doi:10.1016/j.cub.2008.06.048. PMID 18786368.
[62] Computed using 1976 Standard Atmosphere Properties
calculator. Retrieved 2012-01-28
[63] pik, E. J. (1962).
The lunar atmosphere.
Planetary and Space Science 9 (5):
211.
Bibcode:1962P&SS....9..211O.
doi:10.1016/00320633(62)90149-6.
[64] University of New Hampshire Experimental Space
Plasma Group. What is the Interstellar Medium. The
Interstellar Medium, an online tutorial. Retrieved 200603-15.
Henning Genz (2001). Nothingness: The Science Of

Empty Space. Da Capo Press. ISBN 0-7382-06105.
Luciano Boi (2011). The Quantum Vacuum: A Scientic and Philosophical Concept, from Electrodynamics to String Theory and the Geometry of the Microscopic World. Johns Hopkins University Press.
ISBN 1-4214-0247-5.
4.12 External links

VIDEO on the nature of vacuum by Canadian astrophysicist Doctor P
The Foundations of Vacuum Coating Technology
American Vacuum Society
Journal of Vacuum Science and Technology A
Journal of Vacuum Science and Technology B
FAQ on explosive decompression and vacuum exposure.
Discussion of the eects on humans of exposure to
hard vacuum.
Vacuum, Production of Space
Free pdf copy of The Structured Vacuum thinking

about nothing by Johann Rafelski and Berndt Muller
(1985) ISBN 3-87144-889-3.
40
CHAPTER 4. VACUUM
The Crookes tube, used to discover and study cathode rays, was
an evolution of the Geissler tube.
A video of an experiment showing vacuum uctuations (in the

red ring) amplied by spontaneous parametric down-conversion.
Magnetotail
Deected solar wind particles
Incoming solar wind particles
Plasma sheet
Van Allen radiation belt
Solar wind
Neutral sheet
Earth's atmosphere
0 - 100 km
Polar cusp
Bow shock
Magnetosheath
Outer space is not a perfect vacuum, but a tenuous plasma awash

with charged particles, electromagnetic elds, and the occasional
star.
A glass McLeod gauge, drained of mercury
41
Light bulbs contain a partial vacuum, usually backlled with

argon, which protects the tungsten lament
42
This shallow water well pump reduces atmospheric air pressure

inside the pump chamber. Atmospheric pressure extends down
into the well, and forces water up the pipe into the pump to balance the reduced pressure. Above-ground pump chambers are
only eective to a depth of approximately 9 meters due to the
water column weight balancing the atmospheric pressure.
CHAPTER 4. VACUUM
Deep wells have the pump chamber down in the well close to the
water surface, or in the water. A sucker rod extends from the
handle down the center of the pipe deep into the well to operate
the plunger. The pump handle acts as a heavy counterweight
against both the sucker rod weight and the weight of the water
column standing on the upper plunger up to ground level.
A cutaway view of a turbomolecular pump, a momentum transfer

pump used to achieve high vacuum
This painting, An Experiment on a Bird in the Air Pump by

Joseph Wright of Derby, 1768, depicts an experiment performed
by Robert Boyle in 1660.
43
Chapter 5
Atmosphere of Earth
Air redirects here. For other uses, see Air (disambiguation).
Qualities of air redirects here. It is not to be confused
with Air quality.
N2
78.084 %
O2
20.946 %
0.037680 %
Ar
0.9340 %
Blue light is scattered more than other wavelengths by the gases in

the atmosphere, giving Earth a blue halo when seen from space
onboard ISS at a height of 402424 km.
The atmosphere of Earth is the layer of gases surrounding the planet Earth that is retained by Earths
gravity. The atmosphere protects life on Earth by absorbing ultraviolet solar radiation, warming the surface
through heat retention (greenhouse eect), and reducing
temperature extremes between day and night (the diurnal
temperature variation).
CO2
0.04 %
Ne
The common name air is given to the atmospheric gases
0.001818 %
used in breathing and photosynthesis. By volume, dry
[1]
air contains 78.09% nitrogen, 20.95% oxygen, 0.93%
He
H2
argon, 0.039% carbon dioxide, and small amounts of
0.000524 %
0.000055 %
other gases. Air also contains a variable amount of water
CH4
Kr
vapor, on average around 1% at sea level, and 0.4% over
0.000114 %
0.00018 %
the entire atmosphere. Air content and atmospheric pressure vary at dierent layers, and air suitable for the survival of terrestrial plants and terrestrial animals is found Composition of Earths atmosphere by volume. The lower pie
represents the trace gases that together compose about 0.038% of
only in Earths troposphere and articial atmospheres.
the atmosphere (0.043% with CO2 at 2014 concentration). The
The atmosphere has a mass of about 5.151018 kg,[2] numbers are from a variety of years (mainly 1987, with CO2
three quarters of which is within about 11 km (6.8 mi; and methane from 2009) and do not represent any single source.
36,000 ft) of the surface. The atmosphere becomes thinner and thinner with increasing altitude, with no denite
boundary between the atmosphere and outer space. The
44
5.2. STRUCTURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE

Krmn line, at 100 km (62 mi), or 1.57% of Earths radius, is often used as the border between the atmosphere
and outer space. Atmospheric eects become noticeable
during atmospheric reentry of spacecraft at an altitude
of around 120 km (75 mi). Several layers can be distinguished in the atmosphere, based on characteristics such
as temperature and composition.
45
5.2.1 Principal layers
In general, air pressure and density decrease with altitude in the atmosphere. However, temperature has
a more complicated prole with altitude, and may remain relatively constant or even increase with altitude
in some regions (see the temperature section, below).
The study of Earths atmosphere and its processes is Because the general pattern of the temperature/altitude
called atmospheric science (aerology). Early pioneers in prole is constant and recognizable through means such
the eld include Lon Teisserenc de Bort and Richard as balloon soundings, the temperature behavior provides
a useful metric to distinguish between atmospheric layAssmann.[3]
ers. In this way, Earths atmosphere can be divided
(called atmospheric stratication) into ve main layers.
Excluding the exosphere, Earth has four primary layers,
5.1 Composition
which are the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, and
thermosphere.[7] From highest to lowest, the ve main
layers are:
Main article: Atmospheric chemistry
Air is mainly composed of nitrogen, oxygen, and argon,
Exosphere: 700 to 10,000 km (440 to 6,200 miles)
Thermosphere: 80 to 700 km (50 to 440 miles)[8]
Mesosphere: 50 to 80 km (31 to 50 miles)
Stratosphere: 12 to 50 km (7 to 31 miles)
Troposphere: 0 to 12 km (0 to 7 miles)[9]
Earths atmosphere Lower 4 layers of the atmosphere in
3 dimensions as seen diagonally from above the exobase.
Mean atmospheric water vapor
Layers drawn to scale, objects within the layers are not
to scale. Aurorae shown here at the bottom of the therwhich together constitute the major gases of the atmo- mosphere can actually form at any altitude in this atmosphere. Water vapor accounts for roughly 0.25% of the spheric layer
atmosphere by mass. The concentration of water vapor (a greenhouse gas) varies signicantly from around
10 ppmv in the coldest portions of the atmosphere to as
much as 5% by volume in hot, humid air masses, and con- Exosphere
centrations of other atmospheric gases are typically provided for dry air without any water vapor.[4] The remain- Main article: Exosphere
ing gases are often referred to as trace gases,[5] among
which are the greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, The exosphere is the outermost layer of Earths atmomethane, nitrous oxide, and ozone. Filtered air includes sphere (i.e. the upper limit of the atmosphere). It extends
trace amounts of many other chemical compounds. Many from the exobase, which is located at the top of the thersubstances of natural origin may be present in locally and mosphere at an altitude of about 700 km above sea level,
seasonally variable small amounts as aerosols in an unl- to about 10,000 km (6,200 mi; 33,000,000 ft). The exotered air sample, including dust of mineral and organic sphere merges with the emptiness of outer space, where
composition, pollen and spores, sea spray, and volcanic there is no atmosphere.
ash. Various industrial pollutants also may be present
as gases or aerosols, such as chlorine (elemental or in This layer is mainly composed of extremely low densicompounds), uorine compounds and elemental mercury ties of hydrogen, helium and several heavier molecules
vapor. Sulfur compounds such as hydrogen sulde and including nitrogen, oxygen and carbon dioxide closer to
sulfur dioxide (SO2 ) may be derived from natural sources the exobase. The atoms and molecules are so far apart
that they can travel hundreds of kilometers without color from industrial air pollution.
liding with one another. Thus, the exosphere no longer
behaves like a gas, and the particles constantly escape into
space. These free-moving particles follow ballistic trajec5.2 Structure of the atmosphere
tories and may migrate in and out of the magnetosphere
or the solar wind.
46
CHAPTER 5. ATMOSPHERE OF EARTH

above Earths surface, contains the ionosphere.
This atmospheric layer undergoes a gradual increase
in temperature with height. Unlike the stratosphere,
wherein a temperature inversion is due to the absorption
of radiation by ozone, the inversion in the thermosphere
occurs due to the extremely low density of its molecules.
The temperature of this layer can rise as high as 1500
C (2700 F), though the gas molecules are so far apart
that its temperature in the usual sense is not very meaningful. The air is so rareed that an individual molecule
(of oxygen, for example) travels an average of 1 kilometre (0.62 mi; 3300 ft) between collisions with other
molecules.[10] Even though the thermosphere has a very
high proportion of molecules with immense amounts of
energy, the thermosphere would not feel hot to a human
in direct contact, because the low density in the thermosphere would not be able to conduct a signicant amount
of energy to or from the skin. In other words, a person
would not feel warm because of the thermospheres extremely low pressure.
This layer is completely cloudless and free of water vapor. However non-hydrometeorological phenomena such
as the aurora borealis and aurora australis are occasionally seen in the thermosphere. The International Space
Station orbits in this layer, between 320 and 380 km (200
and 240 mi).
Mesosphere
Earths atmosphere Lower 4 layers of the atmosphere in 3 dimensions as seen diagonally from above the exobase. Layers
drawn to scale, objects within the layers are not to scale. Aurorae shown here at the bottom of the thermosphere can actually
form at any altitude in this atmospheric layer
Main article: Mesosphere
The mesosphere is the third highest layer of Earths atmosphere, occupying the region above the stratosphere and
below the thermosphere. It extends from the stratopause
The exosphere is located too far above Earth for any me- at an altitude of about 50 km (31 mi; 160,000 ft) to the
teorological phenomena to be possible. However, the mesopause at 8085 km (5053 mi; 260,000280,000 ft)
aurora borealis and aurora australis sometimes occur in above sea level.
the lower part of the exosphere, where they overlap into
the thermosphere. The exosphere contains most of the Temperatures drop with increasing altitude to the
mesopause that marks the top of this middle layer of
satellites orbiting Earth.
the atmosphere. It is the coldest place on Earth and has
an average temperature around 85 C (120 F; 190
K).[11][12]
Thermosphere
Main article: Thermosphere
The thermosphere is the second-highest layer of Earths
atmosphere. It extends from the mesopause (which separates it from the mesosphere) at an altitude of about 80
km (50 mi; 260,000 ft) up to the thermopause at an altitude range of 5001000 km (310620 mi; 1,600,000
3,300,000 ft). The height of the thermopause varies considerably due to changes in solar activity.[8] Because the
thermopause lies at the lower boundary of the exosphere,
it is also referred to as the exobase. The lower part of the
thermosphere, from 80 to 550 kilometres (50 to 342 mi)
Just below the mesopause, the air is so cold that even the
very scarce water vapor at this altitude can be sublimated
into polar-mesospheric noctilucent clouds. These are the
highest clouds in the atmosphere and may be visible to
the naked eye if sunlight reects o them about an hour
or two after sunset or a similar length of time before sunrise. They are most readily visible when the Sun is around
4 to 16 degrees below the horizon. A type of lightning
referred to as either sprites or ELVES, occasionally form
far above tropospheric thunderclouds. The mesosphere
is also the layer where most meteors burn up upon atmospheric entrance. It is too high above Earth to be accessible to aircraft and balloons, and too low to permit
5.2. STRUCTURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE
47
orbital spacecraft. The mesosphere is mainly accessed by the origin of its name in the Greek word , tropos,
sounding rockets.
meaning turn). The troposphere contains roughly 80%
of the mass of Earths atmosphere.[16] The troposphere is
denser than all its overlying atmospheric layers because a
Stratosphere
larger atmospheric weight sits on top of the troposphere
and causes it to be most severely compressed. Fifty perMain article: Stratosphere
cent of the total mass of the atmosphere is located in the
lower 5.6 km (18,000 ft) of the troposphere. It is primarThe stratosphere is the second-lowest layer of Earths at- ily composed of nitrogen (78%) and oxygen (21%) with
mosphere. It lies above the troposphere and is separated only small concentrations of other trace gases.
from it by the tropopause. This layer extends from the Nearly all atmospheric water vapor or moisture is found
top of the troposphere at roughly 12 km (7.5 mi; 39,000 in the troposphere, so it is the layer where most of Earths
ft) above Earths surface to the stratopause at an altitude weather takes place. It has basically all the weatherof about 50 to 55 km (31 to 34 mi; 164,000 to 180,000 associated cloud genus types generated by active wind cirft).
culation, although very tall cumulonimbus thunder clouds
The atmospheric pressure at the top of the stratosphere
is roughly 1/1000 the pressure at sea level. It contains
the ozone layer, which is the part of Earths atmosphere
that contains relatively high concentrations of that gas.
The stratosphere denes a layer in which temperatures
rise with increasing altitude. This rise in temperature is
caused by the absorption of ultraviolet radiation (UV) radiation from the Sun by the ozone layer, which restricts
turbulence and mixing. Although the temperature may be
60 C (76 F; 210 K) at the tropopause, the top of the
stratosphere is much warmer, and may be near 0 C.[13]
can penetrate the tropopause from below and rise into the
lower part of the stratosphere. Most conventional aviation
activity takes place in the troposphere, and it is the only
layer that can be accessed by propeller-driven aircraft.
The stratospheric temperature prole creates very stable atmospheric conditions, so the stratosphere lacks the
weather-producing air turbulence that is so prevalent in
the troposphere. Consequently, the stratosphere is almost
completely free of clouds and other forms of weather.
However, polar stratospheric or nacreous clouds are occasionally seen in the lower part of this layer of the atmo- Space Shuttle Endeavour orbiting in the thermosphere. Because
sphere where the air is coldest. This is the highest layer of the angle of the photo, it appears to straddle the stratosphere
and mesosphere that actually lie more than 250 km below. The
that can be accessed by jet-powered aircraft.
orange layer is the troposphere, which gives way to the whitish
stratosphere and then the blue mesosphere.[17]
Troposphere
Main article: Troposphere
5.2.2 Other layers
The troposphere is the lowest layer of Earths atmosphere. Within the ve principal layers that are largely deterIt extends from Earths surface to an average height of mined by temperature, several secondary layers may be
about 12 km, although this altitude actually varies from distinguished by other properties:
about 9 km (30,000 ft) at the poles to 17 km (56,000
The ozone layer is contained within the stratosphere.
ft) at the equator,[9] with some variation due to weather.
In this layer ozone concentrations are about 2 to 8
The troposphere is bounded above by the tropopause, a
parts per million, which is much higher than in the
boundary marked in most places by a temperature inverlower atmosphere but still very small compared to
sion (i.e. a layer of relatively warm air above a colder
the main components of the atmosphere. It is mainly
one), and in others by a zone which is isothermal with
[14][15]
located in the lower portion of the stratosphere from
height.
about 1535 km (9.321.7 mi; 49,000115,000 ft),
Although variations do occur, the temperature usually dethough the thickness varies seasonally and geographclines with increasing altitude in the troposphere because
ically. About 90% of the ozone in Earths atmothe troposphere is mostly heated through energy transfer
sphere is contained in the stratosphere.
from the surface. Thus, the lowest part of the troposphere
The ionosphere is a region of the atmosphere that
(i.e. Earths surface) is typically the warmest section of
is ionized by solar radiation. It is responsible for
the troposphere. This promotes vertical mixing (hence
48

100
Krmn line
Thermosphere
90
aurora
Speed of sound
80
Mesopause
ionosphere D layer
70
Geometric altitude (km)
auroras. During daytime hours, it stretches from 50

to 1,000 km (31 to 621 mi; 160,000 to 3,280,000
ft) and includes the mesosphere, thermosphere, and
parts of the exosphere. However, ionization in the
mesosphere largely ceases during the night, so auroras are normally seen only in the thermosphere and
lower exosphere. The ionosphere forms the inner
edge of the magnetosphere. It has practical importance because it inuences, for example, radio propagation on Earth.
Temperature
60
meteor
Mesosphere
50
Stratopause
weather balloon
40
NASA X-43A
Stratosphere
30
20
ozone layer
SR-71 Blackbird
Density
Concorde
typical airliner
The homosphere and heterosphere are dened by
Tropopause
10
Mt Everest
Pressure
whether the atmospheric gases are well mixed.
Troposphere
Burj Khalifa
0
The surface-based homosphere includes the tro0
0.5
1
1.5
Density (kg/m)
posphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, and the low0
50
100
150
est part of the thermosphere, where the chemical
Pressure (kN/m)
composition of the atmosphere does not depend
250
300
350
200
Speed of sound (m/s)
on molecular weight because the gases are mixed
[18]
by turbulence. This relatively homogeneous layer
200
250
300
150
Temperature (K)
ends at the turbopause found at about 100 km (62
mi; 330,000 ft), which places it about 20 km (12
Comparison of the 1962 US Standard Atmosphere graph of
mi; 66,000 ft) above the mesopause.
geometric altitude against air density, pressure, the speed of

sound and temperature with approximate altitudes of various
objects.[24]
Above this altitude lies the heterosphere, which

includes the exosphere and most of the thermosphere. Here, the chemical composition varies
with altitude. This is because the distance that
particles can move without colliding with one
another is large compared with the size of motions that cause mixing. This allows the gases
to stratify by molecular weight, with the heavier ones, such as oxygen and nitrogen, present
only near the bottom of the heterosphere. The
upper part of the heterosphere is composed almost completely of hydrogen, the lightest element.
The planetary boundary layer is the part of the troposphere that is closest to Earths surface and is directly aected by it, mainly through turbulent diusion. During the day the planetary boundary layer
usually is well-mixed, whereas at night it becomes
stably stratied with weak or intermittent mixing.
The depth of the planetary boundary layer ranges
from as little as about 100 meters on clear, calm
nights to 3000 m or more during the afternoon in
dry regions.
5.3 Physical properties

5.3.1 Pressure and thickness
Main article: Atmospheric pressure
The average atmospheric pressure at sea level is dened
by the International Standard Atmosphere as 101325
pascals (760.00 Torr; 14.6959 psi; 760.00 mmHg). This
is sometimes referred to as a unit of standard atmospheres (atm). Total atmospheric mass is 5.14801018
kg (1.1351019 lb),[25] about 2.5% less than would be inferred from the average sea level pressure and Earths area
of 51007.2 megahectares, this portion being displaced by
Earths mountainous terrain. Atmospheric pressure is the
total weight of the air above unit area at the point where
the pressure is measured. Thus air pressure varies with
location and weather.
If the entire mass of the atmosphere had a uniform density from sea level, it would terminate abruptly at an altitude of 8.50 km (27,900 ft). It actually decreases exponentially with altitude, dropping by half every 5.6 km
(18,000 ft) or by a factor of 1/e every 7.64 km (25,100 ft),
the average scale height of the atmosphere below 70 km
(43 mi; 230,000 ft). However, the atmosphere is more
The average temperature of the atmosphere at Earths accurately modeled with a customized equation for each
surface is 14 C (57 F; 287 K)[19] or 15 C (59 F; 288 layer that takes gradients of temperature, molecular comK),[20] depending on the reference.[21][22][23]
position, solar radiation and gravity into account.
5.3. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
49
In summary, the mass of Earths atmosphere is distributed approximately as follows:[26]

50% is below 5.6 km (18,000 ft).
90% is below 16 km (52,000 ft).
99.99997% is below 100 km (62 mi; 330,000 ft),
the Krmn line. By international convention, this
marks the beginning of space where human travelers
are considered astronauts.
By comparison, the summit of Mt. Everest is at 8,848
m (29,029 ft); commercial airliners typically cruise between 10 km (33,000 ft) and 13 km (43,000 ft) where
the thinner air improves fuel economy; weather balloons These images show temperature trends in two thick layers of the
reach 30.4 km (100,000 ft) and above; and the highest atmosphere as measured by a series of satellite-based instruments
X-15 ight in 1963 reached 108.0 km (354,300 ft).
between January 1979 and December 2005. The measurements
Even above the Krmn line, signicant atmospheric ef- were taken by Microwave Sounding Units and Advanced Mifects such as auroras still occur. Meteors begin to glow in crowave Sounding Units ying on a series of National Oceanic
and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) weather satellites. The
this region though the larger ones may not burn up until
instruments record microwaves emitted from oxygen molecules in
they penetrate more deeply. The various layers of Earths the atmosphere. Source:[27]
ionosphere, important to HF radio propagation, begin below 100 km and extend beyond 500 km. By comparison,
the International Space Station and Space Shuttle typically orbit at 350400 km, within the F-layer of the ionosphere where they encounter enough atmospheric drag to
require reboosts every few months. Depending on solar
activity, satellites can experience noticeable atmospheric
drag at altitudes as high as 700800 km.
5.3.2
Temperature and speed of sound
Main articles: Atmospheric temperature and Speed of

sound
The division of the atmosphere into layers mostly by reference to temperature is discussed above. Temperature
decreases with altitude starting at sea level, but variations
in this trend begin above 11 km, where the temperature
stabilizes through a large vertical distance through the rest
of the troposphere. In the stratosphere, starting above
about 20 km, the temperature increases with height, due
to heating within the ozone layer caused by capture of signicant ultraviolet radiation from the Sun by the dioxygen and ozone gas in this region. Still another region of
increasing temperature with altitude occurs at very high
altitudes, in the aptly-named thermosphere above 90 km.
Temperature and mass density against altitude from the

NRLMSISE-00 standard atmosphere model (the eight dotted lines
in each decade are at the eight cubes 8, 27, 64, ..., 729)
5.3.3 Density and mass

Main article: Density of air
The density of air at sea level is about 1.2 kg/m3 (1.2
g/L). Density is not measured directly but is calculated
from measurements of temperature, pressure and humidity using the equation of state for air (a form of the ideal
gas law). Atmospheric density decreases as the altitude
increases. This variation can be approximately modeled
using the barometric formula. More sophisticated models are used to predict orbital decay of satellites.
Because in an ideal gas of constant composition the speed

of sound depends only on temperature and not on the gas
pressure or density, the speed of sound in the atmosphere
with altitude takes on the form of the complicated temperature prole (see illustration to the right), and does not The average mass of the atmosphere is about 5 quadrillion
(51015 ) tonnes or 1/1,200,000 the mass of Earth. Acmirror altitudinal changes in density or pressure.
50
5.4 Optical properties
Gamma rays, X-rays and ultraviolet

light blocked by the upper atmosphere
(best observed from space).
Visible light
observable
from Earth,
with some
atmospheric
distortion.
100 %
Atmospheric
opacity
cording to the American National Center for Atmospheric Research, The total mean mass of the atmosphere is 5.14801018 kg with an annual range due to
water vapor of 1.2 or 1.51015 kg depending on whether
surface pressure or water vapor data are used; somewhat
smaller than the previous estimate. The mean mass of
water vapor is estimated as 1.271016 kg and the dry air
mass as 5.1352 0.00031018 kg.
Most of the
infrared spectrum
absorbed by
atmospheric
gasses (best
observed
from space).
Radio waves observable

from Earth.
Long-wavelength
radio waves
blocked.
50 %
0%
0.1 nm
1 nm
10 nm
100 nm
1 m
10 m
100 m
1 mm
1 cm
10 cm
1m
10 m
100 m
1 km
Wavelength
Rough plot of Earths atmospheric transmittance (or opacity)

to various wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation, including
visible light.
See also: Sunlight

Solar radiation (or sunlight) is the energy Earth receives
from the Sun. Earth also emits radiation back into space,
but at longer wavelengths that we cannot see. Part of the
incoming and emitted radiation is absorbed or reected
by the atmosphere.
5.4.1
Scattering
transmission of only certain bands of light. The optical

window runs from around 300 nm (ultraviolet-C) up into
the range humans can see, the visible spectrum (commonly called light), at roughly 400700 nm and continues to the infrared to around 1100 nm. There are also
infrared and radio windows that transmit some infrared
and radio waves at longer wavelengths. For example, the
radio window runs from about one centimeter to about
eleven-meter waves.
Main article: Scattering
5.4.3 Emission
When light passes through Earths atmosphere, photons

interact with it through scattering. If the light does not
interact with the atmosphere, it is called direct radiation
and is what you see if you were to look directly at the
Sun. Indirect radiation is light that has been scattered in
the atmosphere. For example, on an overcast day when
you cannot see your shadow there is no direct radiation
reaching you, it has all been scattered. As another example, due to a phenomenon called Rayleigh scattering,
shorter (blue) wavelengths scatter more easily than longer
(red) wavelengths. This is why the sky looks blue; you are
seeing scattered blue light. This is also why sunsets are
red. Because the Sun is close to the horizon, the Suns
rays pass through more atmosphere than normal to reach
your eye. Much of the blue light has been scattered out,
leaving the red light in a sunset.
Main article: Emission (electromagnetic radiation)
5.4.2
Absorption
Emission is the opposite of absorption, it is when an object emits radiation. Objects tend to emit amounts and
wavelengths of radiation depending on their "black body"
emission curves, therefore hotter objects tend to emit
more radiation, with shorter wavelengths. Colder objects
emit less radiation, with longer wavelengths. For example, the Sun is approximately 6,000 K (5,730 C; 10,340
F), its radiation peaks near 500 nm, and is visible to the
human eye. Earth is approximately 290 K (17 C; 62
F), so its radiation peaks near 10,000 nm, and is much
too long to be visible to humans.
Because of its temperature, the atmosphere emits infrared radiation. For example, on clear nights Earths
surface cools down faster than on cloudy nights. This is
because clouds (H2 O) are strong absorbers and emitters
of infrared radiation. This is also why it becomes colder
at night at higher elevations.
Main article: Absorption (electromagnetic radiation)
The greenhouse eect is directly related to this absorption and emission eect. Some gases in the atmosphere
Dierent molecules absorb dierent wavelengths of radi- absorb and emit infrared radiation, but do not interact
ation. For example, O2 and O3 absorb almost all wave- with sunlight in the visible spectrum. Common examples
lengths shorter than 300 nanometers. Water (H2 O) ab- of these are CO2 and H2 O.
sorbs many wavelengths above 700 nm. When a molecule
absorbs a photon, it increases the energy of the molecule.
5.4.4 Refractive index
This heats the atmosphere, but the atmosphere also cools
by emitting radiation, as discussed below.
The refractive index of air is close to, but just greater than
The combined absorption spectra of the gases in the at- 1. Systematic variations in refractive index can lead to the
mosphere leave windows of low opacity, allowing the bending of light rays over long optical paths. One exam-
5.6. EVOLUTION OF EARTHS ATMOSPHERE
51
ple is that, under some circumstances, observers onboard water vapor, methane and ammonia. As the solar nebula
ships can see other vessels just over the horizon because dissipated, these gases would have escaped, partly driven
light is refracted in the same direction as the curvature of o by the solar wind.[28]
Earths surface.
The refractive index of air depends on temperature, giving rise to refraction eects when the temperature gradi- 5.6.2 Second atmosphere
ent is large. An example of such eects is the mirage.
The next atmosphere, consisting largely of nitrogen plus
See also: Scintillation (astronomy)
carbon dioxide and inert gases, was produced by outgassing from volcanism, supplemented by gases produced
during the late heavy bombardment of Earth by huge
asteroids.[28] A major part of carbon dioxide emissions
5.5 Circulation
were soon dissolved in water and built up carbonate sediments.
Main article: Atmospheric circulation
Water-related sediments have been found dating from as
Atmospheric circulation is the large-scale movement of early as 3.8 billion years ago.[29] About 3.4 billion years
ago, nitrogen was the major part of the then stable second atmosphere. An inuence of life has to be taken into
account rather soon in the history of the atmosphere, because hints of early life forms are to be found as early as
3.5 billion years ago.[30] How Earth at that time managed
a climate warm enough for liquid water and life, if the
early Sun put out 30% lower solar radiance than today, is
a puzzle known as the "faint young Sun paradox".
The geological record however shows a continually
relatively warm surface during the complete early
temperature record of Earth with the exception of one
cold glacial phase about 2.4 billion years ago. In the
late Archean eon an oxygen-containing atmosphere began to develop, apparently produced by photosynthesizing cyanobacteria (see Great Oxygenation Event), which
have been found as stromatolite fossils from 2.7 billion
years ago. The early basic carbon isotopy (isotope ratio
An idealised view of three large circulation cells.
proportions) is very much in line with what is found today,
suggesting that the fundamental features of the carbon cyair through the troposphere, and the means (with ocean cle were established as early as 4 billion years ago.
circulation) by which heat is distributed around Earth.
The large-scale structure of the atmospheric circulation Earths dynamic oxygenation evolution is recorded in
varies from year to year, but the basic structure remains ancient sediments from the Republic of Gabon from befairly constant because it is determined by Earths rota- tween about 2,150 and 2,080 million years ago. These
driven by the
tion rate and the dierence in solar radiation between the uctuations in oxygenation were likely
[31]
Lomagundi
carbon
isotope
excursion.
equator and poles.
5.6 Evolution of Earths atmo- 5.6.3 Third atmosphere

sphere
The constant re-arrangement of continents by plate tecSee also: History of the Earth and Paleoclimatology
5.6.1
Earliest atmosphere
The rst atmosphere would have consisted of gases in

the solar nebula, primarily hydrogen. In addition, there
would probably have been simple hydrides such as those
now found in the gas giants (Jupiter and Saturn), notably
tonics inuences the long-term evolution of the atmosphere by transferring carbon dioxide to and from large
continental carbonate stores. Free oxygen did not exist in
the atmosphere until about 2.4 billion years ago during the
Great Oxygenation Event and its appearance is indicated
by the end of the banded iron formations. Before this
time, any oxygen produced by photosynthesis was consumed by oxidation of reduced materials, notably iron.
Molecules of free oxygen did not start to accumulate in
the atmosphere until the rate of production of oxygen began to exceed the availability of reducing materials. This
52

The scientic consensus is that the anthropogenic greenhouse gases currently accumulating in the atmosphere are
the main cause of global warming.[34]
5.6.4 Air pollution

Main article: Air pollution
Oxygen content of the atmosphere over the last billion years. This
diagram in more detail
point signies a shift from a reducing atmosphere to an

oxidizing atmosphere. O2 showed major variations until
reaching a steady state of more than 15% by the end of
the Precambrian.[32] The following time span from 541
million years ago to the present day is the Phanerozoic
eon, during the earliest period of which, the Cambrian,
oxygen-requiring metazoan life forms began to appear.
The amount of oxygen in the atmosphere has uctuated over the last 600 million years, reaching a peak of
about 30% around 280 million years ago, signicantly
higher than todays 21%. Two main processes govern
changes in the atmosphere: Plants use carbon dioxide
from the atmosphere, releasing oxygen. Breakdown of
pyrite and volcanic eruptions release sulfur into the atmosphere, which oxidizes and hence reduces the amount
of oxygen in the atmosphere. However, volcanic eruptions also release carbon dioxide, which plants can convert to oxygen. The exact cause of the variation of the
amount of oxygen in the atmosphere is not known. Periods with much oxygen in the atmosphere are associated
with rapid development of animals. Todays atmosphere
contains 21% oxygen, which is high enough for this rapid
development of animals.[33]
Air pollution is the introduction into the atmosphere

of chemicals, particulate matter or biological materials that cause harm or discomfort to organisms.[35]
Stratospheric ozone depletion is caused by air pollution, chiey from chlorouorocarbons and other ozonedepleting substances.
5.7 Images from space

5.8 See also
Aerial perspective
Air (classical element)
Air glow
Airshed
Atmosphere (for information on atmospheres in
general)
Atmospheric dispersion modeling
Atmospheric electricity
Atmospheric models
Atmospheric Radiation Measurement (ARM) (in
the U.S.)
Atmospheric stratication
Aviation
Biosphere
Carbon dioxide in Earths atmosphere
Compressed air
COSPAR
(CIRA)
international
reference
Environmental impact of aviation

This animation shows the buildup of tropospheric CO2 in the
Northern Hemisphere with a maximum around May. The maximum in the vegetation cycle follows, occurring in the late summer. Following the peak in vegetation, the drawdown of atmospheric CO2 due to photosynthesis is apparent, particularly over
the boreal forests.
Global dimming
Historical temperature record
Hydrosphere
Hypermobility (travel)
atmosphere
5.9. REFERENCES
53
Kyoto Protocol
[14] Barry, R.G. & Chorley R.J. (1971). Atmosphere, Weather

and Climate. London, Menthuen & Co Ltd., p. 65
Leaching (agriculture)
[15] Tyson, P.D., Preston-Whyte, R.A. (2013). The Weather

and Climate of Southern Africa. (Second Edition). Oxford, Oxford University Press. p. 4.
Lithosphere
Standard Dry Air
[16] McGraw-Hill Concise Encyclopedia of Science & Technology. (1984). Troposphere. It contains about fourfths of the mass of the whole atmosphere.
U.S. Standard Atmosphere

Warm period
[17] ISS022-E-062672 caption.

September 2012.
Water vapor in Earths atmosphere
[18] "''homosphere''AMS Glossary.

Amsglossary.allenpress.com. Archived from the original on
14 September 2010. Retrieved 2010-10-16.
5.9 References
[1] Zimmer, Carl (3 October 2013). Earths Oxygen: A
Mystery Easy to Take for Granted. New York Times. Retrieved 3 October 2013.
[2] Lide, David R. Handbook of Chemistry and Physics. Boca
Raton, FL: CRC, 1996: 14-7
[3]
NASA. Retrieved 21
Ultraviolet radiation in the solar system By Manuel

Vzquez, Arnold Hanslmeier
[4] Wallace, John M. and Peter V. Hobbs. Atmospheric Science; An Introductory Survey.Elsevier. Second Edition,
2006. ISBN 978-0-12-732951-2. Chapter 1
[5] Trace Gases. Ace.mmu.ac.uk. Archived from the original on 9 October 2010. Retrieved 2010-10-16.
[6] Source for gures: Carbon dioxide, NOAA Earth System Research Laboratory, (updated 2013-03). Methane,
IPCC TAR table 6.1, (updated to 1998). The NASA total
was 17 ppmv over 100%, and CO2 was increased here by
15 ppmv. To normalize, N2 should be reduced by about
25 ppmv and O2 by about 7 ppmv.
[7] http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/sunearth/science/
mos-upper-atmosphere.html#.VHg5AzHF8vY
[8] Randy Russell (2008). The Thermosphere. Retrieved
2013-10-18.
[9] The height of the tropopause. Das.uwyo.edu. Retrieved
2012-04-18.
[10] Ahrens, C. Donald. Essentials of Meteorology. Published
by Thomson Brooks/Cole, 2005.
[11] States, Robert J.; Gardner, Chester S. (January 2000).
Thermal Structure of the Mesopause Region (80
105 km) at 40N Latitude. Part I: Seasonal Variations. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences 2000 57:
6677. Bibcode:2000JAtS...57...66S. doi:10.1175/15200469(2000)057<0066:TSOTMR>2.0.CO;2.
[19] Earths Atmosphere.

[20] NASA Earth Fact Sheet. Nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov.
Archived from the original on 30 October 2010. Retrieved 2010-10-16.
[21] Global Surface Temperature Anomalies.
[22] Earths Radiation Balance and Oceanic Heat Fluxes.
[23] Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Control Run
(PDF).
[24] Geometric altitude vs. temperature, pressure, density, and
the speed of sound derived from the 1962 U.S. Standard
Atmosphere.
[25] The Mass of the Atmosphere: A Constraint on Global
Analyses. Ams.allenpress.com. 1970-01-01. Retrieved
2010-10-16.
[26] Lutgens, Frederick K. and Edward J. Tarbuck (1995) The
Atmosphere, Prentice Hall, 6th ed., pp14-17, ISBN 0-13350612-6
[27] Atmospheric Temperature Trends, 1979-2005 : Image
of the Day. Earthobservatory.nasa.gov. 2000-01-01.
[28] Zahnle, K.; Schaefer, L.; Fegley, B. (2010).
Earths Earliest Atmospheres.
Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology 2 (10):
a004895.
doi:10.1101/cshperspect.a004895.
PMC 2944365.
PMID 20573713.
[29] B. Windley: The Evolving Continents. Wiley Press, New
York 1984
[30] J. Schopf: Earths Earliest Biosphere: Its Origin and Evolution. Princeton University Press, Princeton, N.J., 1983
[12] Joe Buchdahl. Atmosphere, Climate & Environment

Information Programme. Ace.mmu.ac.uk. Retrieved
2012-04-18.
[31] Timothy W. Lyons, Christopher T. Reinhard

Atmospheric
& Noah J. Planavsky (20143).
oxygenation three billion years ago.
Nature
506
(7488).
Bibcode:2014Natur.506..307L.
doi:10.1038/nature13068.
Check date values in:
|date= (help)
[13] Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences

stratopause. Retrieved 2013-10-18.
[32] Christopher R. Scotese, Back to Earth History : Summary

Chart for the Precambrian, Paleomar Project
(1993).
54
[33] Peter Ward: Out of Thin Air: Dinosaurs, Birds, and

Earths Ancient Atmosphere
[34] Summary for Policymakers (PDF). Climate Change
2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change. 5 February 2007.
[35] Starting from PollutionDenition from the MerriamWebster Online Dictionary
5.10 External links

Ignacia, Sandra; Jimnez, Ramrez (2014). Peter M.H.
Kroneck and Martha E. Sosa Torres, ed. The MetalDriven Biogeochemistry of Gaseous Compounds in the Environment. Metal Ions in Life Sciences 14. Springer. pp.
114 The Early Earth Atmosphere and Early Life Catalysts. doi:10.1007/978-94-017-9269-1_1.
NASAs Earth Fact Sheet
American Geophysical Union: Atmospheric Sciences
Outreach of the GEOmon project See how Earth atmosphere is observed and monitored by a European
project that combines many approaches.
Layers of the Atmosphere
Answers to several questions of curious kids related
to Air and Atmosphere
The AMS Glossary of Meteorology
Paul Crutzen Interview Free video of Paul Crutzen
Nobel Laureate for his work on decomposition of
ozone talking to Harry Kroto Nobel Laureate by the
Vega Science Trust.
Chapter 6
Evaporation
would evaporate until the air is saturated.
With sucient temperature, the liquid would turn into
vapor quickly (see boiling point). When the molecules
collide, they transfer energy to each other in varying degrees, based on how they collide. Sometimes the transfer
is so one-sided for a molecule near the surface that it ends
up with enough energy to 'escape'.
Aerosol of microscopic water droplets suspended in the air above

a hot tea cup after that water vapor has suciently cooled and
condensed. Water vapor is an invisible gas, but the clouds of
condensed water droplets refract and disperse the sun light and
so are visible.
Evaporation is an essential part of the water cycle. The

sun (solar energy) drives evaporation of water from
oceans, lakes, moisture in the soil, and other sources
of water. In hydrology, evaporation and transpiration
(which involves evaporation within plant stomata) are collectively termed evapotranspiration. Evaporation of water occurs when the surface of the liquid is exposed, allowing molecules to escape and form water vapor; this
vapor can then rise up and form clouds. The tracking of
evaporation from its source on the surface of the earth,
through the atmosphere as vapor or clouds, and to its fate
as precipitation closes the atmospheric water cycle, and
embodies the concept of the precipitationshed.
6.1 Theory
Evaporation is a type of vaporization of a liquid that
occurs from the surface of a liquid into a gaseous phase
that is not saturated with the evaporating substance. The
other type of vaporization is boiling, which is characterized by bubbles of saturated vapor forming in the liquid phase. Steam produced in a boiler is another example of evaporation occurring in a saturated vapor phase.
Evaporation that occurs directly from the solid phase
below the melting point, as commonly observed with
ice at or below freezing or moth crystals (napthalene or
paradichlorobenzene), is called sublimation.
On average, a fraction of the molecules in a glass of water have enough heat energy to escape from the liquid.
Water molecules from the air enter the water in the glass,
but as long as the relative humidity of the air in contact
is less than 100% (saturation), the net transfer of water
molecules will be to the air. The water in the glass will be
cooled by the evaporation until an equilibrium is reached
where the air supplies the amount of heat removed by the
evaporating water. In an enclosed environment the water
See also: Kinetic theory

For molecules of a liquid to evaporate, they must be located near the surface, they have to be moving in the
proper direction, and have sucient kinetic energy to
overcome liquid-phase intermolecular forces.[1] When
only a small proportion of the molecules meet these criteria, the rate of evaporation is low. Since the kinetic
energy of a molecule is proportional to its temperature,
evaporation proceeds more quickly at higher temperatures. As the faster-moving molecules escape, the remaining molecules have lower average kinetic energy,
and the temperature of the liquid decreases. This phenomenon is also called evaporative cooling. This is why
evaporating sweat cools the human body. Evaporation
also tends to proceed more quickly with higher ow rates
between the gaseous and liquid phase and in liquids with
higher vapor pressure. For example, laundry on a clothes
line will dry (by evaporation) more rapidly on a windy
55
56
CHAPTER 6. EVAPORATION
day than on a still day. Three key parts to evaporation The ability for a molecule of a liquid to evaporate is based
are heat, atmospheric pressure (determines the percent largely on the amount of kinetic energy an individual parhumidity) and air movement.
ticle may possess. Even at lower temperatures, individOn a molecular level, there is no strict boundary between ual molecules of a liquid can evaporate if they have more
the liquid state and the vapor state. Instead, there is a than the minimum amount of kinetic energy required for
Knudsen layer, where the phase is undetermined. Be- vaporization.
cause this layer is only a few molecules thick, at a macroscopic scale a clear phase transition interface can be seen.
6.2 Factors inuencing the rate of
Liquids that do not evaporate visibly at a given temperaevaporation

ture in a given gas (e.g., cooking oil at room temperature)
have molecules that do not tend to transfer energy to each
other in a pattern sucient to frequently give a molecule Note: Air used here is a common example; however, the
the heat energy necessary to turn into vapor. However, vapor phase can be other gases.
these liquids are evaporating. It is just that the process is
much slower and thus signicantly less visible.
Concentration of the substance evaporating in the air
If the air already has a high concentration of the
substance evaporating, then the given substance will
6.1.1 Evaporative equilibrium
evaporate more slowly.
Concentration of other substances in the air If the
air is already saturated with other substances, it can
have a lower capacity for the substance evaporating.
Flow rate of air This is in part related to the concentration points above. If fresh air (i.e., air which
is neither already saturated with the substance nor
with other substances) is moving over the substance
all the time, then the concentration of the substance
in the air is less likely to go up with time, thus encouraging faster evaporation. This is the result of the
boundary layer at the evaporation surface decreasing
with ow velocity, decreasing the diusion distance
in the stagnant layer.
Vapor pressure of water vs. temperature. 760 Torr = 1 atm.
Inter-molecular forces The stronger the forces keeping

the molecules together in the liquid state, the more
If evaporation takes place in an enclosed area, the esenergy one must get to escape. This is characterized
caping molecules accumulate as a vapor above the liqby the enthalpy of vaporization.
uid. Many of the molecules return to the liquid, with returning molecules becoming more frequent as the density Pressure Evaporation happens faster if there is less exand pressure of the vapor increases. When the process
ertion on the surface keeping the molecules from
of escape and return reaches an equilibrium,[1] the vapor
launching themselves.
is said to be saturated, and no further change in either
vapor pressure and density or liquid temperature will oc- Surface area A substance that has a larger surface area
will evaporate faster, as there are more surface
cur. For a system consisting of vapor and liquid of a pure
molecules per unit of volume that are potentially
substance, this equilibrium state is directly related to the
able to escape.
vapor pressure of the substance, as given by the Clausius
Clapeyron relation:
Temperature of the substance the higher the temperature of the substance the greater the kinetic en(
)
( )
ergy of the molecules at its surface and therefore the
Hvap 1
1
P2
=
ln
faster the rate of their evaporation.
P1
R
T2
T1
where P 1 , P 2 are the vapor pressures at temperatures T 1 ,
T 2 respectively, H is the enthalpy of vaporization,
and R is the universal gas constant. The rate of evaporation in an open system is related to the vapor pressure found in a closed system. If a liquid is heated, when
the vapor pressure reaches the ambient pressure the liquid
will boil.
In the US, the National Weather Service measures the actual rate of evaporation from a standardized pan open
water surface outdoors, at various locations nationwide.
Others do likewise around the world. The US data is collected and compiled into an annual evaporation map. The
measurements range from under 30 to over 120 inches
(3,000 mm) per year.
6.5. SEE ALSO
6.3 Thermodynamics
57
6.4.3 Film deposition
Evaporation is an endothermic process, in that heat is ab- Main article: Evaporation (deposition)
sorbed during evaporation.
Thin lms may be deposited by evaporating a substance
and condensing it onto a substrate, or by dissolving the
substance in a solvent, spreading the resulting solution
6.4 Applications
thinly over a substrate, and evaporating the solvent.
Industrial applications include many printing and
coating processes; recovering salts from solutions;
and drying a variety of materials such as lumber, paper, cloth and chemicals.
The use of evaporation to dry or concentrate
samples is a common preparatory step for many
laboratory analyses such as spectroscopy and
chromatography. Systems used for this purpose include rotary evaporators and centrifugal evaporators.
When clothes are hung on a laundry line, even
though the ambient temperature is below the boiling
point of water, water evaporates. This is accelerated
by factors such as low humidity, heat (from the sun),
and wind. In a clothes dryer, hot air is blown through
the clothes, allowing water to evaporate very rapidly.
The Matki/Matka, a traditional Indian porous clay
container used for storing and cooling water and
other liquids.
The botijo, a traditional Spanish porous clay container designed to cool the contained water by evaporation.
Evaporative coolers, which can signicantly cool a
building by simply blowing dry air over a lter saturated with water.
6.4.1
Combustion vaporization
Fuel droplets vaporize as they receive heat by mixing with

the hot gases in the combustion chamber. Heat (energy)
can also be received by radiation from any hot refractory
wall of the combustion chamber.
6.4.2
6.5 See also

Atmometer (evaporation)
Condensation
Cryophorus
Crystallisation
Desalination
Distillation
Drying
Eddy covariance ux (a.k.a. eddy correlation, eddy
ux)
Evaporator
Evapotranspiration
Flash evaporation
Heat of vaporization
Hydrology (agriculture)
Latent heat
Latent heat ux
Pan evaporation
Sublimation (phase transition) (phase transfer from
solid directly to gas)
Transpiration
6.6 References
[1] Silberberg, Martin A. (2006). Chemistry (4th ed.). New
York: McGraw-Hill. pp. 431434. ISBN 0-07-2964391.
Pre-combustion vaporization
Internal combustion engines rely upon the vaporization of

the fuel in the cylinders to form a fuel/air mixture in order
to burn well. The chemically correct air/fuel mixture for
total burning of gasoline has been determined to be 15
parts air to one part gasoline or 15/1 by weight. Changing
this to a volume ratio yields 8000 parts air to one part
gasoline or 8,000/1 by volume.
6.7 Further reading

Sze, Simon Min. Semiconductor Devices: Physics
and Technology. ISBN 0-471-33372-7. Has an
especially detailed discussion of lm deposition by
evaporation.
Chapter 7
Thermal expansion
and generally varies with temperature.
7.1 Overview
7.1.1 Predicting expansion
If an equation of state is available, it can be used to predict the values of the thermal expansion at all the required
temperatures and pressures, along with many other state
functions.
7.1.2 Contraction eects (negative thermal

expansion)
A number of materials contract on heating within certain
temperature ranges; this is usually called negative thermal expansion, rather than thermal contraction. For
example, the coecient of thermal expansion of water
drops to zero as it is cooled to 3.983 C and then becomes negative below this temperature; this means that
water has a maximum density at this temperature, and
this leads to bodies of water maintaining this temperature at their lower depths during extended periods of subzero weather. Also, fairly pure silicon has a negative coecient of thermal expansion for temperatures between
about 18 and 120 Kelvin.[2]
Expansion joint in a road bridge used to avoid damage from thermal expansion.
7.1.3 Factors aecting thermal expansion

Thermal expansion is the tendency of matter to change
in volume in response to a change in temperature,[1] Unlike gases or liquids, solid materials tend to keep their
through heat transfer.
shape when undergoing thermal expansion.
Temperature is a monotonic function of the average
molecular kinetic energy of a substance. When a substance is heated, the kinetic energy of its molecules increases. Thus, the molecules begin moving more and
usually maintain a greater average separation. Materials
which contract with increasing temperature are unusual;
this eect is limited in size, and only occurs within limited temperature ranges (see examples below). The degree of expansion divided by the change in temperature
is called the materials coecient of thermal expansion
Thermal expansion generally decreases with increasing

bond energy, which also has an eect on the melting point
of solids, so, high melting point materials are more likely
to have lower thermal expansion. In general, liquids expand slightly more than solids. The thermal expansion
of glasses is higher compared to that of crystals.[3] At the
glass transition temperature, rearrangements that occur in
an amorphous material lead to characteristic discontinuities of coecient of thermal expansion or specic heat.
These discontinuities allow detection of the glass transi-
58
7.3. EXPANSION IN SOLIDS
59
tion temperature where a supercooled liquid transforms

to a glass.[4]
7.3 Expansion in solids
Absorption or desorption of water (or other solvents) can

change the size of many common materials; many organic
materials change size much more due to this eect than
they do to thermal expansion. Common plastics exposed
to water can, in the long term, expand by many percent.
Materials generally change their size when subjected to

a temperature change while the pressure is held constant.
In the special case of solid materials, the pressure does not
appreciably aect the size of an object, and so, for solids,
its usually not necessary to specify that the pressure be
held constant.
7.2 Coecient of thermal expansion
Common engineering solids usually have coecients of

thermal expansion that do not vary signicantly over the
range of temperatures where they are designed to be used,
so where extremely high accuracy is not required, practical calculations can be based on a constant, average, value
of the coecient of expansion.
The coecient of thermal expansion describes how the

size of an object changes with a change in temperature.
Specically, it measures the fractional change in size per 7.3.1
degree change in temperature at a constant pressure. Several types of coecients have been developed: volumetric, area, and linear. Which is used depends on the particular application and which dimensions are considered
important. For solids, one might only be concerned with
the change along a length, or over some area.
The volumetric thermal expansion coecient is the most
basic thermal expansion coecient, and the most relevant
for uids. In general, substances expand or contract when
their temperature changes, with expansion or contraction
occurring in all directions. Substances that expand at
the same rate in every direction are called isotropic. For
isotropic materials, the area and volumetric thermal expansion coecient are, respectively, approximately twice
and three times larger than the linear thermal expansion
coecient.
Mathematical denitions of these coecients are dened
below for solids, liquids, and gases.
Linear expansion
Change in length of a rod due to thermal expansion.
Linear expansion means change in one dimension

(length) as opposed to change in volume (volumetric expansion). To a rst approximation, the change in length
measurements of an object due to thermal expansion is
related to temperature change by a linear expansion coecient. It is the fractional change in length per degree of temperature change. Assuming negligible eect
of pressure, we may write:
1 dL
L dT
where L is a particular length measurement and dL/dT is
General volumetric thermal expanthe rate of change of that linear dimension per unit change
sion coecient
in temperature.
L =
7.2.1
The change in the linear dimension can be estimated to

In the general case of a gas, liquid, or solid, the volumetric
be:
coecient of thermal expansion is given by
L
= L T
L
1 V
V =
This equation works well as long as the linear-expansion
V
T p
coecient does not change much over the change in temperature T , and the fractional change in length is small
The subscript p indicates that the pressure is held constant
L/L 1 . If either of these conditions does not hold,
during the expansion, and the subscript V stresses that
the equation must be integrated.
it is the volumetric (not linear) expansion that enters this
general denition. In the case of a gas, the fact that the
pressure is held constant is important, because the vol- Eects on strain
ume of a gas will vary appreciably with pressure as well
as temperature. For a gas of low density this can be seen For solid materials with a signicant length, like rods or
cables, an estimate of the amount of thermal expansion
from the ideal gas law.
(
60
CHAPTER 7. THERMAL EXPANSION
can be described by the material strain, given by thermal

and dened as:
thermal =
(Lfinal Linitial )
Linitial
7.3.3 Volume expansion

For a solid, we can ignore the eects of pressure on the
material, and the volumetric thermal expansion coecient can be written:[5]
where Linitial is the length before the change of tempera1 dV

ture and Lfinal is the length after the change of tempera- V =
V
dT
ture.
For most solids, thermal expansion is proportional to the where V is the volume of the material, and dV /dT is the
rate of change of that volume with temperature.
change in temperature:
This means that the volume of a material changes by some
xed fractional amount. For example, a steel block with
thermal T
a volume of 1 cubic meter might expand to 1.002 cubic
meters when the temperature is raised by 50 K. This is an
Thus, the change in either the strain or temperature can
expansion of 0.2%. If we had a block of steel with a volbe estimated by:
ume of 2 cubic meters, then under the same conditions, it
would expand to 2.004 cubic meters, again an expansion
of 0.2%. The volumetric expansion coecient would be
thermal = L T
0.2% for 50 K, or 0.004% K1 .
where
If we already know the expansion coecient, then we can

calculate the change in volume
T = (Tfinal Tinitial )
is the dierence of the temperature between the two
recorded strains, measured in degrees Celsius or Kelvin,
and L is the linear coecient of thermal expansion in
per degree Celsius or per Kelvin, denoted by C1
or K1 , respectively. In the eld of continuum mechanics, the thermal expansion and its eects are treated as
eigenstrain and eigenstress.
V
= V T
V
where V /V is the fractional change in volume (e.g.,
0.002) and T is the change in temperature (50 C).
The above example assumes that the expansion coecient did not change as the temperature changed and the
increase in volume is small compared to the original volume. This is not always true, but for small changes in
temperature, it is a good approximation. If the volumetric
7.3.2 Area expansion
expansion coecient does change appreciably with temThe area thermal expansion coecient relates the change perature, or the increase in volume is signicant, then the
in a materials area dimensions to a change in temper- above equation will have to be integrated:
ature. It is the fractional change in area per degree of
temperature change. Ignoring pressure, we may write:
(
) Tf
V + V
ln
=
V (T ) dT
V
Ti
1 dA
(
)
A =
Tf
A dT
V
= exp
V (T ) dT 1
V
where A is some area of interest on the object, and
Ti
dA/dT is the rate of change of that area per unit change
where V (T ) is the volumetric expansion coecient as a
in temperature.
function of temperature T, and Ti , Tf are the initial and
The change in the area can be estimated as:
nal temperatures respectively.
A
= A T
A
Isotropic materials
This equation works well as long as the area expansion For isotropic materials the volumetric thermal expansion
coecient does not change much over the change in tem- coecient is three times the linear coecient:
perature T , and the fractional change in area is small
A/A 1 . If either of these conditions does not hold,
the equation must be integrated.
V = 3L
7.5. EXPANSION IN LIQUIDS
61
This ratio arises because volume is composed of three

mutually orthogonal directions. Thus, in an isotropic material, for small dierential changes, one-third of the volumetric expansion is in a single axis. As an example, take
a cube of steel that has sides of length L. The original volume will be V = L3 and the new volume, after a temperature increase, will be
depends on the type of process in which temperature is

changed. Two simple cases are isobaric change, where
pressure is held constant, and adiabatic change, where no
heat is exchanged with the environment.
The ideal gas law can be written as:
pv = T
L
V +V = (L+L) = L +3L L+3LL +L L3 +3L2 L = V +3V
where p is the pressure, L
v is the specic volume, and t
is
temperature
measured
in energy units. By taking the
3
We can make the substitutions V = V L T and, for
logarithm
of
this
equation:
isotropic materials, L = LT . We now have:
3
2
3 3
3
V +V = (L+LV T )3 = L3 +3L3 L T +3L3 L
Tln2(v)
+L+
ln
+3L
(p) 3=lnL(T
) 3 L T
L T
Since the volumetric and linear coecients are dened

only for extremely small temperature and dimensional
changes (that is, when T and L are small), the last
two terms can be ignored and we get the above relationship between the two coecients. If we are trying to go
back and forth between volumetric and linear coecients
using larger values of T then we will need to take into
account the third term, and sometimes even the fourth
term.
Then by denition of isobaric thermal expansion coecient, with the above equation of state:
1
p
v
v
T
(
=
d(ln v)
dT
)
=
p
d(ln T )
1
= .
dT
T
The index p denotes an isobaric process.
Similarly, the area thermal expansion coecient is two

times the linear coecient:
7.5 Expansion in liquids

A = 2L
Theoretically, the coecient of linear expansion can be

This ratio can be found in a way similar to that in the found from the coecient of volumetric expansion (V
linear example above, noting that the area of a face on 3). However, for liquids, is calculated through the
the cube is just L2 . Also, the same considerations must experimental determination of V.
be made when dealing with large values of T .
7.3.4
Anisotropic materials
Materials with anisotropic structures, such as crystals

(with less than cubic symmetry) and many composites,
will generally have dierent linear expansion coecients
L in dierent directions. As a result, the total volumetric expansion is distributed unequally among the three
axes. If the crystal symmetry is monoclinic or triclinic,
even the angles between these axes are subject to thermal changes. In such cases it is necessary to treat the coecient of thermal expansion as a tensor with up to six
independent elements. A good way to determine the elements of the tensor is to study the expansion by powder
diraction.
7.6 Expansion in mixtures and alloys

The expansivity of the components of the mixture can
cancel each other like in invar.
The thermal expansivity of a mixture from the expansivities of the pure components and their excess expansivities
follow from:
Vi V E
V
i
=
+
T
T
T
i
i
iE ViE
7.4 Isobaric expansion in gases

For an ideal gas, the volumetric thermal expansion (i.e.,
relative change in volume due to temperature change)
VE i
(ln(i ))
2
=R
+ RT
ln(i )
T
P
T P
i Vi +
62
7.7 Apparent and absolute expansion
been pushed over the shaft, thus achieving a 'shrink t'.

Induction shrink tting is a common industrial method to
pre-heat metal components between 150 C and 300 C
thereby causing them to expand and allow for the inserWhen measuring the expansion of a liquid, the measure- tion or removal of another component.
ment must account for the expansion of the container as
well. For example, a ask, that has been constructed with There exist some alloys with a very small linear expana long narrow stem lled with enough liquid that the stem sion coecient, used in applications that demand very
itself is partially lled, when placed in a heat bath will small changes in physical dimension over a range of temis Invar 36, with approxiinitially show the column of liquid in the stem to drop peratures. One of these
6
mately
equal
to
0.610
K1 . These alloys are useful
followed by the immediate increase of that column until the ask/liquid/heat bath system has thermalized. The in aerospace applications where wide temperature swings
initial observation of the column of liquid dropping is not may occur.
due to an initial contraction of the liquid but rather the ex- Pullingers apparatus is used to determine the linear expansion of the ask as it contacts the heat bath rst. Soon pansion of a metallic rod in the laboratory. The apparatus
after, the liquid in the ask is heated by the ask itself and consists of a metal cylinder closed at both ends (called a
begins to expand. Since liquids typically have a greater steam jacket). It is provided with an inlet and outlet for
expansion over solids the liquid in the ask eventually ex- the steam. The steam for heating the rod is supplied by
ceeds that of the ask causing the column of liquid in the a boiler which is connected by a rubber tube to the inask to rise. A direct measurement of the height of the let. The center of the cylinder contains a hole to insert a
liquid column is a measurement of the Apparent Expan- thermometer. The rod under investigation is enclosed in
sion of the liquid. The Absolute expansion of the liquid a steam jacket. One of its ends is free, but the other end
is the apparent expansion corrected for the expansion of is pressed against a xed screw. The position of the rod is
the containing vessel.[6]
determined by a micrometer screw gauge or spherometer.
7.8 Examples and applications

For applications using the thermal expansion property,
see bi-metal and mercury-in-glass thermometer.
The expansion and contraction of materials must be con-
Drinking glass with fracture due to uneven thermal expansion

after pouring of hot liquid into the otherwise cool glass
Thermal expansion of long continuous sections of rail tracks is

the driving force for rail buckling. This phenomenon resulted in
190 train derailments during 19982002 in the US alone.[7]
sidered when designing large structures, when using tape

or chain to measure distances for land surveys, when designing molds for casting hot material, and in other engineering applications when large changes in dimension
due to temperature are expected.
Thermal expansion is also used in mechanical applications to t parts over one another, e.g. a bushing can be
tted over a shaft by making its inner diameter slightly
smaller than the diameter of the shaft, then heating it until it ts over the shaft, and allowing it to cool after it has
The control of thermal expansion in brittle materials is a

key concern for a wide range of reasons. For example,
both glass and ceramics are brittle and uneven temperature causes uneven expansion which again causes thermal
stress and this might lead to fracture. Ceramics need to
be joined or work in consort with a wide range of materials and therefore their expansion must be matched
to the application. Because glazes need to be rmly attached to the underlying porcelain (or other body type)
their thermal expansion must be tuned to 't' the body so
that crazing or shivering do not occur. Good example of
products whose thermal expansion is the key to their success are CorningWare and the spark plug. The thermal
expansion of ceramic bodies can be controlled by ring
to create crystalline species that will inuence the overall
expansion of the material in the desired direction. In addition or instead the formulation of the body can employ
7.9. THERMAL EXPANSION COEFFICIENTS FOR VARIOUS MATERIALS

materials delivering particles of the desired expansion to
the matrix. The thermal expansion of glazes is controlled
by their chemical composition and the ring schedule to
which they were subjected. In most cases there are complex issues involved in controlling body and glaze expansion, adjusting for thermal expansion must be done with
an eye to other properties that will be aected, generally
trade-os are required.
63
tested, one end is securely xed and the other rests on

a rotating shaft, the motion of which is indicated with a
pointer. The linear expansion of the dierent metals is
compared qualitatively and the coecient of linear thermal expansion is calculated.
7.9 Thermal expansion coecients
Thermal expansion can have a noticeable eect in gasofor various materials

line stored in above ground storage tanks which can cause
gasoline pumps to dispense gasoline which may be more
Main article: Thermal expansion coecients of the elecompressed than gasoline held in underground storage
ments (data page)
tanks in the winter time or less compressed than gasoline
This section summarizes the coecients for some comheld in underground storage tanks in the summer time.[8]
Heat-induced expansion has to be taken into account in
most areas of engineering. A few examples are:
Metal framed windows need rubber spacers
Rubber tires
Coecient de dilatation volumique isobare (modle Tait)

2 000
0 bar
125 bar
250 bar
375 bar
500 bar
1 800
1 600
1 400
1 200
Metal hot water heating pipes should not be used in

long straight lengths
1 000
Large structures such as railways and bridges need

expansion joints in the structures to avoid sun kink
600
800
400
200
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
220
240
260
One of the reasons for the poor performance of
cold car engines is that parts have ineciently large
spacings until the normal operating temperature is Volumetric thermal expansion coecient for a semicrystalline
achieved.
polypropylene.
A gridiron pendulum uses an arrangement of different metals to maintain a more temperature stable
pendulum length.
Coecients de dilatation liniques

18
17.5
X2CrNi12 (1.4003, 403)
X20Cr13 (1.4021, 420)
C35E (1.1181, 1035)
X2CrNiMoN22-5-3 (1.4462, 2205)
X2CrNiMo17-12-2 (1.4404, 316L)
17
A power line on a hot day is droopy, but on a cold

day it is tight. This is because the metals expand
under heat.
16.5
16
15.5
15
14.5
Expansion joints that absorb the thermal expansion

in a piping system.[9]
Precision engineering nearly always requires the engineer to pay attention to the thermal expansion of
the product. For example when using a scanning
electron microscope even small changes in temperature such as 1 degree can cause a sample to change
its position relative to the focus point.
Thermometers are another application of thermal expansion most contain a liquid (usually mercury or alcohol) which is constrained to ow in only one direction
(along the tube) due to changes in volume brought about
by changes in temperature. A bi-metal mechanical thermometer uses a bimetallic strip and bends due to the differing thermal expansion of the two metals.
14
13.5
13
12.5
12
11.5
11
10.5
10
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
550
600
Linear thermal expansion coecient for some steel grades.
mon materials.
For isotropic materials the coecients linear thermal expansion and volumetric thermal expansion V are related by V = 3. For liquids usually the coecient of
volumetric expansion is listed and linear expansion is calculated here for comparison.
Metal pipes made of dierent materials are heated by For common materials like many metals and compounds,
passing steam through them. While each pipe is being the thermal expansion coecient is inversely propor-
64
tional to the melting point.[10] In particular for metals the

relation is:
0.020
MP
[5] Turcotte, Donald L.; Schubert, Gerald (2002). Geodynamics (2nd ed.). Cambridge. ISBN 0-521-66624-4.
[6] Ganot, A., Atkinson, E. (1883). Elementary treatise on
physics experimental and applied for the use of colleges and
schools, William and Wood & Co, New York, pp. 2723.
for halides and oxides
[7] Track Buckling Research. Volpe Center, U.S. Department of Transportation
0.038
7.0 106 K1
MP
[8] Cost or savings of thermal expansion in above ground

tanks. Artofbeingcheap.com (2013-09-06). Retrieved
2014-01-19.
In the table below, the range for is from 107 K1 for [9] Lateral, Angular and Combined Movements U.S. Bellows.
hard solids to 103 K1 for organic liquids. The coe- [10] MIT Lecture Sheer and Thermal Expansion Tensors Part
cient varies with the temperature and some materials
1
have a very high variation ; see for example the variation vs. temperature of the volumetric coecient for a [11] Thermal Expansion. Western Washington University.
Archived from the original on 2009-04-17.
semicrystalline polypropylene (PP) at dierent pressure,
and the variation of the linear coecient vs. temperature [12] Ahmed, Ashraf; Tavakol, Behrouz; Das, Rony; Joven,
for some steel grades (from bottom to top: ferritic stainRonald; Roozbehjavan, Pooneh; Minaie, Bob (2012).
less steel, martensitic stainless steel, carbon steel, duplex
Study of Thermal Expansion in Carbon Fiber Reinforced
stainless steel, austenitic steel).
Polymer Composites. Proceedings of SAMPE Interna(The formula V 3 is usually used for solids.)[11]
tional Symposium. Charleston, SC.

[13] Young; Geller. Young and Geller College Physics (8th ed.).
ISBN 0-8053-9218-1.
7.10 See also

Negative thermal expansion
Mie-Gruneisen equation of state
Autovent
Grneisen parameter
Apparent molar property
7.11 References
[1] when the body is heated its dimension(size) increase.This
increase in dimension is called thermal expansion . Paul
A., Tipler; Gene Mosca (2008). Physics for Scientists and
Engineers, Volume 1 (6th ed.). New York, NY: Worth
Publishers. pp. 666670. ISBN 1-4292-0132-0.
[2] Bullis, W. Murray (1990). Chapter 6. In O'Mara,
William C.; Herring, Robert B.; Hunt, Lee P. Handbook
of semiconductor silicon technology. Park Ridge, New Jersey: Noyes Publications. p. 431. ISBN 0-8155-1237-6.
[3] Varshneya, A. K. (2006). Fundamentals of inorganic
glasses. Sheeld: Society of Glass Technology. ISBN
0-12-714970-8.
[4] Ojovan, M. I. (2008). Congurons: thermodynamic parameters and symmetry changes at glass transition. Entropy 10 (3): 334364. Bibcode:2008Entrp..10..334O.
doi:10.3390/e10030334.
[14] Raymond Serway; John Jewett (2005), Principles of

Physics: A Calculus-Based Text, Cengage Learning, p.
506, ISBN 0-534-49143-X
[15] DuPont Kapton
matweb.com.
200EN
Polyimide
Film.
[16] Macor data sheet (PDF). corning.com.

[17] Properties of Common Liquid Materials.
[18] WDSC 340. Class Notes on Thermal Properties of
Wood. forestry.caf.wvu.edu. Archived from the original
on 2009-03-30.
[19] Richard C. Weatherwax; Alfred J. Stamm (1956). The coecients of thermal expansion of wood and wood products
(PDF) (Technical report). Forest Products Laboratory,
United States Forest Service. 1487.
[20] Sapphire (PDF). kyocera.com.
[21] Basic Parameters of Silicon Carbide (SiC)". Ioe Institute.
[22] Becker, P.; Seyfried, P.; Siegert, H. (1982).
The lattice parameter of highly pure silicon single crystals.
Zeitschrift fr Physik
Bibcode:1982ZPhyB..48...17B.
B 48:
17.
doi:10.1007/BF02026423.
[23] Nave, Rod. Thermal Expansion Coecients at 20 C.
Georgia State University.
[24] Sitall CO-115M (Astrositall)". Star Instruments.
[25] Thermal Expansion table
[26] Salvador, James R.; Guo, Fu; Hogan, Tim; Kanatzidis,

Mercouri G. (2003). Zero thermal expansion in YbGaGe due to an electronic valence transition. Nature 425 (6959): 7025. Bibcode:2003Natur.425..702S.
doi:10.1038/nature02011. PMID 14562099.
[27] Janssen, Y.; Change, S.; Cho, B.K.; Llobet, A.; Dennis, K.W.; McCallum, R.W.; Mc Queeney, R.J.; Canfeld, P.C. (2005). YbGaGe: normal thermal expansion. Journal of Alloys and Compounds 389: 1013.
doi:10.1016/j.jallcom.2004.08.012.
7.12 External links

Glass Thermal Expansion Thermal expansion measurement, denitions, thermal expansion calculation
from the glass composition
Water thermal expansion calculator
DoITPoMS Teaching and Learning Package on
Thermal Expansion and the Bi-material Strip
Engineering Toolbox List of coecients of Linear
Expansion for some common materials
Article on how V is determined
MatWeb: Free database of engineering properties
for over 79,000 materials
USA NIST Website Temperature and Dimensional Measurement workshop
Hyperphysics: Thermal expansion
Understanding Thermal Expansion in Ceramic
Glazes
65
Chapter 8
Pressure
This article is about pressure in the physical sciences. For 8.1 Denition
other uses, see Pressure (disambiguation).
Pressure (symbol: p or P) is the force applied perpen- Pressure is the amount of force acting per unit area. The
symbol of pressure is p or P.[lower-alpha 2][1]
8.1.1 Formula
Pressure as exerted by particle collisions inside a closed container.
Mathematically:
dicular to the surface of an object per unit area over which
that force is distributed. Gauge pressure (also spelled
gage pressure)[lower-alpha 1] is the pressure relative to the lo- p = F
A
cal atmospheric or ambient pressure.
Various units are used to express pressure. Some of these
derive from a unit of force divided by a unit of area; the
SI unit of pressure, the pascal (Pa), for example, is one
newton per square metre; similarly, the pound-force per
square inch (psi) is the traditional unit of pressure in the
imperial and US customary systems. Pressure may also
be expressed in terms of standard atmospheric pressure;
the atmosphere (atm) is equal to this pressure and the torr
is dened as 1 760 of this. Manometric units such as the
centimetre of water, millimetre of mercury and inch of
mercury are used to express pressures in terms of the
height of column of a particular uid in a manometer.
where:
p is the pressure,
F is the normal force,
A is the area of the surface on contact.
Pressure is a scalar quantity. It relates the vector surface element (a vector normal to the surface) with the
normal force acting on it. The pressure is the scalar
proportionality constant that relates the two normal vectors:
66
8.1. DEFINITION
67
Pa. Pressure is sometimes expressed in grams-force or

kilograms-force per square centimetre (g/cm2 or kg/cm2 )
dFn = p dA = p n dA
and the like without properly identifying the force units.
The minus sign comes from the fact that the force is con- But using the names kilogram, gram, kilogram-force, or
sidered towards the surface element, while the normal gram-force (or their symbols) as units of force is expressly
forbidden in SI. The technical atmosphere (symbol: at) is
vector points outward.
1 kgf/cm2 (98.0665 kPa or 14.223 psi).
It is incorrect (although rather usual) to say the pressure
is directed in such or such direction. The pressure, as a Since a system under pressure has potential to perform
scalar, has no direction. The force given by the previous work on its surroundings, pressure is a measure of potenrelationship to the quantity has a direction, but the pres- tial energy stored per unit volume. It is therefore related
sure does not. If we change the orientation of the surface to energy density and may be measured in units such as
element, the direction of the normal force changes ac- joules per cubic metre.
cordingly, but the pressure remains the same.
Some meteorologists prefer the hectopascal (hPa) for atPressure is transmitted to solid boundaries or across ar- mospheric air pressure, which is equivalent to the older
bitrary sections of uid normal to these boundaries or unit millibar (mbar). Similar pressures are given in kilosections at every point. It is a fundamental parameter in pascals (kPa) in most other elds, where the hecto- prex
is rarely used. The inch of mercury is still used in the
thermodynamics, and it is conjugate to volume.
United States. Oceanographers usually measure underwater pressure in decibars (dbar) because pressure in the
ocean increases by approximately one decibar per metre
8.1.2 Units
depth.
The standard atmosphere (atm) is an established constant.
It is approximately equal to typical air pressure at earth
mean sea level and is dened as 101325 Pa.
Mercury column
Because pressure is commonly measured by its ability to

displace a column of liquid in a manometer, pressures
are often expressed as a depth of a particular uid (e.g.,
centimetres of water, millimetres of mercury or inches
of mercury). The most common choices are mercury
(Hg) and water; water is nontoxic and readily available,
while mercurys high density allows a shorter column (and
so a smaller manometer) to be used to measure a given
pressure. The pressure exerted by a column of liquid of
height h and density is given by the hydrostatic pressure equation p = gh. Fluid density and local gravity can
vary from one reading to another depending on local factors, so the height of a uid column does not dene pressure precisely. When millimetres of mercury or inches of
mercury are quoted today, these units are not based on a
physical column of mercury; rather, they have been given
precise denitions that can be expressed in terms of SI
units. One millimetre of mercury is approximately equal
to one torr. The water-based units still depend on the
density of water, a measured, rather than dened, quantity. These manometric units are still encountered in many
elds. Blood pressure is measured in millimetres of mercury in most of the world, and lung pressures in centimetres of water are still common.
Underwater divers use the metre sea water (msw or

MSW) and foot sea water (fsw or FSW) units of pressure, and these are the standard units for pressure gauges
used to measure pressure exposure in diving chambers
and personal decompression computers. A msw is dened as 0.1 bar, and is not the same as a linear metre
Other units of pressure, such as pounds per square inch
of depth, and 33.066 fsw = 1 atm.[3] Note that the presand bar, are also in common use. The CGS unit of
sure conversion from msw to fsw is dierent from the
pressure is the barye (Ba), equal to 1 dyncm2 or 0.1
The SI unit for pressure is the pascal (Pa), equal to one

newton per square metre (N/m2 or kgm1 s2 ). This
name for the unit was added in 1971;[2] before that, pressure in SI was expressed simply in newtons per square
metre.
68
CHAPTER 8. PRESSURE
length conversion: 10 msw = 32.6336 fsw, while 10 m = 8.1.3 Examples

32.8083 ft
Gauge pressure is often given in units with 'g' appended, As an example of varying pressures, a nger can be
e.g. 'kPag', 'barg' or 'psig', and units for measurements pressed against a wall without making any lasting impresof absolute pressure are sometimes given a sux of 'a', sion; however, the same nger pushing a thumbtack can
to avoid confusion, for example 'kPaa', 'psia'. However, easily damage the wall. Although the force applied to the
the US National Institute of Standards and Technology surface is the same, the thumbtack applies more pressure
recommends that, to avoid confusion, any modiers be because the point concentrates that force into a smaller
instead applied to the quantity being measured rather than area. Pressure is transmitted to solid boundaries or across
the unit of measure[4] For example, "p = 100 psi rather arbitrary sections of uid normal to these boundaries or
sections at every point. Unlike stress, pressure is dened
than "p = 100 psig.
as a scalar quantity. The negative gradient of pressure is
Dierential pressure is expressed in units with 'd' ap- called the force density.
pended; this type of measurement is useful when considering sealing performance or whether a valve will open or Another example is of a common knife. If we try to cut a
fruit with the at side it obviously will not cut. But if we
close.
take the thin side, it will cut smoothly. The reason is that
Presently or formerly popular pressure units include the the at side has a greater surface area (less pressure) and
following:
so it does not cut the fruit. When we take the thin side, the
surface area is reduced and so it cuts the fruit easily and
quickly. This is one example of a practical application of
atmosphere (atm)
pressure.
manometric units:
For gases, pressure is sometimes measured not as an ab centimetre, inch, and millimetre of mercury solute pressure, but relative to atmospheric pressure; such
measurements are called gauge pressure. An example of
(torr)
this is the air pressure in an automobile tire, which might
Height of equivalent column of water, includbe said to be 220 kPa (32 psi)", but is actually 220 kPa
ing millimetre (mm H
(32 psi) above atmospheric pressure. Since atmospheric
2O), centimetre (cm H
pressure at sea level is about 100 kPa (14.7 psi), the abso2O), metre, inch, and foot of water
lute pressure in the tire is therefore about 320 kPa (46.7
psi). In technical work, this is written a gauge pressure
imperial and customary units:
of 220 kPa (32 psi)". Where space is limited, such as
kip, short ton-force, long ton-force, pound- on pressure gauges, name plates, graph labels, and table
force, ounce-force, and poundal per square headings, the use of a modier in parentheses, such as
kPa (gauge)" or kPa (absolute)", is permitted. In noninch
SI technical work, a gauge pressure of 32 psi is sometimes
short ton-force and long ton-force per square
written as 32 psig and an absolute pressure as 32 psia,
inch
though the other methods explained above that avoid at fsw (feet sea water) used in underwater diving, taching characters to the unit of pressure are preferred.[5]
particularly in connection with diving pressure
Gauge pressure is the relevant measure of pressure wherexposure and decompression
ever one is interested in the stress on storage vessels and
the plumbing components of uidics systems. However,
non-SI metric units:
whenever equation-of-state properties, such as densities
bar, decibar, millibar
or changes in densities, must be calculated, pressures
msw (metres sea water), used in un- must be expressed in terms of their absolute values. For
derwater diving, particularly in connec- instance, if the atmospheric pressure is 100 kPa, a gas
tion with diving pressure exposure and (such as helium) at 200 kPa (gauge) (300 kPa [absolute])
is 50% denser than the same gas at 100 kPa (gauge) (200
decompression
kPa [absolute]). Focusing on gauge values, one might er kilogram-force, or kilopond, per square cen- roneously conclude the rst sample had twice the density
timetre (technical atmosphere)
of the second one.
gram-force and tonne-force (metric ton-force)
per square centimetre
barye (dyne per square centimetre)
8.1.4 Scalar nature
kilogram-force and tonne-force per square In a static gas, the gas as a whole does not appear to move.
metre
The individual molecules of the gas, however, are in con sthene per square metre (pieze)
stant random motion. Because we are dealing with an ex-
8.2. TYPES
tremely large number of molecules and because the motion of the individual molecules is random in every direction, we do not detect any motion. If we enclose the
gas within a container, we detect a pressure in the gas
from the molecules colliding with the walls of our container. We can put the walls of our container anywhere
inside the gas, and the force per unit area (the pressure)
is the same. We can shrink the size of our container
down to a very small point (becoming less true as we approach the atomic scale), and the pressure will still have
a single value at that point. Therefore, pressure is a scalar
quantity, not a vector quantity. It has magnitude but no
direction sense associated with it. Pressure acts in all directions at a point inside a gas. At the surface of a gas,
the pressure force acts perpendicular (at right angle) to
the surface.
A closely related quantity is the stress tensor , which
via
relates the vector force F to the vector area A
69
Closed bodies of uid are either static, when the uid
is not moving, or dynamic, when the uid can move as
in either a pipe or by compressing an air gap in a closed
container. The pressure in closed conditions conforms
with the principles of uid dynamics.
The concepts of uid pressure are predominantly attributed to the discoveries of Blaise Pascal and Daniel
Bernoulli. Bernoullis equation can be used in almost any
situation to determine the pressure at any point in a uid.
The equation makes some assumptions about the uid,
such as the uid being ideal[7] and incompressible.[7] An
ideal uid is a uid in which there is no friction, it is
inviscid,[7] zero viscosity.[7] The equation for all points
of a system lled with a constant-density uid is
p
v2
2g
+ z = const [8]
where:
F = A
p = pressure of the uid
This tensor may be expressed as the sum of the viscous

stress tensor minus the hydrostatic pressure. The negative of the stress tensor is sometimes called the pressure
tensor, but in the following, the term pressure will refer
only to the scalar pressure.
= g = densityacceleration of gravity =
specic weight of the uid.[7]
v = velocity of the uid
g = acceleration of gravity
z = elevation
According to the theory of general relativity, pressure inp
creases the strength of a gravitational eld (see stress
= pressure head
energy tensor) and so adds to the mass-energy cause of
v2
2g = velocity head
gravity. This eect is unnoticeable at everyday pressures
but is signicant in neutron stars, although it has not been
experimentally tested.[6]
Applications
8.2 Types
8.2.1
Fluid pressure
Hydraulic brakes
Artesian well
Blood pressure
Fluid pressure is the pressure at some point within a

uid, such as water or air (for more information specically about liquid pressure, see section below).
Hydraulic head
Fluid pressure occurs in one of two situations:
Pythagorean cup
1. an open condition, called open channel ow, e.g.

the ocean, a swimming pool, or the atmosphere.
2. a closed condition, called closed conduit, e.g. a
water line or gas line.
Pressure in open conditions usually can be approximated
as the pressure in static or non-moving conditions (even
in the ocean where there are waves and currents), because
the motions create only negligible changes in the pressure.
Such conditions conform with principles of uid statics.
The pressure at any given point of a non-moving (static)
uid is called the hydrostatic pressure.
Plant cell turgidity
8.2.2 Explosion or deagration pressures

Explosion or deagration pressures are the result of the
ignition of explosive gases, mists, dust/air suspensions, in
unconned and conned spaces.
8.2.3 Negative pressures

While pressures are, in general, positive, there are several situations in which negative pressures may be encountered:
70
CHAPTER 8. PRESSURE
it may have a higher stagnation pressure when forced to
a standstill. Static pressure and stagnation pressure are
related by:
p0 =
1 2
v + p
2
where
p0 is the stagnation pressure
v is the ow velocity
p is the static pressure.
low pressure chamber in Bundesleistungszentrum Kienbaum,
Germany
The pressure of a moving uid can be measured using a

Pitot tube, or one of its variations such as a Kiel probe
or Cobra probe, connected to a manometer. Depending
When dealing in relative (gauge) pressures. For in- on where the inlet holes are located on the probe, it can
stance, an absolute pressure of 80 kPa may be de- measure static pressures or stagnation pressures.
scribed as a gauge pressure of 21 kPa (i.e., 21 kPa
below an atmospheric pressure of 101 kPa).
When attractive intermolecular forces (e.g., van der
Waals forces or hydrogen bonds) between the particles of a uid exceed repulsive forces due to thermal motion. These forces explain ascent of sap
in tall plants. An apparent negative pressure must
act on water molecules at the top of any tree taller
than 10 m, which is the pressure head of water that
balances the atmospheric pressure. Intermolecular forces maintain cohesion of columns of sap that
run continuously in xylem from the roots to the top
leaves.[9]
The Casimir eect can create a small attractive force
due to interactions with vacuum energy; this force
is sometimes termed vacuum pressure (not to be
confused with the negative gauge pressure of a vacuum).
8.2.5 Surface pressure and surface tension
There is a two-dimensional analog of pressure the lateral

force per unit length applied on a line perpendicular to the
force.
Surface pressure is denoted by and shares many similar properties with three-dimensional pressure. Properties of surface chemicals can be investigated by measuring pressure/area isotherms, as the two-dimensional analog of Boyles law, A = k, at constant temperature.
F
l
Surface tension is another example of surface pressure,
but with a reversed sign, because tension is the opposite
to pressure.
=
For non-isotropic stresses in rigid bodies, depending

on how the orientation of a surface is chosen, the 8.2.6 Pressure of an ideal gas
same distribution of forces may have a component
of positive pressure along one surface normal, with Main article: Ideal gas law
a component of negative pressure acting along the
another surface normal.
In an ideal gas, molecules have no volume and do not interact. Pressure varies linearly with temperature, volume,
The stresses in an electromagnetic eld are
and quantity according to the ideal gas law,
generally non-isotropic, with the pressure normal to one surface element (the normal stress)
being negative, and positive for surface elenRT
p=
ments perpendicular to this.
V
where:
In the cosmological constant.
p is the absolute pressure of the gas
8.2.4
Stagnation pressure
Stagnation pressure is the pressure a uid exerts when it

is forced to stop moving. Consequently, although a uid
moving at higher speed will have a lower static pressure,
n is the amount of substance

T is the absolute temperature
V is the volume
R is the ideal gas constant.
8.2. TYPES
Real gases exhibit a more complex dependence on the
variables of state.[10]
8.2.7
Vapor pressure
Main article: Vapor pressure

Vapor pressure is the pressure of a vapor in
thermodynamic equilibrium with its condensed phases
in a closed system. All liquids and solids have a tendency
to evaporate into a gaseous form, and all gases have a
tendency to condense back to their liquid or solid form.
71
h is height of liquid column or depth within a
substance
Another way of saying this same formula is the following:
p = density weight depth
The pressure a liquid exerts against the sides and bottom
of a container depends on the density and the depth of the
liquid. If atmospheric pressure is neglected, liquid pressure against the bottom is twice as great at twice the depth;
at three times the depth, the liquid pressure is threefold;
etc. Or, if the liquid is two or three times as dense, the
liquid pressure is correspondingly two or three times as
great for any given depth. Liquids are practically incompressible that is, their volume can hardly be changed by
pressure (water volume decreases by only 50 millionths
of its original volume for each atmospheric increase in
pressure). Thus, except for small changes produced by
temperature, the density of a particular liquid is practically the same at all depths.
The atmospheric pressure boiling point of a liquid (also

known as the normal boiling point) is the temperature at
which the vapor pressure equals the ambient atmospheric
pressure. With any incremental increase in that temperature, the vapor pressure becomes sucient to overcome
atmospheric pressure and lift the liquid to form vapor
bubbles inside the bulk of the substance. Bubble formation deeper in the liquid requires a higher pressure, and
therefore higher temperature, because the uid pressure Atmospheric pressure pressing on the surface of a liquid
increases above the atmospheric pressure as the depth in- must be taken into account when trying to discover the
creases.
total pressure acting on a liquid. The total pressure of a
The vapor pressure that a single component in a mixture liquid, then, is gh plus the pressure of the atmosphere.
contributes to the total pressure in the system is called When this distinction is important, the term total pressure
is used. Otherwise, discussions of liquid pressure refer
partial vapor pressure.
to pressure without regard to the normally ever-present
atmospheric pressure.
8.2.8
Liquid pressure
See also: Fluid statics Pressure in uids at rest

When a person swims under the water, water pressure is
felt acting on the persons eardrums. The deeper that person swims, the greater the pressure. The pressure felt is
due to the weight of the water above the person. As someone swims deeper, there is more water above the person
and therefore greater pressure. The pressure a liquid exerts depends on its depth.
Liquid pressure also depends on the density of the liquid.
If someone was submerged in a liquid more dense than
water, the pressure would be correspondingly greater.
The pressure due to a liquid in liquid columns of constant
density or at a depth within a substance is represented by
the following formula:
p = gh
where:
p is liquid pressure
g is gravity at the surface of overlaying material
is density of liquid
It is important to recognize that the pressure does not depend on the amount of liquid present. Volume is not the
important factor depth is. The average water pressure
acting against a dam depends on the average depth of the
water and not on the volume of water held back. For example, a wide but shallow lake with a depth of 3 m (10
ft) exerts only half the average pressure that a small 6 m
(20 ft) deep pond does (note that the total force applied
to the longer dam will be greater, due to the greater total
surface area for the pressure to act upon, but for a given
5 foot section of each dam, the 10ft deep water will apply half the force of 20ft deep water). A person will feel
the same pressure whether his/her head is dunked a metre beneath the surface of the water in a small pool or
to the same depth in the middle of a large lake. If four
vases contain dierent amounts of water but are all lled
to equal depths, then a sh with its head dunked a few
centimetres under the surface will be acted on by water
pressure that is the same in any of the vases. If the sh
swims a few centimetres deeper, the pressure on the sh
will increase with depth and be the same no matter which
vase the sh is in. If the sh swims to the bottom, the
pressure will be greater, but it makes no dierence what
vase it is in. All vases are lled to equal depths, so the
water pressure is the same at the bottom of each vase, regardless of its shape or volume. If water pressure at the
bottom of a vase were greater than water pressure at the
bottom of a neighboring vase, the greater pressure would
72
CHAPTER 8. PRESSURE
force water sideways and then up the narrower vase to a 8.2.10 Kinematic pressure
higher level until the pressures at the bottom were equalized. Pressure is depth dependent, not volume dependent, P = p/0
so there is a reason that water seeks its own level.
is the kinematic pressure, where p is the pressure and 0
Restating this as energy equation, the energy per unit
constant mass density. The SI unit of P is m2 /s2 . Kinevolume in an ideal, incompressible liquid is constant
matic pressure is used in the same manner as kinematic
throughout its vessel. At the surface, gravitational poviscosity in order to compute NavierStokes equation
tential energy is large but liquid pressure energy is low.
without explicitly showing the density 0 .
At the bottom of the vessel, all the gravitational potential energy is converted to pressure energy. The sum
of pressure energy and gravitational potential energy per NavierStokes equation with kinematic quantities
u
2
unit volume is constant throughout the volume of the uid
t + (u)u = P + u
and the two energy components change linearly with the
depth.[11] Mathematically, it is described by Bernoullis
equation where velocity head is zero and comparisons per 8.3 See also
unit volume in the vessel are:
p
+ z = const
Terms have the same meaning as in section Fluid pressure.
Atmospheric pressure
Blood pressure
Boyles Law
Combined gas law
8.2.9
Direction of liquid pressure
Conversion of units
An experimentally determined fact about liquid pressure

is that it is exerted equally in all directions.[12] If someone
is submerged in water, no matter which way that person
tilts his/her head, the person will feel the same amount
of water pressure on his/her ears. Because a liquid can
ow, this pressure isn't only downward. Pressure is seen
acting sideways when water spurts sideways from a leak
in the side of an upright can. Pressure also acts upward,
as demonstrated when someone tries to push a beach ball
beneath the surface of the water. The bottom of a boat is
pushed upward by water pressure (buoyancy).
Critical point (thermodynamics)
When a liquid presses against a surface, there is a net

force that is perpendicular to the surface. Although pressure doesn't have a specic direction, force does. A submerged triangular block has water forced against each
point from many directions, but components of the force
that are not perpendicular to the surface cancel each other
out, leaving only a net perpendicular point.[12] This is why
water spurting from a hole in a bucket initially exits the
bucket in a direction at right angles to the surface of the
bucket in which the hole is located. Then it curves downward due to gravity. If there are three holes in a bucket
(top, bottom, and middle), then the force vectors perpendicular to the inner container surface will increase with
increasing depth that is, a greater pressure at the bottom makes it so that the bottom hole will shoot water out
the farthest. The force exerted by a uid on a smooth surface is always at right angles to the surface. The speed of
liquid out of the hole is 2gh , where h is the depth below

[12]
the free surface.
Interestingly, this is the same speed
the water (or anything else) would have if freely falling
the same vertical distance h.
Orders of magnitude (pressure)
Dynamic pressure
Hydraulics
Internal pressure
Kinetic theory
Microphone
Partial pressure
Pressure measurement
Pressure sensor
Sound pressure
Spouting can
Timeline of temperature and pressure measurement
technology
Units conversion by factor-label
Vacuum
Vacuum pump
Vertical pressure variation
8.6. EXTERNAL LINKS
8.4 Notes
[1] The preferred spelling varies by country and even by industry. Further, both spellings are often used within a particular industry or country. Industries in British Englishspeaking countries typically use the gauge spelling.
Many of the largest US manufacturers of pressure transducers and instrumentation use the spelling gage pressure in their most formal documentation sensotec.com
Honeywell-Sensotecs FAQ page and uke.com, Fluke
Corporations product search page.
[2] The usage of P vs p is context-driven. It depends on
the eld in which one is working, on the nearby presence of other symbols for quantities such as power and
momentum, and on writing style.
8.5 References
<div class="reist columns references-column-width
style="-moz-column-width: 1 [3] ; -webkit-column-width:
1 [3] ; column-width: 1 [3] ; list-style-type: decimal;">
[1] Giancoli, Douglas G. (2004). Physics: principles with applications. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Pearson Education.
ISBN 0-13-060620-0.
[2] 14th Conference of the International Bureau of Weights
and Measures. Bipm.fr. Retrieved 2012-03-27.
[3] US Navy (2006). US Navy Diving Manual, 6th revision.
United States: US Naval Sea Systems Command. pp. 2
32. Retrieved 2008-06-15.
[4] Rules and Style Conventions for Expressing Values of
Quantities. NIST. Retrieved 2009-07-07.
[5] NIST, Rules and Style Conventions for Expressing Values
of Quantities, Sect. 7.4.
[6] Einsteins gravity under pressure. Springerlink.com.
[7] Finnemore, John, E. and Joseph B. Franzini (2002). Fluid
Mechanics: With Engineering Applications. New York:
McGraw Hill, Inc. pp. 1429. ISBN 978-0-07-2432022.
[8] NCEES (2011). Fundamentals of Engineering: Supplied
Reference Handbook. Clemson, South Carolina: NCEES.
p. 64. ISBN 978-1-932613-59-9.
[9] Karen Wright (March 2003). The Physics of Negative
Pressure. Discover. Retrieved 31 January 2015.
[10] P. Atkins, J. de Paula Elements of Physical Chemistry, 4th
Ed, W.H. Freeman, 2006. ISBN 0-7167-7329-5.
[11] Streeter, V.L., Fluid Mechanics, Example 3.5, McGraw
Hill Inc. (1966), New York.
[12] Hewitt 251 (2006)
73
8.6 External links

Introduction to Fluid Statics and Dynamics on
Project PHYSNET
Pressure being a scalar quantity
Pressure Unit Converter
Chapter 9
GayLussac law
The expression Gay-Lussacs law is used for each of the
two relationships named after the French chemist Joseph
Louis Gay-Lussac and which concern the properties of
gases, though it is more usually applied to his law of combining volumes, the rst listed here. The rst law relates
to volumes before and after a chemical reaction while the
second concerns the pressure and temperature relationship for a sample of gas often known as Amontons Law.
pressed in simple whole numbers.

For example, Gay-Lussac found that 2 volumes of Hydrogen and 1 volume of Oxygen would react to form 2 volumes of gaseous water. Based on Gay-Lussacs results,
Amedeo Avogadro theorized that, at the same temperature and pressure, equal volumes of gas contain equal
numbers of molecules (Avogadros law). This hypothesis
meant that the previously stated result
9.1 Law of combining volumes

3 m3 H2
2 volumes of Hydrogen + 1 volume of Oxygen

= 2 volumes of gaseous water
could also be expressed as
2 molecules of Hydrogen + 1 molecule of Oxygen = 2 molecules of water.
The law of combining gases was made public by Joseph
Louis Gay-Lussac in 1808.[1][2] Avogadros hypothesis,
however, was not initially accepted by chemists until the
Italian chemist Stanislao Cannizzaro was able to convince
the First International Chemical Congress in 1860.[3]
9.2 Pressure-temperature law

2 m3 NH3
(approximately)
1 m3 N2
This law is often referred to as Amontons Law

of Pressure-Temperature after Guillaume Amontons,
who, between 1700 and 1702, discovered the relationship
between the pressure and temperature of a xed mass of
gas kept at a constant volume[4][5][6] Amontons discovered this while building an air thermometer.
The pressure of a gas of xed mass and
xed volume is directly proportional to the
gass absolute temperature.
Under STP, a reaction between three cubic meters of hydrogen

gas and one cubic meter of nitrogen gas will produce circa two
cubic meters of ammonia
The law of combining volumes states that, when gases re- If a gass temperature increases, then so does its pressure
act together to form other gases, all volumes are measured if the mass and volume of the gas are held constant. The
at the same temperature and pressure:
law has a particularly simple mathematical form if the
temperature is measured on an absolute scale, such as in
The ratio between the volumes of the rekelvins. The law can then be expressed mathematically
actant gases and the products can be exas:
74
9.3. SEE ALSO
75
much of Charless unpublished data from 1787 - hence,
the law became known as Charless law or the Law of
Charles and Gay-Lussac[11] However, in recent years the
term has fallen out of favor.
Gay-Lussacs (Amontons) Law, Charles Law, and
Boyles law form the combined gas law. These three gas
laws in combination with Avogadros Law can be generalized by the ideal gas law.
Temperature T
Temperature 3T
Illustration of pressure varying with temperature.
9.3 See also

Avogadros law
Boyles law
Charles law
P T
Combined gas law
or
9.4 References
P
=k
T
where:
P is the pressure of the gas
T is the temperature of the gas (measured in
kelvin).
k is a constant.
This law holds true because temperature is a measure of
the average kinetic energy of a substance; as the kinetic
energy of a gas increases, its particles collide with the
container walls more rapidly, thereby exerting increased
pressure.
For comparing the same substance under two dierent
sets of conditions, the law can be written as:
[1] Gay-Lussac (1809) Mmoire sur la combinaison des substances gazeuses, les unes avec les autres (Memoir on the
combination of gaseous substances with each other), Mmoires de la Socit d'Arcueil 2: 207-234. Available in
English at: Le Moyne College.
[2] Joseph-Louis Gay-Lussac. chemistryexplained.com.
[3] Hartley, Harold (1966). Stanislao Cannizzaro, F.R.S.
(1826 1910) and the First International Chemical Conference at Karlsruhe. Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London 21: 5663. doi:10.1098/rsnr.1966.0006.
[4] Barnett, Martin K. (Aug 1941), A brief history
of thermometry, Journal of Chemical Education 18 (8):
358, Bibcode:1941JChEd..18..358B,
doi:10.1021/ed018p358. Extract.
[5] http://web.fccj.org/~{}ethall/gaslaw/gaslaw.htm
P2
P1
=
T1
T2
or
P1 T2 = P2 T1 .
Because Amontons discovered the law beforehand, GayLussacs name is now generally associated within chemistry with the law of combining volumes discussed in
the section above. Some introductory physics textbooks
still dene the pressure-temperature relationship as GayLussacs law.[7][8] Gay-Lussac primarily investigated the
relationship between volume and temperature and published it in 1802, but his work did cover some comparison between pressure and temperature.[9] Given the relative technology to both men, Amonton was only able to
work with air as a gas, where Gay-Lussac was able to experiment with multiple types of common gases, such as
oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen.[10] Gay-Lussac did attribute his ndings to Jacques Charles because he used
[6] See:
Amontons, G. (presented 1699, published 1732)
Moyens de substituer commodment l'action du
feu la force des hommes et des chevaux pour mouvoir les machines (Ways to conveniently substitute
the action of re for the force of men and horses in
order to power machines), Mmoires de lAcadmie
des sciences de Paris, 112-126; see especially pages
113-117.
Discours sur quelques proprits de l'Air, & le
moyen d'en connotre la temprature dans tous les
climats de la Terre (Discourse on some properties of air and on the means of knowing the temperature in all climates of the Earth), Mmoires de
lAcadmie des sciences de Paris, 155-174.
76
CHAPTER 9. GAYLUSSAC LAW

See also: Fontenelle, B. B. (1743) Sur une nouvelle propriet de l'air, et une nouvelle construction
de Thermomtre (On a new property of the air
and a new construction of thermometer), Histoire
de l'Academie royale des sciences, 1-8.
[7] Tippens, Paul E. (2007). Physics, 7th ed. McGraw-Hill.

386-387.
[8] Cooper, Crystal (Feb. 11, 2010). Gay-Lussacs Law.
Bright Hub Engineering. Retrieved from http://www.
brighthubengineering.com/hvac/26213-gay-lussacs-law/
on July 8, 2013.
[9] Crosland, Maurice P. (2004). Gay-Lussac: Scientist and
Bourgeois. Cambridge University Press. 119-120.
[10] Astimov, Issac (1966). Understanding Physics - Motion,
Sound, and Heat. Walker and Co. 191-192.
[11] Gay-Lussac (1802) Recherches sur la dilatation des gaz
et des vapeurs (Researches on the expansion of gases
and vapors) Annales de Chimie 43: 137-175. On page
157, Gay-Lussac mentions the unpublished ndings of
Charles: Avant d'aller plus loin, je dois prvenir que
quoique j'eusse reconnu un grand nombre de fois que
les gaz oxigne, azote, hydrogne et acide carbonique, et
l'air atmosphrique se dilatent galement depuis 0 jusqu'a
80, le cit. Charles avait remarqu depuis 15 ans la mme
proprit dans ces gaz ; mais n'avant jamais publi ses rsultats, c'est par le plus grand hasard que je les ai connus.
(Before going further, I should inform [you] that although
I had recognized many times that the gases oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, and carbonic acid [i.e., carbon dioxide],
and atmospheric air also expand from 0 to 80, citizen
Charles had noticed 15 years ago the same property in
these gases; but having never published his results, it is
by the merest chance that I knew of them.) Available in
English at: Le Moyne College.
9.5 Further reading

Castka, Joseph F.; Metcalfe, H. Clark; Davis, Raymond E.; Williams, John E. (2002). Modern Chemistry. Holt, Rinehart and Winston. ISBN 0-03056537-5.
Guch, Ian (2003). The Complete Idiots Guide to
Chemistry. Alpha, Penguin Group Inc. ISBN 159257-101-8.
Mascetta, Joseph A. (1998). How to Prepare for the
SAT II Chemistry. Barrons. ISBN 0-7641-0331-8.
9.6 External links

http://www.ausetute.com.au/gaylusac.html
http://chemed.chem.purdue.edu/genchem/
topicreview/bp/ch4/gaslaws3.html#amonton
http://www.bookrags.com/biography/
joseph-louis-gay-lussac-wsd/
Chapter 10
Charless law
This law describes how a gas expands as the temperature
increases; conversely, a decrease in temperature will lead
to a decrease in volume. For comparing the same substance under two dierent sets of conditions, the law can
be written as:
V2
V1
=
T1
T2
An animation demonstrating the relationship between volume

and temperature.
or
V2
T2
=
V1
T1
or
V1 T2 = V2 T1 .
The equation shows that, as absolute temperature increases, the volume of the gas also increases in proportion. The law was named after scientist Jacques Charles,
who formulated the original law in his unpublished work
from the 1780s.
Charless law (also known as the law of volumes) is an 10.1 History

experimental gas law which describes how gases tend to
expand when heated. A modern statement of Charless
In two of a series of four essays presented between 2
law is
and 30 October 1801,[2] John Dalton demonstrated by
experiment that all the gases and vapours that he studied, expanded by the same amount between two xed
When the pressure on a sample of a dry gas
points of temperature. The French natural philosopher
is held constant, the Kelvin temperature and the
Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac conrmed the discovery in a
volume will be directly related.[1]
presentation to the French National Institute on 31 Jan
1802,[3] although he credited the discovery to unpubthis directly proportional relationship can be written as:
lished work from the 1780s by Jacques Charles. The basic
principles had already been described a century earlier by
Guillaume Amontons.[4]
V T
Dalton was the rst to demonstrate that the law applied
generally to all gases, and to the vapours of volatile liqor
uids if the temperature was well above the boiling point.
Gay-Lussac concurred.[5] With measurements only at the
two thermometric xed points of water, Gay-Lussac was
V
=k
unable to show that the equation relating volume to temT
perature was a linear function. On mathematical grounds
alone, Gay-Lussacs paper does not permit the assignment
where:
of any law stating the linear relation. Both Daltons and
Gay-Lussacs main conclusions can be expressed matheV is the volume of the gas
matically as:
T is the temperature of the gas (measured in
Kelvin).
k is a constant.
V100 V0 = kV0
77
78
CHAPTER 10. CHARLESS LAW
where V 100 is the volume occupied by a given sample of

gas at 100 C; V 0 is the volume occupied by the same
sample of gas at 0 C; and k is a constant which is the
same for all gases at constant pressure. This equation
does not contain the temperature and so has nothing to
do with what became known as Charless Law. GayLussacs value for k (1 .), was indentical to Daltons earlier value for vapours and remarkably close to
the present-day value of 1 .. Gay-Lussac gave credit
for this equation to unpublished statements by his fellow
Republican citizen J. Charles in 1787. In the absence of
a rm record, the gas law relating volume to temperature cannot be named after Charles. Daltons measurements had much more scope regarding temperature than
Gay-Lussac, not only measuring the volume at the xed
points of water, but also at two intermediate points. Unaware of the inaccuracies of mercury thermometers at the
time, which were divided into equal portions between the
xed points, Dalton, after concluding in Essay II that in
the case of vapours, any elastic uid expands nearly in a
uniform manner into 1370 or 1380 parts by 180 degrees
(Fahrenheit) of heat, was unable to conrm it for gases.
His conclusion for vapours is a clear statement of what
became become known wrongly as Charless Law, then
even more wrongly as Gay-Lussaacs law, but never correctly as Daltons 2nd law. His 1st law was that of partial
pressures.
is related to a phenomenon which is exhibited

by a great many bodies when passing from the
liquid to the solid state, but which is no longer
sensible at temperatures a few degrees above
that at which the transition occurs.[3]
The rst mention of a temperature at which the volume
of a gas might descend to zero was by William Thomson
(later known as Lord Kelvin) in 1848:[6]
This is what we might anticipate, when we
reect that innite cold must correspond to a nite number of degrees of the air-thermometer
below zero; since if we push the strict principle of graduation, stated above, suciently
far, we should arrive at a point corresponding to the volume of air being reduced to
nothing, which would be marked as 273 of
the scale (100/.366, if .366 be the coecient of expansion); and therefore 273 of
the air-thermometer is a point which cannot be
reached at any nite temperature, however low.
However, the absolute zero on the Kelvin temperature

scale was originally dened in terms of the second law
of thermodynamics, which Thomson himself described
in 1852.[7] Thomson did not assume that this was equal
to the zero-volume point of Charless law, merely that
10.2 Relation to absolute zero
Charless law provided the minimum temperature which
could be attained. The two can be shown to be equivalent
Charless law appears to imply that the volume of a gas by Ludwig Boltzmanns statistical view of entropy (1870).
will descend to zero at a certain temperature (266.66 C
according to Gay-Lussacs gures) or 273.15 C. GayLussac was clear in his description that the law was not
applicable at low temperatures:
10.3 Relation to kinetic theory
but I may mention that this last conclusion cannot be true except so long as the compressed vapors remain entirely in the elastic
state; and this requires that their temperature
shall be suciently elevated to enable them to
resist the pressure which tends to make them
assume the liquid state.[3]
The kinetic theory of gases relates the macroscopic properties of gases, such as pressure and volume, to the
microscopic properties of the molecules which make up
the gas, particularly the mass and speed of the molecules.
In order to derive Charless law from kinetic theory, it is
necessary to have a microscopic denition of temperature: this can be conveniently taken as the temperature
being proportional to the average kinetic energy of the
Gay-Lussac had no experience of liquid air (rst pre- gas molecules, E :
pared in 1877), although he appears to believe (as did
Dalton) that the permanent gases such as air and hydrogen could be liquied. Gay-Lussac had also worked with T E .
k
the vapours of volatile liquids in demonstrating Charless
law, and was aware that the law does not apply just above
Under this denition, the demonstration of Charless law
the boiling point of the liquid:
is almost trivial. The kinetic theory equivalent of the ideal
gas law relates pV to the average kinetic energy:
I may however remark that when the temperature of the ether is only a little above its
boiling point, its condensation is a little more
2
pV = N Ek
rapid than that of atmospheric air. This fact
3
10.4 See also

Boyles law
Combined gas law
Gay-Lussacs law
Avogadros law
Ideal gas law
Hand boiler
10.5 References
[1] Fullick, P. (1994), Physics, Heinemann, pp. 14142,
ISBN 0-435-57078-1.
[2] J. Dalton (1802) Essay II. On the force of steam or
vapour from water and various other liquids, both in vacuum and in air and Essay IV. On the expansion of elastic
uids by heat, Memoirs of the Literary and Philosophical
Society of Manchester, vol. 5, pt. 2, pages 550-574 and
pages 595602 .
[3] Gay-Lussac, J. L. (1802), Recherches sur la dilatation
des gaz et des vapeurs [Researches on the expansion
of gases and vapors], Annales de chimie 43: 137175.
English translation (extract).
On page 157, Gay-Lussac mentions the unpublished ndings of Charles: "Avant d'aller plus loin, je dois prvenir
que quoique j'eusse reconnu un grand nombre de fois que
les gaz oxigne, azote, hydrogne et acide carbonique, et
l'air atmosphrique se dilatent galement depuis 0 jusqu'a
80, le cit. Charles avait remarqu depuis 15 ans la mme
proprit dans ces gaz ; mais n'avant jamais publi ses rsultats, c'est par le plus grand hasard que je les ai connus.
(Before going further, I should inform [you] that although
I had recognized many times that the gases oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, and carbonic acid [i.e., carbon dioxide],
and atmospheric air also expand from 0 to 80, citizen
Charles had noticed 15 years ago the same property in
these gases; but having never published his results, it is by
the merest chance that I knew of them.)
79
Review of Amontons ndings: Sur une nouvelle
propriet de l'air, et une nouvelle construction de
Thermomtre (On a new property of the air and
a new construction of thermometer), Histoire de
l'Academie royale des sciences, 18 (submitted:
1702 ; published: 1743).
Englishman Francis Hauksbee (16601713) independently also discovered Charles law: Francis
Hauksbee (1708) An account of an experiment
touching the dierent densities of air, from the
greatest natural heat to the greatest natural cold
in this climate, Philosophical Transactions of the
Royal Society of London 26(315): 9396.
[5] Gay-Lussac (1802), from page 166:
"Si l'on divise l'augmentation totale de volume par le nombre de degrs qui l'ont produite ou par 80, on trouvera,
en faisant le volume la temprature 0 gal l'unit, que
l'augmentation de volume pour chaque degr est de 1 /
223.33 ou bien de 1 / 266.66 pour chaque degr du thermomtre centrigrade."
If one divides the total increase in volume by the number
of degrees that produce it or by 80, one will nd, by making the volume at the temperature 0 equal to unity (1), that
the increase in volume for each degree is 1 / 223.33 or 1
/ 266.66 for each degree of the centigrade thermometer.
From page 174:
" elle nous porte, par consquent, conclure que tous les
gaz et toutes les vapeurs se dilatent galement par les mmes
degrs de chaleur."
it leads us, consequently, to conclude that all gases and
all vapors expand equally [when subjected to] the same
degrees of heat.
[6] Thomson, William (1848), On an Absolute Thermometric Scale founded on Carnots Theory of the Motive Power
of Heat, and calculated from Regnaults Observations,
Philosophical Magazine: 1006.
[7] Thomson, William (1852), On the Dynamical Theory
of Heat, with numerical results deduced from Mr Joules
equivalent of a Thermal Unit, and M. Regnaults Observations on Steam, Philosophical Magazine 4. Extract.
[4] See:
Moyens de substituer commodment l'action du
feu la force des hommes et des chevaux pour mouvoir les machines (Ways to conveniently substitute
the action of re for the force of men and horses in
order to power machines), Mmoires de lAcadmie
des sciences de Paris (presented 1699, published
1732), 112126; see especially pages 113117.
Discours sur quelques proprits de l'Air, & le
moyen d'en connotre la temprature dans tous les
climats de la Terre (Discourse on some properties of air and on the means of knowing the temperature in all climates of the Earth), Mmoires de
lAcadmie des sciences de Paris, 155174.
Krnig, A. (1856), Grundzge einer Theorie der Gase, Annalen der Physik 99:
Bibcode:1856AnP...175..315K,
31522,
doi:10.1002/andp.18561751008.
Facsimile at
the Bibliothque nationale de France (pp. 31522).
Clausius, R. (1857), Ueber die Art der
Bewegung,
welche wir Wrme nennen,
Annalen der Physik und Chemie 176:
Bibcode:1857AnP...176..353C,
35379,
doi:10.1002/andp.18571760302.
Facsimile at
the Bibliothque nationale de France (pp. 35379).
Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac Liste de ses communications . (French)
80
10.7 External links

Charless law simulation from Davidson College,
Davidson, North Carolina
Charless law demonstration by Prof. Robert Burk,
Carleton University, Ottawa, Canada
Charless law animation from the Leonardo Project
(GTEP/CCHS, UK)
CHAPTER 10. CHARLESS LAW
Chapter 11
Mercury (element)
This article is about the element. For the planet and 11.1.1
other uses, see Mercury (disambiguation).
Physical properties
Mercury is a chemical element with symbol Hg

and atomic number 80. It is commonly known as
quicksilver and was formerly named hydrargyrum
(/hadrrdrm/).[3] A heavy, silvery d-block element,
mercury is the only metallic element that is liquid at
standard conditions for temperature and pressure; the
only other element that is liquid under these conditions
is bromine, though metals such as caesium, gallium, and
rubidium melt just above room temperature.
Mercury occurs in deposits throughout the world mostly
as cinnabar (mercuric sulde).
The red pigment
vermilion, a pure form of mercuric sulde, is mostly obtained by reaction of mercury (produced by reduction
from cinnabar) with sulfur. Mercury poisoning can result from exposure to water-soluble forms of mercury
(such as mercuric chloride or methylmercury), inhalation
of mercury vapor, or eating seafood contaminated with
mercury.
A pound coin (density ~7.6 g/cm3 ) oats in mercury due to the

combination of the buoyant force and surface tension.
Mercury is a heavy, silvery-white metal. Compared to

other metals, it is a poor conductor of heat, but a fair
conductor of electricity.[4] Mercury has a freezing point
of 38.83 C and a boiling point of 356.73 C,[5][6][7]
both exceptionally low for a metal, and it is the only elemental metal known to melt at a generally low temperature. In addition, mercurys boiling point of 629.88 K
(674.11 F) is the lowest of any metal.[8] A complete explanation of this delves deep into the realm of quantum
physics, but it can be summarized as follows: mercury has
a unique electron conguration where electrons ll up all
the available 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 3d, 4s, 4p, 4d, 4f, 5s, 5p,
5d, and 6s subshells. Because this conguration strongly
resists removal of an electron, mercury behaves similarly
to noble gases, which form weak bonds and hence melt at
low temperatures.
Mercury is used in thermometers, barometers,

manometers, sphygmomanometers, oat valves, mercury
switches, mercury relays, uorescent lamps and other devices, though concerns about the elements toxicity have
led to mercury thermometers and sphygmomanometers
being largely phased out in clinical environments in
favour of alternatives such as alcohol- or galinstan-lled
glass thermometers and thermistor- or infrared-based
electronic instruments. Likewise, mechanical pressure
gauges and electronic strain gauge sensors have replaced
mercury sphygmomanometers. Mercury remains in
use in scientic research applications and in amalgam
material for dental restoration in some locales. It is used
in lighting: electricity passed through mercury vapor in
a uorescent lamp produces short-wave ultraviolet light The stability of the 6s shell is due to the presence of a
which then causes the phosphor in the tube to uoresce, lled 4f shell. An f shell poorly screens the nuclear charge
that increases the attractive Coulomb interaction of the
making visible light.
6s shell and the nucleus (see lanthanide contraction). The
absence of a lled inner f shell is the reason for the somewhat higher melting temperature of cadmium and zinc,
although both these metals still melt easily and, in addition, have unusually low boiling points.
11.1 Properties
On the other hand, gold, which is one space to the left of
81
82
CHAPTER 11. MERCURY (ELEMENT)
mercury on the periodic table, has atoms with one fewer

6s electron than mercury. Those electrons are more easily
removed and are shared between the gold atoms forming
relatively strong metallic bonds.[5][6]
There are seven stable isotopes of mercury with 202

Hg being the most abundant (29.86%). The longest-lived
radioisotopes are 194
Hg with a half-life of 444 years, and 203
Hg with a half-life of 46.612 days. Most of the remaining
radioisotopes have half-lives that are less than a day. 199
Hg and 201
11.1.2 Chemical properties
Hg are the most often studied NMR-active nuclei, having
Mercury does not react with most acids, such as dilute spins of 1 2 and 3 2 respectively.[4]
sulfuric acid, although oxidizing acids such as concentrated sulfuric acid and nitric acid or aqua regia dissolve
it to give sulfate, nitrate, and chloride salts. Like silver, 11.2 Etymology and history
mercury reacts with atmospheric hydrogen sulde. Mercury even reacts with solid sulfur akes, which are used
in mercury spill kits to absorb mercury vapors (spill kits
also use activated carbon and powdered zinc).[9]
Amalgams
Mercury-discharge spectral calibration lamp
Mercury dissolves many other metals such as gold and

silver to form amalgams. Iron is an exception, and
iron asks have been traditionally used to trade mercury. Several other rst row transition metals with the
exception of manganese, copper and zinc are reluctant
to form amalgams. Other elements that do not readily
form amalgams with mercury include platinum and a few
other metals.[10][11] Sodium amalgam is a common reducing agent in organic synthesis, and is also used in highpressure sodium lamps.
Mercury readily combines with aluminium to form a
mercury-aluminium amalgam when the two pure metals come into contact. Since the amalgam destroys the
aluminium oxide layer which protects metallic aluminium
from oxidizing in-depth (as in iron rusting), even small
amounts of mercury can seriously corrode aluminium.
For this reason, mercury is not allowed aboard an aircraft under most circumstances because of the risk of it
forming an amalgam with exposed aluminium parts in the
aircraft.[12]
The symbol for the planet Mercury ( ) has been used since ancient times to represent the element
Mercury was found in Egyptian tombs that date from

1500 BC.[13]
In China and Tibet, mercury use was thought to prolong
life, heal fractures, and maintain generally good health,
although it is now known that exposure to mercury vapor
leads to serious adverse health eects.[14] The rst emperor of China, Qn Sh Hung Dallegedly buried in
a tomb - the "Mausoleum of the First Qin Emperor" that contained rivers of owing mercury on a model of
the land he ruled, representative of the rivers of China
was killed by drinking a mercury and powdered jade mixture formulated by Qin alchemists (causing liver failure,
mercury poisoning, and brain death) who intended to give
him eternal life.[15][16]
Mercury embrittlement is the most common type of liq- In November, 2014 large quantities of mercury were
discovered in a chamber 60 feet below the 1800 year
uid metal embrittlement.
old pyramid known as the "Temple of the Feathered Serpent, the third largest pyramid of Teotihuacan, Mexico
along with jade statues, jaguar remains, a box lled with
11.1.3 Isotopes
carved shells and rubber balls.[17]
Main article: Isotopes of mercury
The ancient Greeks used mercury in ointments; the

ancient Egyptians and the Romans used it in cosmetics
11.3. OCCURRENCE
83
which sometimes deformed the face. In Lamanai, once a

major city of the Maya civilization, a pool of mercury was
found under a marker in a Mesoamerican ballcourt.[18][19]
By 500 BC mercury was used to make amalgams (Medieval Latin amalgama, alloy of mercury) with other
metals.[20]
leanest concentrated deposits are at least 0.1% mercury

(12,000 times average crustal abundance). It is found either as a native metal (rare) or in cinnabar, corderoite,
livingstonite and other minerals, with cinnabar (HgS) being the most common ore.[25] Mercury ores usually occur
in very young orogenic belts where rocks of high density
of Earth, often in hot springs or
Alchemists thought of mercury as the First Matter from are forced to the crust[26]
volcanic
regions.
other
which all metals were formed. They believed that different metals could be produced by varying the quality Beginning in 1558, with the invention of the patio proand quantity of sulfur contained within the mercury. The cess to extract silver from ore using mercury, mercury bepurest of these was gold, and mercury was called for in came an essential resource in the economy of Spain and
attempts at the transmutation of base (or impure) metals its American colonies. Mercury was used to extract silver
from the lucrative mines in New Spain and Peru. Initially,
into gold, which was the goal of many alchemists.[21]
Southern Spain
Hg is the modern chemical symbol for mercury. It comes the Spanish Crowns mines in Almadn in[27]
supplied
all
the
mercury
for
the
colonies.
Mercury defrom hydrargyrum, a Latinized form of the Greek word
posits
were
discovered
in
the
New
World,
and
more than
(hydrargyros), which is a compound word
100,000
tons
of
mercury
were
mined
from
the
region of
meaning water-silver (from - hydr-, the root of
Huancavelica,
Peru,
over
the
course
of
three
centuries
fol, water, and argyros silver) since it
lowing
the
discovery
of
deposits
there
in
1563.
The
patio
is liquid like water and shiny like silver. The element
was named after the Roman god Mercury, known for process and later pan amalgamation process continued to
mercury to treat silver ores until
his speed and mobility. It is associated with the planet create great demand for
[28]
the
late
19th
century.
Mercury; the astrological symbol for the planet is also
one of the alchemical symbols for the metal; the Sanskrit
word for alchemy is Rasavtam which means the way of
mercury.[22] Mercury is the only metal for which the alchemical planetary name became the common name.[21]
The mines in Almadn (Spain), Monte Amiata (Italy),
and Idrija (now Slovenia) dominated mercury production
from the opening of the mine in Almadn 2500 years
ago, until new deposits were found at the end of the 19th
century.[23]
11.3 Occurrence
See also: Category:Mercury minerals and Category:
Mercury mines
Native mercury with cinnabar, Socrates mine, Sonoma County,
Mercury is an extremely rare element in Earths crust, California. Cinnabar sometimes alters to native mercury in the
oxidized zone of mercury deposits.
Mercury output in 2005
having an average crustal abundance by mass of only 0.08

parts per million (ppm).[24] However, because it does
not blend geochemically with those elements that constitute the majority of the crustal mass, mercury ores
can be extraordinarily concentrated considering the elements abundance in ordinary rock. The richest mercury
ores contain up to 2.5% mercury by mass, and even the
Former mines in Italy, the United States and Mexico,

which once produced a large proportion of the world supply, have now been completely mined out or, in the case
of Slovenia (Idrija) and Spain (Almadn), shut down due
to the fall of the price of mercury. Nevada's McDermitt
Mine, the last mercury mine in the United States, closed
in 1992. The price of mercury has been highly volatile
over the years and in 2006 was $650 per 76-pound (34.46
kg) ask.[29]
Mercury is extracted by heating cinnabar in a current of
air and condensing the vapor. The equation for this extraction is
HgS + O2 Hg + SO2
In 2005, China was the top producer of mercury with al-
84
most two-thirds global share followed by Kyrgyzstan.[30]

Several other countries are believed to have unrecorded
production of mercury from copper electrowinning processes and by recovery from euents.
Because of the high toxicity of mercury, both the mining
of cinnabar and rening for mercury are hazardous and
historic causes of mercury poisoning.[31] In China, prison
labor was used by a private mining company as recently as
the 1950s to create new cinnabar mercury mines. Thousands of prisoners were used by the Luo Xi mining company to establish new tunnels.[32] Worker health in functioning mines is at high risk.
ther oxidation. Mercury(I) hydride, a colorless gas, is the

compound with the formula HgH, containing no Hg-Hg
bond.
Indicative of its tendency to bond to itself, mercury forms
mercury polycations, which consist of linear chains of
mercury centers, capped with a positive charge. One example is Hg2+
3(AsF
6)
2.[36]
The European Union directive calling for compact

uorescent bulbs to be made mandatory by 2012 has encouraged China to re-open deadly cinnabar mines to obtain the mercury required for CFL bulb manufacture. As 11.4.2 Compounds of mercury(II)
a result, environmental dangers have been a concern, particularly in the southern cities of Foshan and Guangzhou,
and in Guizhou province in the southwest.[32]
Mercury(II) is the most common oxidation state and is
Abandoned mercury mine processing sites often contain the main one in nature as well. All four mercuric halides
very hazardous waste piles of roasted cinnabar calcines. are known. They form tetrahedral complexes with other
Water run-o from such sites is a recognized source of ligands but the halides+adopt linear coordination geomeecological damage. Former mercury mines may be suited try, somewhat like Ag does. Best known is mercury(II)
for constructive re-use. For example, in 1976 Santa chloride, an easily sublimating white solid. HgCl2 forms
Clara County, California purchased the historic Almaden coordination complexes that are typically tetrahedral, e.g.
Quicksilver Mine and created a county park on the site, HgCl2
after conducting extensive safety and environmental anal- 4.
ysis of the property.[33]
11.4 Chemistry
See also: Category:Mercury compounds
Mercury exists in two main oxidation states, I and II.
Higher oxidation states are rare (e.g., mercury(IV)
uoride, HgF
4), but have been detected under extraordinary
conditions.[34]
11.4.1
Compounds of mercury(I)
Dierent from its lighter neighbors, cadmium and zinc,

mercury usually forms simple stable compounds with
metal-metal bonds. Most mercury(I) compounds are
diamagnetic and feature the dimeric cation, Hg2+
2. Stable derivatives include the chloride and nitrate.
Treatment of Hg(I) compounds complexation with strong
ligands such as sulde, cyanide, etc. induces disproportionation to Hg2+
and elemental mercury.[35] Mercury(I) chloride, a colorless solid also known as calomel, is really the compound
with the formula Hg2 Cl2 , with the connectivity Cl-HgHg-Cl. It is a standard in electrochemistry. It reacts
with chlorine to give mercuric chloride, which resists fur-
Mercury(II) oxide, the main oxide of mercury, arises

when the metal is exposed to air for long periods at elevated temperatures. It reverts to the elements upon heating near 400 C, as was demonstrated by Joseph Priestley in an early synthesis of pure oxygen.[9] Hydroxides
of mercury are poorly characterized, as they are for its
neighbors gold and silver.
Being a soft metal, mercury forms very stable derivatives
with the heavier chalcogens. Preeminent is mercury(II)
sulde, HgS, which occurs in nature as the ore cinnabar
and is the brilliant pigment vermillion. Like ZnS, HgS
crystallizes in two forms, the reddish cubic form and the
black zinc blende form.[4] Mercury(II) selenide (HgSe)
and mercury(II) telluride (HgTe) are also known, these
as well as various derivatives, e.g. mercury cadmium telluride and mercury zinc telluride being semiconductors
useful as infrared detector materials.[37]
Mercury(II) salts form a variety of complex derivatives
with ammonia. These include Millons base (Hg2 N+ ), the
one-dimensional polymer (salts of HgNH+
2)
n), and fusible white precipitate or [Hg(NH3 )2 ]Cl2 .
Known as Nesslers reagent, potassium tetraiodomercurate(II) (HgI2
4) is still occasionally used to test for ammonia owing to
its tendency to form the deeply colored iodide salt of Millons base.
Mercury fulminate is a detonator widely used in
explosives.[4]
11.5. APPLICATIONS
11.4.3
Higher oxidation states
85
11.5.1 Medicine
Oxidation states above +2 in a non-charged species

are extremely rare, although a cyclic mercurinium(IV)
cation, with three substituents, may be an intermediate
in oxymercuration reactions.[38][39] In 2007, a report of
synthesis of a mercury(IV) compound, mercury(IV) uoride, was published.[40] In the 1970s, there was a claim
on synthesis of a mercury(III) compound, but it is now
thought to be false.[41]
11.4.4
Organomercury compounds
Main article: Organomercury compound

Organic mercury compounds are historically important but are of little industrial value in the western
world. Mercury(II) salts are a rare example of simple metal complexes that react directly with aromatic
rings. Organomercury compounds are always divalent
and usually two-coordinate and linear geometry. Unlike
organocadmium and organozinc compounds, organomercury compounds do not react with water. They usually have the formula HgR2 , which are often volatile, or
HgRX, which are often solids, where R is aryl or alkyl
and X is usually halide or acetate. Methylmercury, a
generic term for compounds with the formula CH3 HgX,
is a dangerous family of compounds that are often found
in polluted water.[42] They arise by a process known as
biomethylation.
11.5 Applications
Amalgam lling
See also: Amalgam (dentistry)

Mercury and its compounds have been used in medicine,
although they are much less common today than they
once were, now that the toxic eects of mercury and
its compounds are more widely understood. The rst
edition of the Mercks Manual featured many mercuric
compounds[44] such as:
Mercauro
Mercuro-iodo-hemol.
Mercury-ammonium chloride
Mercury Benzoate
Mercuric
Mercury Bichloride (Corrosive Mercuric Chloride,
U.S.P.)
Mercury Chloride
Mild Mercury Cyanide
Mercury Succinimide
Mercury Iodide
The bulb of a mercury-in-glass thermometer
Mercury is used primarily for the manufacture of industrial chemicals or for electrical and electronic applications. It is used in some thermometers, especially ones
which are used to measure high temperatures. A still increasing amount is used as gaseous mercury in uorescent
lamps, while most of the other applications are slowly
phased out due to health and safety regulations and is in
some applications replaced with less toxic but considerably more expensive Galinstan alloy.[43]
Red Mercury Biniodide

Mercury Iodide
Yellow Mercury Proto-iodide
Black (Hahnemann), Soluble Mercury Oxide
Red Mercury Oxide
Yellow Mercury Oxide
Mercury Salicylate
86
Mercury Succinimide
Mercury Imido-succinate
Mercury Sulphate
Basic Mercury Subsulphate; Turpeth Mineral
Mercury Tannate
Mercury-Ammonium Chloride
The element mercury is an ingredient in dental amalgams.
Thiomersal (called Thimerosal in the United States) is
an organic compound used as a preservative in vaccines,
though this use is in decline.[45] Thiomersal is metabolized to ethyl mercury. Although it was widely speculated
that this mercury-based preservative could cause or trigger autism in children, scientic studies showed no evidence supporting any such link.[46] Nevertheless, thiomersal has been removed from, or reduced to trace amounts
in all U.S. vaccines recommended for children 6 years of
age and under, with the exception of inactivated inuenza
vaccine.[47]
11.5.2 Production of chlorine and caustic

soda
Chlorine is produced from sodium chloride (common
salt, NaCl) using electrolysis to separate the metallic
sodium from the chlorine gas. Usually the salt is dissolved
in water to produce a brine. By-products of any such
chloralkali process are hydrogen (H2 ) and sodium hydroxide (NaOH), which is commonly called caustic soda
or lye. By far the largest use of mercury[51][52] in the late
20th century was in the mercury cell process (also called
the Castner-Kellner process) where metallic sodium is
formed as an amalgam at a cathode made from mercury;
this sodium is then reacted with water to produce sodium
hydroxide.[53] Many of the industrial mercury releases of
the 20th century came from this process, although modern plants claimed to be safe in this regard.[52] After about
1985, all new chloralkali production facilities that were
built in the United States used either membrane cell or
diaphragm cell technologies to produce chlorine.
Another mercury compound, merbromin (Mer11.5.3 Laboratory uses

curochrome), is a topical antiseptic used for minor cuts
and scrapes that is still in use in some countries.
Mercury in the form of one of its common ores, cinnabar, Some medical thermometers, especially those for high
is used in various traditional medicines, especially in temperatures, are lled with mercury; however, they
traditional Chinese medicine. Review of its safety has are gradually disappearing. In the United States, nonfound that cinnabar can lead to signicant mercury in- prescription sale of mercury fever thermometers has been
[54]
toxication when heated, consumed in overdose, or taken banned since 2003.
long term, and can have adverse eects at therapeutic Mercury is also found in liquid mirror telescopes.
doses, though eects from therapeutic doses are typically
reversible. Although this form of mercury appears to be Some transit telescopes use a basin of mercury to form a
at and absolutely horizontal mirror, useful in determinless toxic than other forms, its use in traditional Chinese
medicine has not yet been justied, as the therapeutic ba- ing an absolute vertical or perpendicular reference. Concave horizontal parabolic mirrors may be formed by rosis for the use of cinnabar is not clear.[48]
tating liquid mercury on a disk, the parabolic form of the
Today, the use of mercury in medicine has greatly de- liquid thus formed reecting and focusing incident light.
clined in all respects, especially in developed countries. Such telescopes are cheaper than conventional large mirThermometers and sphygmomanometers containing mer- ror telescopes by up to a factor of 100, but the mirror
cury were invented in the early 18th and late 19th cen- cannot be tilted and always points straight up.[55][56][57]
turies, respectively. In the early 21st century, their use is
declining and has been banned in some countries, states Liquid mercury is a part of popular secondary refand medical institutions. In 2002, the U.S. Senate passed erence electrode (called the calomel electrode) in
legislation to phase out the sale of non-prescription mer- electrochemistry as an alternative to the standard hydrois used to work out
cury thermometers. In 2003, Washington and Maine gen electrode. The calomel electrode
[58]
the
electrode
potential
of
half
cells.
Last, but not least,
became the rst states to ban mercury blood pressure
triple
point
of
mercury,
38.8344
C,
is a xed point
the
[49]
devices. Mercury compounds are found in some overused
as
a
temperature
standard
for
the
International
Temthe-counter drugs, including topical antiseptics, stimu[4]
perature
Scale
(ITS-90).
lant laxatives, diaper-rash ointment, eye drops, and nasal
sprays. The FDA has inadequate data to establish gen- In polarography both the dropping mercury electrode [59]
eral recognition of the safety and eectiveness of the and the hanging mercury drop electrode [60] use elemenmercury ingredients in these products.[50] Mercury is still tal mercury. This use allows a new uncontaminated elecused in some diuretics although substitutes now exist for trode to be available for each measurement or each new
most therapeutic uses.
experiment.
11.5. APPLICATIONS
11.5.4
87
Niche uses
Gaseous mercury is used in mercury-vapor lamps and

some "neon sign" type advertising signs and uorescent
lamps. Those low-pressure lamps emit very spectrally
narrow lines, which are traditionally used in optical spectroscopy for calibration of spectral position. Commercial
calibration lamps are sold for this purpose; however simply reecting some of the uorescent-lamp ceiling light
into a spectrometer is a common calibration practice.[61]
Gaseous mercury is also found in some electron tubes, A Single-Pole, Single-Throw (SPST) mercury switch.
including ignitrons, thyratrons, and mercury arc rectiers.[62] It is also used in specialist medical care lamps for
skin tanning and disinfection (see pictures).[63] Gaseous
mercury is added to cold cathode argon-lled lamps to
increase the ionization and electrical conductivity. An argon lled lamp without mercury will have dull spots and
will fail to light correctly. Lighting containing mercury
can be bombarded/oven pumped only once. When added
to neon lled tubes the light produced will be inconsistent
red/blue spots until the initial burning-in process is completed; eventually it will light a consistent dull o-blue
color.[64]
The deep violet glow of a mercury vapor discharge
in a germicidal lamp, whose spectrum is rich in invisible ultraviolet radiation.
Skin tanner containing a low-pressure mercury vapor lamp and two infrared lamps, which act both as
light source and electrical ballast
Assorted types of uorescent lamps.
Cosmetics
Mercury, as thiomersal, is widely used in the manufacture
of mascara. In 2008, Minnesota became the rst state in
the United States to ban intentionally added mercury in Mercury manometer to measure pressure
cosmetics, giving it a tougher standard than the federal
government.[65]
at six sites. This mercury may have been used in
A study in geometric mean urine mercury concentrabowls as mirrors for divinatory purposes. Five of
tion identied a previously unrecognized source of exthese date to the Classic Period of Maya civilization
posure (skin care products) to inorganic mercury among
(c. 250900) but one example predated this.[68]
New York City residents. Population-based biomonitoring also showed that mercury concentration levels are
In Islamic Spain, it was used for lling decorative
higher in consumers of seafood and sh meals.[66]
pools. Later, the American artist Alexander Calder
built a mercury fountain for the Spanish Pavilion
at the 1937 World Exhibition in Paris. The foun11.5.5 Historic uses
tain is now on display at the Fundaci Joan Mir in
Barcelona.[69]
Many historic applications made use of the peculiar physical properties of mercury, especially as a dense liquid
Mercury was used inside wobbler lures. Its heavy,
and a liquid metal:
liquid form made it useful since the lures made
an attractive irregular movement when the mercury
Quantities of liquid mercury ranging from 90 to 600
moved inside the plug. Such use was stopped due to
grams (3.2 to 21.2 oz) have been recovered from
environmental concerns, but illegal preparation of
elite Maya tombs (100-700AD)[67] or ritual caches
modern shing plugs has occurred.
88
The Fresnel lenses of old lighthouses used to oat
and rotate in a bath of mercury which acted like a
bearing.[70]

weight, little or no reactivity due to its noble gas nature, and has a high liquid density under mild cryogenic storage.[77][78]
Mercury sphygmomanometers (blood pressure meOthers applications made use of the chemical properties
ter), barometers, diusion pumps, coulometers, and
of mercury:
many other laboratory instruments. As an opaque
liquid with a high density and a nearly linear ther The mercury battery is a non-rechargeable
mal expansion, it is ideal for this role.[71]
electrochemical battery, a primary cell, that was
common throughout the middle of the 20th century.
As an electrically conductive liquid, it was used
It was used in a wide variety of applications and was
in mercury switches (including home mercury light
available in various sizes, particularly button sizes.
switches installed prior to 1970), tilt switches used
Its constant voltage output and long shelf life gave
in old re detectors, and tilt switches in some home
it a niche use for camera light meters and hearing
thermostats.[72]
aids. The mercury cell was eectively banned in
Owing to its acoustic properties, mercury was used
most countries in the 1990s due to concerns about
as the propagation medium in delay line memory dethe mercury contaminating landlls.[79]
vices used in early digital computers of the mid-20th
Mercury was used for preserving wood, developcentury.
ing daguerreotypes, silvering mirrors, anti-fouling
Experimental mercury vapor turbines were installed
paints (discontinued in 1990), herbicides (disconto increase the eciency of fossil-fuel electrical
tinued in 1995), handheld maze games, cleaning,
power plants.[73] The South Meadow power plant
and road leveling devices in cars. Mercury comin Hartford, CT employed mercury as its working
pounds have been used in antiseptics, laxatives,
uid, in a binary conguration with a secondary waantidepressants, and in antisyphilitics.
ter circuit, for a number of years starting in the late
It was allegedly used by allied spies to sabotage Luft1920s in a drive to improve plant eciency. Several
wae planes: a mercury paste was applied to bare
other plants were built, including the Schiller Staaluminium, causing the metal to rapidly corrode;
tion in Portsmouth, NH, which went online in 1950.
this would cause structural failures.[80]
The idea did not catch on industry-wide due to the
weight and toxicity of mercury, as well as the advent
Chloralkali process: The largest industrial use of
of supercritical steam plants in later years.[74][75]
mercury during the 20th century was in electrolysis for separating chlorine and sodium from brine;
Similarly, liquid mercury was used as a coolant for
mercury being the anode of the Castner-Kellner prosome nuclear reactors; however, sodium is proposed
cess. The chlorine was used for bleaching paper
for reactors cooled with liquid metal, because the
(hence the location of many of these plants near
high density of mercury requires much more energy
[76]
paper mills) while the sodium was used to make
to circulate as coolant.
sodium hydroxide for soaps and other cleaning products. This usage has largely been discontinued, re Mercury was a propellant for early ion engines in
placed with other technologies that utilize memelectric space propulsion systems. Advantages were
brane cells.[81]
mercurys high molecular weight, low ionization energy, low dual-ionization energy, high liquid den As electrodes in some types of electrolysis, batteries
sity and liquid storability at room temperature. Dis(mercury cells), sodium hydroxide and chlorine proadvantages were concerns regarding environmenduction, handheld games, catalysts, insecticides.
tal impact associated with ground testing and concerns about eventual cooling and condensation of
Mercury was once used as a gun barrel bore
some of the propellant on the spacecraft in longcleaner.[82][83]
duration operations. The rst spaceight to use elec From the mid-18th to the mid-19th centuries, a
tric propulsion was a mercury-fueled ion thruster deprocess called "carroting" was used in the making
veloped by NASA Lewis and own on the Space
Electric Rocket Test "SERT-1" spacecraft launched
of felt hats. Animal skins were rinsed in an orby NASA at its Wallops Flight Facility in 1964. The
ange solution (the term carroting arose from this
SERT-1 ight was followed up by the SERT-2 ight
color) of the mercury compound mercuric nitrate,
in 1970. Mercury and caesium were preferred proHg(NO3 )2 2H2 O.[84] This process separated the fur
pellants for ion engines until Hughes Research Labfrom the pelt and matted it together. This solution
oratory performed studies nding xenon gas to be
and the vapors it produced were highly toxic. The
United States Public Health Service banned the use
a suitable replacement. Xenon is now the preferred
of mercury in the felt industry in December 1941.
propellant for ion engines as it has a high molecular
11.6. TOXICITY AND SAFETY

The psychological symptoms associated with mercury poisoning inspired the phrase "mad as a hatter".
Lewis Carroll's "Mad Hatter" in his book Alices Adventures in Wonderland was a play on words based
on the older phrase, but the character himself does
not exhibit symptoms of mercury poisoning.[85]
Gold and silver mining. Historically, mercury was
used extensively in hydraulic gold mining in order to help the gold to sink through the owing
water-gravel mixture. Thin gold particles may form
mercury-gold amalgam and therefore increase the
gold recovery rates.[4] Large-scale use of mercury
stopped in the 1960s. However, mercury is still
used in small scale, often clandestine, gold prospecting. It is estimated that 45,000 metric tons of mercury used in California for placer mining have not
been recovered.[86] Mercury was also used in silver
mining.[87]
89
powder that readily forms an amalgam (alloy) with mercury at ordinary temperatures is sprinkled over the area
before itself being collected and properly disposed of.
Cleaning porous surfaces and clothing is not eective at
removing all traces of mercury and it is therefore advised
to discard these kinds of items should they be exposed to
a mercury spill.
Mercury can be absorbed through the skin and mucous
membranes and mercury vapors can be inhaled, so containers of mercury are securely sealed to avoid spills and
evaporation. Heating of mercury, or of compounds of
mercury that may decompose when heated, should be carried out with adequate ventilation in order to minimize
exposure to mercury vapor. The most toxic forms of mercury are its organic compounds, such as dimethylmercury
and methylmercury. Mercury can cause both chronic and
acute poisoning.
11.6.1 Releases in the environment

Historic medicinal uses
Mercury(I) chloride (also known as calomel or mercurous chloride) has been used in traditional medicine as
a diuretic, topical disinfectant, and laxative. Mercury(II)
chloride (also known as mercuric chloride or corrosive
sublimate) was once used to treat syphilis (along with
other mercury compounds), although it is so toxic that
sometimes the symptoms of its toxicity were confused
with those of the syphilis it was believed to treat.[88]
It is also used as a disinfectant. Blue mass, a pill or
syrup in which mercury is the main ingredient, was prescribed throughout the 19th century for numerous conditions including constipation, depression, child-bearing
and toothaches.[89] In the early 20th century, mercury
was administered to children yearly as a laxative and dewormer, and it was used in teething powders for infants.
The mercury-containing organohalide merbromin (sometimes sold as Mercurochrome) is still widely used but has
been banned in some countries such as the U.S.[90]
1998 core
1991 core
11.6 Toxicity and safety

See also: Mercury poisoning and Mercury cycle
Mercury and most of its compounds are extremely toxic
and must be handled with care; in cases of spills involving mercury (such as from certain thermometers or
uorescent light bulbs), specic cleaning procedures are
used to avoid exposure and contain the spill.[91] Protocols call for physically merging smaller droplets on hard
surfaces, combining them into a single larger pool for easier removal with an eyedropper, or for gently pushing the
spill into a disposable container. Vacuum cleaners and
brooms cause greater dispersal of the mercury and should
not be used. Afterwards, ne sulfur, zinc, or some other
Amount of atmospheric mercury deposited at Wyomings Upper

Fremont Glacier over the last 270 years
Preindustrial deposition rates of mercury from the atmosphere may be about 4 ng /(1 L of ice deposit). Although
that can be considered a natural level of exposure, regional or global sources have signicant eects. Volcanic eruptions can increase the atmospheric source by
46 times.[92]
Natural sources, such as volcanoes, are responsible for approximately half of atmospheric mercury emissions. The
90
human-generated half can be divided into the following option. Mercury thermometers are still occasionally used
estimated percentages:[93][94][95]
in the medical eld because they are more accurate than
alcohol thermometers, though both are commonly being
65% from stationary combustion, of which coal- replaced by electronic thermometers and less commonly
red power plants are the largest aggregate source by galinstan thermometers. Mercury thermometers are
(40% of U.S. mercury emissions in 1999). This in- still widely used for certain scientic applications because
cludes power plants fueled with gas where the mer- of their greater accuracy and working range.
cury has not been removed. Emissions from coal
combustion are between one and two orders of magnitude higher than emissions from oil combustion,
depending on the country.[93]
Historically, one of the largest releases was from the

Colex plant, a lithium-isotope separation plant at Oak
Ridge, Tennessee. The plant operated in the 1950s and
1960s. Records are incomplete and unclear, but government commissions have estimated that some two million
11% from gold production. The three largest point pounds of mercury are unaccounted for.[100]
sources for mercury emissions in the U.S. are the
three largest gold mines. Hydrogeochemical release A serious industrial disaster was the dumping of mercury
of mercury from gold-mine tailings has been ac- compounds into Minamata Bay, Japan. It is estimated
counted as a signicant source of atmospheric mer- that over 3,000 people suered various deformities, severe mercury poisoning symptoms or death from what becury in eastern Canada.[96]
came known as Minamata disease.[101][102]
6.8% from non-ferrous metal production, typically
smelters.
6.4% from cement production.
11.6.2 Occupational exposure
3.0% from waste disposal, including municipal and Due to the health eects of mercury exposure, industrial
hazardous waste, crematoria, and sewage sludge in- and commercial uses are regulated in many countries.
The World Health Organization, OSHA, and NIOSH all
cineration.
treat mercury as an occupational hazard, and have es 3.0% from caustic soda production.
tablished specic occupational exposure limits. Environmental releases and disposal of mercury are regulated in
1.4% from pig iron and steel production.
the U.S. primarily by the United States Environmental
Protection
Agency.
1.1% from mercury production, mainly for batteries.
2.0% from other sources.
The above percentages are estimates of the global humancaused mercury emissions in 2000, excluding biomass
burning, an important source in some regions.[93]
Recent atmospheric mercury contamination in outdoor
urban air was measured at 0.010.02 g/m3 . A 2001
study measured mercury levels in 12 indoor sites chosen
to represent a cross-section of building types, locations
and ages in the New York area. This study found mercury concentrations signicantly elevated over outdoor
concentrations, at a range of 0.0065 0.523 g/m3 . The
average was 0.069 g/m3 .[97]
Case control studies have shown eects such as tremors,

impaired cognitive skills, and sleep disturbance in workers with chronic exposure to mercury vapor even at low
concentrations in the range 0.742 g/m3 .[103][104] A
study has shown that acute exposure (4 8 hours) to calculated elemental mercury levels of 1.1 to 44 mg/m3 resulted in chest pain, dyspnea, cough, hemoptysis, impairment of pulmonary function, and evidence of interstitial
pneumonitis.[105] Acute exposure to mercury vapor has
been shown to result in profound central nervous system
eects, including psychotic reactions characterized by
delirium, hallucinations, and suicidal tendency. Occupational exposure has resulted in broad-ranging functional
disturbance, including erethism, irritability, excitability,
excessive shyness, and insomnia. With continuing exposure, a ne tremor develops and may escalate to violent
muscular spasms. Tremor initially involves the hands and
later spreads to the eyelids, lips, and tongue. Long-term,
low-level exposure has been associated with more subtle
symptoms of erethism, including fatigue, irritability, loss
of memory, vivid dreams and depression.[106][107]
Mercury also enters into the environment through the improper disposal (e.g., land lling, incineration) of certain products. Products containing mercury include: auto
parts, batteries, uorescent bulbs, medical products, thermometers, and thermostats.[98] Due to health concerns
(see below), toxics use reduction eorts are cutting back
or eliminating mercury in such products. For example,
the amount of mercury sold in thermostats in the United
States decreased from 14.5 tons in 2004 to 3.9 tons in 11.6.3
2007.[99]
Treatment
Most thermometers now use pigmented alcohol instead Research on the treatment of mercury poisoning is limof mercury, and galinstan alloy thermometers are also an ited. Currently available drugs for acute mercurial
11.7. REGULATIONS
poisoning include chelators N-acetyl-D, L-penicillamine
(NAP), British Anti-Lewisite (BAL), 2,3-dimercapto-1propanesulfonic acid (DMPS), and dimercaptosuccinic
acid (DMSA). In one small study including 11 construction workers exposed to elemental mercury, patients were
treated with DMSA and NAP.[108] Chelation therapy with
both drugs resulted in the mobilization of a small fraction
of the total estimated body mercury. DMSA was able to
increase the excretion of mercury to a greater extent than
NAP.[109]
91
of many types of used batteries.[113] North America contributed approximately 11% of the total global anthropogenic mercury emissions in 1995.[114]
The United States Clean Air Act, passed in 1990, put

mercury on a list of toxic pollutants that need to be controlled to the greatest possible extent. Thus, industries
that release high concentrations of mercury into the environment agreed to install maximum achievable control technologies (MACT). In March 2005, the EPA promulgated a regulation[115] that added power plants to the
list of sources that should be controlled and instituted
a national cap and trade system. States were given un11.6.4 Fish
til November 2006 to impose stricter controls, but after a legal challenge from several states, the regulations
Main article: Mercury in sh
were struck down by a federal appeals court on 8 February 2008. The rule was deemed not sucient to protect
Fish and shellsh have a natural tendency to concen- the health of persons living near coal-red power plants,
trate mercury in their bodies, often in the form of given the negative eects documented in the EPA Study
methylmercury, a highly toxic organic compound of Report to Congress of 1998.[116]
mercury. Species of sh that are high on the food The EPA announced new rules for coal-red power plants
chain, such as shark, swordsh, king mackerel, bluen on 22 December 2011.[117] Cement kilns that burn haztuna, albacore tuna, and tilesh contain higher con- ardous waste are held to a looser standard than are stancentrations of mercury than others. As mercury and dard hazardous waste incinerators in the United States,
methylmercury are fat soluble, they primarily accumu- and as a result are a disproportionate source of mercury
late in the viscera, although they are also found through- pollution.[118]
out the muscle tissue.[110] When this sh is consumed
by a predator, the mercury level is accumulated. Since
sh are less ecient at depurating than accumulating
methylmercury, sh-tissue concentrations increase over 11.7.3 European Union
time. Thus species that are high on the food chain amass
body burdens of mercury that can be ten times higher In the European Union, the directive on the Restriction
than the species they consume. This process is called of the Use of Certain Hazardous Substances in Electribiomagnication. Mercury poisoning happened this way cal and Electronic Equipment (see RoHS) bans mercury
from certain electrical and electronic products, and limin Minamata, Japan, now called Minamata disease.
its the amount of mercury in other products to less than
1000 ppm.[119] There are restrictions for mercury concentration in packaging (the limit is 100 ppm for sum
11.7 Regulations
of mercury, lead, hexavalent chromium and cadmium)
and batteries (the limit is 5 ppm).[120] In July 2007, the
European Union also banned mercury in non-electrical
11.7.1 International
measuring devices, such as thermometers and barome140 countries agreed in the Minamata Convention on ters. The ban applies to new devices only, and contains
two-year grace
Mercury by the United Nations Environment Program exemptions for the health care sector and a[121]
[111]
period
for
manufacturers
of
barometers.
(UNEP) to prevent emissions.
The convention was
signed on the 10th of October 2013.[112]
11.7.4 Norway
11.7.2
United States
In the United States, the Environmental Protection

Agency is charged with regulating and managing mercury
contamination. Several laws give the EPA this authority, including the Clean Air Act, the Clean Water Act,
the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act, and the
Safe Drinking Water Act. Additionally, the MercuryContaining and Rechargeable Battery Management Act,
passed in 1996, phases out the use of mercury in batteries,
and provides for the ecient and cost-eective disposal
Norway enacted a total ban on the use of mercury in

the manufacturing and import/export of mercury products, eective 1 January 2008.[122] In 2002, several lakes
in Norway were found to have a poor state of mercury pollution, with an excess of 1 g/g of mercury in
their sediment.[123] In 2008, Norways Minister of Environment Development Erik Solheim said: Mercury is
among the most dangerous environmental toxins. Satisfactory alternatives to Hg in products are available, and it
is therefore tting to induce a ban. [124]
92
11.7.5
Sweden
Products containing mercury were banned in Sweden in

2009.[125][126]
11.7.6
Denmark
[10] Gmelin, Leopold (1852). Hand book of chemistry.

Cavendish Society. pp. 103 (Na), 110 (W), 122 (Zn),
128 (Fe), 247 (Au), 338 (Pt). Retrieved 30 December
2012.
[11] Soratur (2002). Essentials of Dental Materials. Jaypee
Brothers Publishers. p. 14. ISBN 978-81-7179-989-3.
[12] Vargel, C.; Jacques, M.; Schmidt, M. P. (2004).
Corrosion of Aluminium. Elsevier. p. 158. ISBN
9780080444956.
In 2008, Denmark also banned dental mercury

amalgam,[124] except for molar masticating surface
llings in permanent (adult) teeth.
[13] Mercury and the environment Basic facts.
11.8 See also

Mercury poisoning
Minamata disease
Methylmercury
Red mercury
Amalgam (dentistry)
11.9 References
[1] Standard Atomic Weights 2013. Commission on Isotopic
Abundances and Atomic Weights
[2] Mgnetic Susceptibility of the Elements And Inorganic
Compounds (PDF). http://www-d0.fnal.gov/''. Fermi
National Accelerator Laboratory: D Experiment (lagacy
document). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2004-0324. Retrieved 18 February 2015.
[3] hydrargyrum. Random House Websters Unabridged
Dictionary.
[4] Hammond, C. R The Elements in Lide, D. R., ed. (2005).
CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (86th ed.). Boca
Raton (FL): CRC Press. ISBN 0-8493-0486-5.
[5] Senese, F. Why is mercury a liquid at STP?". General Chemistry Online at Frostburg State University. Retrieved 1 May 2007.
[6] Norrby, L.J. (1991).
Why is mercury liquid?
Or, why do relativistic eects not get into chemJournal of Chemical Educaistry textbooks?".
Bibcode:1991JChEd..68..110N.
tion 68 (2): 110.
doi:10.1021/ed068p110.
Environment Canada, Federal Government of Canada.

2004. Retrieved 27 March 2008.
[14] Mercury Element of the ancients. Center for Environmental Health Sciences, Dartmouth College. Retrieved 9 April 2012.
[15] Qin Shihuang. Ministry of Culture, Peoples Republic
of China. 2003. Retrieved 27 March 2008.
[16] Wright, David Curtis (2001). The History of China.
Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 49. ISBN 0-31330940-X.
[17]
[18] Pendergast, David M. (6 August 1982).
Ancient maya mercury.
Science 217 (4559):
533535.
Bibcode:1982Sci...217..533P.
doi:10.1126/science.217.4559.533. PMID 17820542.
[19] Lamanai. Retrieved 17 June 2011.
[20] Hesse R W (2007). Jewelrymaking through history.
Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 120. ISBN 0-31333507-9.
[21] Stillman, J. M. (2003). Story of Alchemy and Early Chemistry. Kessinger Publishing. pp. 79. ISBN 978-0-76613230-6.
[22] Cox, R (1997). The Pillar of Celestial Fire. 1st World
Publishing. p. 260. ISBN 1-887472-30-4.
[23] Eisler, R. (2006). Mercury hazards to living organisms.
CRC Press. ISBN 978-0-8493-9212-2.
[24] Ehrlich, H. L.; Newman D. K. (2008). Geomicrobiology.
CRC Press. p. 265. ISBN 978-0-8493-7906-2.
[25] Rytuba, James J. Mercury from mineral deposits and potential environmental impact. Environmental Geology 43
(3): 326338. doi:10.1007/s00254-002-0629-5.
[26] Mercury Recycling in the United States in 2000 (PDF).
USGS. Retrieved 7 July 2009.
[7] Lide, D. R., ed. (2005). CRC Handbook of Chemistry

and Physics (86th ed.). Boca Raton (FL): CRC Press. pp.
4.1254.126. ISBN 0-8493-0486-5.
[27] Burkholder, M. & Johnson, L. (2008). Colonial Latin

America. Oxford University Press. pp. 157159. ISBN
0-19-504542-4.
[8] http://www.ptable.com/#Property/State
[28] Jamieson, R W (2000). Domestic Architecture and Power.

Springer. p. 33. ISBN 0-306-46176-5.
[9] Greenwood, Norman N.; Earnshaw, Alan (1997). Chemistry of the Elements (2nd ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann.
ISBN 0080379419.
[29] Brooks, W. E. (2007). Mercury (PDF). U.S. Geological

Survey. Retrieved 30 May 2008.
11.9. REFERENCES
[30] World Mineral Production. London: British Geological

Survey, NERC. May 2001. Check date values in: |year=
/ |date= mismatch (help)
[31] About the Mercury Rule. Act.credoaction.com (21 December 2011). Retrieved on 30 December 2012.
[32] Sheridan, M. (3 May 2009). "'Green' Lightbulbs Poison
Workers: hundreds of factory sta are being made ill by
mercury used in bulbs destined for the West. The Sunday
Times (of London, UK).
[33] Boulland M (2006). New Almaden. Arcadia Publishing.
p. 8. ISBN 0-7385-3131-6.
[34] Wang, X; Andrews, L; Riedel, S; Kaupp, M (2007).
Mercury Is a Transition Metal: The First Experimental Evidence for HgF4. Angewandte Chemie International Edition (Wiley-VCH) 46 (44): 83715.
doi:10.1002/anie.200703710. PMID 17899620.
[35] Henderson, W. (2000). Main group chemistry. Great
Britain: Royal Society of Chemistry. p. 162. ISBN 085404-617-8.
[36] Brown, I. D.; Gillespie, R. J.; Morgan, K. R.; Tun, Z.;
Ummat, P. K. (1984). Preparation and crystal structure
of mercury hexauoroniobate (Hg
3NbF
6) and mercury hexauorotantalate (Hg
3TaF
6): mercury layer compounds. Inorganic Chemistry 23
(26): 45064508. doi:10.1021/ic00194a020.
[37] Rogalski, A (2000). Infrared detectors. CRC Press. p.
507. ISBN 90-5699-203-1.
[38] Bamford, C.H.; Compton, R.G.; Tipper, C.F.H. (1973).
Addition and Elimination Reactions of Aliphatic Compounds. Elsevier. pp. 49. ISBN 978-0-444-41051-1.
[39] Carey, Francis A. & Sundberg, Richard J. (2007).
Advanced Organic Chemistry: Part A: Structure and Mechanisms. Springer. pp. 517. ISBN 978-0-387-44897-8.
[40] Wang, Xuefang; Andrews, Lester; Riedel, Sebastian;
Kaupp, Martin (2007).
Mercury Is a Transition
Metal: The First Experimental Evidence for HgF4 ".
Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 46 (44): 83718375.
doi:10.1002/anie.200703710. PMID 17899620.
[41] Riedel, S.; Kaupp, M. (2009). The Highest Oxidation States of the Transition Metal Elements (PDF).
Coordination Chemistry Reviews 253 (56): 606624.
doi:10.1016/j.ccr.2008.07.014.
[42] National Research Council (U.S.) Board on Environmental Studies and Toxicology (2000). Toxicological effects of methylmercury. National Academies Press. ISBN
978-0-309-07140-6.
93
[45] FDA. Thimerosal in Vaccines. Retrieved 25 October

2006.
[46] Parker SK; Schwartz B; Todd J; Pickering LK (2004).
Thimerosal-containing vaccines and autistic spectrum
disorder: a critical review of published original data. Pediatrics 114 (3): 793804. doi:10.1542/peds.2004-0434.
PMID 15342856. Erratum (2005). Pediatrics 115 (1):
200. doi:10.1542/peds.2004-2402 PMID 15630018.
[47] Thimerosal in vaccines. Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration.
6 September 2007. Retrieved 1 October 2007.
[48] Liu J; Shi JZ; Yu LM; Goyer RA; Waalkes MP (2008).
Mercury in traditional medicines: is cinnabar toxicologically similar to common mercurials?". Exp. Biol. Med.
(Maywood) 233 (7): 8107. doi:10.3181/0712-MR-336.
PMC 2755212. PMID 18445765.
[49] Two States Pass First-time Bans on Mercury Blood Pressure Devices. Health Care Without Harm. 2 June 2003.
Retrieved 1 May 2007.
[50] Title 21Food and Drugs Chapter IFood and Drug
Administration Department of Health and Human Services Subchapter DDrugs for Human Use Code of federal regulations. United States Food and Drug Administration. Retrieved 1 May 2007.
[51] The CRB Commodity Yearbook (annual). 2000. p. 173.
ISSN 1076-2906.
[52] Leopold, B. R. (2002). Chapter 3: Manufacturing Processes Involving Mercury. Use and Release of Mercury in
the United States. (PDF). National Risk Management Research Laboratory, Oce of Research and Development,
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio.
Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 June 2007. Retrieved 1 May 2007.
[53] Chlorine Online Diagram of mercury cell process. Euro
Chlor. Archived from the original on 2 September 2006.
Retrieved 15 September 2006.
[54] Mercury Reduction Act of 2003. United States.
Congress. Senate. Committee on Environment and Public Works. Retrieved 6 June 2009.
[55] Liquid-mirror telescope set to give stargazing a new
spin. Govert Schilling. 14 March 2003. Archived from
the original on 18 August 2003. Retrieved 11 October
2008.
[56] Gibson, B. K. (1991). Liquid Mirror Telescopes: History. Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society of
Canada 85: 158. Bibcode:1991JRASC..85..158G.
[57] Laval University Liquid mirrors and adaptive optics
group. Retrieved 24 June 2011.
[43] Surmann, P; Zeyat, H (November 2005). Voltammetric

analysis using a self-renewable non-mercury electrode.
Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry 383 (6): 100913.
doi:10.1007/s00216-005-0069-7. PMID 16228199.
[58] Brans, Y W; Hay W W (1995). Physiological monitoring and instrument diagnosis in perinatal and neonatal
medicine. CUP Archive. p. 175. ISBN 0-521-41951-4.
[44] Mercks Manual 1899 (First ed.). Retrieved 16 June

2013.
[59] Zoski, Cynthia G. (7 February 2007). Handbook of Electrochemistry. Elsevier Science. ISBN 0-444-51958-0.
94
[60] Kissinger, Peter; Heineman, William R. (23 January

1996). Laboratory Techniques in Electroanalytical Chemistry, Second Edition, Revised and Expanded (2nd ed.).
CRC. ISBN 0-8247-9445-1.
[61] Hopkinson, G. R.; Goodman, T. M.; Prince, S. R. (2004).
A guide to the use and calibration of detector array equipment. SPIE Press. p. 125. ISBN 0-8194-5532-6.
[62] Howatson A H (1965). Chapter 8. An Introduction to
Gas Discharges. Oxford: Pergamon Press. ISBN 0-08020575-5.
[63] Milo G E; Casto B C (1990). Transformation of human
diploid broblasts. CRC Press. p. 104. ISBN 0-84934956-7.
[64] Shionoya, S. (1999). Phosphor handbook. CRC Press. p.
363. ISBN 0-8493-7560-6.
[65] Mercury in your eye?". CIDPUSA. 16 February 2008.
Retrieved 20 December 2009.
[66] McKelvey W; Jeery N; Clark N; Kass D; Parsons PJ. 2010 (2011). Population-Based Inorganic
Mercury Biomonitoring and the Identication of Skin
Care Products as a Source of Exposure in New York
City.
Environ Health Perspect 119 (2): 2039.
doi:10.1289/ehp.1002396. PMC 3040607. PMID
20923743.
[67] Liquid mercury found under Mexican pyramid could lead
to kings tomb by Alan Yuhas on 24 April 2015 (Guardian
News)
[68] Healy, Paul F.; Blainey, Marc G. (2011).
Ancient Maya Mosaic Mirrors:
Function, Symbolism, And Meaning.
Ancient Mesoamerica (Cambridge University Press) 22 (22): 229244 (241).
doi:10.1017/S0956536111000241.
[69] Lew K (2008). Mercury. The Rosen Publishing Group.
p. 10. ISBN 1-4042-1780-0.
[70] Pearson L F (2003). Lighthouses. Osprey Publishing. p.
29. ISBN 0-7478-0556-3.
[71] Ramanathan E. AIEEE Chemistry. Sura Books. p. 251.
ISBN 81-7254-293-3.
[72] Shelton, C (2004). Electrical Installations.
Thornes. p. 260. ISBN 0-7487-7979-5.
Nelson
[73] Popular Science 118 (3). Bonnier Corporation. 1931. p.

40. ISSN 0161-7370.
[74] Mueller, Grover C. (September 1929). Cheaper Power
from Quicksilver. Popular Science.
[75] Mercury as a Working Fluid. Museum of Retro Technology. 13 November 2008.
[76] Collier (1987). Introduction to Nuclear Power. Taylor &
Francis. p. 64. ISBN 1-56032-682-4.
[77] Glenn Contributions to Deep Space 1. NASA. Retrieved 7 July 2009.
[78] Electric space propulsion. Retrieved 7 July 2009.
[79] IMERC Fact Sheet: Mercury Use in Batteries. Northeast Waste Management Ocials Association. January
2010. Retrieved 20 June 2013.
[80] Gray, T. (22 September 2004). The Amazing Rusting
Aluminum. Popular Science. Retrieved 7 July 2009.
[81] Dufault, Renee; Leblanc, Blaise; Schnoll, Roseanne;
Cornett, Charles; Schweitzer, Laura; Wallinga, David;
Hightower, Jane; Patrick, Lyn; Lukiw, Walter J (2009).
Mercury from Chlor-alkali plants. Environmental
Health 8: 2. doi:10.1186/1476-069X-8-2. PMC
2637263. PMID 19171026.
[82] Francis, G. W. (1849). Chemical Experiments. D. Francis.
p. 62.
[83] Castles, WT; Kimball, VF (2005). Firearms and Their
Use. Kessinger Publishing. p. 104. ISBN 978-1-41798957-7.
[84] Lee, J.D. (1999). Concise Inorganic Chemistry. WileyBlackwell. ISBN 978-0-632-05293-6.
[85] Waldron, HA (1983). Did the Mad Hatter have mercury
poisoning?". Br Med J (Clin Res Ed) 287 (6409): 1961.
doi:10.1136/bmj.287.6409.1961. PMC 1550196. PMID
6418283.
[86] Alpers, C. N.; Hunerlach, M. P.; May, J. Y.; Hothem, R.
L. Mercury Contamination from Historical Gold Mining in California. U.S. Geological Survey. Retrieved 26
February 2008.
[87] Mercury amalgamation. Corrosion Doctors. Retrieved
7 July 2009.
[88] Pimple, K.D. Pedroni; J.A. Berdon, V. (9 July 2002).
Syphilis in history. Poynter Center for the Study of
Ethics and American Institutions at Indiana UniversityBloomington. Retrieved 17 April 2005.
[89] Mayell, H. (17 July 2007). Did Mercury in Little Blue
Pills Make Abraham Lincoln Erratic?". National Geographic News. Retrieved 15 June 2008.
[90] What happened to Mercurochrome?". 23 July 2004. Retrieved 7 July 2009.
[91] Mercury: Spills, Disposal and Site Cleanup. Environmental Protection Agency. Retrieved 11 August 2007.
[92] Glacial Ice Cores Reveal A Record of Natural and
Anthropogenic Atmospheric Mercury Deposition for the
Last 270 Years. United States Geological Survey
(USGS). Retrieved 1 May 2007.
[93] Pacyna E G; Pacyna J M; Steenhuisen F; Wilson S (2006).
Global anthropogenic mercury
emission inventory for 2000.
Atmos Environ
40 (22): 4048.
Bibcode:2006AtmEn..40.4048P.
doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2006.03.041.
[94] What is EPA doing about mercury air emissions?".
United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).
11.9. REFERENCES
95
[95] Solnit, R. (SeptemberOctober 2006). Winged Mercury [109] Bluhm, Re; Bobbitt, Rg; Welch, Lw; Wood, Aj; Bonand the Golden Calf. Orion Magazine. Retrieved 3 Deglio, Jf; Sarzen, C; Heath, Aj; Branch, Ra (1992). Elcember 2007.
emental mercury vapour toxicity, treatment, and prognosis after acute, intensive exposure in chloralkali plant
[96] Maprani, Antu C.; Al, Tom A.; MacQuarrie, Kerry T.;
workers. Part I: History, neuropsychological ndings and
Dalziel, John A.; Shaw, Sean A.; Yeats, Phillip A. (2005).
chelator eects.. Human & Experimental Toxicology 11
Determination of Mercury Evasion in a Contaminated
(3): 20110. doi:10.1177/096032719201100308. PMID
Headwater Stream. Environmental Science & Tech1352115.
nology 39 (6): 1679. Bibcode:2005EnST...39.1679M.
[110] Cocoros, G.; Cahn, P. H.; Siler, W. (1973). Mercury
doi:10.1021/es048962j.
concentrations in sh, plankton and water from
three Western Atlantic estuaries (PDF). Journal of
[97] Indoor Air Mercury (PDF). newmoa.org. May 2003.
Fish Biology 5 (6): 641647. doi:10.1111/j.1095Retrieved 7 July 2009.
8649.1973.tb04500.x.
[98] Mercury-containing Products. United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Retrieved 1 May 2007. [111] Minamata Convention Agreed by Nations. United Nations Environment Program. Retrieved 19 January 2013.
[99] IMERC Fact Sheet Mercury Use in Thermostats. new- [112] http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=
moa.org. January 2010
43963&Cr=mercury&Cr1=#.UPt4ikfdP5M
[100] Introduction. Y-12 Mercury Task Force Files: A Guide [113] Mercury: Laws and regulations. United States Environto Record Series of the Department of Energy and its Conmental Protection Agency. 16 April 2008. Retrieved 30
tractors. United States Department of Energy.
May 2008.
[101] Minamata Disease The History and Measures. Ministry [114] Reductions in Mercury Emissons. International Joint
Commission on the Great Lakes.
of the Environment, Government of Japan. Retrieved 7
July 2009.
[115] Clean Air Mercury Rule. United States Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA). Retrieved 1 May 2007.
[102] Dennis Normile (27 September 2013).
In
[103]
[104]
[105]
[106]
Minamata, Mercury Still Divides.

Science
[116] State of New Jersey et al., Petitioners vs. Environmental
341:
1446.
Bibcode:2013Sci...341.1446N.
Protection Agency (Case No. 05-1097)" (PDF). United
doi:10.1126/science.341.6153.1446.
States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit. Argued 6 December 2007, Decided 8 February
Ngim, CH; Foo, SC; Boey, K.W.; Keyaratnam, J (1992).
2008. Retrieved 30 May 2008.
Chronic neurobehavioral eects of elemental mercury in
dentists. British Journal of Industrial Medicine 49 (11): [117] Oldest, dirtiest power plants told to clean up. Boston
78290. doi:10.1136/oem.49.11.782. PMC 1039326.
Globe. 22 December 2011. Retrieved 2 January 2012.
PMID 1463679.
[118] Howard Berkes (10 November 2011). EPA Regulations
Liang, YX; Sun, RK; Sun, Y; Chen, ZQ; Li, LH
Give Kilns Permission To Pollute. NPR. Retrieved 2 Jan(1993). Psychological eects of low exposure to meruary 2012.
cury vapor: Application of computer-administered neurobehavioral evaluation system. Environmental Re- [119] Directive 2002/95/EC on the Restriction of the Use of
Certain Hazardous Substances in Electrical and Electronic
search 60 (2): 3207. Bibcode:1993ER.....60..320L.
Equipment. 27 January 2003. Article 4 Paragraph 1.
doi:10.1006/enrs.1993.1040. PMID 8472661.
e.g. Member States shall ensure that, from July 1, 2006,
new electrical and electronic equipment put on the marMcFarland, RB & Reigel, H (1978). Chronic Mercury
ket does not contain lead, mercury, cadmium, hexavaPoisoning from a Single Brief Exposure. J. Occup. Med.
lent chromium, polybrominated biphenyls (PBB) or poly20 (8): 532. doi:10.1097/00043764-197808000-00003.
brominated diphenyl ethers (PBDE).
Mercury, Environmental Health Criteria monograph No.
001, Geneva: World Health Organization, 1976, ISBN [120] Mercury compounds in European Union:". EIA Track.
2007. Retrieved 30 May 2008.
92-4-154061-3
[121] Jones H. (10 July 2007). EU bans mercury in barome[107] Inorganic mercury, Environmental Health Criteria monoters, thermometers. Reuters. Retrieved 30 May 2008.
graph No. 118, Geneva: World Health Organization,
1991, ISBN 92-4-157118-7
[122] Norway to ban mercury. EU Business. 21 December
2007. Archived from the original on 21 January 2008.
[108] Bluhm, RE et al. (1992). Elemental Mercury Vapour
Toxicity, Treatment, and Prognosis After Acute, Intensive Exposure in Chloralkali Plant Workers. Part [123] Berg, T; Fjeld, E; Steinnes, E (2006). Atmospheric mercury in Norway: contributions from dierent sources.
I: History, Neuropsychological Findings and ChelaThe Science of the total environment 368 (1): 39.
tor eects..
Hum Exp Toxicol 11 (3): 20110.
doi:10.1177/096032719201100308. PMID 1352115.
doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2005.09.059. PMID 16310836.
96
[124] Edlich, Richard F.; Rhoads, Samantha K.; Cantrell,

Holly S.; Azavedo, Sabrina M. and Newkirk, Anthony T.
Banning Mercury Amalgam. US FDA
[125] Sweden to ban mercury The Local. Thelocal.se (14 January 2009). Retrieved on 30 December 2012.
[126] Sweden may be forced to lift ban on mercury The Local.
Thelocal.se (21 April 2012). Retrieved on 30 December
2012.

Andrew Scott Johnston, Mercury and the Making
of California: Mining, Landscape, and Race, 18401890. Boulder, CO: University Press of Colorado,
2013.
11.11 External links

Chemistry in its element podcast (MP3) from the
Royal Society of Chemistry's Chemistry World:
Mercury
Mercury at The Periodic Table of Videos (University
of Nottingham)
ATSDR ToxFAQs: Mercury
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Mercury Topic
EPA sh consumption guidelines
Global Mercury Assessment report 2002 by the
UNEP.
Global Mercury Project
Hg 80 Mercury
Material Safety Data Sheet Mercury
Mercury Contamination in sh and Source Control,
Oceana
Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC): Mercury Contamination in Fish guide NRDC
NLM Hazardous Substances Databank Mercury
BBC Earth News Mercury 'turns wetland birds
such as ibises homosexual
Changing Patterns in the Use, Recycling, and Material Substitution of Mercury in the United States
United States Geological Survey
Thermodynamical data on liquid mercury.
Chapter 12
Daltons law
For the law of stoichiometry, see Law of multiple proportions. For the philosophical aphorism that Pain don't
Ptotal Ci
hurt, see Road House (1989 lm).
Pi =
1,
000, 000
In chemistry and physics, Daltons law (also called Dalwhere Ci is the concentration of the i-th component expressed in ppm.
Daltons law is not strictly followed by real gases, with deviations being considerably large at high pressures. Under
such conditions the volume occupied by the molecules
can become signicant compared to the free space between them. In particular, the short average distances
between molecules raises the intensity of intermolecular
An illustration of Daltons law using the gases of air at sea level. forces between gas molecules enough to substantially
change the pressure exerted by them. Neither of those
tons law of partial pressures) states that in a mixture eects are considered by the ideal gas model.
of non-reacting gases, the total pressure exerted is
equal to the sum of the partial pressures of the individual gases.[1] This empirical law was observed by John 12.3 References
Dalton in 1801 and is related to the ideal gas laws.
[1] Silberberg, Martin S. (2009). Chemistry : the molecular
nature of matter and change (5th ed.). Boston: McGrawHill. p. 206. ISBN 9780073048598.
12.1 Formula
Mathematically, the pressure of a mixture of non-reactive
gases can be dened as the summation:
Ptotal =
n
i=1
12.4 See also

Henrys law
pi or Ptotal = p1 + + pn
where p1 , p2 , . . . , pn represent the partial pressure of

each component.[1]
Amagats law
Boyles law
Combined gas law
Gay-Lussacs law
pi = Ptotal yi
where yi is the mole fraction of the i-th component in the
total mixture of n components .
Mole (unit)
Partial pressure
Vapour pressure
12.2 Volume-based concentration

The relationship below provides a way to determine the
volume-based concentration of any individual gaseous
component
97
Chapter 13
Nitrous oxide
For other uses, see Nitrous oxide (disambiguation).
Not to be confused with nitric oxide (formula NO) or
nitrogen dioxide (formula NO
2). The generic term NOx includes these two but does
not include nitrous oxide.
Laughing gas redirects here. For other uses, see
Laughing gas (disambiguation).
age pressure (when maintained at low temperature) enable it to be highly competitive with stored high-pressure
gas systems.[6]
Nitrous oxide gives rise to nitric oxide (NO) on reaction with oxygen atoms, and this NO in turn reacts with
ozone. As a result, it is the main naturally occurring regulator of stratospheric ozone. It is also a major greenhouse
gas and air pollutant. Considered over a 100-year period, it is calculated to have between 265 and 310 times
more impact per unit mass (global-warming potential)
than carbon dioxide.[3] [4]
pellant specic impulse (I ) of as much as 180 s. While

noticeably less than the I available from hydrazine
thrusters (monopropellant or bipropellant with dinitrogen
tetroxide), the decreased toxicity makes nitrous oxide an
option worth investigating.
13.1 Applications
Specic impulse (I ) can be improved by blending a hydrocarbon fuel with the nitrous oxide inside the same storage tank, becoming a nitrous oxide fuel blend (NOFB)
monopropellant. This storage mixture does not incur the
danger of spontaneous ignition, since N
2O is chemically stable. When the nitrous oxide decomposes by a heated catalyst, high temperature oxygen is
released and rapidly ignites the hydrocarbon fuel-blend.
NOFB monopropellants are capable of I
sp greater than 300 seconds,[11] while avoiding the toxic-
In a 1914 patent, American rocket pioneer Robert Goddard suggested nitrous oxide and gasoline as possible
propellants for a liquid-fuelled rocket.[7] Nitrous oxide has been the oxidiser of choice in several hybrid
rocket designs (using solid fuel with a liquid or gaseous
Nitrous oxide, commonly known as laughing gas, ni- oxidizer). The combination of nitrous oxide with
trous, nitro, or NOS[1] is a chemical compound with the hydroxyl-terminated polybutadiene fuel has been used
formula N
by SpaceShipOne and others. It is also notably used in
2O. It is an oxide of nitrogen. At room temperature, it amateur and high power rocketry with various plastics as
is a colourless, non-ammable gas, with a slightly sweet the fuel.
odour and taste. It is used in surgery and dentistry for its Nitrous oxide can also be used in a monopropellant
anaesthetic and analgesic eects. It is known as laughing rocket. In the presence of a heated catalyst, N
gas due to the euphoric eects of inhaling it, a property 2O will decompose exothermically into nitrogen and oxythat has led to its recreational use as a dissociative anaes- gen, at a temperature of approximately 1070 F.http://
thetic. It is also used as an oxidizer in rockets[2] and in spg-corp.com/nitrous-oxide-safety.html Because of the
motor racing to increase the power output of engines. At large heat release, the catalytic action rapidly becomes
elevated temperatures, nitrous oxide is a powerful oxi- secondary as thermal autodecomposition becomes domidizer similar to molecular oxygen.
nant. In a vacuum thruster, this can provide a monopro-
Nitrous oxide is said to deagrate somewhere around 600

C (1,112 F) at a pressure of 21 atmospheres.[8] It can
also easily be ignited using a combination of the two. At
It is on the WHO Model List of Essential Medicines, the 600 psi for example, the required ignition energy is only
most important medications needed in a health system.[5] 6 joules, whereas N
2O at 130 psi a 2500-joule ignition energy input is
insucient.[9][10]
13.1.1
Rocket motors
Nitrous oxide can be used as an oxidizer in a rocket motor. This has the advantages over other oxidisers in that it
is not only non-toxic, but also, due to its stability at room
temperature, easy to store and relatively safe to carry on
a ight. As a secondary benet it can be readily decomposed to form breathing air. Its high density and low stor-
98
13.1. APPLICATIONS
ity associated with hypergolic propulsion systems.[12] The
low freezing point of NOFB eases thermal management
compared to hydrazine and dinitrogen tetroxidea valuable property for space storable propellants.
13.1.2
Internal combustion engine
99
from medical-grade nitrous oxide. A small amount of
sulfur dioxide (SO
2) is added to prevent substance abuse.[14] Multiple
washes through a base (such as sodium hydroxide) can
remove this, decreasing the corrosive properties observed
when SO
2 is further oxidised during combustion into sulfuric acid,
making emissions cleaner.
Main article: Nitrous oxide engine
13.1.3 Aerosol propellant

In vehicle racing, nitrous oxide (often referred to as just
"nitrous") allows the engine to burn more fuel by providing more oxygen than air alone, resulting in a more
powerful combustion. The gas itself is not ammable at
a low pressure/temperature, but it delivers more oxygen
than atmospheric air by breaking down at elevated temperatures. Therefore, it is often mixed with another fuel
that is easier to deagrate.
The gas is approved for use as a food additive (also known

as E942), specically as an aerosol spray propellant. Its
most common uses in this context are in aerosol whipped
cream canisters, cooking sprays, and as an inert gas used
to displace oxygen, to inhibit bacterial growth, when lling packages of potato chips and other similar snack
foods.
Nitrous oxide is stored as a compressed liquid; the

evaporation and expansion of liquid nitrous oxide in the
intake manifold causes a large drop in intake charge temperature, resulting in a denser charge, further allowing
more air/fuel mixture to enter the cylinder. Nitrous oxide
is sometimes injected into (or prior to) the intake manifold, whereas other systems directly inject right before
the cylinder (direct port injection) to increase power.
The gas is extremely soluble in fatty compounds. In

aerosol whipped cream, it is dissolved in the fatty cream
until it leaves the can, when it becomes gaseous and thus
creates foam. Used in this way, it produces whipped
cream four times the volume of the liquid, whereas whipping air into cream only produces twice the volume. If
air were used as a propellant, oxygen would accelerate
rancidication of the butterfat; nitrous oxide inhibits such
The technique was used during World War II by degradation. Carbon dioxide cannot be used for whipped
Luftwae aircraft with the GM-1 system to boost the cream because it is acidic in water, which would curdle
power output of aircraft engines. Originally meant to pro- the cream and give it a seltzer-like sparkling sensation.
vide the Luftwae standard aircraft with superior high- However, the whipped cream produced with nitrous oxaltitude performance, technological considerations lim- ide is unstable and will return to a more liquid state within
ited its use to extremely high altitudes. Accordingly, half an hour to one hour. Thus, the method is not suitable
it was only used by specialized planes like high-altitude for decorating food that will not be immediately served.
reconnaissance aircraft, high-speed bombers, and highSimilarly, cooking spray, which is made from various
altitude interceptor aircraft. It could sometimes be found
types of oils combined with lecithin (an emulsier), may
on Luftwae aircraft also tted with another engine-boost
use nitrous oxide as a propellant; other propellants used
system, MW 50, a form of water injection for aviation
in cooking spray include food-grade alcohol and propane.
engines that used methanol for its boost capabilities.
Users of nitrous oxide often obtain it from whipped
One of the major problems of using nitrous oxide in a recream dispensers that use nitrous oxide as a propellant
ciprocating engine is that it can produce enough power to
(see above section), for recreational use as a euphoriadamage or destroy the engine. Very large power increases
inducing inhalant drug. It is not harmful in small doses,
are possible, and if the mechanical structure of the engine
but risks due to lack of oxygen do exist (see Recreational
is not properly reinforced, the engine may be severely
use below).
damaged or destroyed during this kind of operation. It is
very important with nitrous oxide augmentation of petrol
engines to maintain proper operating temperatures and 13.1.4 Medicine
fuel levels to prevent pre-ignition,[13] or detonation
(sometimes referred to as knock). Most problems that Further information: Nitrous oxide and oxygen
are associated with nitrous do not come from mechanical Nitrous oxide has been used for anaesthesia in dentistry
failure due to the power increases. Since nitrous allows a since December 1844, where Horace Wells made the rst
much denser charge into the cylinder it dramatically in- 1215 dental operations with the gas in Hartford. Its
creases cylinder pressures. The increased pressure and debut as a generally accepted method, however, came
temperature can cause problems such as melting the pis- in 1863, when Gardner Quincy Colton introduced it
ton or valves. It may also crack or warp the piston or head more broadly at all the Colton Dental Association clinics,
and cause pre-ignition due to uneven heating.
that he founded in New Haven and New York City.[15]
Automotive-grade liquid nitrous oxide diers slightly The rst devices used in dentistry to administer the
100
gas, known as Nitrous Oxide inhalers, were designed
in a very simple way with the gas stored and breathed
through a breathing bag made of rubber cloth, without
a scavenger system and owmeter, and with no addition
of oxygen/air.[16] Today these simple and somewhat unreliable inhalers have been replaced by the more modern
relative analgesia machine, which is an automated machine designed to deliver a precisely dosed and breathactuated ow of nitrous oxide mixed with oxygen, for the
patient to inhale safely. The machine used in dentistry is
designed as a simplied version of the larger anaesthetic
machine used by hospitals, as it doesn't feature the additional anaesthetic vaporiser and medical ventilator. The
purpose of the machine allows for a simpler design, as it
only delivers a mixture of nitrous oxide and oxygen for
the patient to inhale, in order to depress the feeling of
pain while keeping the patient in a conscious state.
Relative analgesia machines typically feature a constantsupply owmeter, which allow the proportion of nitrous
oxide and the combined gas ow rate to be individually
adjusted. The gas is administered by dentists through a
demand-valve inhaler over the nose, which will only release gas when the patient inhales through the nose. Because nitrous oxide is minimally metabolised in humans
(with a rate of 0.004%), it retains its potency when exhaled into the room by the patient, and can pose an intoxicating and prolonged exposure hazard to the clinic sta if
the room is poorly ventilated. Where nitrous oxide is administered, a continuous-ow fresh-air ventilation system
or nitrous scavenger system is used to prevent a waste-gas
buildup.
Hospitals administer nitrous oxide as one of the anaesthetic drugs delivered by anaesthetic machines. Nitrous
oxide is a weak general anaesthetic, and so is generally
not used alone in general anaesthesia. In general anaesthesia it is used as a carrier gas in a 2:1 ratio with oxygen for more powerful general anaesthetic drugs such as
sevourane or desurane. It has a minimum alveolar concentration of 105% and a blood/gas partition coecient
of 0.46.
The medical grade gas tanks, with the tradename Entonox
and Nitronox contain a mixture with 50%, but this will
normally be diluted to a lower percentage upon the operational delivery to the patient. Inhalation of nitrous
oxide is frequently used to relieve pain associated with
childbirth, trauma, oral surgery, and acute coronary syndrome (includes heart attacks). Its use during labour has
been shown to be a safe and eective aid for women wanting to give birth without an epidural.[17] Its use for acute
coronary syndrome is of unknown benet.[18]
In Britain and Canada, Entonox and Nitronox are commonly used by ambulance crews (including unregistered
practitioners) as a rapid and highly eective analgesic gas.
Nitrous oxide has been shown to be eective in treating a
number of addictions, including alcohol withdrawal.[19]
Nitrous oxide is also gaining interest as a substitute gas
CHAPTER 13. NITROUS OXIDE

for carbon dioxide in laparoscopic surgery. It has been
found to be as safe as carbon dioxide with better pain
relief.[20][21]
13.1.5 Recreational use
Food grade N
2O whippets (above) and cracker (below)can be used
for recreational purposes
Nitrous oxide can cause analgesia, depersonalisation,
derealisation, dizziness, euphoria, and some sound
distortion.[22] Research has also found that it increases
suggestibility and imagination.[23] Inhalation of nitrous
oxide for recreational use, with the purpose of causing
euphoria and/or slight hallucinations, began as a phenomenon for the British upper class in 1799, known as
laughing gas parties. Until at least 1863, a low availability of equipment to produce the gas, combined with a
low usage of the gas for medical purposes, meant it was a
relatively rare phenomenon that mainly happened among
students at medical universities. When equipment became more widely available for dentistry and hospitals,
most countries also restricted the legal access to buy pure
nitrous oxide gas cylinders to those sectors. Despite only
medical sta and dentists today being legally allowed to
buy the pure gas, a Consumers Union report from 1972
found that the use of the gas for recreational purpose was
[then] still taking place, based upon reports of its use in
Maryland 1971, Vancouver 1972, and a survey made by
Dr. Edward J. Lynn of its non-medical use in Michigan
1970.[24][25]
It was not uncommon [in the interviews] to
hear from individuals who had been to parties
where a professional (doctor, nurse, scientist,
inhalation therapist, researcher) had provided
nitrous oxide. There also were those who work
in restaurants who used the N
13.2. MECHANISM OF ACTION

2O stored in tanks for the preparation of whip
cream. Reports were received from people
who used the gas contained in aerosol cans
both of food and non-food products. At a
recent rock festival nitrous oxide was widely
sold for 25 cents a balloon. Contact was
made with a mystical-religious group that
used the gas to accelerate arriving at their
transcendental-meditative state of choice. Although a few, more sophisticated users employed nitrous oxide-oxygen mixes with elaborate equipment, most users used balloons or
plastic bags. They either held a breath of N
2O or rebreathed the gas. There were no adverse eects reported in the more than one
hundred individuals surveyed.[25]
In Australia, nitrous oxide bulbs are known as nangs,
possibly derived from the sound distortion perceived by
consumers.[26][27]
In the United Kingdom, nitrous oxide is used by almost
half a million young people at nightspots, festivals and
parties.[28] In August 2015, the London Borough of Lambeth Council banned the use of the drug for recreational
purposes, making oenders liable to an on-the-spot ne
of up to 1,000.[29]
13.2 Mechanism of action

The pharmacological mechanism of action of N
2O in medicine is not fully known. However, it has
been shown to directly modulate a broad range of ligandgated ion channels, and this likely plays a major role in
many of its eects. It moderately blocks NMDA and
2 -subunit-containing nACh channels, weakly inhibits
AMPA, kainate, GABAC, and 5-HT3 receptors, and
slightly potentiates GABAA and glycine receptors.[30][31]
It has also been shown to activate two-pore-domain K+
channels.[32] While N
2O aects quite a few ion channels, its anaesthetic,
hallucinogenic, and euphoriant eects are likely caused
predominantly or fully via inhibition of NMDARmediated currents.[30][33] In addition to its eects on ion
channels, N
2O may act to imitate nitric oxide (NO) in the central nervous system, and this may be related to its analgesic and
anxiolytic properties.[33]
13.2.1
Anxiolytic eect
In behavioural tests of anxiety, a low dose of N

2O is an eective anxiolytic, and this anti-anxiety effect is associated with enhanced activity of GABAA
receptors, as it is partially reversed by benzodiazepine
receptor antagonists. Mirroring this, animals which
101
have developed tolerance to the anxiolytic eects of
benzodiazepines are partially tolerant to N
2O.[34] Indeed, in humans given 30% N
2O, benzodiazepine receptor antagonists reduced the
subjective reports of feeling high, but did not alter
psychomotor performance, in human clinical studies.[35]
13.2.2 Analgesic eect

The analgesic eects of N
2O are linked to the interaction between the endogenous
opioid system and the descending noradrenergic system.
When animals are given morphine chronically they develop tolerance to its pain-killing eects, and this also
renders the animals tolerant to the analgesic eects of N
2O.[36] Administration of antibodies which bind and
block the activity of some endogenous opioids (not endorphin) also block the antinociceptive eects of N
2O.[37] Drugs which inhibit the breakdown of endogenous
opioids also potentiate the antinociceptive eects of N
2O.[37] Several experiments have shown that opioid receptor antagonists applied directly to the brain block the
antinociceptive eects of N
2O, but these drugs have no eect when injected into the
spinal cord.
Conversely, 2 -adrenoceptor antagonists block the pain
reducing eects of N
2O when given directly to the spinal cord, but not
when applied directly to the brain.[38] Indeed, Badrenoceptor knockout mice or animals depleted in
norepinephrine are nearly completely resistant to the
antinociceptive eects of N
2O.[39] Apparently N
2O-induced release of endogenous opioids causes disinhibition of brain stem noradrenergic neurons, which release norepinephrine into the spinal cord and inhibit pain
signalling.[40] Exactly how N
2O causes the release of endogenous opioid peptides is
still uncertain.
13.2.3 Euphoric eect

In rats, N
2O stimulates the mesolimbic reward pathway via inducing dopamine release and activating dopaminergic
neurons in the ventral tegmental area and nucleus accumbens, presumably through antagonisation of NMDA
receptors localised in the system.[41][42][43][44] This action has been implicated in its euphoric eects, and
notably, appears to augment its analgesic properties as
well.[41][42][43][44]
However, it is remarkable that in mice, N
2O blocks amphetamine-induced carrier-mediated
dopamine release in the nucleus accumbens and
behavioural sensitisation, abolishes the conditioned
place preference (CPP) of cocaine and morphine, and
102
does not produce reinforcing (or aversive) eects of its

own.[45][46] Studies on CPP of N
2O in rats is mixed, consisting of reinforcement, aversion, and no change.[47] In contrast, it is a positive
reinforcer in squirrel monkeys,[48] and is well known as
a drug of abuse in humans.[49] These discrepancies in
response to N
2O may reect species variation or methodological
dierences.[46] In human clinical studies, N
2O was found to produce mixed responses similarly to rats, reecting high subjective individual
variability.[50][51]
13.2.4
Neurotoxicity and neuroprotection
Like other NMDA antagonists, N

2O was suggested to produce neurotoxicity in the form of
Olneys lesions in rodents upon prolonged (several hour)
exposure.[52][53][54][55] However, new research has arisen
suggesting that Olneys lesions do not occur in humans,
and similar drugs like ketamine are now believed not to
be acutely neurotoxic.[56][57] It has been argued that, because N
2O has a very short duration under normal circumstances, it is less likely to be neurotoxic than other NMDA
antagonists.[58] Indeed, in rodents, short-term exposure
results in only mild injury that is rapidly reversible,
and permanent neuronal death only occurs after constant and sustained exposure.[52] Nitrous oxide may also
cause neurotoxicity after extended exposure because of
hypoxia. This is especially true of non-medical formulations such as whipped-cream chargers (also known as
whippets or nangs), which are not necessarily mixed
with oxygen.[59]
be controlled during the administration of anaesthetic gas

in medical, dental, and veterinary operators.[63]
13.3.1 Chemical/physical
At room temperature (20 C) the saturated vapour pressure is 58.5 bar, rising up to 72.45 bar at 36.4 C (97.5
F)the critical temperature. The pressure curve is thus
unusually sensitive to temperature.[64] Liquid nitrous oxide acts as a good solvent for many organic compounds;
liquid mixtures may form shock sensitive explosives.
As with many strong oxidisers, contamination of parts
with fuels have been implicated in rocketry accidents,
where small quantities of nitrous/fuel mixtures explode
due to water hammer"-like eects (sometimes called
dieselingheating due to adiabatic compression of
gases can reach decomposition temperatures).[65] Some
common building materials such as stainless steel and aluminium can act as fuels with strong oxidisers such as nitrous oxide, as can contaminants, which can ignite due to
adiabatic compression.[66]
There have also been accidents where nitrous oxide decomposition in plumbing has led to the explosion of large
tanks.[8]
13.3.2 Biological
Main article: Vitamin B12 Interactions
Nitrous oxide inactivates the cobalamin form of vitamin

B12 by oxidation. Symptoms of vitamin B12 deciency, including sensory neuropathy, myelopathy, and
Additionally, nitrous oxide depletes vitamin B12 levels. encephalopathy, can occur within days or weeks of expoThis can cause serious neurotoxicity with even acute use sure to nitrous oxide anaesthesia in people with subclinical vitamin B12 deciency. Symptoms are treated with
if the user has preexisting vitamin B12 deciency.[60]
high doses of vitamin B12 , but recovery can be slow and
Nitrous oxide is also neuroprotective, inhibiting incomplete.[67] People with normal vitamin B12 levels
glutamate-induced excitotoxicity.
have stores to make the eects of nitrous oxide insignificant, unless exposure is repeated and prolonged (nitrous
oxide abuse). Vitamin B12 levels should be checked in
13.3 Safety
people with risk factors for vitamin B12 deciency prior
to using nitrous oxide anaesthesia.[68]
The major safety hazards of nitrous oxide come from A study of workers[69] and several experimental animal
the fact that it is a compressed liqueed gas, an asphyx- studies[70][70][71][72] indicate that adverse reproductive efiation risk, and a dissociative anaesthetic. Exposure to fects for pregnant females may also result from chronic
nitrous oxide causes short-term decreases in mental per- exposure to nitrous oxide.
formance, audiovisual ability, and manual dexterity.[61]
which
Abusing nitrous oxide can lead to oxygen deprivation re- Nitrous oxide reductase is an important enzyme
[73]
limits
the
emission
of
the
gas
to
the
atmosphere.
sulting in loss of blood pressure, fainting and even heart
attacks. [62]
Long-term exposure can cause vitamin B deciency,
numbness, reproductive side eects (in pregnant females), and other problems (see Biological). The
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health recommends that workers exposure to nitrous oxide should
13.3.3 Environmental
N
2O is a greenhouse gas with a large global warming potential (GWP). When compared to carbon dioxide (CO
13.4. PRODUCTION
103
2), N
2O has 298 times the ability per molecule of gas to trap
heat in the atmosphere.[74] N
2O is produced naturally in the soil during the microbial
processes of nitrication and denitrication.[75]
This reaction occurs between 170 and 240 C (338 and

464 F), temperatures where ammonium nitrate is a moderately sensitive explosive and a very powerful oxidizer.
Above 240 C (464 F) the exothermic reaction may accelerate to the point of detonation, so the mixture must
be
cooled to avoid such a disaster. Superheated steam is
The United States of America signed and ratied the
used
to reach reaction temperature in some turnkey proUnited Nations Framework Convention on Climate
duction
plants.[85]
Change (UNFCCC) in 1992, agreeing to inventory and
assess the various sources of greenhouse gases that con- Downstream, the hot, corrosive mixture of gases must
tribute to climate change.[76] The agreement requires par- be cooled to condense the steam, and ltered to remove
ties to develop, periodically update, publish and make higher oxides of nitrogen. Ammonium nitrate smoke, as
available... national inventories of anthropogenic emis- an extremely persistent colloid, will also have to be resions by sources and removals by sinks of all greenhouse moved. The cleanup is often done in a train of three gas
gases not controlled by the Montreal Protocol, using com- washes; namely base, acid and base again. Any signiparable methodologies....[77] In response to this agree- cant amounts of nitric oxide (NO) may not necessarily be
ment, the U.S. is obligated to inventory anthropogenic absorbed directly by the base (sodium hydroxide) washes.
emissions by sources and sinks, of which agriculture is a The nitric oxide impurity is sometimes chelated out with
key contributor. In 2008, agriculture contributed 6.1% ferrous sulfate, reduced with iron metal, or oxidised and
of the total U.S. greenhouse gas emissions and cropland absorbed in base as a higher oxide. The rst base wash
contributed nearly 69% of total direct nitrous oxide (N
may (or may not) react out much of the ammonium nitrate
2O) emissions. Additionally, estimated emissions from smoke. However, this reaction generates ammonia gas,
agricultural soils were 6% higher in 2008 than 1990.[76] which may have to be absorbed in the acid wash.
According to 2006 data from the United States Environmental Protection Agency, industrial sources make up
only about 20% of all anthropogenic sources, and include the production of nylon, and the burning of fossil fuel in internal combustion engines. Human activity
is thought to account for 30%; tropical soils and oceanic
release account for 70%.[78] However, a 2008 study by
Nobel Laureate Paul Crutzen suggests that the amount
of nitrous oxide release attributable to agricultural nitrate fertilizers has been seriously underestimated, most
of which would presumably come under soil and oceanic
release in the Environmental Protection Agency data.[79]
Atmospheric levels have risen by more than 15% since
1750.[80] Nitrous oxide also causes ozone depletion. A
new study suggests that NO emission currently is the
single most important ozone-depleting substance (ODS)
emission and is expected to remain the largest throughout
the 21st century.[81][82]
13.4 Production
13.4.1 As a byproduct
The synthesis of adipic acid; one of the two reactants used
in nylon manufacture, produces nitrogen oxides including
nitric oxides[86][87] This might become a major commercial source, but will require the removal of higher oxides
of nitrogen and organic impurities. Currently much of
the gas is decomposed before release for environmental
protection.
13.4.2 Other routes

Heating a mixture of sodium nitrate and ammonium
sulphate.[88]
2NaNO
3 + (NH4 )2 SO4 Na2 SO4 + 2N
2O+ 4H
2O.
Nitrous oxide is most commonly prepared by careful The reaction of urea, nitric acid and sulfuric acid[89]
heating of ammonium nitrate, which decomposes into nitrous oxide and water vapour.[83] The addition of various
2 (NH2 )2 CO + 2 HNO
phosphates favours formation of a purer gas at slightly
3+ H
lower temperatures. One of the earliest commercial pro2SO
ducers was George Poe in Trenton, New Jersey.[84]
42N
2O + 2 CO
2 + (NH4 )2 SO4 + 2H
NH
2O.
4NO
3 (s) 2 H
2O (g) + N
2O (g)
Direct oxidation of ammonia with a manganese dioxidebismuth oxide catalyst:[90] cf. Ostwald process.
104

2 NH
3+2O
2N
2O + 3 H
2O
Reacting Hydroxylammonium chloride with sodium nitrite. If the nitrite is added to the hydroxylamine solution,
the only remaining by-product is salt water. However, if
the hydroxylamine solution is added to the nitrite solution
(nitrite is in excess), then toxic higher oxides of nitrogen
are also formed.
NH
3OH+
Cl
+ NaNO
2N
2O + NaCl + 2 H
2O
Reacting HNO
3 with SnCl
2 and HCl:
2 HNO
3 + 8 HCl + 4 SnCl
25H
2O + 4 SnCl
4+N
2O
Hyponitrous acid decomposes to N2 O and water with a
half-life of 16 days at 25 C at pH 13.[91]
H2 N2 O2 H2 O + N2 O
13.4.3
Soil
anaerobic heterotrophic denitrication, the stepwise

reduction of NO
3 to NO
2, nitric oxide (NO), N
2O and ultimately N
2, where facultative anaerobe bacteria use NO
3 as an electron acceptor in the respiration of organic
material in the condition of insucient oxygen (O
2) (e.g. Knowles, 1982), and
nitrier denitrication, which is carried out by autotrophic NH
3oxidizing bacteria and the pathway whereby ammonia (NH
3) is oxidised to nitrite (NO
2), followed by the reduction of NO
2 to nitric oxide (NO), N
2O and molecular nitrogen (N
2) (e.g., Webster and Hopkins, 1996; Wrage et al.,
2001).
Other N
2O production mechanisms include heterotrophic
nitrication (Robertson and Kuenen, 1990), aerobic denitrication by the same heterotrophic nitriers (Robertson and Kuenen, 1990), fungal denitrication (Laughlin and Stevens, 2002), and nonbiological process chemodenitrication (e.g. Chalk
and Smith, 1983; Van Cleemput and Baert, 1984;
Martikainen and De Boer, 1993; Daum and Schenk,
1998; Mrkved et al., 2007).
Soil N
2O emissions are reported to be controlled by soil chemical and physical properties such as the availability of mineral N, soil pH, organic matter availability, and soil type,
and climate related soil properties such as soil temperature and soil water content (e.g., Mosier, 1994; Bouwman, 1996; Beauchamp, 1997; Yamulki et al. 1997;
Dobbie and Smith, 2003; Smith et al. 2003; Dalal et al.
2003).
See also: DayCent

Of the entire anthropogenic N
2O emission (5.7 teragrams N
2O-N per year), agricultural soils provide 3.5 teragrams
N
2ON per year.[92] Nitrous oxide is produced naturally
in the soil during the microbial processes of nitrication,
denitrication, nitrier denitrication and others:
aerobic autotrophic nitrication, the stepwise oxidation of ammonia (NH
3) to nitrite (NO
2) and to nitrate (NO
3) (e.g., Kowalchuk and Stephen, 2001),
13.5 Properties and reactions

Nitrous oxide is a colourless, non-toxic gas with a faint,
sweet odour.
Nitrous oxide supports combustion by releasing the
dipolar bonded oxygen radical,[Name?] thus it can relight
a glowing splint.
N
2O is inert at room temperature and has few reactions.
At elevated temperatures, its reactivity increases. For example, nitrous oxide reacts with NaNH
2 at 460 K (187 C) to give NaN
3:
13.7. HISTORY
2 NaNH
2+N
2O NaN
3 + NaOH + NH
3
105
Watt had invented a novel machine to produce Factitious Airs (i.e. nitrous oxide) and a novel breathing
apparatus to inhale the gas. Second, the book also presented the new medical theories by Thomas Beddoes, that
tuberculosis and other lung diseases could be treated by
inhalation of Factitious Airs.[15]
The above reaction is the route adopted by the commer- The machine to produce Factitious Airs had three parts:
cial chemical industry to produce azide salts, which are A furnace to burn the needed material, a vessel with waused as detonators.[93]
ter where the produced gas passed through in a spiral pipe
(for impurities to be washed o), and nally the gas
cylinder with a gasometer where the gas produced, air,
could be tapped into portable air bags (made of airtight
13.6 Occurrence
oily silk). The breathing apparatus consisted of one of
Nitrous oxide is emitted by bacteria in soils and oceans, the portable air bags connected with a tube to a mouthand is thus a part of Earths atmosphere. Agriculture is piece. With this new equipment being engineered and
the main source of human-produced nitrous oxide: cul- produced by 1794, the way was paved for clinical trials,
tivating soil, the use of nitrogen fertilisers, and animal which began when Thomas Beddoes in 1798 established
waste handling can all stimulate naturally occurring bac- the "Pneumatic Institution for Relieving Diseases by Medteria to produce more nitrous oxide. The livestock sec- ical Airs in Hotwells (Bristol). In the basement of the
tor (primarily cows, chickens, and pigs) produces 65% of building, a large-scale machine was producing the gases
human-related nitrous oxide.[94] Industrial sources make under the supervision of a young Humphry Davy, who
to experiment with new gases for patients
up only about 20% of all anthropogenic sources, and in- was encouraged
[15]
to
inhale.
The
rst important work of Davy was exclude the production of nylon, and the burning of fossil
amination
of
the
nitrous
oxide, and the publication of his
fuel in internal combustion engines. Human activity is
results
in
the
book:
Researches,
Chemical and Philosophthought to account for 30%; tropical soils and oceanic reical
(1800).
In
that
publication,
Davy notes the analgesic
[78]
lease account for 70%.
eect of nitrous oxide at page 465 and its potential to be
Nitrous oxide reacts with ozone in the stratosphere. Ni- used for surgical operations at page 556.[98]
trous oxide is the main naturally occurring regulator of
stratospheric ozone. Nitrous oxide is a major greenhouse Despite Davys discovery that inhalation of nitrous oxgas. Considered over a 100-year period, it has 298[3] ide could relieve a conscious person from pain, another
times more impact per unit weight than carbon dioxide. 44 years elapsed before doctors attempted to use it for
Thus, despite its low concentration, nitrous oxide is the anaesthesia. The use of nitrous oxide as a recreational
fourth largest contributor to these greenhouse gases. It drug at laughing gas parties, primarily arranged for the
ranks behind water vapour, carbon dioxide, and methane. British upper class, became an immediate success beginControl of nitrous oxide is part of eorts to curb green- ning in 1799. While the eects of the gas generally make
the user appear stuporous, dreamy and sedated, some
house gas emissions.[95]
people also get the giggles in a state of euphoria, and
frequently erupt in laughter.[24]
13.7 History
The gas was rst synthesised by English natural philosopher and chemist Joseph Priestley in 1772, who called
it phlogisticated nitrous air (see phlogiston).[96] Priestley
published his discovery in the book Experiments and Observations on Dierent Kinds of Air (1775), where he described how to produce the preparation of nitrous air
diminished, by heating iron lings dampened with nitric
acid.[97]
13.7.1
Early use
The rst important use of nitrous oxide was made possible by Thomas Beddoes and James Watt, who worked
together to publish the book Considerations on the Medical Use and on the Production of Factitious Airs (1794).
This book was important for two reasons. First, James
13.7.2 Anaesthetic use

Further information: Nitrous oxide and oxygen
The rst time nitrous oxide was used as an anaesthetic
drug in the treatment of a patient was when dentist Horace
Wells, with assistance by Gardner Quincy Colton and
John Mankey Riggs, demonstrated insensitivity to pain
from a dental extraction on 11 December 1844.[99] In
the following weeks, Wells treated the rst 1215 patients with nitrous oxide in Hartford, and according to
his own record only failed in two cases.[100] In spite of
these convincing results being reported by Wells to the
medical society in Boston already in December 1844,
this new method was not immediately adopted by other
dentists. The reason for this was most likely that Wells,
in January 1845 at his rst public demonstration to the
106
medical faculty in Boston, had been partly unsuccessful, leaving his colleagues doubtful regarding its ecacy
and safety.[101] The method did not come into general
use until 1863, when Gardner Quincy Colton successfully
started to use it in all his Colton Dental Association
clinics, that he had just established in New Haven and
New York City.[15] Over the following three years, Colton
and his associates successfully administered nitrous oxide
to more than 25,000 patients.[16] Today, nitrous oxide is
used in dentistry as an anxiolytic, as an adjunct to local
anaesthetic.
However, nitrous oxide was not found to be a strong
enough anaesthetic for use in major surgery in hospital
settings. Being a stronger and more potent anaesthetic,
sulfuric ether was instead demonstrated and accepted for
use in October 1846, along with chloroform in 1847.[15]
When Joseph Thomas Clover invented the gas-ether inhaler in 1876, it however became a common practice
at hospitals to initiate all anaesthetic treatments with a
mild ow of nitrous oxide, and then gradually increase the
anaesthesia with the stronger ether/chloroform. Clovers
gas-ether inhaler was designed to supply the patient with
nitrous oxide and ether at the same time, with the exact mixture being controlled by the operator of the device. It remained in use by many hospitals until the
1930s.[16] Although hospitals today are using a more advanced anaesthetic machine, these machines still use the
same principle launched with Clovers gas-ether inhaler,
to initiate the anaesthesia with nitrous oxide, before the
administration of a more powerful anaesthetic.
13.8 Legality
In the United States, possession of nitrous oxide is legal
under federal law and is not subject to DEA purview.[102]
It is, however, regulated by the Food and Drug Administration under the Food Drug and Cosmetics Act; prosecution is possible under its misbranding clauses, prohibiting the sale or distribution of nitrous oxide for the
purpose of human consumption.
Many states have laws regulating the possession, sale, and
distribution of nitrous oxide. Such laws usually ban distribution to minors or limit the amount of nitrous oxide
that may be sold without special license. For example, in
the state of California, possession for recreational use is
prohibited and qualies as a misdemeanour.[103]
In New Zealand, the Ministry of Health has warned that
nitrous oxide is a prescription medicine, and its sale or
possession without a prescription is an oence under the
Medicines Act.[104] This statement would seemingly prohibit all non-medicinal uses of the chemical, though it is
implied that only recreational use will be legally targeted.
In India, for general anaesthesia purposes, nitrous oxide is available as Nitrous Oxide IP. Indias gas cylinder
rules (1985) permit the transfer of gas from one cylin-

der to another for breathing purposes. This law benets
remote hospitals, which would otherwise suer as a result of Indias geographic immensity. Nitrous Oxide IP
is transferred from bulk cylinders (17,000 litres [600 cu
ft] capacity gas) to smaller pin-indexed valve cylinders
(1,800 litres [64 cu ft] of gas), which are then connected
to the yoke assembly of Boyles machines. Because Indias Food & Drug Authority (FDA-India) rules state that
transferring a drug from one container to another (relling) is equivalent to manufacturing, anyone found doing
so must possess a drug manufacturing license.
13.9 See also

Whipped-cream charger
Diusion hypoxia
Nitrous oxide fuel blend
13.10 References
[1] Tarendash, Albert S. (2001). Lets review: chemistry, the
physical setting (3rd ed.). Barrons Educational Series. p.
44. ISBN 0-7641-1664-9.
[2] Disambiguation page Rocketry (disambiguation)
[3] Overview of Greenhouse Gases Nitrous Oxide (PDF).
US EPA. Page 164 (document header listing). Retrieved
19 March 2014.
[4] U.S. Greenhouse Gas Inventory Report: 1990-2013
(PDF). US EPA. April 2015. page 60. Retrieved 19 August 2015.
[5] WHO Model List of Essential Medicines (PDF). World
Health Organization. October 2013. p. 6. Retrieved 22
April 2014.
[6] Berger, Bruno (5 October 2007). Is nitrous oxide
safe?" (PDF). Swiss Propulsion Laboratory. pp. 1
2. ...Self pressurizing (Vapor pressure at 20C is ~50.1
bar...Nontoxic, low reactivity -> rel. safe handling (General safe ???)...Additional energy from decomposition (as
a monopropellant: ISP of 170 s)...Specic impulse doesnt
change much with O/F...[page 2] N2 O is a monopropellant (as H2 O2 or Hydrazine...)
[7] Goddard, R. H. (1914) Rocket apparatus U.S. Patent
1,103,503
[8] Munke, Konrad (2 July 2001) Nitrous Oxide Trailer Rupture, Report at CGA Seminar Safety and Reliability of
Industrial Gases, Equipment and Facilities, 1517 October 2001, St. Louis, Missouri
[9] Scaled Composites Safety Guidelines for N
2O (PDF). Scaled Composites. 17 June 2009. Retrieved
29 December 2013. For example, N2O owing at 130
psi in an epoxy composite pipe would not react even with
a 2500 J ignition energy input. However, at 600 psi, the
required ignition energy was only 6 J.
13.10. REFERENCES
[10] FR-5904. Pratt & Whitney Aircraft.

[11] Nitrous Oxide Fuel Blend Monopropellants. Patentdocs. Retrieved 11 November 2009. Recent experimentally measured engine I values exceed 300 s
107
[25] Lynn, Edward J.; Walter, Richard G.; Harris, Lance

A.; Dendy, Robert; James, Mary (1972). Nitrous
Oxide: Its a Gas (PDF). Journal of Psychoactive Drugs (Journal of Psychedelic Drugs) 5: 1.
doi:10.1080/02791072.1972.10471462.
[12] FireStar Engineering. FireStar Engineering. Retrieved

11 December 2009.
[26] nang. Urban Dictionary. Retrieved 29 August 2011.
[13] Cline, Allen W. (January 2000) Engine Basics: Detonation and Pre-Ignition. CONTACT! Magazine
[27] "'Nanging' out: the rise of nitrous oxide as a Sydney party

drug. The Sydney Morning Herald.
[14] Holley performance products, FAQ for Nitrous Oxide

Systems. Holley. Retrieved 18 December 2013.
[28] Warning over laughing gas misuse. The Guardian. 9

August 2014. Retrieved 9 August 2014.
[15] Sneader W (2005). Drug Discovery A History. (Part 1:

Legacy of the past, chapter 8: systematic medicine, pp. 74
87) (John Wiley and Sons). ISBN 978-0-471-89980-8.
Retrieved 21 April 2010.
[16] Miller AH (1941). Technical Development of Gas Anesthesia. Anesthesiology journal 2 (4): 398409. Archived
from the original on 19 December 2014.
[17] Copeland, Claudia. Nitrous Oxide Analgesia for Childbirth. Pregnancy.org.
[18] O'Connor RE; Brady W; Brooks SC; Diercks, D.; Egan,
J.; Ghaemmaghami, C.; Menon, V.; O'Neil, B. J. et
al. (2010). Part 10: acute coronary syndromes:
2010 American Heart Association Guidelines for Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation and Emergency Cardiovascular Care. Circulation 122 (18 Suppl 3): S787817.
doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.110.971028. PMID
20956226.
[19] Gillman, M. A.; Lichtigfeld, F. J. (2004). Enlarged
double-blind randomised trial of benzodiazepines against
psychotropic analgesic nitrous oxide for alcohol withdrawal.
Addictive Behaviors 29 (6): 11831187.
doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2004.03.015. PMID 15236821.
[20] Rammohan A, Manimaran AB, Manohar RR, Naidu RM;
Manimaran; Manohar; Naidu (2011). Nitrous oxide
for pneumoperitoneum: no laughing matter this! A
prospective single blind case controlled study. Int J Surg.
9 (2): 1736. doi:10.1016/j.ijsu.2010.10.015. PMID
21059420.
[21] Rammohan, A.; Manimaran, A. B.; Manohar, R. R.;
Naidu, R. M. (2011). Nitrous oxide for pneumoperitoneum: No laughing matter this! A prospective single blind case controlled study. International Journal of
Surgery 9 (2): 173176. doi:10.1016/j.ijsu.2010.10.015.
PMID 21059420.
[22] Giannini, A. J. (1991). Miller, N. S., ed. Volatiles. New
York: Marcel Dekker. p. 396. ISBN 0-8247-8474-X.
[23] Whalley MG, Brooks GB; Brooks (2009). Enhancement of suggestibility and imaginative ability with nitrous
oxide. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 203 (4): 74552.
doi:10.1007/s00213-008-1424-0. PMID 19057896.
[24] Brecher EM (1972). Consumers Union Report on Licit
and Illicit Drugs, Part VI Inhalants and Solvents and
Glue-Sning. Consumer Reports Magazine. Retrieved
18 December 2013.
[29] Lambeth Council bans laughing gas as recreational drug.

BBC News. 17 August 2015. Retrieved 17 August 2015.
[30] Yamakura T, Harris RA; Harris (2000).
Eects
of gaseous anaesthetics nitrous oxide and xenon on
ligand-gated ion channels. Comparison with isourane and ethanol. Anesthesiology 93 (4): 1095
101. doi:10.1097/00000542-200010000-00034. PMID
11020766.
[31] Mennerick S, Jevtovic-Todorovic V, Todorovic SM, Shen
W, Olney JW, Zorumski CF; Jevtovic-Todorovic; Todorovic; Shen; Olney; Zorumski (1998). Eect of nitrous
oxide on excitatory and inhibitory synaptic transmission in
hippocampal cultures. Journal of Neuroscience 18 (23):
971626. PMID 9822732.
[32] Gruss M, Bushell TJ, Bright DP, Lieb WR, Mathie A,
Franks NP; Bushell; Bright; Lieb; Mathie; Franks (2004).
Two-pore-domain K+ channels are a novel target for
the anesthetic gases xenon, nitrous oxide, and cyclopropane. Molecular Pharmacology 65 (2): 44352.
doi:10.1124/mol.65.2.443. PMID 14742687.
[33] Emmanouil DE, Quock RM; Quock (2007). Advances
in Understanding the Actions of Nitrous Oxide. Anesthesia Progress 54 (1): 918.
doi:10.2344/00033006(2007)54[9:AIUTAO]2.0.CO;2. PMC 1821130.
PMID 17352529.
[34] Emmanouil, D. E., Johnson, C. H. & Quock, R. M.;
Johnson; Quock (1994). Nitrous oxide anxiolytic effect in mice in the elevated plus maze: mediation by benzodiazepine receptors. Psychopharmacology 115 (12):
16772. doi:10.1007/BF02244768. PMID 7862891.
[35] Zacny, J.P., Yajnik, S., Coalson, D., Lichtor, J.L., Apfelbaum, J.L., Rupani, G., Young, C., Thapar, P. & Klafta,
J.; Yajnik; Coalson; Lichtor; Apfelbaum; Rupani; Young;
Thapar; Klafta (1995). Flumazenil may attenuate some
subjective eects of nitrous oxide in humans: a preliminary report. Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior 51 (4): 8159. doi:10.1016/0091-3057(95)00039-Y.
PMID 7675863.
[36] Berkowitz, B. A., Finck, A. D., Hynes, M. D. & Ngai,
S. H.; Finck; Hynes; Ngai (1979). Tolerance to nitrous oxide analgesia in rats and mice. Anesthesiology 51
(4): 30912. doi:10.1097/00000542-197910000-00006.
PMID 484891.
108
[37] Branda, E. M., Ramza, J. T., Cahill, F. J., Tseng, L. F.

& Quock, R. M.; Ramza; Cahill; Tseng; Quock (2000).
Role of brain dynorphin in nitrous oxide antinociception
in mice. Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior 65
(2): 21721. doi:10.1016/S0091-3057(99)00202-6.
[38] Guo, T. Z., Davies, M. F., Kingery, W. S., Patterson,
A. J., Limbird, L. E. & Maze, M.; Davies; Kingery;
Patterson; Limbird; Maze (1999). Nitrous oxide produces antinociceptive response via alpha2B and/or alpha2C adrenoceptor subtypes in mice. Anesthesiology 90
(2): 4706. doi:10.1097/00000542-199902000-00022.
PMID 9952154.
[39] Sawamura, S., Kingery, W. S., Davies, M. F., Agashe, G.
S., Clark, J. D., Koblika, B. K., Hashimoto, T. & Maze,
M.; Kingery; Davies; Agashe; Clark; Kobilka; Hashimoto;
Maze (2000). Antinociceptive action of nitrous oxide is
mediated by stimulation of noradrenergic neurons in the
brainstem and activation of [alpha]B adrenoceptors. J.
Neurosci. 20 (24): 924251. PMID 11125002.
[40] Maze M, Fujinaga M; Fujinaga (2000). Recent advances
in understanding the actions and toxicity of nitrous oxide. Anaesthesia 55 (4): 3114. doi:10.1046/j.13652044.2000.01463.x. PMID 10781114.
[41] Sakamoto S, Nakao S, Masuzawa M, Inada T, Maze M,
Franks NP, Shingu K (2006). The dierential eects
of nitrous oxide and xenon on extracellular dopamine
levels in the rat nucleus accumbens: a microdialysis study. Anesthesia and Analgesia 103 (6): 1459
63. doi:10.1213/01.ane.0000247792.03959.f1. PMID
17122223.
[42] Benturquia N, Le Marec T, Scherrmann JM, Noble F;
Le Marec; Scherrmann; Noble (2008). Eects of nitrous oxide on dopamine release in the rat nucleus accumbens and expectation of reward. Neuroscience 155 (2):
3414. doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2008.05.015. PMID
18571333.
[43] Lichtigfeld FJ, Gillman MA; Gillman (1996). Role of
dopamine mesolimbic system in opioid action of psychotropic analgesic nitrous oxide in alcohol and drug
withdrawal. Clinical Neuropharmacology 19 (3): 246
51. doi:10.1097/00002826-199619030-00006. PMID
8726543.
[44] Koyanagi S, Himukashi S, Mukaida K, Shichino T,
Fukuda K; Himukashi; Mukaida; Shichino; Fukuda
(2008). Dopamine D2-like receptor in the nucleus accumbens is involved in the antinociceptive eect of nitrous oxide. Anesthesia and Analgesia 106 (6): 19049.
doi:10.1213/ane.0b013e318172b15b. PMID 18499630.
[45] David HN, Ansseau M, Lemaire M, Abraini JH; Ansseau;
Lemaire; Abraini (2006). Nitrous oxide and xenon prevent amphetamine-induced carrier-mediated dopamine
release in a memantine-like fashion and protect against
behavioral sensitization. Biological Psychiatry 60 (1):
4957. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2005.10.007. PMID
16427030.
[46] Benturquia N, Le Guen S, Canestrelli C, Lagente

V, Apiou G, Roques BP, Noble F (2007). Specic blockade of morphine- and cocaine-induced reinforcing eects in conditioned place preference by nitrous oxide in mice. Neuroscience 149 (3): 477
17905521.
[47] Ramsay DS, Watson CH, Leroux BG, Prall CW, Kaiyala
KJ; Watson; Leroux; Prall; Kaiyala (2003). Conditioned
place aversion and self-administration of nitrous oxide in
rats. Pharmacology, Biochemistry, and Behavior 74 (3):
62333. doi:10.1016/S0091-3057(02)01048-1. PMID
12543228.
[48] Wood RW, Grubman J, Weiss B; Grubman; Weiss
(1977). Nitrous oxide self-administration by the squirrel
monkey. The Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics 202 (3): 4919. PMID 408480.
[49] Zacny JP, Galinkin JL; Galinkin (1999). Psychotropic
drugs used in anesthesia practice: abuse liability and
epidemiology of abuse. Anesthesiology 90 (1): 269
88. doi:10.1097/00000542-199901000-00033. PMID
9915336.
[50] Dohrn CS, Lichtor JL, Coalson DW, Uitvlugt A, de Wit
H, Zacny JP; Lichtor; Coalson; Uitvlugt; De Wit; Zacny
(1993). Reinforcing eects of extended inhalation of nitrous oxide in humans. Drug and Alcohol Dependence
31 (3): 26580. doi:10.1016/0376-8716(93)90009-F.
PMID 8462415.
[51] Walker DJ, Zacny JP; Zacny (2001). Within- and
between-subject variability in the reinforcing and subjective eects of nitrous oxide in healthy volunteers. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 64 (1): 8596.
doi:10.1016/S0376-8716(00)00234-9. PMID 11470344.
[52] Jevtovic-Todorovic V, Beals J, Bensho N, Olney JW;
Beals; Bensho; Olney (2003). Prolonged exposure to inhalational anesthetic nitrous oxide kills neurons in adult rat brain. Neuroscience 122 (3): 609
14622904.
[53] Nakao S; Nagata A; Masuzawa M; Miyamoto, E; Yamada,
M; Nishizawa, N; Shingu, K (2003). NMDA receptor antagonist neurotoxicity and psychotomimetic activity. Masui. the Japanese Journal of Anesthesiology (in
Japanese) 52 (6): 594602. PMID 12854473.
[54] Jevtovic-Todorovic V, Bensho N, Olney JW; Bensho;
Olney (2000). Ketamine potentiates cerebrocortical
damage induced by the common anaesthetic agent nitrous oxide in adult rats. British Journal of Pharmacology 130 (7): 16928. doi:10.1038/sj.bjp.0703479. PMC
1572233. PMID 10928976.
[55] Jevtovic-Todorovic V, Carter LB; Carter (2005).
The anesthetics nitrous oxide and ketamine
are more neurotoxic to old than to young rat
brain.
Neurobiology of Aging 26 (6): 94756.
doi:10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2004.07.009.
PMID
15718054.
13.10. REFERENCES
109
[56] Slikker, W.; Zou, X.; Hotchkiss, C. E.; Divine, R. L.;

Sadovova, N.; Twaddle, N. C.; Doerge, D. R.; Scallet, A.
C.; Patterson, T. A.; Hanig, J. P.; Paule, M. G.; Wang, C.
(2007). Ketamine-Induced Neuronal Cell Death in the
Perinatal Rhesus Monkey. Toxicological Sciences 98 (1):
145158. doi:10.1093/toxsci/kfm084. PMID 17426105.
[69] Rowland, A.S.; Baird, D.D.; Weinberg, C.R.; Shore,

D.L.; Shy, C.M.; Wilcox, A.J. (1992). Reduced
fertility among women employed as dental assistants
exposed to high levels of nitrous oxide.
The
New England Journal of Medicine 327 (14): 9937.
doi:10.1056/NEJM199210013271405. PMID 1298226.
[57] Sun, Lin; Qi Li; Qing Li; Yuzhe Zhang; Dexiang

Liu; Hong Jiang; Fang Pan; David T. Yew (November
2012). Chronic ketamine exposure induces permanent
impairment of brain functions in adolescent cynomolgus monkeys. Addiction Biology 19 (2): 18594.
doi:10.1111/adb.12004. PMID 23145560.
[70] Vieira, E.; Cleaton-Jones, P.; Austin, J.C.; Moyes, D.G.;

Shaw, R. (1980). Eects of low concentrations of nitrous oxide on rat fetuses. Anesthesia and Analgesia 59
(3): 1757. doi:10.1213/00000539-198003000-00002.
PMID 7189346.
[58] Abraini JH, David HN, Lemaire M; David; Lemaire

(2005).
Potentially neuroprotective and therapeutic properties of nitrous oxide and xenon.
Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences
Bibcode:2005NYASA1053..289A.
1053: 289300.
doi:10.1196/annals.1344.025. PMID 16179534.
[59] De Vasconcellos, K; Sneyd, J. R. (2013). Nitrous oxide: Are we still in equipoise? A qualitative review of
current controversies. British Journal of Anaesthesia 111
(6): 87785. doi:10.1093/bja/aet215. PMID 23801743.
[60] Flippo, T. S.; Holder Jr, W. D. (1993).
Neurologic Degeneration Associated with Nitrous Oxide Anesthesia in Patients with Vitamin B12 Deciency.
Archives of Surgery 128 (12): 1391
5. doi:10.1001/archsurg.1993.01420240099018. PMID
8250714.
[61] Criteria for a recommended standard: occupational exposure to waste anesthetic gases and vapors. Cincinnati,
OH: U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service, Center for Disease Control,
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health,
DHEW (NIOSH) Publication No. 77B140.
[62] Teenager dies after 'taking laughing gas at party in Bexley.
London Evening Standart
[63] CDC.gov NIOSH Alert: Controlling Exposures to Nitrous Oxide During Anesthetic Administration. Cincinnati, OH: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Centers for Disease Control,
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health,
DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 94-100
[64] Nitrous oxide. Air Liquide Gas Encyclopedia.
[65] Vaseline triggered explosion of hybrid rocket. Ukrocketman.com.
[66] Safetygram 20: Nitrous Oxide (PDF). Airproducts.com. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 September 2006.
[67] Giannini, A.J. (1999). Drug Abuse. Los Angeles: Health
Information Press. ISBN 1-885987-11-0.
[68] Conrad, Marcel (4 October 2006). Pernicious Anemia.
Retrieved 2 June 2008.
[71] Vieira, E. (1979). Eect of the chronic administration

of nitrous oxide 0.5% to gravid rats. British journal
of anaesthesia 51 (4): 2837. doi:10.1093/bja/51.4.283.
PMID 465253.
[72] Vieira, E; Cleaton-Jones, P; Moyes, D. (1983). Eects
of low intermittent concentrations of nitrous oxide on the
developing rat fetus. British journal of anaesthesia 55
(1): 679. doi:10.1093/bja/55.1.67. PMID 6821624.
[73] Schneider, Lisa K.; Wst, Anja; Pomowski, Anja; Zhang,
Lin; Einsle, Oliver (2014). Chapter 8. No Laughing
Matter: The Unmaking of the Greenhouse Gas Dinitrogen Monoxide by Nitrous Oxide Reductase". In Peter M.H.
Kroneck and Martha E. Sosa Torres. The Metal-Driven
Biogeochemistry of Gaseous Compounds in the Environment. Metal Ions in Life Sciences 14. Springer. pp. 177
210. doi:10.1007/978-94-017-9269-1_8.
[74] 40 CFR Part 98 Revisions to the Greenhouse Gas Reporting Rule and Final Condentiality | U.S. EPA (PDF).
Environmental Protection Agency. 15 November 2013.
Retrieved 19 March 2014.
[75] Sloss, Leslie L. (1992). Nitrogen Oxides Control Technology Fact Book. William Andrew. p. 6. ISBN 978-08155-1294-3.
[76] 2011 U.S. Greenhouse Gas Inventory Report | Climate Change Greenhouse Gas Emissions | U.S. EPA.
Epa.gov. Retrieved 11 April 2011.
[77] FULL TEXT OF THE CONVENTION, ARTICLE 4(1)
(a)". Unfccc.int. 31 December 1998. Archived from the
original on 24 January 2011. Retrieved 11 April 2011.
[78] Sources and Emissions Where Does Nitrous Oxide
Come From?". U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
2006. Retrieved 2 February 2008.
[79] Crutzen, P. J.; Mosier, A. R.; Smith, K. A.; Winiwarter,
W. (2008). N2 O release from agro-biofuel production
negates global warming reduction by replacing fossil fuels. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 8 (2): 389.
doi:10.5194/acp-8-389-2008.
[80] Climate Change 2007: The Physical Sciences Basis.
IPCC. Retrieved 30 April 2007.
[81] Ravishankara, A. R.; Daniel, J. S.; Portmann, R. W.
(2009). Nitrous Oxide (N2 O): The Dominant OzoneDepleting Substance Emitted in the 21st Century. Science 326 (5949): 1235. Bibcode:2009Sci...326..123R.
doi:10.1126/science.1176985. PMID 19713491.
110
[82] Grossman, Lisa (28 August 2009). Laughing gas is

biggest threat to ozone layer. NewScientist.
[83] Holleman, A. F.; Wiberg, E. (2001). Inorganic Chemistry.
San Diego: Academic Press. ISBN 0-12-352651-5.
[98] Davy H (1800). Researches, chemical and philosophical

chiey concerning nitrous oxide or dephlogisticated nitrous
air, and its respiration. Printed for J. Johnson.
[99] Erving, H. W. (1933). The Discoverer of Ansthesia:
Dr. Horace Wells of Hartford. The Yale journal of biology and medicine 5 (5): 421430. PMC 2606479. PMID
21433572.
[84] George Poe is Dead. Washington Post. 3 February

1914. Retrieved 29 December 2007. Cousin of Famous
Poet and Noted as a Scientist. Inventor of the Respirator.
Also First to Liquefy Nitrous Oxide. Cadet at Virginia [100] Wells H (1847). A history of the discovery, of the appliMilitary Institute at Time of Battle of Newmarket. Mencation of nitrous oxide gas, ether, and other vapours, to
tioned for the Nobel Prize for Scientic Attainment in
surgical operations. J. Gaylord Wells.
Chemistry. Prof. George Poe, a cousin of the poet Edgar
Allan Poe, a noted scientist and inventor, who had been [101] Desai SP, Desai MS, Pandav CS (2007). The discovery of modern anaesthesia-contributions of Davy, Clarke,
mentioned for the Nobel prize for scientic attainment, a
Long, Wells and Morton. Indian J Anaesth 51 (6): 472
former resident of Washington, died in Norfolk, Virginia,
8.
yesterday of general paralysis. Prof. Poe was in his sixtyeighth year.
[102] US Nitrous Oxide Laws (alphabetically) Based on a
search of online free legal databases. Conducted May
[85] Nitrous oxide plant. Sanghi Organization. Archived
2002. Center for Cognitive Liberty and Ethics.
from the original on 27 November 2013. Retrieved 18
December 2013.
[103] CAL. PEN. CODE 381b : California Code Section

381b. Lp.ndlaw.com.
[86] Reimer R. A.; Slaten C. S.; Seapan M.; Lower M. W.;
Tomlinson P. E.; (1994). Abatement of N2 O emissions
[104] Anderton, Jim (26 June 2005). Times up for sham sales
produced in the adipic acid industry. Environmental
of laughing gas. Beehive.govt.nz.
progress 13 (2): 134137. doi:10.1002/ep.670130217.
[87] Shimizu, A.; Tanaka, K. and Fujimori, M. (2000).
Abatement of N2 O emissions produced in the adipic acid
industry. Chemosphere Global Change Science 2 (34):
425434. doi:10.1016/S1465-9972(00)00024-6.
[88] Nitrogen Family. chemistry.tutorvista.com
[89] Preparation of Nitrous Oxide from Urea, Nitric Acid and
Sulfuric Acid.
[90] Suwa T, Matsushima A, Suziki Y and Namina Y (1961).
Synthesis of Nitrous Oxide by Oxidation of Ammonia.
Kohyo Kagaku Zasshi, Showa Denka Ltd. 64: 18791888.
[91] Egon Wiberg, Arnold Frederick Holleman (2001) Inorganic Chemistry, Elsevier ISBN 0-12-352651-5
[92] IPCC, 2006

Occupational Safety and Health Guideline for Nitrous Oxide
Paul Crutzen Interview Freeview video of Paul
Crutzen Nobel Laureate for his work on decomposition of ozone talking to Harry Kroto Nobel Laureate
by the Vega Science Trust.
National Pollutant Inventory Oxide of nitrogen
fact sheet
National Institute for Occupational Safety and
Health Nitrous Oxide
[93] Housecroft, Catherine E. and Sharpe, Alan G. (2008).

Chapter 15: The group 15 elements. Inorganic Chemistry (3rd ed.). Pearson. p. 464. ISBN 978-0-13-1755536.
CDC NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards

Nitrous Oxide
[94] Steinfeld, H.; Gerber, P.; Wassenaar, T.; Castel, V.;

Rosales, M. and de Haan, C. (2006). Livestocks long
shadow Environmental issues and options. Fao.org.
Retrieved 2 February 2008.
Erowid article on Nitrous Oxide
[95] 4.1.1 Sources of Greenhouse Gases. IPCC TAR WG1

2001. Retrieved 21 September 2012.
Dental Fear Central article on the use of nitrous oxide in dentistry
[96] Keys, T.E. (1941).

The Development of
Anesthesiology 2 (5):
552574.
Anesthesia.
Bibcode:1982AmSci..70..522D. doi:10.1097/00000542194109000-00008. Archived from the original on 8
January 2015.
[97] Priestley J (1776). Experiments and Observations on
Dierent Kinds of Air 2 (3).
Nitrous Oxide FAQ
Nitrous oxide ngered as monster ozone slayer, Science News
111
Nitrous oxide production
Greenhouse gas trends.
Medical grade N
2O tanks used in dentistry.
Chapter 14
Nitrogen dioxide
Nitrogen dioxide is the chemical compound with the
formula NO
2. It is one of several nitrogen oxides. NO
2 is an intermediate in the industrial synthesis of nitric
acid, millions of tons of which are produced each year.
This reddish-brown toxic gas has a characteristic sharp,
biting odor and is a prominent air pollutant.[7] Nitrogen
dioxide is a paramagnetic, bent molecule with C point
group symmetry.
2O
5+H
2O
2N
2O
5 4 NO
2+O
2
The thermal decomposition of some metal nitrates also
aords NO
2:
14.1 Molecular properties

Nitrogen dioxide has a molar mass of 46.0055, which
makes it heavier than air, whose average molar mass is
28.8.
2 Pb(NO3 )2 2 PbO + 4 NO
2+O
2
The bond length between the nitrogen atom and the oxygen atom is 119.7 pm. This bond length is consistent with Alternatively, reduction of concentrated nitric acid by
metal (such as copper).
a bond order between one and two.
Unlike ozone, O3 , the ground electronic state of nitro4 HNO
gen dioxide is a doublet state, since nitrogen has one un[8]
3 + Cu Cu(NO3 )2 + 2 NO
paired electron, which decreases the alpha eect com2 +2 H2 O
pared with nitrite and creates a weak bonding interaction
with the oxygen lone pairs. The lone electron in NO
2 also means that this compound is a free radical, so the Or nally by adding concentrated nitric acid over tin; hydrated tin dioxide is produced as byproduct.
formula for nitrogen dioxide is often written as NO2 .
4HNO3 + Sn H2 O + H2 SnO3 + 4 NO2
14.2 Preparation and reactions
14.2.1 Main reactions
Nitrogen dioxide typically arises via the oxidation of

nitric oxide by oxygen in air:[9]
Basic thermal properties
2 NO + O
2 2 NO
2
NO
2 exists in equilibrium with the colourless gas dinitrogen
tetroxide (N
2O
In the laboratory, NO
2 can be prepared in a two-step procedure where dehydra- 4):
tion of nitric acid produces dinitrogen pentoxide, which
2 NO
subsequently undergoes thermal decomposition:
2N
2 HNO
2O
3N
4
112
14.3. SAFETY AND POLLUTION CONSIDERATIONS
113
The equilibrium is characterized by H = 57.23 kJ/mol,

3)
which is exothermic. NO2 is favored at higher tempera2 + NO
tures, while at lower temperatures, dinitrogen tetroxide
(N2 O4 ) predominates. Dinitrogen tetroxide (N
Alkyl and metal iodides give the corresponding nitrites:
2O
4) can be obtained as a white solid with melting point
2 CH
11.2 C.[9] NO2 is paramagnetic due to its unpaired
3I + 2 NO
electron, while N2 O4 is diamagnetic.
2 2 CH
3NO
The chemistry of nitrogen dioxide has been investigated
2+I
extensively. At 150 C, NO
2
2 decomposes with release of oxygen via an endothermic
process (H = 114 kJ/mol):
TiI
4 + 4 NO
2 NO
2 Ti(NO
2 2 NO + O
2)
2
4+2I
2
As an oxidizer
As suggested by the weakness of the NO bond, NO
2 is a good oxidizer. Consequently, it will combust,
sometimes explosively, with many compounds, such as
hydrocarbons.
14.3 Safety and pollution considerations
Hydrolysis
It hydrolyses to give nitric acid and nitrous acid:
2 NO
2/N
2O
4+H
2O HNO
2 + HNO
3
This reaction is one step in the Ostwald process for the industrial production of nitric acid from ammonia.[10] Nitric acid decomposes slowly to nitrogen dioxide, which
confers the characteristic yellow color of most samples
of this acid:
4 HNO
3 4 NO
2+2H
2O + O
2
Conversion to nitrates
Nitrogen dioxide 2011 tropospheric column density.
Nitrogen dioxide is toxic by inhalation. The compound is

acrid and easily detectable by smell at low concentrations.
However, low concentrations (4 ppm) will anesthetize the
nose, thus creating a potential for overexposure. One potential source of exposure is red fuming nitric acid, which
spontaneously produces NO
2 above 0 C. Symptoms of poisoning (lung edema) tend
to appear several hours after inhalation of a low but potentially fatal dose.
There is some evidence that long-term exposure to NO
2 at concentrations above 40100 g/m3 may decrease lung function and increase the risk of respiratory
symptoms.[11]
Nitrogen dioxide is formed in most combustion processes using air as the oxidant. At elevated temperatures
NO
2 is used to generate anhydrous metal nitrates from the nitrogen combines with oxygen to form nitric oxide:
oxides:[9]
O
MO + 3 NO
2+N
2 M(NO
2 2 NO
114
CHAPTER 14. NITROGEN DIOXIDE

A 2015 study by Kings College London concluded that
air pollution caused thousands of deaths in London in
2010, specically identifying NO
2 as the cause of the majority of the deaths. 5,900 deaths
were the result of nitrogen dioxide, a pollutant produced
by diesel engines [15]
A 2005 study by researchers at the University of California, San Diego, suggests a link between NO
2 levels and Sudden Infant Death Syndrome.[16] Nitrogen dioxide is also produced naturally during electrical
storms. The term for this process is atmospheric xation
of nitrogen. The rain produced during such storms is especially good for the garden as it contains trace amounts
of fertilizer. (Henry Cavendish 1784, Birkland -Eyde
Process 1903, et-al)
14.4 See also

Nitrite
Nitrogen dioxide (NO
2) gas converts to the colorless gas dinitrogen tetroxide (N
2O
4) at low temperatures, and converts back to NO
2 at higher temperatures. The bottles in this photograph contain
equal amounts of gas at dierent temperatures.
Nitric oxide can be oxidized in air to form nitrogen dioxide. At normal atmospheric concentrations, this is a very
slow process.
2 NO + O
2 2 NO
2
The most prominent sources of NO
2 are internal combustion engines,[12] thermal power stations and, to a lesser extent, pulp mills. Butane gas heaters
and stoves are also sources. The excess air required for
complete combustion of fuels in these processes introduces nitrogen into the combustion reactions at high temperatures and produces nitrogen oxides (NO
x). Limiting NO
x production demands the precise control of the amount
of air used in combustion. In households, kerosene
heaters and gas heaters[13] are sources of nitrogen dioxide.
Nitrogen dioxide is also produced by atmospheric nuclear
tests, and is responsible for the reddish colour of
mushroom clouds.[14]
Nitrogen dioxide is a large scale pollutant, with rural
background ground level concentrations in some areas
around 30 g/m3 , not far below unhealthy levels. Nitrogen dioxide plays a role in atmospheric chemistry, including the formation of tropospheric ozone.
Dinitrogen tetroxide
Nitryl
Nitrous oxide (N
2O) laughing gas, a linear molecule, isoelectronic with CO
2 but with a nonsymmetric arrangement of atoms
(NNO)
Nitric oxide (NO) a problematic pollutant that is
short lived because it converts to NO
2 in the presence of free oxygen
Nitrogen dioxide poisoning
14.5 References
[1] nitrogen dioxide (CHEBI:33101)". Chemical Entities of
Biological Interest (ChEBI). UK: European Bioinformatics
Institute. 13 January 2008. Main. Retrieved 4 October
2011.
[2] Haynes, William M., ed. (2011). CRC Handbook of
Chemistry and Physics (92nd ed.). CRC Press. p. 4.79.
ISBN 1439855110.
[3] Mendiara, S. N.; Sagedahl, A.; Perissinotti, L. J. (2001).
An electron paramagnetic resonance study of nitrogen
dioxide dissolved in water, carbon tetrachloride and some
organic compounds. Applied Magnetic Resonance 20:
275. doi:10.1007/BF03162326.
[4] Zumdahl, Steven S. (2009). Chemical Principles 6th Ed.
Houghton Miin Company. p. A22. ISBN 0-61894690-X.
[5] Nitrogen dioxide. Immediately Dangerous to Life and
Health. National Institute for Occupational Safety and
Health (NIOSH).
[6] NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards #0454.

National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
(NIOSH).
[7] Nitrogen dioxide. United States Environmental Protection Agency.
[8] Chemistry of the Elements, N.N. Greenwood, A. Earnshaw, p.455
[9] Holleman, A. F.; Wiberg, E. Inorganic Chemistry Academic Press: San Diego, 2001. ISBN 0-12-352651-5.
[10] Thiemann, Michael; Scheibler, Erich and Wiegand,
Karl Wilhelm (2005) Nitric Acid, Nitrous Acid,
and Nitrogen Oxides in Ullmanns Encyclopedia
of Industrial Chemistry, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim
doi:10.1002/14356007.a17_293.
[11] Health Aspects of Air Pollution with Particulate Matter,Ozone and Nitrogen Dioxide (PDF). World Health Organization. 1315 January 2003. p. 48. Retrieved 201111-19.
[12] Son, Busoon; Wonho Yang; Patrick Breysse; Taewoong
Chung; Youngshin Lee (March 2004). Estimation of
occupational and nonoccupational nitrogen dioxide exposure for Korean taxi drivers using a microenvironmental model. Environmental Research 94 (3): 291296.
doi:10.1016/j.envres.2003.08.004. PMID 15016597.
[13] The Impact of Unvented Gas Heating Appliances on
Indoor Nitrogen Dioxide Levels in 'TIGHT' Homes.
ashrae.org. Retrieved 2013-04-11.
[14] Eects of Nuclear Explosions.
Nuclearweaponarchive.org. Retrieved on 2010-02-08.
[15] Pollution Killing 9,500 Londoners Revives Mayors
Heathrow Plea. Retrieved 2015-07-15.
[16] Sids Linked to Nitrogen Dioxide Pollution. Retrieved
2008-02-25.
14.6 External links

International Chemical Safety Card 0930
National Pollutant Inventory - Oxides of nitrogen
fact sheet
NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards
WHO-Europe reports: Health Aspects of Air Pollution (2003) (PDF) and "Answer to follow-up questions from CAFE (2004) (PDF)
Nitrogen Dioxide Air Pollution
Nitrogen dioxide pollution in the world (image)
A review of the acute and long term impacts of exposure to nitrogen dioxide in the United Kingdom
IOM Research Report TM/04/03
115
Chapter 15
Thomas Thomson (chemist)

classics, mathematics, and natural philosophy. He went
on to graduate in medicine from the University of Edinburgh in 1799. However, he was inspired by Joseph Black
to take up the study of chemistry.
In 1796, Thomson succeeded his brother, James, as assistant editor of the Supplement to the Third Edition of the
Encyclopdia Britannica, contributing the articles Chemistry, Mineralogy, and Vegetable, animal and dyeing substances. In 1802, Thomson used these articles as the basis
of his book System of Chemistry. He also wrote the article
Chemistry for the 7th edition of Britannica, published
in 1842.
Thomson dabbled in publishing, acted as a consultant to
the Scottish excise board, invented the instrument known
as Allans saccharometer, and opposed the geological theories of James Hutton, founding the Wernerian Natural
History Society of Edinburgh as a platform in 1808. In
Mar 1811 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society[1]
and in 1815 was elected a corresponding member of the
Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. In 1813 he founded
Annals of Philosophy a leader in its eld of commercial
scientic periodicals.[2]
In 1817 he gave silicon its present name, rejecting the
suggested silicium because he felt the element had no
metallic characteristics, and that it chemically bore a close
Thomas Thomson (12 April 1773 2 July 1852) was resemblance to boron and carbon.[3]
a Scottish chemist and mineralogist whose writings conIn 1817, Thomson became Lecturer in and subsequently
tributed to the early spread of Daltons atomic theory.
Regius Professor of Chemistry at the University of GlasHe was the inventor of the saccharometer. Furthermore, gow, retiring in 1841. In 1820 he identied a new zeolite
he gave silicon its current name.
mineral, named thomsonite in his honour.
Thomas Thomson
He served as president of the Philosophical Society of Thomson died at Kilmun in 1852 and was buried at the
Glasgow.
Glasgow Necropolis.[4]
Thomson was the father of the botanist Thomas Thomson, and the uncle and father-in-law of the Medical Ocer of Health Robert Thomson.
15.2 Honours
15.1 Life and work
Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh (1805)
Thomas Thomson was born in Crie, Perthshire, in 1773.
He was educated at the High School of Dundee before
moving to the University of St. Andrews to study in
116
Fellow of the Royal Society, (1811)

Survey of Chemistry (1802)
The Elements of Chemistry (1810)
History of the Royal Society, from its institution to the
end of the eighteenth century (1812)
An Attempt to Establish the First Principles of Chemistry by Experiment (1825)
117
Foundations of the atomic theory: comprising papers
and extracts by John Dalton, William Hyde Wollaston, M. D., and Thomas Thomson, M. D. (1802
1808). Edinburgh: The Alembic Club. 1911.
15.7 External links
History of Chemistry (1830)
"Thomson, Thomas (1773-1852)". Dictionary of

National Biography. London: Smith, Elder & Co.
18851900.
A System of Chemistry of Inorganic Bodies (1831)
Thomas Thomson. Retrieved 8 September 2008.
Chemistry of Animal Bodies (1843)
Signicant Scots. Retrieved 8 September 2008.
15.4 Notes
[1] Library and Archive Catalogue. Royal Society. Retrieved 25 October 2010.
[2] Morrell, Jack. Thomson, Thomas. Oxford Dictionary of
National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press.
doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/27325. (Subscription or UK public
library membership required.)
[3] Thomas Thomson, A System of Chemistry in Four Volumes, 5th ed. (London, England: Baldwin, Cradock, and
Joy, 1817), vol. 1. From page 252: The base of silica has
been usually considered as a metal, and called silicium.
But as there is not the smallest evidence for its metallic
nature, and as it bears a close resemblance to boron and
carbon, it is better to class it along with these bodies, and
to give it the name of silicon.
[4] Thomas Thomson. Retrieved 8 September 2008.
15.5 References
This article incorporates text from a publication
now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed.
(1911). Thomson, Thomas. Encyclopdia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.

Biographical notice of the late Thomas Thomson. Glasgow Medical Journal 5: 6980, 121153.
1857.
Crum, W. (1855). Sketch of the life and labours
of Dr Thomas Thomson. Proceedings of the Philosophical Society of Glasgow 3: 250264.
Thomson, R.D. (18521853). Memoir of the late
Dr Thomas Thomson. Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal 54: 8698.
Chapter 16
Chemical reaction
starting materials, end products, and sometimes intermediate products and reaction conditions.
Chemical reactions happen at a characteristic reaction
rate at a given temperature and chemical concentration.
Typically, reaction rates increase with increasing temperature because there is more thermal energy available to
reach the activation energy necessary for breaking bonds
between atoms.
Reactions may proceed in the forward or reverse direction
until they go to completion or reach equilibrium. Reactions that proceed in the forward direction to approach
equilibrium are often described as spontaneous, requiring
no input of free energy to go forward. Non-spontaneous
reactions require input of free energy to go forward (examples include charging a battery by applying an external
electrical power source, or photosynthesis driven by absorption of electromagnetic radiation in the form of sunlight).
A thermite reaction using iron(III) oxide. The sparks ying outwards are globules of molten iron trailing smoke in their wake.
A chemical reaction is a process that leads to the transformation of one set of chemical substances to another.[1]
Classically, chemical reactions encompass changes that
only involve the positions of electrons in the forming
and breaking of chemical bonds between atoms, with no
change to the nuclei (no change to the elements present),
and can often be described by a chemical equation.
Nuclear chemistry is a sub-discipline of chemistry that
involves the chemical reactions of unstable and radioactive elements where both electronic and nuclear changes
may occur.
The substance (or substances) initially involved in a
chemical reaction are called reactants or reagents. Chemical reactions are usually characterized by a chemical
change, and they yield one or more products, which usually have properties dierent from the reactants. Reactions often consist of a sequence of individual substeps, the so-called elementary reactions, and the information on the precise course of action is part of the
reaction mechanism. Chemical reactions are described
with chemical equations, which symbolically present the
Dierent chemical reactions are used in combinations

during chemical synthesis in order to obtain a desired
product. In biochemistry, a consecutive series of chemical reactions (where the product of one reaction is the
reactant of the next reaction) form metabolic pathways.
These reactions are often catalyzed by protein enzymes.
Enzymes increase the rates of biochemical reactions, so
that metabolic syntheses and decompositions impossible
under ordinary conditions can occur at the temperatures
and concentrations present within a cell.
The general concept of a chemical reaction has been extended to reactions between entities smaller than atoms,
including nuclear reactions, radioactive decays, and reactions between elementary particles as described by
quantum eld theory.
16.1 History
Chemical reactions such as combustion in re,
fermentation and the reduction of ores to metals
were known since antiquity. Initial theories of transformation of materials were developed by Greek
philosophers, such as the Four-Element Theory of
Empedocles stating that any substance is composed of
118
16.2. EQUATIONS
119
contained within combustible bodies and released during
combustion. This proved to be false in 1785 by Antoine
Lavoisier who found the correct explanation of the combustion as reaction with oxygen from the air.[5]
Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac recognized in 1808 that gases
always react in a certain relationship with each other.
Based on this idea and the atomic theory of John Dalton, Joseph Proust had developed the law of denite
proportions, which later resulted in the concepts of
stoichiometry and chemical equations.[6]
Regarding the organic chemistry, it was long believed
that compounds obtained from living organisms were too
complex to be obtained synthetically. According to the
concept of vitalism, organic matter was endowed with
a vital force and distinguished from inorganic materials. This separation was ended however by the synthesis of urea from inorganic precursors by Friedrich Whler in 1828. Other chemists who brought major contributions to organic chemistry include Alexander William
Williamson with his synthesis of ethers and Christopher
Kelk Ingold, who, among many discoveries, established
the mechanisms of substitution reactions.
16.2 Equations
Antoine Lavoisier developed the theory of combustion as a chemical reaction with oxygen
the four basic elements re, water, air and earth. In

the Middle Ages, chemical transformations were studied
by Alchemists. They attempted, in particular, to convert
lead into gold, for which purpose they used reactions of
lead and lead-copper alloys with sulfur.[2]
The production of chemical substances that do not normally occur in nature has long been tried, such as the
synthesis of sulfuric and nitric acids attributed to the controversial alchemist Jbir ibn Hayyn. The process involved heating of sulfate and nitrate minerals such as
copper sulfate, alum and saltpeter. In the 17th century,
Johann Rudolph Glauber produced hydrochloric acid and
sodium sulfate by reacting sulfuric acid and sodium chloride. With the development of the lead chamber process in 1746 and the Leblanc process, allowing large-scale
production of sulfuric acid and sodium carbonate, respectively, chemical reactions became implemented into the
industry. Further optimization of sulfuric acid technology resulted in the contact process in 1880s,[3] and the
Haber process was developed in 19091910 for ammonia
synthesis.[4]
From the 16th century, researchers including Jan Baptist
van Helmont, Robert Boyle and Isaac Newton tried to establish theories of the experimentally observed chemical
transformations. The phlogiston theory was proposed in
1667 by Johann Joachim Becher. It postulated the existence of a re-like element called phlogiston, which was
As seen from the equation CH

4+2O
2 CO
2+2H
2O, a coecient of 2 must be placed before the oxygen gas on the
reactants side and before the water on the products side in order
for, as per the law of conservation of mass, the quantity of each
element does not change during the reaction
Main article: Chemical equation

Chemical equations are used to graphically illustrate
chemical reactions. They consist of chemical or structural
formulas of the reactants on the left and those of the products on the right. They are separated by an arrow ()
which indicates the direction and type of the reaction; the
arrow is read as the word yields.[7] The tip of the arrow
points in the direction in which the reaction proceeds. A
double arrow () pointing in opposite directions is used
for equilibrium reactions. Equations should be balanced
according to the stoichiometry, the number of atoms of
each species should be the same on both sides of the equa-
120
CHAPTER 16. CHEMICAL REACTION
tion. This is achieved by scaling the number of involved a unimolecular reaction is the cistrans isomerization, in
molecules (A, B, C and D in a schematic example below) which the cis-form of a compound converts to the transby the appropriate integers a, b, c and d.[8]
form or vice versa.[12]
a A + b B c C + d D
More elaborate reactions are represented by reaction
schemes, which in addition to starting materials and products show important intermediates or transition states.
Also, some relatively minor additions to the reaction can
be indicated above the reaction arrow; examples of such
additions are water, heat, illumination, a catalyst, etc.
Similarly, some minor products can be placed below the
arrow, often with a minus sign.
An example of organic reaction: oxidation of ketones to esters

with a peroxycarboxylic acid
In a typical dissociation reaction, a bond in a molecule

splits (ruptures) resulting in two molecular fragments.
The splitting can be homolytic or heterolytic. In the rst
case, the bond is divided so that each product retains an
electron and becomes a neutral radical. In the second
case, both electrons of the chemical bond remain with
one of the products, resulting in charged ions. Dissociation plays an important role in triggering chain reactions,
such as hydrogenoxygen or polymerization reactions.
AB A + B
Dissociation of a molecule AB into fragments A and
B
For bimolecular reactions, two molecules collide and react with each other. Their merger is called chemical synthesis or an addition reaction.
Retrosynthetic analysis can be applied to design a complex synthesis reaction. Here the analysis starts from A + B AB
the products, for example by splitting selected chemical
bonds, to arrive at plausible initial reagents. A special Another possibility is that only a portion of one molecule
is transferred to the other molecule. This type of reaction
arrow () is used in retro reactions.[9]
occurs, for example, in redox and acid-base reactions. In
redox reactions, the transferred particle is an electron,
whereas in acid-base reactions it is a proton. This type
16.3 Elementary reactions
of reaction is also called metathesis.
The elementary reaction is the smallest division into
which a chemical reaction can be decomposed, it has HA + B A + HB
no intermediate products.[10] Most experimentally observed reactions are built up from many elementary re- for example
actions that occur in parallel or sequentially. The actual sequence of the individual elementary reactions is
known as reaction mechanism. An elementary reaction N aCl(aq) + AgN O3(aq) N aN O3(aq) + AgCl(s)
involves a few molecules, usually one or two, because of
the low probability for several molecules to meet at a certain time.[11]
16.4 Chemical equilibrium
Main article: Chemical equilibrium
Isomerization of azobenzene, induced by light (h) or heat ()
The most important elementary reactions are unimolecular and bimolecular reactions. Only one molecule is involved in a unimolecular reaction; it is transformed by
an isomerization or a dissociation into one or more other
molecules. Such reactions require the addition of energy in the form of heat or light. A typical example of
Most chemical reactions are reversible, that is they can

and do run in both directions. The forward and reverse reactions are competing with each other and differ in reaction rates. These rates depend on the concentration and therefore change with time of the reaction:
the reverse rate gradually increases and becomes equal
to the rate of the forward reaction, establishing the socalled chemical equilibrium. The time to reach equilibrium depends on such parameters as temperature, pressure and the materials involved, and is determined by the
minimum free energy. In equilibrium, the Gibbs free energy must be zero. The pressure dependence can be explained with the Le Chateliers principle. For example,
16.6. KINETICS
121
an increase in pressure due to decreasing volume causes Reactions can also be characterized by the internal energy
the reaction to shift to the side with the fewer moles of which takes into account changes in the entropy, volume
gas.[13]
and chemical potential. The latter depends, among other
[16]
The reaction yield stabilizes at equilibrium, but can be in- things, on the activities of the involved substances.
creased by removing the product from the reaction mixture or changed by increasing the temperature or pressure. A change in the concentrations of the reactants does
not aect the equilibrium constant, but does aect the
equilibrium position.
dU = T dS p dV + dn
U: internal energy, S: entropy, p: pressure, : chemical potential, n: number of molecules, d: small
change sign
16.6 Kinetics
16.5 Thermodynamics
Chemical reactions are determined by the laws of The speed at which a reactions takes place is studied by
thermodynamics. Reactions can proceed by themselves reaction kinetics. The rate depends on various parameif they are exergonic, that is if they release energy. The ters, such as:
associated free energy of the reaction is composed of
two dierent thermodynamic quantities, enthalpy and
Reactant concentrations, which usually make the reentropy:[14]
action happen at a faster rate if raised through increased collisions per unit time. Some reactions,
G = H T S.
however, have rates that are independent of reactant concentrations. These are called zero order reG: free energy, H: enthalpy, T: temperature, S: enactions.
tropy, : dierence(change between original and
product)
Reactions can be exothermic, where H is negative and

energy is released. Typical examples of exothermic reactions are precipitation and crystallization, in which ordered solids are formed from disordered gaseous or liquid phases. In contrast, in endothermic reactions, heat
is consumed from the environment. This can occur by
increasing the entropy of the system, often through the
formation of gaseous reaction products, which have high
entropy. Since the entropy increases with temperature,
many endothermic reactions preferably take place at high
temperatures. On the contrary, many exothermic reactions such as crystallization occur at low temperatures.
Changes in temperature can sometimes reverse the sign
of the enthalpy of a reaction, as for the carbon monoxide
reduction of molybdenum dioxide:
Surface area available for contact between the reactants, in particular solid ones in heterogeneous systems. Larger surface areas lead to higher reaction
rates.
Pressure increasing the pressure decreases the volume between molecules and therefore increases the
frequency of collisions between the molecules.
Activation energy, which is dened as the amount of
energy required to make the reaction start and carry
on spontaneously. Higher activation energy implies
that the reactants need more energy to start than a
reaction with a lower activation energy.
Temperature, which hastens reactions if raised,
since higher temperature increases the energy of the
molecules, creating more collisions per unit time,
The presence or absence of a catalyst. Catalysts are

2CO(g) +M oO2(s) 2CO2(g) +M o(s) ; H = +21.86 kJ atsubstances
298 K which change the pathway (mechanism)
of a reaction which in turn increases the speed of a
This reaction to form carbon dioxide and molybdenum is
reaction by lowering the activation energy needed for
endothermic at low temperatures, becoming less so with
the reaction to take place. A catalyst is not destroyed
increasing temperature.[15] H is zero at 1855 K, and the
or changed during a reaction, so it can be used again.
reaction becomes exothermic above that temperature.
For some reactions, the presence of electromagnetic
Changes in temperature can also reverse the direction
radiation, most notably ultraviolet light, is needed
tendency of a reaction. For example, the water gas shift
to promote the breaking of bonds to start the reacreaction
tion. This is particularly true for reactions involving
radicals.
o
CO(g) + H2 O(v) CO2(g) + H2(g)
Several theories allow calculating the reaction rates at the

is favored by low temperatures, but its reverse is favored molecular level. This eld is referred to as reaction dyby high temperature. The shift in reaction direction ten- namics. The rate v of a rst-order reaction, which could
dency occurs at 1100 K.[15]
be disintegration of a substance A, is given by:
122
v=
d[A]
= k [A].
dt
A + B AB
Two or more reactants yielding one product is another
way to identify a synthesis reaction. One example of a
synthesis reaction is the combination of iron and sulfur to
form iron(II) sulde:
Its integration yields:
[A](t) = [A]0 ekt .

Here k is rst-order rate constant having dimension
1/time, [A](t) is concentration at a time t and [A]0 is
the initial concentration. The rate of a rst-order reaction depends only on the concentration and the properties of the involved substance, and the reaction itself can
be described with the characteristic half-life. More than
one time constant is needed when describing reactions of
higher order. The temperature dependence of the rate
constant usually follows the Arrhenius equation:
8F e + S8 8F eS
Another example is simple hydrogen gas combined with
simple oxygen gas to produce a more complex substance,
such as water.[18]
Decomposition
Main article: Decomposition reaction
k = k0 eEa /kB T
A decomposition reaction is when a more complex substance breaks down into its more simple parts. It is thus
where E is the activation energy and kB is the Boltzmann the opposite of a synthesis reaction, and can be written
constant. One of the simplest models of reaction rate as[18][19]
is the collision theory. More realistic models are tailored to a specic problem and include the transition state
theory, the calculation of the potential energy surface, AB A + B
the Marcus theory and the RiceRamspergerKassel
Marcus (RRKM) theory.[17]
One example of a decomposition reaction is the
electrolysis of water to make oxygen and hydrogen gas:
16.7 Reaction types

16.7.1
2H2 O 2H2 + O2
Four basic types

Single replacement
+
A
A
A
C
C
In a single replacement reaction, a single uncombined element replaces another in a compound; in other words,
one element trades places with another element in a
compound[18] These reactions come in the general form
of:
B
+
B
B
A + BC AC + B
Representation of four basic chemical reactions types: synthesis,
decomposition, single replacement and double replacement.
Synthesis
One example of a single displacement reaction is

when magnesium replaces hydrogen in water to make
magnesium hydroxide and hydrogen gas:
M g + 2H2 O M g(OH)2 + H2
Main article: Synthesis reaction

Double replacement
In a synthesis reaction, two or more simple substances
combine to form a more complex substance. These reac- In a double replacement reaction, the anions and cations
of two compounds switch places and form two entirely
tions are in the general form:
16.7. REACTION TYPES
123
dierent compounds.[18] These reactions are in the gen- In the following redox reaction, hazardous sodium metal
eral form:[19]
reacts with toxic chlorine gas to form the ionic compound
sodium chloride, or common table salt:
AB + CD AD + CB
2N a(s) + Cl2(g) 2N aCl(s)
For example, when barium chloride (BaCl2 ) and
magnesium sulfate (MgSO4 ) react, the SO4 2 anion In the reaction, sodium metal goes from an oxidation state
switches places with the 2Cl anion, giving the com- of 0 (as it is a pure element) to +1: in other words, the
pounds BaSO4 and MgCl2 .
sodium lost one electron and is said to have been oxiAnother example of a double displacement reaction is the dized. On the other hand, the chlorine gas goes from an
reaction of lead(II) nitrate with potassium iodide to form oxidation of 0 (it is also a pure element) to 1: the chlorine gains one electron and is said to have been reduced.
lead(II) iodide and potassium nitrate:
Because the chlorine is the one reduced, it is considered
the electron acceptor, or in other words, induces oxidation in the sodium thus the chlorine gas is considered
P b(N O3 )2 + 2KI P bI2 + 2KN O3
the oxidizing agent. Conversely, the sodium is oxidized
or is the electron donor, and thus induces reduction in the
other species and is considered the reducing agent.
16.7.2 Oxidation and reduction
Illustration of a redox reaction
Which of the involved reactants would be reducing or oxidizing agent can be predicted from the electronegativity
of their elements. Elements with low electronegativity,
such as most metals, easily donate electrons and oxidize
they are reducing agents. On the contrary, many ions
with high oxidation numbers, such as H
2O
2, MnO
4, CrO
3, Cr
2O2
7, OsO
4 can gain one or two extra electrons and are strong oxidizing agents.
The number of electrons donated or accepted in a redox reaction can be predicted from the electron conguration of the reactant element. Elements try to reach
the low-energy noble gas conguration, and therefore alkali metals and halogens will donate and accept one electron respectively. Noble gases themselves are chemically
inactive.[22]
An important class of redox reactions are the

electrochemical reactions, where electrons from the
power supply are used as the reducing agent. These
Sodium chloride is formed through the redox reaction of sodium reactions are particularly important for the production
metal and chlorine gas
of chemical elements, such as chlorine[23] or aluminium.
The reverse process in which electrons are released in
Redox reactions can be understood in terms of transfer redox reactions and can be used as electrical energy is
of electrons from one involved species (reducing agent) possible and used in batteries.
to another (oxidizing agent). In this process, the former
species is oxidized and the latter is reduced. Though sufcient for many purposes, these descriptions are not pre- 16.7.3 Complexation
cisely correct. Oxidation is better dened as an increase
in oxidation state, and reduction as a decrease in oxida- In complexation reactions, several ligands react with a
tion state. In practice, the transfer of electrons will always metal atom to form a coordination complex. This is
change the oxidation state, but there are many reactions achieved by providing lone pairs of the ligand into empty
that are classed as redox even though no electron trans- orbitals of the metal atom and forming dipolar bonds.
fer occurs (such as those involving covalent bonds).[20][21] The ligands are Lewis bases, they can be both ions and
124

Acid-base reactions can have dierent denitions depending on the acid-base concept employed. Some of
the most common are:
Arrhenius denition: Acids dissociate in water releasing H3 O+ ions; bases dissociate in water releasing OH ions.
Brnsted-Lowry denition: Acids are proton (H+ )
donors, bases are proton acceptors; this includes the
Arrhenius denition.
Lewis denition: Acids are electron-pair acceptors, bases are electron-pair donors; this includes the
Brnsted-Lowry denition.
16.7.5 Precipitation
Solution
Supernate
Ferrocene an iron atom sandwiched between two C5 H5 ligands
neutral molecules, such as carbon monoxide, ammonia

or water. The number of ligands that react with a central metal atom can be found using the 18-electron rule,
saying that the valence shells of a transition metal will
collectively accommodate 18 electrons, whereas the symmetry of the resulting complex can be predicted with the
crystal eld theory and ligand eld theory. Complexation reactions also include ligand exchange, in which one
or more ligands are replaced by another, and redox processes which change the oxidation state of the central
metal atom.[24]
16.7.4
Acid-base reactions
In the BrnstedLowry acidbase theory, an acid-base

reaction involves a transfer of protons (H+ ) from one
species (the acid) to another (the base). When a proton is
removed from an acid, the resulting species is termed that
acids conjugate base. When the proton is accepted by a
base, the resulting species is termed that bases conjugate
acid.[25] In other words, acids act as proton donors and
bases act as proton acceptors according to the following
equation:
HA + B A + HB +
HA: acid, B: Base, A : conjugated base, HB+ : conjugated acid
The reverse reaction is possible, and thus the acid/base

and conjugated base/acid are always in equilibrium. The
equilibrium is determined by the acid and base dissociation constants (K and K ) of the involved substances. A
special case of the acid-base reaction is the neutralization
where an acid and a base, taken at exactly same amounts,
form a neutral salt.
Suspension
Precipitate
Precipitation
Precipitation is the formation of a solid in a solution or

inside another solid during a chemical reaction. It usually takes place when the concentration of dissolved ions
exceeds the solubility limit[26] and forms an insoluble
salt. This process can be assisted by adding a precipitating agent or by removal of the solvent. Rapid precipitation results in an amorphous or microcrystalline residue
and slow process can yield single crystals. The latter
can also be obtained by recrystallization from microcrystalline salts.[27]
16.7.6 Solid-state reactions

Reactions can take place between two solids. However,
because of the relatively small diusion rates in solids, the
corresponding chemical reactions are very slow in comparison to liquid and gas phase reactions. They are accelerated by increasing the reaction temperature and nely
dividing the reactant to increase the contacting surface
area.[28]
16.8. CATALYSIS
16.7.7
125
Reaction without catalyst
Reactions at the solid|gas interface
Energy
Reaction with catalyst
Reaction can take place at the solid|gas interface, surfaces at very low pressure such as ultra-high vacuum. Via
scanning tunneling microscopy, it is possible to observe
reactions at the solid|gas interface in real space, if the time
scale of the reaction is in the correct range.[29][30] Reactions at the solid|gas interface are in some cases related to
catalysis.
Ea (YX)
Ea (XY)
Y
H
16.7.8
Photochemical reactions
Reaction path
In this PaternoBchi reaction, a photoexcited carbonyl group is

added to an unexcited olen, yielding an oxetane.
Schematic potential energy diagram showing the eect of a catalyst in an endothermic chemical reaction. The presence of a
catalyst opens a dierent reaction pathway (in red) with a lower
activation energy. The nal result and the overall thermodynamics are the same.
In photochemical reactions, atoms and molecules absorb

energy (photons) of the illumination light and convert
into an excited state. They can then release this energy by breaking chemical bonds, thereby producing radicals. Photochemical reactions include hydrogenoxygen
reactions, radical polymerization, chain reactions and
rearrangement reactions.[31]
Many important processes involve photochemistry. The
premier example is photosynthesis, in which most plants
use solar energy to convert carbon dioxide and water
into glucose, disposing of oxygen as a side-product. Humans rely on photochemistry for the formation of vitamin D, and vision is initiated by a photochemical reaction
of rhodopsin.[12] In reies, an enzyme in the abdomen
catalyzes a reaction that results in bioluminescence.[32]
Many signicant photochemical reactions, such as ozone
formation, occur in the Earth atmosphere and constitute
atmospheric chemistry.
16.8 Catalysis
Main article: Catalysis
Further information: Reaction Progress Kinetic Analysis
In catalysis, the reaction does not proceed directly, but
through reaction with a third substance known as catalyst.
Although the catalyst takes part in the reaction, it is returned to its original state by the end of the reaction and
so is not consumed. However, it can be inhibited, deactivated or destroyed by secondary processes. Catalysts
can be used in a dierent phase (heterogeneous) or in
the same phase (homogeneous) as the reactants. In heterogeneous catalysis, typical secondary processes include
coking where the catalyst becomes covered by polymeric
side products. Additionally, heterogeneous catalysts can
Solid heterogeneous catalysts are plated on meshes in ceramic

catalytic converters in order to maximize their surface area. This
exhaust converter is from a Peugeot 106 S2 1100
dissolve into the solution in a solidliquid system or evaporate in a solidgas system. Catalysts can only speed up
the reaction chemicals that slow down the reaction are
called inhibitors.[33][34] Substances that increase the activity of catalysts are called promoters, and substances that
deactivate catalysts are called catalytic poisons. With a
catalyst, a reaction which is kinetically inhibited by a high
activation energy can take place in circumvention of this
activation energy.
Heterogeneous catalysts are usually solids, powdered in
order to maximize their surface area. Of particular
importance in heterogeneous catalysis are the platinum
group metals and other transition metals, which are used
in hydrogenations, catalytic reforming and in the synthesis of commodity chemicals such as nitric acid and
ammonia. Acids are an example of a homogeneous catalyst, they increase the nucleophilicity of carbonyls, allowing a reaction that would not otherwise proceed with
electrophiles. The advantage of homogeneous catalysts is
the ease of mixing them with the reactants, but they may
also be dicult to separate from the products. Therefore,
126
heterogeneous catalysts are preferred in many industrial cleophilic, and the number represents the kinetic order of
processes.[35]
the reaction, unimolecular or bimolecular.[37]
16.9 Reactions in organic chemistry

Main article: Organic reaction
In organic chemistry, in addition to oxidation, reduction
or acid-base reactions, a number of other reactions can
take place which involve covalent bonds between carbon
atoms or carbon and heteroatoms (such as oxygen, nitrogen, halogens, etc.). Many specic reactions in organic The three steps of an SN2 reaction. The nucleophile is
chemistry are name reactions designated after their dis- green and the leaving group is red
coverers.
16.9.1
Substitution
SN2 reaction causes stereo inversion (Walden inversion)

In a substitution reaction, a functional group in a particular chemical compound is replaced by another group.[36] The SN1 reaction proceeds in two steps. First, the leaving
These reactions can be distinguished by the type of substi- group is eliminated creating a carbocation. This is foltuting species into a nucleophilic, electrophilic or radical lowed by a rapid reaction with the nucleophile.[38]
substitution.
In the SN2 mechanism, the nucleophile forms a transition state with the attacked molecule, and only then the
leaving group is cleaved. These two mechanisms differ in the stereochemistry of the products. SN1 leads
to the non-stereospecic addition and does not result in
a chiral center, but rather in a set of geometric isomers
(cis/trans). In contrast, a reversal (Walden inversion) of
the previously existing stereochemistry is observed in the
SN2 mechanism.[39]
SN1 mechanism
Electrophilic substitution is the counterpart of the nu-
SN2 mechanism
In the rst type, a nucleophile, an atom or molecule with
an excess of electrons and thus a negative charge or partial
charge, replaces another atom or part of the substrate
molecule. The electron pair from the nucleophile attacks the substrate forming a new bond, while the leaving
group departs with an electron pair. The nucleophile
may be electrically neutral or negatively charged, whereas
the substrate is typically neutral or positively charged.
Examples of nucleophiles are hydroxide ion, alkoxides,
amines and halides. This type of reaction is found mainly
in aliphatic hydrocarbons, and rarely in aromatic hydrocarbon. The latter have high electron density and enter
nucleophilic aromatic substitution only with very strong
electron withdrawing groups. Nucleophilic substitution
can take place by two dierent mechanisms, SN1 and
SN2. In their names, S stands for substitution, N for nu-
cleophilic substitution in that the attacking atom or

molecule, an electrophile, has low electron density and
thus a positive charge. Typical electrophiles are the carbon atom of carbonyl groups, carbocations or sulfur or
nitronium cations. This reaction takes place almost exclusively in aromatic hydrocarbons, where it is called
electrophilic aromatic substitution. The electrophile attack results in the so-called -complex, a transition state
in which the aromatic system is abolished. Then, the leaving group, usually a proton, is split o and the aromaticity is restored. An alternative to aromatic substitution is
electrophilic aliphatic substitution. It is similar to the nucleophilic aliphatic substitution and also has two major
types, SE1 and SE2[40]
In the third type of substitution reaction, radical substitution, the attacking particle is a radical.[36] This process usually takes the form of a chain reaction, for example in the reaction of alkanes with halogens. In the rst
step, light or heat disintegrates the halogen-containing
molecules producing the radicals. Then the reaction
proceeds as an avalanche until two radicals meet and
16.9. REACTIONS IN ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
127
Electrophilic addition of hydrogen bromide
Mechanism of electrophilic aromatic substitution
recombine.[41]
X + RH XH + R
R + X2 RX + X
Reactions during the chain reaction of radical substitution
16.9.2
Addition and elimination
The addition and its counterpart, the elimination, are reactions which change the number of substitutents on the
carbon atom, and form or cleave multiple bonds. Double
and triple bonds can be produced by eliminating a suitable
leaving group. Similar to the nucleophilic substitution,
there are several possible reaction mechanisms which are
named after the respective reaction order. In the E1
mechanism, the leaving group is ejected rst, forming a
carbocation. The next step, formation of the double bond,
takes place with elimination of a proton (deprotonation).
The leaving order is reversed in the E1cb mechanism, that
is the proton is split o rst. This mechanism requires
participation of a base.[42] Because of the similar conditions, both reactions in the E1 or E1cb elimination always
compete with the SN1 substitution.[43]
The counterpart of elimination is the addition where double or triple bonds are converted into single bonds. Similar to the substitution reactions, there are several types of
additions distinguished by the type of the attacking particle. For example, in the electrophilic addition of hydrogen bromide, an electrophile (proton) attacks the double
bond forming a carbocation, which then reacts with the
nucleophile (bromine). The carbocation can be formed
on either side of the double bond depending on the groups
attached to its ends, and the preferred conguration can
be predicted with the Markovnikovs rule.[45] This rule
states that In the heterolytic addition of a polar molecule
to an alkene or alkyne, the more electronegative (nucleophilic) atom (or part) of the polar molecule becomes attached to the carbon atom bearing the smaller number of
hydrogen atoms.[46]
If the addition of a functional group takes place at the
less substituted carbon atom of the double bond, then the
electrophilic substitution with acids is not possible. In
this case, one has to use the hydroborationoxidation reaction, where in the rst step, the boron atom acts as electrophile and adds to the less substituted carbon atom. At
the second step, the nucleophilic hydroperoxide or halogen anion attacks the boron atom.[47]
While the addition to the electron-rich alkenes and
alkynes is mainly electrophilic, the nucleophilic addition plays an important role for the carbon-heteroatom
multiple bonds, and especially its most important representative, the carbonyl group. This process is often
associated with an elimination, so that after the reaction the carbonyl group is present again. It is therefore
called addition-elimination reaction and may occur in carboxylic acid derivatives such as chlorides, esters or anhydrides. This reaction is often catalyzed by acids or
bases, where the acids increase by the electrophilicity
of the carbonyl group by binding to the oxygen atom,
whereas the bases enhance the nucleophilicity of the attacking nucleophile.[48]
E2 elimination
The E2 mechanism also requires a base, but there the

attack of the base and the elimination of the leaving
group proceed simultaneously and produce no ionic intermediate. In contrast to the E1 eliminations, dierent
stereochemical congurations are possible for the reaction product in the E2 mechanism, because the attack of
the base preferentially occurs in the anti-position with respect to the leaving group. Because of the similar conditions and reagents, the E2 elimination is always in competition with the SN2-substitution.[44]
Acid-catalyzed addition-elimination mechanism
Nucleophilic addition of a carbanion or another

nucleophile to the double bond of an alpha, beta unsaturated carbonyl compound can proceed via the Michael
reaction, which belongs to the larger class of conjugate
additions. This is one of the most useful methods for the
128
mild formation of CC bonds.[49][50][51]

Some additions which can not be executed with nucleophiles and electrophiles, can be succeeded with free radicals. As with the free-radical substitution, the radical addition proceeds as a chain reaction, and such reactions are
the basis of the free-radical polymerization.[52]
16.9.3
Other organic reaction mechanisms
electrons in the excited state of the involved molecules

and therefore in dierent eects. For example, the [4+2]
Diels-Alder reactions can be assisted by heat whereas the
[2+2] cycloaddition is selectively induced by light.[55] Because of the orbital character, the potential for developing
stereoisomeric products upon cycloaddition is limited, as
described by the WoodwardHomann rules.[56]
16.10 Biochemical reactions

Substrate
Enzyme changes shape

slightly as substrate binds
Products
Active site
The Cope rearrangement of 3-methyl-1,5-hexadiene

Substrate entering
active site of enzyme
Mechanism of a Diels-Alder reaction
Orbital overlap in a Diels-Alder reaction

In a rearrangement reaction, the carbon skeleton of a
molecule is rearranged to give a structural isomer of the
original molecule. These include hydride shift reactions
such as the Wagner-Meerwein rearrangement, where a
hydrogen, alkyl or aryl group migrates from one carbon
to a neighboring carbon. Most rearrangements are associated with the breaking and formation of new carboncarbon bonds. Other examples are sigmatropic reaction
such as the Cope rearrangement.[53]
Enzyme/substrate
complex
Enzyme/products
complex
Products leaving
active site of enzyme
Illustration of the induced t model of enzyme activity
Biochemical reactions are mainly controlled by enzymes.

These proteins can specically catalyze a single reaction,
so that reactions can be controlled very precisely. The
reaction takes place in the active site, a small part of the
enzyme which is usually found in a cleft or pocket lined
by amino acid residues, and the rest of the enzyme is
used mainly for stabilization. The catalytic action of enzymes relies on several mechanisms including the molecular shape (induced t), bond strain, proximity and orientation of molecules relative to the enzyme, proton donation or withdrawal (acid/base catalysis), electrostatic
interactions and many others.[57]
The biochemical reactions that occur in living organisms
are collectively known as metabolism. Among the most
important of its mechanisms is the anabolism, in which
dierent DNA and enzyme-controlled processes result in
the production of large molecules such as proteins and
carbohydrates from smaller units.[58] Bioenergetics studies the sources of energy for such reactions. An important energy source is glucose, which can be produced by
plants via photosynthesis or assimilated from food. All
organisms use this energy to produce adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which can then be used to energize other
reactions.
Cyclic rearrangements include cycloadditions and, more

generally, pericyclic reactions, wherein two or more double bond-containing molecules form a cyclic molecule.
An important example of cycloaddition reaction is the 16.11 Applications
DielsAlder reaction (the so-called [4+2] cycloaddition)
between a conjugated diene and a substituted alkene to Chemical reactions are central to chemical engineering
form a substituted cyclohexene system.[54]
where they are used for the synthesis of new compounds
Whether or not a certain cycloaddition would proceed from natural raw materials such as petroleum and mindepends on the electronic orbitals of the participating eral ores. It is essential to make the reaction as ecient
species, as only orbitals with the same sign of wave func- as possible, maximizing the yield and minimizing the
tion will overlap and interact constructively to form new amount of reagents, energy inputs and waste. Catalysts
bonds. Cycloaddition is usually assisted by light or heat. are especially helpful for reducing the energy required for
These perturbations result in dierent arrangement of the reaction and increasing its reaction rate.[59][60]
16.14. REFERENCES
129
Chemistry
Limiting reagent
List of organic reactions
Organic reaction
Reaction progress kinetic analysis
Combustion
Mass balance
Thermite reaction proceeding in railway welding. Shortly after

this, the liquid iron ows into the mould around the rail gap
Some specic reactions have their niche applications. For

example, the thermite reaction is used to generate light
and heat in pyrotechnics and welding. Although it is less
controllable than the more conventional oxy-fuel welding, arc welding and ash welding, it requires much less
equipment and is still used to mend rails, especially in
remote areas.[61]
16.12 Monitoring
16.14 References
[1] IUPAC, Compendium of Chemical Terminology, 2nd ed.
(the Gold Book) (1997). Online corrected version:
(2006) "chemical reaction".
[2] Weyer, J. (1973). Neuere Interpretationsmglichkeiten
der Alchemie. Chemie in unserer Zeit 7 (6): 177.
doi:10.1002/ciuz.19730070604.
[3] Friedman, Leonard J.; Friedman, Samantha J. (2008).
The History of the Contact Sulfuric Acid Process (PDF).
Boca Raton, Florida: Acid Engineering & Consulting,
Inc.
[4] Stranges, Anthony N. (2000). Germanys synthetic fuel
industry, 19351940. In Lesch, John E. The German
Chemical Industry in the Twentieth Century. Kluwer Academic Publishers. p. 170. ISBN 0-7923-6487-2.
Mechanisms of monitoring chemical reactions depend

strongly on the reaction rate. Relatively slow processes
can be analyzed in situ for the concentrations and iden- [5]
tities of the individual ingredients. Important tools of [6]
real time analysis are the measurement of pH and analysis of optical absorption (color) and emission spectra. [7]
A less accessible but rather ecient method is introduction of a radioactive isotope into the reaction and mon[8]
itoring how it changes over time and where it moves to;
this method is often used to analyze redistribution of substances in the human body. Faster reactions are usually studied with ultrafast laser spectroscopy where uti- [9]
lization of femtosecond lasers allows short-lived transition states to be monitored at time scaled down to a few
femtoseconds.[62]
[10]
16.13 See also

Chemical reaction
Substrate
Reagent
Brock, pp. 3455

Brock, pp. 104107
Myers, Richard (2009). The Basics of Chemistry.
Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 55. ISBN 0313316643.
IUPAC, Compendium of Chemical Terminology, 2nd ed.
(2006) "chemical reaction equation".
Corey, E. J. (1988). Robert Robinson Lecture. Retrosynthetic thinking?essentials and examples. Chemical
Society Reviews 17: 111. doi:10.1039/CS9881700111.
IUPAC, Compendium of Chemical Terminology, 2nd ed.
(2006) "elementary reaction".
[11] Frenking, Gernot (2006). Elementarreaktionen. Rmpp

Chemie-Lexikon. Thieme.
[12] Kandori, Hideki (2006). Retinal Binding Proteins. In
Dugave, Christophe. Cis-trans Isomerization in Biochemistry. Wiley-VCH. p. 56. ISBN 3-527-31304-4.
Catalyst
[13] Atkins, p. 114.
Product
[14] Atkins, pp. 106108
Chemical reaction model
[15] Reaction Web
Chemist
[16] Atkins, p. 150
130
[17] Atkins, p. 963

[18] To react or not to react? Utah State Oce of Education.
Retrieved 4 June 2011.
[19] Six Types of Chemical Reactions MrGuch ChemFiesta.
[20] Glusker, Jenny P. (1991). Structural Aspects of Metal
Liganding to Functional Groups in Proteins. In Christian B. Annsen. Advances in Protein Chemistry 42. San
Diego: Academic Press. p. 7. ISBN 0-12-034242-1.
[21] Guo, Liang-Hong; Allen, H.; Hill, O. (1991). Direct
Electrochemistry of Proteins and Enzymes. In A. G.
Sykes. Advances in Inorganic Chemistry 36. San Diego:
Academic Press. p. 359. ISBN 0-12-023636-2.
[22] Wiberg, pp. 289290
[23] Wiberg, p. 409
[24] Wiberg, pp. 11801205
(2006) "conjugate acidbase pair".
(2006) "precipitation".
[37] Hartshorn, S. R. (1973). Aliphatic Nucleophilic Substitution. London: Cambridge University Press. p. 1. ISBN
0-521-09801-7.
[38] Bateman, Leslie C.; Church, Mervyn G.; Hughes, Edward
D.; Ingold, Christopher K.; Taher, Nazeer Ahmed (1940).
188. Mechanism of substitution at a saturated carbon
atom. Part XXIII. A kinetic demonstration of the unimolecular solvolysis of alkyl halides. (Section E) a general discussion. Journal of the Chemical Society: 979.
doi:10.1039/JR9400000979.
[39] Brckner, pp. 6377
[40] Brckner, pp. 203206
[41] Brckner, p. 16
[42] Brckner, p. 192
[45] Wiberg, pp. 950, 1602
(2006) "Markowniko rule".
[27] Wingender, Jrg; Ortanderl, Stefanie (July 2009). Ausfllung. Rmpp Chemie-Lexikon. Thieme.
[28] Meyer, H. Jrgen (2007). Festkrperchemie. In Erwin
Riedel. Modern Inorganic Chemistry (in German) (3rd
ed.). de Gruyter. p. 171. ISBN 978-3-11-019060-1.
[29] Wintterlin, J. (1997). Atomic and Macroscopic Reaction Rates of a Surface-Catalyzed Reaction. Science 278
(5345): 1931. doi:10.1126/science.278.5345.1931.
[30] Waldmann, T.; Knzel, D.; Hoster, H. E.; Gro, A.;
Behm, R. J. R. (2012). Oxidation of an Organic Adlayer:
A Birds Eye View. Journal of the American Chemical
Society 134 (21): 8817. doi:10.1021/ja302593v.
[31] Atkins, pp. 937950
[32] Saunders, David Stanley (2002). Insect clocks (Third ed.).
Amsterdam: Elsevier. p. 179. ISBN 0-444-50407-9.
(2006) "catalyst".
(2006) "inhibitor".
[35] Elschenbroich, Christoph (2008). Organometallchemie
(6th ed.). Wiesbaden: Vieweg+Teubner Verlag. p. 263.
ISBN 978-3-8351-0167-8.
[36] March, Jerry (1985), Advanced Organic Chemistry: Reactions, Mechanisms, and Structure (3rd ed.), New York:
Wiley, ISBN 0-471-85472-7
[48] Latscha, Hans Peter; Kazmaier, Uli; Klein, Helmut Alfons (2008). Organische Chemie: Chemie-basiswissen II
(in German) 2 (6th ed.). Springer. p. 273. ISBN 978-3540-77106-7.
[49] Organic Reactions. 2004. doi:10.1002/0471264180.
ISBN 0-471-26418-0.
[50] Hunt, Ian. Chapter 18: Enols and Enolates The
Michael Addition reaction. University of Calgary.
[52] Lechner, Manfred; Gehrke, Klaus; Nordmeier, Eckhard
(2003). Macromolecular Chemistry (3rd ed.). Basel:
Birkhuser. pp. 5365. ISBN 3-7643-6952-3.
[53] Fox, Marye Anne; Whitesell, James K. (2004). Organic
chemistry (Third ed.). Jones & Bartlett. p. 699. ISBN
0-7637-2197-2.
[54] Diels, O. .; Alder, K. . (1928). Synthesen in der
hydroaromatischen Reihe. Justus Liebigs Annalen der
Chemie 460: 98122. doi:10.1002/jlac.19284600106.
[55] Brckner, pp. 637647
[56] Woodward, R. B.; Homann, R. (1965). Stereochemistry of Electrocyclic Reactions. Journal of the American
Chemical Society 87 (2): 395. doi:10.1021/ja01080a054.
[57] Karlson, Peter; Doenecke, Detlef; Koolman, Jan; Fuchs,
Georg; Gerok, Wolfgang (2005). Karlson Biochemistry
and Pathobiochemistry (in German) (16th ed.). Thieme.
pp. 5556. ISBN 978-3-13-357815-8.
16.15. BIBLIOGRAPHY

(2006) "anabolism".
[59] Emig, Gerhard; Klemm, Elias (2005). Technical Chemistry (in German) (5th ed.). Springer. pp. 3334. ISBN
978-3-540-23452-4.
[60] Trost, B. (1991). The atom economy--a search for
synthetic eciency. Science 254 (5037): 14717.
doi:10.1126/science.1962206. PMID 1962206.
[61] Weismantel, Guy E (1999). John J. McKetta, ed.
Encyclopedia of Chemical Processing and Design: Volume
67 Water and Wastewater Treatment: Protective Coating
Systems to Zeolite 67. CRC Press. p. 109. ISBN 0-82472618-9.
[62] Atkins, p. 987
16.15 Bibliography
Atkins, Peter W. and Julio de Paula (2006). Physical Chemistry, 4th Edition. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH.
ISBN 978-3-527-31546-8.
Brock, William H. (1997). Viewegs Geschichte der
Chemie (in German). Braunschweig: Vieweg. ISBN
3-540-67033-5.
Brckner, Reinhard (2004). Reaktionsmechanismen (in German) (3rd ed.). Mnchen: Spektrum
Akademischer Verlag. ISBN 3-8274-1579-9.
Wiberg, Egon, Wiberg, Nils and Holleman, Arnold
Frederick (2001). Inorganic chemistry. Academic
Press. ISBN 0-12-352651-5.
131
Chapter 17
Law of multiple proportions

In chemistry, the law of multiple proportions is one
of the basic laws of stoichiometry used to establish the
atomic theory, alongside the law of conservation of mass
(matter) and the law of denite proportions. It is sometimes called Daltons Law after its discoverer, the British
chemist John Dalton,[1] [2] who published it in the rst
part of the rst volume of his New System of Chemical
Philosophy (1808).[3] The statement of the law is:
17.1 Limitations
The law of multiple proportions is best demonstrated using simple compounds. For example, if one tried to
demonstrate it using the hydrocarbons decane (chemical
formula C10 H22 ) and undecane (C11 H24 ), one would nd
that 100 grams of carbon could react with 18.46 grams
of hydrogen to produce decane or with 18.31 grams of
If two elements form more than one compound between hydrogen to produce undecane, for a ratio of hydrogen
them, then the ratios of the masses of the second element masses of 121:120, which is hardly a ratio of small
which combine with a xed mass of the rst element will whole numbers.
be ratios of small whole numbers.[2]
The law fails with non-stoichiometric compounds and
For example, Dalton knew that the element carbon forms also doesn't work well with polymers and oligomers.
two oxides by combining with oxygen in dierent proportions. A xed mass of carbon, say 100 grams, may
react with 133 grams of oxygen to produce one oxide, 17.2 References
or with 266 grams of oxygen to produce the other. The
ratio of the masses of oxygen that can react with 100 [1] Helmenstine, Anne. Law of Multiple Proportions Probgrams of carbon is 266:133 2:1, a ratio of small whole
lem. 1. Retrieved 31 January 2012.
numbers.[4] Dalton interpreted this result in his atomic
theory by proposing (correctly in this case) that the two [2] http://groups.molbiosci.northwestern.edu/holmgren/
Glossary/Definitions/Def-L/law_multiple_proportions.
oxides have one and two oxygen atoms respectively for
html
each carbon atom. In modern notation the rst is CO
(carbon monoxide) and the second is CO2 (carbon diox- [3] Elements and Atoms: Chapter 7 Atoms of Denite
ide).
Weight: Dalton from Classic Chemistry (Selected ClasJohn Dalton rst expressed this observation in 1804.[5] A
few years previously, the French chemist Joseph Proust
had proposed the law of denite proportions, which expressed that the elements combined to form compounds
in certain well-dened proportions, rather than mixing
in just any proportion; and Antoine Lavoisier proved the
law of conservation of mass, which helped out Dalton.[6]
Careful study of the actual numerical values of these
proportions led Dalton to propose his law of multiple
proportions.[6] This was an important step toward the
atomic theory that he would propose later that year, and
it laid the basis for chemical formulas for compounds.
Another example of the law can be seen by comparing
ethane (C2 H6 ) with propane (C3 H8 ). The weight of hydrogen which combines with 1 g carbon is 0.252 g in
ethane and 0.224 g in propane. The ratio of those weights
is 1.125, which can be expressed as the ratio of two small
numbers 9:8.
132
sic Papers from the History of Chemistry) compiled by

Carmen Giunta
[4] Petrucci R.H., Harwood R.S. and Herring F.G. General
Chemistry (8th ed., Prentice Hall 2002) p.37 ISBN 0-13014329-4
[5] http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/397165/
law-of-multiple-proportions
[6] http://www.chemtopics.com/aplab/lawmp.pdf
Chapter 18
Relative atomic mass

Atomic weight redirects here. It is not to be confused cause isotopic concentrations typically vary slightly due
with atomic mass.
to the history (origin) of the source. These values difRelative atomic mass (symbol: A) is a dimensionless ferences are real and repeatable, and can be used to identify specic samples. For example, a sample of elemental
carbon from volcanic methane will have a dierent relative atomic mass (atomic weight) than one collected from
plant or animal tissues (for more, see isotope geochemistry). In short, the atomic weight (relative atomic mass)
of carbon varies slightly from place to place and from
source to source, a fact that can be useful. However, a
typical (standard) gure also can be useful, as follows.
The atomic number of hydrogen is 1. The standard atomic

weight of hydrogen is 1.008 (this value is not given here as an
expectation interval, as it is in elements below). Atomic weight is
the same as relative atomic mass. The atomic weights of samples of hydrogen will vary according to their content of heavy
hydrogen (deuterium), and this will in turn depend upon where
the samples are collected.
Both the terms relative atomic mass and atomic weight

are sometimes loosely used to refer to a technically different standardized expectation value, called the standard atomic weight. This value is the mean value of
atomic weights of a number of normal samples of the
element in question. For this denition, "[a] normal sample is any reasonably possible source of the element or
its compounds in commerce for industry and science and
has not been subject to signicant modication of isotopic composition within a geologically brief period.[3]
These standard atomic weights are published at regular
intervals by the Commission on Isotopic Abundances and
Atomic Weights of the International Union of Pure and
Applied Chemistry (IUPAC)[4][5] The standard values
are intended as mean values that compensate for small
variances in the isotopic composition of the chemical
elements across a range of ordinary samples on Earth,
and thus to be applicable to normal laboratory materials. However, they may not accurately reect values from
samples from unusual locations or extraterrestrial objects,
which often have more widely variant isotopic compositions.
physical quantity, the ratio of the average mass of atoms

of an element (from a single given sample or source) to
1
12 of the mass of an atom of carbon-12 (known as the
unied atomic mass unit).[1][2] The relative atomic mass
is a statistical term, referring to an abundance-weighted
gure involving measurement of many atoms. As in all
related terms, the word relative refers to making the
gure relative to carbon-12, so that the nal gure is di- The standard atomic weights are reprinted in a wide variety of textbooks, commercial catalogues, Periodic Tamensionless.
ble wall charts etc., and in the table below. They are what
The term relative atomic mass is exactly equivalent to chemists loosely call atomic weights.
atomic weight, which is the older term. In technical usage, these values are sample-specic (i.e., element The continued use of the term atomic weight (of any
source-specic) when a natural element source is com- element), as opposed to relative atomic mass has atposed of more than one isotope. Thus, two samples of a tracted considerable controversy, since at least the 1960s,
dierence between weight
chemical element which is naturally found as being com- mainly due to the technical
[6]
(see
below).
Both terms are ofand
mass
in
physics.
posed of more than one isotope, collected from two subcially
sanctioned
by
IUPAC.
The
term
relative atomic
stantially dierent sources, are expected to give slightly
mass
now
seems
to
be
gaining
as
the
preferred
term over
dierent relative atomic masses (atomic weights), be133
134
atomic weight, although in the case of "standard atomic
weight, this shorter term (as opposed to standard relative atomic mass) continues to be preferred.
18.1 Denition (and closely related

term)
CHAPTER 18. RELATIVE ATOMIC MASS

expectation interval may therefore be included in
sources of standard atomic weights (see example in
illustration immediately above). This uncertainty
reects natural variability in isotopic distribution for
an element, rather than uncertainty in measurement
(which is much smaller with quality instruments).[9]
Although there is an attempt to cover the range of variability on Earth with standard atomic weight gures, there
are known cases of mineral samples which contain elements with atomic weights that are outliers from the standard atomic weight range.[10]
Lithium represents a unique case where the natural abundances of the isotopes have in some cases been found to
have been perturbed by human isotopic separation activities to the point of aecting the uncertainty in its stanExcerpt of the IUPAC Periodic Table of the Elements showing dard atomic weight, even in samples obtained from natuthe interval notation of the standard atomic weights of boron, ral sources, such as rivers.
carbon, and nitrogen (Chemistry International, IUPAC). Example: the pie chart for boron shows it to be composed of about
20% 10 B and 80% 11 B. This isotope mix causes the standard
atomic weight of ordinary Earthly boron samples to be expected
to fall within the interval 10.806 to 10.821. Boron samples from
unusual sources, particularly non-terrestrial sources, might have
measured atomic weights that fall outside this range. Atomic
weight and relative atomic mass are synonyms.
For synthetic elements the isotope formed depends on

the means of synthesis, so the concept of natural isotope abundance has no meaning. Therefore, for synthetic
elements the total nucleon count of the most stable isotope (i.e., the isotope with the longest half-life) is listed
in brackets, in place of the standard atomic weight.
When the term atomic weight is used in chemistry, usually it is the more specic standard atomic weight that is
Relative atomic mass (not to be confused with implied. It is standard atomic weights that are used in
relative isotopic mass) is a synonym for atomic periodic tables and many standard references in ordinary
weight, and in some circumstances may even be syn- terrestrial chemistry.
onymous with standard atomic weight (depending
on the sample, see below). It is an average atomic
18.1.1 Current denition
mass, or the weighted mean of the atomic masses
of all the atoms of a particular chemical element
Prevailing IUPAC denitions taken from the "Gold
found in a particular sample, which is then stanBook" are
[7]
dardized by comparison to carbon-12. Relative
atomic mass is frequently used as a synonym for
atomic weight See: relative atomic mass[11]
the standard atomic weight and it is correct to do
so if the relative atomic mass used is that for an element from Earth under dened conditions. How- and
ever, relative atomic mass covers more than standard
atomic weights, and is a less specic term that may
relative atomic mass (atomic weight) The ramore broadly refer to non-terrestrial environments
tio of the average mass of the atom to the uniand highly specic terrestrial environments that deed atomic mass unit.[12]
viate from Earth-average or have dierent certainties (number of signicant gures) than do the stanHere the unied atomic mass unit refers to 1 12 of the
dard atomic weights.
mass of an atom of 12 C in its ground state.[13]
Standard atomic weight refers to the expected The IUPAC denition[1] of relative atomic mass is:
relative atomic mass or atomic weight of an element sample in the local environment of the Earths
An atomic weight (relative atomic mass) of
crust and atmosphere as determined by the IUPAC
an
element
from a specied source is the ratio
Commission on Atomic Weights and Isotopic Abun[8]
of
the
average
mass per atom of the element to
dances. Because these standard atomic weights
1/12
of
the
mass
of an atom of 12 C.
are an average (mean) of relative isotopic masses
for a given element from dierent sources (places
on Earth), standard atomic weights are subject to The denition deliberately species "An atomic
natural variation. An uncertainty in brackets or an weight", as an element will have dierent relative
18.4. DETERMINATION OF RELATIVE ATOMIC MASS
135
atomic masses depending on the source. For example,

boron from Turkey has a lower relative atomic mass
than boron from California, because of its dierent
isotopic composition.[14][15] Nevertheless, given the cost
and diculty of isotope analysis, it is usual to use the
tabulated values of standard atomic weights which are
ubiquitous in chemical laboratories.
it is not uncommon to have misleading names of

physical quantities which are retained for historical
reasons, such as
18.1.2
Historical amu
Older (pre-1961) historical relative scales (based on the

atomic mass unit, or a.m.u., or amu) used either the
oxygen-16 relative isotopic mass for reference, or else
the oxygen relative atomic mass (i.e., atomic weight) for
reference. See the article on the history of the modern
unied atomic mass unit for the resolution of these problems in 1961.
18.2 Diering terms referring to

the mass of single atoms
electromotive force, which is not a force

resolving power, which is not a power quantity
molar concentration, which is not a molar
quantity (a quantity expressed per unit amount
of substance).
It could be added that atomic weight is often not truly
atomic either, as it does not correspond to the property of any individual atom. The same argument could be
made against relative atomic mass used in this sense.
18.4 Determination
atomic mass
of
relative
Main article: Isotope geochemistry
Modern relative atomic masses (a term specic to a given

element sample) are calculated from measured values of
atomic mass (for each nuclide) and isotopic composition of a sample. Highly accurate atomic masses are
available[17][18] for virtually all non-radioactive nuclides,
but isotopic compositions are both harder to measure
to high precision and more subject to variation between
samples.[19][20] For this reason, the relative atomic masses
of the 22 mononuclidic elements (which are the same as
the isotopic masses for each of the single naturally occurring nuclides of these elements) are known to especially
18.3 Naming controversy
high accuracy. For example, there is an uncertainty of
only one part in 38 million for the relative atomic mass
The use of the name atomic weight has attracted a great of uorine, a precision which is greater than the current
deal of controversy among scientists.[6] Objectors to the best value for the Avogadro constant (one part in 20 milname usually prefer the term relative atomic mass (not lion).
to be confused with atomic mass). The basic objection is The calculation is exemplied for silicon, whose relative
that atomic weight is not a weight, that is the force exerted atomic mass is especially important in metrology. Silicon
on an object in a gravitational eld, measured in units of exists in nature as a mixture of three isotopes: 28 Si, 29 Si
force such as the newton or poundal.
and 30 Si. The atomic masses of these nuclides are known
28
In reply, supporters of the term atomic weight point out to a precision of one part in 14 billion for Si and about
one part in one billion for the others. However the range
(among other arguments)[6] that
of natural abundance for the isotopes is such that the stan the name has been in continuous use for the same dard abundance can only be given to about 0.001% (see
quantity since it was rst conceptualized in 1808;[16] table). The calculation is
Relative isotopic mass is a similar-sounding term
which refers to a quite dierent quantity, specically the ratio of the mass of a single atom to the
mass of a unied atomic mass unit, expressed as a
dimensionless number. The relative isotopic mass
(of single atoms, etc.) is discussed in the article on
atomic mass, with which it is synonymous, save for
choice of mass units.
for most of that time, atomic weights really were

measured by weighing (that is by gravimetric analysis) and that the name of a physical quantity should
not change simply because the method of its determination has changed;
A(Si) = (27.97693 0.922297) + (28.97649

0.046832) + (29.97377 0.030872) =
28.0854
The estimation of the uncertainty is complicated,[21] es the term relative atomic mass should be reserved pecially as the sample distribution is not necessarily symfor the mass of a specic nuclide (or isotope), while metrical: the IUPAC standard relative atomic masses are
atomic weight" be used for the weighted mean of quoted with estimated symmetrical uncertainties,[22] and
the atomic masses over all the atoms in the sample; the value for silicon is 28.0855(3). The relative standard
136
uncertainty in this value is 1105 or 10 ppm. To further
reect this natural variability, in 2010, IUPAC made the
decision to list the relative atomic masses of 10 elements
as an interval rather than a xed number.[23]
18.5 Periodic table with relative

atomic masses
18.6 See also
International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry
(IUPAC)
Commission on Isotopic Abundances and Atomic
Weights
18.7 References
CHAPTER 18. RELATIVE ATOMIC MASS
[9] ATOMIC WEIGHTS OF THE ELEMENTS 2005 (IUPAC TECHNICAL REPORT), M. E. WIESER Pure
Appl. Chem., V.78, pp. 2051, 2006
[10] Denition of standard atomic weights: Recommended
values of relative atomic masses of the elements revised
biennially by the IUPAC Commission on Atomic Weights
and Isotopic Abundances and applicable to elements in
any normal sample with a high level of condence. A
normal sample is any reasonably possible source of the
element or its compounds in commerce for industry and
science and has not been subject to signicant modication of isotopic composition within a geologically brief
period.
[11] IUPAC Gold Book - atomic weight
[12] IUPAC Gold Book - relative atomic mass (atomic weight),
Ar
[13] IUPAC Gold Book - unied atomic mass unit
[14] Greenwood, Norman N.; Earnshaw, Alan (1984).
Chemistry of the Elements. Oxford: Pergamon Press. pp.
21, 160. ISBN 0-08-022057-6.
[1] International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (1980).

Atomic Weights of the Elements
1979. Pure Appl. Chem. 52 (10): 234984.
doi:10.1351/pac198052102349.
[15] International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry

(2003). Atomic Weights of the Elements: Review
2000.
Pure Appl.
Chem.
75 (6): 683800.
doi:10.1351/pac200375060683.
[2] International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry

(1993). Quantities, Units and Symbols in Physical Chemistry, 2nd edition, Oxford: Blackwell Science. ISBN 0632-03583-8. p. 41. Electronic version.
[16] Dalton, John (1808). A New System of Chemical Philosophy. Manchester.

[17] National Institute of Standards and Technology. Atomic
Weights and Isotopic Compositions for All Elements.
[3] Denition of element sample

[4] The latest edition is International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (2006). Atomic Weights of the Elements 2005. Pure Appl. Chem. 78 (11): 205166.
doi:10.1351/pac200678112051.
[5] The updated list of standard atomic weights is expected to be formally published in late 2008. The IUPAC(International Union Of Pure And Applied Chemistry) Commission on Isotopic Abundances and Atomic
Weights announced in August 2007 that the standard
atomic weights of the following elements would be revised (new gures quoted here): lutetium 174.9668(1);
molybdenum 95.96(2); nickel 58.6934(4); ytterbium
173.054(5); zinc 65.38(2). The recommended value for
the isotope amount ratio of 40 Ar/36 Ar (which could be
useful as a control measurement in argonargon dating)
was also changed from 296.03(53) to 298.56(31).
[6] de Bivre, P.; Peiser, H. S. (1992).
"'Atomic
Weight'The Name, Its History, Denition, and
Units. Pure Appl. Chem. 64 (10): 153543.
doi:10.1351/pac199264101535.
(2006) "relative atomic mass".
[8] IUPAC Denition of Standard Atomic Weight
[18] Wapstra, A.H.; Audi, G.; Thibault, C. (2003), The

AME2003 Atomic Mass Evaluation (Online ed.), National
Nuclear Data Center. Based on:
Wapstra, A.H.; Audi, G.; Thibault, C.
(2003), The AME2003 atomic mass evaluation (I)", Nuclear Physics A 729: 129
336,
Bibcode:2003NuPhA.729..129W,
doi:10.1016/j.nuclphysa.2003.11.002
Audi, G.; Wapstra, A.H.; Thibault, C.
(2003),
The AME2003 atomic mass
evaluation (II)", Nuclear Physics A 729:
337676,
Bibcode:2003NuPhA.729..337A,
doi:10.1016/j.nuclphysa.2003.11.003
[19] Rosman, K. J. R.; Taylor, P. D. P. (1998), Isotopic
Compositions of the Elements 1997 (PDF),
Pure and Applied Chemistry 70 (1):
21735,
doi:10.1351/pac199870010217
[20] Coplen, T. B. et al.
(2002), Isotopic Abundance Variations of Selected Elements (PDF),
Pure and Applied Chemistry 74 (10): 19872017,
doi:10.1351/pac200274101987
[21] Meija, Juris; Mester, Zoltn (2008). Uncertainty
propagation of atomic weight measurement results.
Metrologia 45: 5362. Bibcode:2008Metro..45...53M.
doi:10.1088/0026-1394/45/1/008.
[22] Holden, Norman E. (2004). Atomic Weights and the

International CommitteeA Historical Review. Chemistry International 26 (1): 47.
[23] IUPAC - International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry: Atomic Weights of Ten Chemical Elements About
to Change
18.8 External links

IUPAC Commission on Isotopic Abundances and
Atomic Weights
NIST relative atomic masses of all isotopes and the
standard atomic weights of the elements
Atomic Weights of the Elements 2011
137
Chapter 19
Arsenic
Arsenic is a chemical element with symbol As and
atomic number 33. Arsenic occurs in many minerals,
usually in conjunction with sulfur and metals, and also
as a pure elemental crystal. Arsenic is a metalloid. It can
exist in various allotropes, although only the gray form
has important use in industry.
The main use of metallic arsenic is for strengthening alloys of copper and especially lead (for example, in car batteries). Arsenic is a common n-type
dopant in semiconductor electronic devices, and the
optoelectronic compound gallium arsenide is the most
common semiconductor in use after doped silicon. Arsenic and its compounds, especially the trioxide, are used
in the production of pesticides, treated wood products,
herbicides, and insecticides. These applications are de- Crystal structure common to Sb, AsSb and gray As
clining, however.[6]
A few species of bacteria are able to use arsenic compounds as respiratory metabolites. Trace quantities of
arsenic are an essential dietary element in rats, hamsters,
goats, chickens, and presumably many other species, including humans. However, arsenic poisoning occurs in
multicellular life if quantities are larger than needed.
Arsenic contamination of groundwater is a problem that
aects millions of people across the world.
19.1 Characteristics
19.1.1
Physical characteristics
The three most common arsenic allotropes are metallic gray, yellow, and black arsenic, with gray being the
most common.[7] Gray arsenic (-As, space group R3m
No. 166) adopts a double-layered structure consisting of
many interlocked, rued, six-membered rings. Because
of weak bonding between the layers, gray arsenic is brittle and has a relatively low Mohs hardness of 3.5. Nearest and next-nearest neighbors form a distorted octahedral complex, with the three atoms in the same doublelayer being slightly closer than the three atoms in the
next.[8] This relatively close packing leads to a high density of 5.73 g/cm3 .[9] Gray arsenic is a semimetal, but becomes a semiconductor with a bandgap of 1.21.4 eV if
amorphized.[10] Gray arsenic is also the most stable form.
Yellow arsenic is soft and waxy, and somewhat similar to

tetraphosphorus (P
4). Both have four atoms arranged in a tetrahedral structure in which each atom is bound to each of the other
three atoms by a single bond. This unstable allotrope, being molecular, is the most volatile, least dense, and most
toxic. Solid yellow arsenic is produced by rapid cooling
of arsenic vapor, As
4. It is rapidly transformed into gray arsenic by light. The
yellow form has a density of 1.97 g/cm3 .[9] Black arsenic
is similar in structure to red phosphorus.[9] Black arsenic
can also be formed by cooling vapor at around 100220
C. It is glassy and brittle. It is also a poor electrical
conductor.[11]
19.1.2 Isotopes
Main article: Isotopes of arsenic
Arsenic occurs in nature as a monoisotopic element, composed of one stable isotope, 75 As.[12] As of 2003, at least
33 radioisotopes have also been synthesized, ranging in
atomic mass from 60 to 92. The most stable of these
is 73 As with a half-life of 80.30 days. All other isotopes have half-lives of under one day, with the exception of 71 As (t/=65.30 hours), 72 As (t/=26.0 hours),
74
As (t/=17.77 days), 76 As (t/=1.0942 days), and
138
19.3. OCCURRENCE AND PRODUCTION
139
77
As (t/=38.83 hours). Isotopes that are lighter than the phosphoric acid. Unlike phosphorous acid, arsenous acid
stable 75 As tend to decay by + decay, and those that are is genuinely tribasic, with the formula As(OH)3 .
heavier tend to decay by decay, with some exceptions. A broad variety of sulfur compounds of arsenic are
At least 10 nuclear isomers have been described, rang- known. Orpiment (As2 S3 ) and realgar (As4 S4 ) are someing in atomic mass from 66 to 84. The most stable what abundant and were formerly used as painting pigof arsenics isomers is 68m As with a half-life of 111 ments. In As4 S10 , arsenic has a formal oxidation state of
seconds.[12]
+2 in As4 S4 which features As-As bonds so that the total
covalency of As is still 3.[15]
All trihalides of arsenic(III) are well known except the astatide which is unknown. Arsenic pentauoride (AsF5 ) is
the only important pentahalide, reecting the lower staWhen heated in air, arsenic oxidizes to arsenic trioxide; bility of the 5+ oxidation state. (pentachloride is stable
the fumes from this reaction have an odor resembling only below 50 C.[9] )
garlic. This odor can be detected on striking arsenide
minerals such as arsenopyrite with a hammer. Arsenic
(and some arsenic compounds) sublimes upon heating at Alloys
atmospheric pressure, converting directly to a gaseous
form without an intervening liquid state at 887 K (614 Arsenic is used as the group 5 element in the III-V
C).[2] The triple point is 3.63 MPa and 1,090 K (820 semiconductors gallium arsenide, indium arsenide, and
[16]
The valence electron count of
C).[9][2] Arsenic makes arsenic acid with concentrated aluminium arsenide.
GaAs
is
the
same
as
a
pair
of Si atoms, but the band strucnitric acid, arsenious acid with dilute nitric acid, and
[13]
ture
is
completely
dierent
which results distinct bulk
arsenic trioxide with concentrated sulfuric acid.
properties.[17] Other arsenic alloys include the II-V semiconductor cadmium arsenide.[18]
19.1.3
Chemistry
19.2 Compounds
See also: Category:Arsenic compounds.
19.2.2 Organoarsenic compounds

Main article: Organoarsenic chemistry
A large variety of organoarsenic compounds are known.
Arsenic compounds resemble in some respects those of

phosphorus which occupies the same group (column) of
the periodic table. Arsenic is less commonly observed
in the pentavalent state, however. The most common
oxidation states for arsenic are: 3 in the arsenides,
such as alloy-like intermetallic compounds; and +3 in the
arsenites, arsenates(III), and most organoarsenic compounds. Arsenic also bonds readily to itself as seen in
the square As3
4 ions in the mineral skutterudite.[14] In the +3 oxidation
state, arsenic is typically pyramidal owing to the inuence
of the lone pair of electrons.[7]
Trimethylarsine
Several were developed as chemical warfare agents during World War I, including vesicants such as lewisite and
vomiting agents such as adamsite.[19][20][21] Cacodylic
Arsenic forms colorless, odorless, crystalline oxides acid, which is of historic and practical interest, arises
As2 O3 ("white arsenic") and As2 O5 which are from the methylation of arsenic trioxide, a reaction that
hygroscopic and readily soluble in water to form has no analogy in phosphorus chemistry.
acidic solutions. Arsenic(V) acid is a weak acid. Its
salts are called arsenates which are the basis of arsenic
contamination of groundwater, a problem that aects 19.3 Occurrence and production
many people. Synthetic arsenates include Paris Green
(copper(II) acetoarsenite), calcium arsenate, and lead See also: Arsenide minerals and Arsenate minerals
hydrogen arsenate. These three have been used as Arsenic makes up about 1.5 ppm (0.00015%) of the
agricultural insecticides and poisons.
Earths crust, making it the 53rd most abundant element.
19.2.1
Inorganic compounds
The protonation steps between the arsenate and ar- Soil contains 110 ppm of arsenic. Seawater has only 1.6
senic acid are similar to those between phosphate and ppb arsenic.[22]
140
CHAPTER 19. ARSENIC
Realgar
A large sample of native arsenic
Minerals with the formula MAsS and MAs2 (M = Fe, Ni,

Co) are the dominant commercial sources of arsenic, together with realgar (an arsenic sulde mineral) and native
arsenic. An illustrative mineral is arsenopyrite (FeAsS),
which is structurally related to iron pyrite. Many minor
As-containing minerals are known. Arsenic also occurs
in various organic forms in the environment.[23]
Alchemical symbol for arsenic
100%
90%
80%
19.4 History
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
5%
2.5%
Arsenic output in 2006[24]
In 2005, China was the top producer of white arsenic with

almost 50% world share, followed by Chile, Peru, and
Morocco, according to the British Geological Survey and
the United States Geological Survey.[24] Most operations
in the US and Europe have closed for environmental reasons. The arsenic is recovered mainly as a side product
from the purication of copper. Arsenic is part of the
smelter dust from copper, gold, and lead smelters.[25]
The word arsenic has its origin in the Syriac word

(al) zarniqa,[28] from the Persian word
zarnikh, meaning yellow (literally gold-colored) and
hence "(yellow) orpiment". It was adopted into Greek
as arsenikon (), a form that is folk etymology, being the neuter form of the Greek word arsenikos (), meaning male, virile. The
Greek word was adopted in Latin as arsenicum, which
in French became arsenic, from which the English word
arsenic is taken.[28] Arsenic suldes (orpiment, realgar)
and oxides have been known and used since ancient
times.[29] Zosimos (circa 300 AD) describes roasting sandarach (realgar) to obtain cloud of arsenic (arsenic trioxide), which he then reduces to metallic arsenic.[30] As
the symptoms of arsenic poisoning were somewhat illdened, it was frequently used for murder until the advent of the Marsh test, a sensitive chemical test for its
presence. (Another less sensitive but more general test is
the Reinsch test.) Owing to its use by the ruling class to
murder one another and its potency and discreetness, arsenic has been called the poison of kings and the king
of poisons.[31]
On roasting in air of arsenopyrite, arsenic sublimes as

arsenic(III) oxide leaving iron oxides,[23] while roasting
without air results in the production of metallic arsenic.
Further purication from sulfur and other chalcogens is
achieved by sublimation in vacuum or in a hydrogen
atmosphere or by distillation from molten lead-arsenic
During the Bronze Age, arsenic was often included in
mixture.[26]
19.5. APPLICATIONS
141
women to improve the complexion of their faces, making
their skin paler to show they did not work in the elds. Arsenic was also rubbed into the faces and arms of women
to improve their complexion. The accidental use of arsenic in the adulteration of foodstus led to the Bradford sweet poisoning in 1858, which resulted in around
20 deaths.[37]
The arsenic labyrinth, part of Botallack Mine, Cornwall.
bronze, which made the alloy harder (so-called "arsenical

bronze").[32][33] Albertus Magnus (Albert the Great,
11931280) is believed to have been the rst to isolate the element from a compound in 1250, by heating
soap together with arsenic trisulde.[34] In 1649, Johann
Schrder published two ways of preparing arsenic.[35]
Crystals of elemental (native) arsenic are found in nature,
although rare.
Two pigments based on arsenic have been widely used

since their discovery Paris Green and Scheeles Green.
After arsenics toxicity became widely known, they were
less often used as pigments, so these compounds were
more often used as insecticides. In the 1860s, an arsenic
byproduct of dye production, London Purple a solid
consisting of a mixture of arsenic trioxide, aniline, lime,
and ferrous oxide, which is insoluble in water and very
toxic by inhalation and ingestion[38] was widely used,
but Paris Green, another arsenic-based dye, was later
substituted for it.[39] With better understanding of the
toxicology mechanism, two other compounds were used
starting in the 1890s.[40] Arsenite of lime and arsenate of
lead were used widely as insecticides until the discovery
of DDT in 1942.[41][42][43]
Cadets fuming liquid (impure cacodyl), often claimed as 19.5

the rst synthetic organometallic compound, was synthesized in 1760 by Louis Claude Cadet de Gassicourt by the
19.5.1
reaction of potassium acetate with arsenic trioxide.[36]
Applications
Agricultural
Roxarsone is a controversial arsenic compound used as a feed

ingredient for chickens.
Satirical cartoon by Honor Daumier of a chemist giving a public
demonstration of arsenic, 1841
The toxicity of arsenic to insects, bacteria, and fungi led

to its use as a wood preservative.[44] In the 1950s, a proIn the Victorian era, arsenic (white arsenic or arsenic cess of treating wood with chromated copper arsenate
trioxide) was mixed with vinegar and chalk and eaten by (also known as CCA or Tanalith) was invented, and for
142
CHAPTER 19. ARSENIC
decades, this treatment was the most extensive industrial

use of arsenic. An increased appreciation of the toxicity of arsenic resulted in a ban for the use of CCA
in consumer products; the European Union and United
States initiated this process in 2004.[45][46] CCA remains
in heavy use in other countries, however, e.g. Malaysian
rubber plantations.[6]
Arsenic was also used in various agricultural insecticides
and poisons. For example, lead hydrogen arsenate was a
common insecticide on fruit trees,[47] but contact with the
compound sometimes resulted in brain damage among
those working the sprayers. In the second half of the
20th century, monosodium methyl arsenate (MSMA) and
disodium methyl arsenate (DSMA) less- toxic organic
forms of arsenic have replaced lead arsenate in agriculture. With the exception of cotton farming, the use of the
organic arsenicals was phased out until 2013.[48]
Arsenic is used as a feed additive in poultry and
swine production, in particular in the U.S. to increase
weight gain, improve feed eciency, and to prevent
disease.[49][50] An example is roxarsone, which had been
used as a broiler starter by about 70% of U.S. broiler
growers.[51] The Poison-Free Poultry Act of 2009 proposed to ban the use of roxarsone in industrial swine and
poultry production.[52] Alpharma, a subsidiary of Pzer
Inc., which produces roxarsone, voluntarily suspended
sales of the drug in response to studies showing elevated levels of inorganic arsenic, a carcinogen, in treated
chickens.[53] A successor to Alpharma, Zoetis, continues
to sell nitarsone, primarily for use in turkeys.[53]
19.5.2
Medical use
During the 18th, 19th, and 20th centuries, a number of arsenic compounds were used as medicines, including arsphenamine (by Paul Ehrlich) and arsenic
trioxide (by Thomas Fowler).[54] Arsphenamine, as
well as neosalvarsan, was indicated for syphilis and
trypanosomiasis, but has been superseded by modern
antibiotics.
Arsenic trioxide has been used in a variety of ways over
the past 500 years, most commonly in the treatment of
cancer, but in medications as diverse as Fowlers solution
in psoriasis.[55] The US Food and Drug Administration
in the year 2000 approved this compound for the treatment of patients with acute promyelocytic leukemia that
is resistant to all-trans retinoic acid.[56]
Recently, new research has been done in locating tumors using arsenic-74 (a positron emitter). The advantages of using this isotope instead of the previously used
iodine124 is that the signal in the PET scan is clearer
as the body tends to transport iodine to the thyroid gland
producing signal noise.[57]
In subtoxic doses, soluble arsenic compounds act as
stimulants, and were once popular in small doses as
medicine by people in the mid-18th to 19th centuries.[9]
19.5.3 Alloys
The main use of metallic arsenic is in alloying with lead.
Lead components in car batteries are strengthened by
the presence of a very small percentage of arsenic.[6][58]
Dezincication can be strongly reduced by adding arsenic
to brass, a copper-zinc alloy.[59] Phosphorus Deoxidized
Arsenical Copper with an arsenic content of 0.3% has an
increased corrosion stability in certain environments.[60]
Gallium arsenide is an important semiconductor material,
used in integrated circuits. Circuits made from GaAs are
much faster (but also much more expensive) than those
made in silicon. Unlike silicon, it has a direct bandgap,
so can be used in laser diodes and LEDs to directly convert electricity into light.[6]
19.5.4 Military
After World War I, the United States built up a stockpile of 20,000 tonnes of lewisite (ClCH=CHAsCl2 ), a
chemical weapon that is a vesicant (blister agent) and lung
irritant. The stockpile was neutralized with bleach and
dumped into the Gulf of Mexico after the 1950s.[61] During the Vietnam War, the United States used Agent Blue,
a mixture of sodium cacodylate and its acid form, as one
of the rainbow herbicides to deprive invading North Vietnamese soldiers of foliage cover and rice.[62][63]
19.5.5 Other uses

Copper acetoarsenite was used as a green pigment
known under many names, including Paris Green
and Emerald Green. It caused numerous arsenic
poisonings. Scheeles Green, a copper arsenate,
was used in the 19th century as a coloring agent in
sweets.[64]
In bronzing[65] and pyrotechnics
Up to 2% of arsenic is used in lead alloys for lead
shot and bullets.[66]
Arsenic is added in small quantities to alpha-brass to
make it dezincication-resistant. This grade of brass
is used to make plumbing ttings or other items that
are in constant contact with water.[67]
Arsenic is also used for taxonomic sample preservation.
Until recently, arsenic was used in optical glass.
Modern glass manufacturers, under pressure from
environmentalists, have removed it, along with
lead.[68]
19.8. ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
19.6 Biological role

Main article: Arsenic biochemistry
19.6.1
Bacteria
143
19.7.1 Heredity
Arsenic has been linked to epigenetic changes, heritable
changes in gene expression that occur without changes
in DNA sequence. These include DNA methylation, histone modication, and RNA interference. Toxic levels
of arsenic cause signicant DNA hypermethylation of tumor suppressor genes p16 and p53, thus increasing risk of
carcinogenesis. These epigenetic events have been studied in vitro using human kidney cells and in vivo using rat
liver cells and peripheral blood leukocytes in humans.[75]
Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS)
is used to detect precise levels of intracellular arsenic
and its other bases involved in epigenetic modication of
DNA.[76] Studies investigating arsenic as an epigenetic
factor will help in developing precise biomarkers of exposure and susceptibility.
The Chinese brake fern (Pteris vittata) hyperaccumulates
arsenic present in the soil into its leaves and has a proposed use in phytoremediation.[77]
Arsenobetaine
Some species of bacteria obtain their energy by oxidizing

various fuels while reducing arsenate to arsenite. Under oxidative environmental conditions some bacteria
use arsenite, which is oxidized to arsenate as fuel for
their metabolism.[69] The enzymes involved are known as
arsenate reductases (Arr).[70]
19.7.2 Biomethylation
Inorganic arsenic and its compounds, upon entering
the food chain, are progressively metabolized through
a process of methylation.[78][79] For example, the mold
Scopulariopsis brevicaulis produces signicant amounts
of trimethylarsine if inorganic arsenic is present.[80] The
organic compound arsenobetaine is found in some marine foods such as sh and algae, and also in mushrooms
in larger concentrations. The average persons intake is
about 1050 g/day. Values about 1000 g are not unusual following consumption of sh or mushrooms, but
there is little danger in eating sh because this arsenic
compound is nearly non-toxic.[81]
In 2008, bacteria were discovered that employ a version

of photosynthesis in the absence of oxygen with arsenites as electron donors, producing arsenates (just as ordinary photosynthesis uses water as electron donor, producing molecular oxygen). Researchers conjecture that,
over the course of history, these photosynthesizing organisms produced the arsenates that allowed the arsenatereducing bacteria to thrive. One strain PHS-1 has been 19.8 Environmental issues
isolated and is related to the gammaproteobacterium
Ectothiorhodospira shaposhnikovii. The mechanism is
19.8.1 Exposure
unknown, but an encoded Arr enzyme may function in
reverse to its known homologues.[71]
Other naturally occurring pathways of exposure include
Although the arsenate and phosphate anions are similar volcanic ash, weathering of arsenic-containing minerals
structurally, no evidence exists for the replacement of and ores, and dissolved in groundwater. It is also found
phosphate in ATP or nucleic acids by arsenic.[72][73]
in food, water, soil, and air.[82] Arsenic is absorbed by
all plants, but is more concentrated in leafy vegetables,
rice, apple and grape juice, and seafood.[83] An additional
route of exposure is through inhalation.[84]
19.7 Essential trace element in

higher animals
19.8.2 Occurrence in drinking water
There is evidence for the essentiality of arsenic as a trace Main article: Arsenic contamination of groundwater
mineral in birds (chickens), and in mammals (rats, hamsters, and goats). However, the biological mechanism for Extensive arsenic contamination of groundwater has led
its essential function is not known.[74]
to widespread arsenic poisoning in Bangladesh[85] and
144
neighboring countries. It is estimated that approximately 57 million people in the Bengal basin are drinking
groundwater with arsenic concentrations elevated above
the World Health Organization's standard of 10 parts
per billion (ppb).[86] However, a study of cancer rates in
Taiwan[87] suggested that signicant increases in cancer
mortality appear only at levels above 150 ppb. The arsenic in the groundwater is of natural origin, and is released from the sediment into the groundwater, owing to
the anoxic conditions of the subsurface. This groundwater began to be used after local and western NGOs and
the Bangladeshi government undertook a massive shallow tube well drinking-water program in the late twentieth century. This program was designed to prevent drinking of bacteria-contaminated surface waters, but failed to
test for arsenic in the groundwater. Many other countries and districts in Southeast Asia, such as Vietnam
and Cambodia have geological environments conducive
to generation of high-arsenic groundwaters. Arsenicosis
was reported in Nakhon Si Thammarat, Thailand in 1987,
and the Chao Phraya River is suspected of containing
high levels of naturally occurring dissolved arsenic, but
has not been a public health problem owing to the use of
bottled water.[88]
In the United States, arsenic is most commonly found in
the ground waters of the southwest.[89] Parts of New England, Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota and the Dakotas
are also known to have signicant concentrations of arsenic in ground water.[90] Increased levels of skin cancer
have been associated with arsenic exposure in Wisconsin,
even at levels below the 10 part per billion drinking water standard.[91] According to a recent lm funded by the
US Superfund, millions of private wells have unknown
arsenic levels, and in some areas of the US, over 20% of
wells may contain levels that exceed established limits.[92]
Low-level exposure to arsenic at concentrations of 100
parts per billion (i.e., above the 10 parts per billion
drinking water standard) compromises the initial immune
response to H1N1 or swine u infection according to
NIEHS-supported scientists. The study, conducted in
laboratory mice, suggests that people exposed to arsenic
in their drinking water may be at increased risk for more
serious illness or death in response to infection from the
virus.[93]
CHAPTER 19. ARSENIC

factors, such as cigarette smoking, are present. These effects have been demonstrated to persist below 50 ppb.[95]
Analyzing multiple epidemiological studies on inorganic
arsenic exposure suggests a small but measurable risk increase for bladder cancer at 10 ppb.[96] According to Peter Ravenscroft of the Department of Geography at the
University of Cambridge,[97] roughly 80 million people
worldwide consume between 10 and 50 ppb arsenic in
their drinking water. If they all consumed exactly 10 ppb
arsenic in their drinking water, the previously cited multiple epidemiological study analysis would predict an additional 2,000 cases of bladder cancer alone. This represents a clear underestimate of the overall impact, since
it does not include lung or skin cancer, and explicitly underestimates the exposure. Those exposed to levels of arsenic above the current WHO standard should weigh the
costs and benets of arsenic remediation.
Early (1973) evaluations of the removal of dissolved
arsenic by drinking water treatment processes demonstrated that arsenic is very eectively removed by coprecipitation with either iron or aluminum oxides. The
use of iron as a coagulant, in particular, was found to
remove arsenic with eciencies exceeding 90%.[98][99]
Several adsorptive media systems have been approved
for point-of-service use in a study funded by the United
States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) and
the National Science Foundation (NSF). A team of European and Indian scientists and engineers have set up
six arsenic treatment plants in West Bengal based on insitu remediation method (SAR Technology). This technology does not use any chemicals and arsenic is left as
an insoluble form (+5 state) in the subterranean zone by
recharging aerated water into the aquifer and thus developing an oxidation zone to support arsenic oxidizing
micro-organisms. This process does not produce any
waste stream or sludge and is relatively cheap.[100]
Another eective and inexpensive method to remove arsenic from contaminated well water is to sink wells 500
feet or deeper to reach purer waters. A recent 2011 study
funded by the US National Institute of Environmental
Health Sciences Superfund Research Program shows that
deep sediments can remove arsenic and take it out of circulation. Through this process called adsorption in which
arsenic sticks to the surfaces of deep sediment particles,
Some Canadians are drinking water that contains inor- arsenic can be naturally removed from well water.[101]
ganic arsenic. Private dug well waters are most at risk Magnetic separations of arsenic at very low magnetic eld
for containing inorganic arsenic. Preliminary well water
gradients have been demonstrated in point-of-use waanalyses typically does not test for arsenic. Researchers ter purication with high-surface-area and monodisperse
at the Geological Survey of Canada have modelled relamagnetite (Fe3 O4 ) nanocrystals. Using the high specic
tive variation in natural arsenic hazard potential for the surface area of Fe O nanocrystals the mass of waste as3 4
province of New Brunswick. This study has important sociated with arsenic removal from water has been draimplications for potable water and health concerns relat- matically reduced.[102]
ing to inorganic arsenic.[94]
Epidemiological studies have suggested a correlation beEpidemiological evidence from Chile shows a dose- tween chronic consumption of drinking water contamidependent connection between chronic arsenic exposure nated with arsenic and the incidence of all leading causes
and various forms of cancer, in particular when other risk of mortality.[103] The literature provides reason to be-
19.8. ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
145
lieve arsenic exposure is causative in the pathogenesis of dominant in oxidizing environments at neutral pH. Therediabetes.[104]
fore, arsenic may be more mobile under reducing condiHungarian engineer Lszl Schremmer has recently dis- tions. The reducing environment is also rich in organic
covered that by the use of cha-based lters it is possible matter which may enhance the solubility of arsenic comto reduce the arsenic content of water to 3 g/L. This is pounds. As a result, the adsorption of arsenic is reduced
especially important in areas where the potable water is and dissolved arsenic accumulates in groundwater. That
reducing environprovided by ltering the water extracted from the under- is why the arsenic content is higher in [112]
ments
than
in
oxidizing
environments.
[105]
ground aquifer.
The presence of sulfur is another factor that aects the
transformation of arsenic in natural water. Arsenic can
San Pedro de Atacama
precipitate when metal suldes form. In this way, arsenic
is removed from the water and its mobility decreases.
For several centuries, the people of San Pedro de Ata- When oxygenis present, bacteria oxidize reduced sulfur
cama in Chile have been drinking water that is contami- to generate energypotentially releasing bound arsenic.
nated with arsenic, and it is believed that they may have
developed some immunity to the ill eects of consuming Redox reactions involving Fe also appear to be essential
factors in the fate of arsenic in aquatic systems. The reit.[106][107][108]
duction of iron oxyhydroxides plays a key role in the release of As to water. So As can be enriched in water with
[113]
Under oxidizing condi19.8.3 Redox transformation of arsenic in elevated Fe concentrations.
tions, arsenic can be mobilized from pyrite or iron oxides
natural waters
especially at elevated pH. Under reducing conditions, arsenic can be mobilized by reductive desorption or dissoArsenic is unique among the trace metalloids and
lution when associated with iron oxides. The reductive
oxyanion-forming trace metals (e.g. As, Se, Sb, Mo, V,
desorption occurs under two circumstances. One is when
Cr, U, Re). It is sensitive to mobilization at pH values typarsenate is reduced to arsenite which adsorbs to iron oxical of natural waters (pH 6.58.5) under both oxidizing
ides less strongly. The other results from a change in the
and reducing conditions. Arsenic can occur in the envicharge on the mineral surface which leads to the desorpronment in several oxidation states (3, 0, +3 and +5),
tion of bound arsenic.[114]
but in natural waters it is mostly found in inorganic forms
as oxyanions of trivalent arsenite [As(III)] or pentavalent Some species of bacteria catalyze redox transformations
arsenate [As(V)]. Organic forms of As are produced by of arsenic. Dissimilatory arsenate-respiring prokaryotes
biological activity, mostly in surface waters, but are rarely (DARP) speed up the reduction of As(V) to As(III).
quantitatively important. Organic As compounds may, DARP use As(V) as the electron acceptor of anaerobic
however, occur where waters are signicantly impacted respiration and obtain energy to survive. Other organic
and inorganic substances can be oxidized in this proby industrial pollution.[109]
cess. Chemoautotrophic arsenite oxidizers (CAO) and
Arsenic may be solubilized by various processes. When
heterotrophic arsenite oxidizers (HAO) convert As(III)
pH is high, arsenic may be released from surface bindinto As(V). CAO combine the oxidation of As(III) with
ing sites that lose their positive charge. When water levthe reduction of oxygen or nitrate. They use obtained
els drops and sulde minerals are exposed to air, arsenic
energy to x produce organic carbon from CO2 . HAO
trapped in sulde minerals can be released into water.
cannot obtain energy from As(III) oxidation. This proWhen organic carbon is present in water, bacteria are
cess may be an arsenic detoxication mechanism for the
fed by directly reducing As(V) to As(III) or by reducing
bacteria.[115]
the element at the binding site attached there and releases
Equilibrium thermodynamic calculations predict that
arsenic.[110]
As(V) concentrations should be greater than As(III) conThe aquatic transformations of As are aected by pH,
centrations in all but strongly reducing conditions, i.e.
reduction-oxidation potential, organic matter concentrawhere SO4 2 reduction is occurring. However, abiotic
tion and the concentrations and forms of other elements
redox reactions of arsenic are slow. Oxidation of As(III)
especially iron and manganese. The main factors are pH
by dissolved O2 is a particularly slow reaction. For exand the redox potential. Generally, the main forms of As
ample, Johnson and Pilson (1975) gave half-lives for the
under oxic conditions are H3 AsO4 , H2 AsO4 , HAsO4 2 ,
oxygenation of As(III) in seawater ranging from several
and AsO4 3 at pH 2, 2-7, 7-11 and 11, respectively. Unmonths to a year.[116] In other studies, As(V)/As(III) rader reducing conditions, H3 AsO4 is predominant at pH
tios were stable over periods of days or weeks during wa2-9.[111]
ter sampling when no particular care was taken to preThe oxidation and reduction of arsenic aect its ability vent oxidation, again suggesting relatively slow oxidation
to migrate in subsurface environments. Arsenite is the rates. Cherry found from experimental studies that the
most stable soluble form of arsenic in reducing environ- As(V)/As(III) ratios were stable in anoxic solutions for
ments and arsenate, which is less mobile than arsenite, is
146
CHAPTER 19. ARSENIC
up to 3 weeks but that gradual changes occurred over

longer timescales.[117] Sterile water samples have been
observed to be less susceptible to speciation changes than
non-sterile samples.[118] Oremland found that the reduction of As(V) to As(III) in Mono Lake was rapidly catalyzed by bacteria with rate constants ranging from 0.02
to 0.3 day1 .[119]
19.8.4
Wood preservation in the US
As of 2002, US-based industries consumed 19,600 metric tons of arsenic. Ninety percent of this was used
for treatment of wood with chromated copper arsenate
(CCA). In 2007, 50% of the 5,280 metric tons of consumption was still used for this purpose.[25][120] In the
United States, the voluntary phasing-out of arsenic in production of consumer products and residential and general consumer construction products began on 31 December 2003, and alternative chemicals are now used, such
as Alkaline Copper Quaternary, borates, copper azole,
cyproconazole, and propiconazole.[121]
mation is taken from NLMs Toxicology Data Network

(TOXNET)[123] and PubMed, and from other authoritative sources.
19.8.6 Bioremediation
Physical, chemical, and biological methods have been
used to decrease the concentration of arsenic in contaminated water.[124] Among these methods, bioremediation
has been suggested to be cost eective and environmentally friendly[125] Bioremediation of ground water contaminated with arsenic aims to convert arsenite, the toxic
form of arsenic to humans, to arsenate. Arsenate (+5 oxidation state) is the dominant form of arsenic in surface
water, while arsenite (+3 oxidation state) is the dominant form in hypoxic to anoxic environments. Arsenite is
more soluble and mobile than arsenate. Many species of
bacteria can transform arsenite to arsenate in anoxic conditions by using arsenite as an electron donor.[126] This
is a useful method in ground water remediation. Another bioremediation strategy is to use plants that accumulate arsenic in their tissues via phytoremediation but
the disposal of contaminated plant material needs to be
considered. In order to choose a suitable bioremediation
approach for a site, its environmental conditions needs
to be evaluated. Some sites may require the addition of
an electron acceptor while others require added microbes
(bioaugmentation). Regardless of the method used, constant monitoring is required to prevent future contamination.
Although discontinued, this application is also one of the

most concern to the general public. The vast majority of
older pressure-treated wood was treated with CCA. CCA
lumber is still in widespread use in many countries, and
was heavily used during the latter half of the 20th century
as a structural and outdoor building material. Although
the use of CCA lumber was banned in many areas after
studies showed that arsenic could leach out of the wood
into the surrounding soil (from playground equipment, for
instance), a risk is also presented by the burning of older
CCA timber. The direct or indirect ingestion of wood
ash from burnt CCA lumber has caused fatalities in animals and serious poisonings in humans; the lethal human
dose is approximately 20 grams of ash. Scrap CCA lum- 19.9 Toxicity and precautions
ber from construction and demolition sites may be inadvertently used in commercial and domestic res. Proto- Main articles: Arsenic poisoning and Arsenic toxicity
cols for safe disposal of CCA lumber do not exist evenly
throughout the world; there is also concern in some quarters about the widespread landll disposal of such timber. Arsenic and many of its compounds are especially potent
poisons.
19.8.5
Mapping of industrial releases in

the US
19.9.1 Classication
One tool that maps releases of arsenic to particular locations in the United States[122] and also provides additional information about such releases is TOXMAP.
TOXMAP is a Geographic Information System (GIS)
from the Division of Specialized Information Services of
the United States National Library of Medicine (NLM)
that uses maps of the United States to help users visually explore data from the United States Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA) Toxics Release Inventory
and Superfund Basic Research Programs. TOXMAP
is a resource funded by the US Federal Government.
TOXMAPs chemical and environmental health infor-
Elemental arsenic and arsenic compounds are classied as "toxic" and dangerous for the environment in
the European Union under directive 67/548/EEC. The
International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC)
recognizes arsenic and arsenic compounds as group 1 carcinogens, and the EU lists arsenic trioxide, arsenic pentoxide and arsenate salts as category 1 carcinogens.
Arsenic is known to cause arsenicosis owing to its manifestation in drinking water, the most common species
being arsenate [HAsO2
4; As(V)] and arsenite [H3 AsO3 ; As(III)]".
19.9. TOXICITY AND PRECAUTIONS
19.9.2
Legal limits, food, and drink
In the United States, since 2006, the maximum concentration in drinking water allowed by the Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) is 10 ppb[127] and the FDA
set the same standard in 2005 for bottled water.[128][129]
The Department of Environmental Protection for New
Jersey set a drinking water limit of 5 ppb in 2006.[130]
The IDLH (immediately dangerous to life and health)
value for arsenic metal and inorganic arsenic compounds
is 5 mg/m3 . The Occupational Safety and Health Administration has set the permissible exposure limit (PEL)
to a time-weighted average (TWA) of 0.01 mg/m3 , and
the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
(NIOSH) has set the recommended exposure limit (REL)
to a 15-minute constant exposure of 0.002 mg/m3 .[131]
The PEL for organic arsenic compounds is a TWA of 0.5
mg/m3 .[132]
In 2008, based on its ongoing testing of a wide variety of
American foods for toxic chemicals,[133] the U.S. Food
and Drug Administration set 23 ppb as the level of concern for inorganic arsenic apple and pear juices based
on non-carcinogenic eects, and began refusing imports
and demanding recalls for domestic products exceeding
this level.[128] In 2011, the national Dr. Oz television
show broadcast a program highlighting tests performed
by an independent lab hired by the producers. Though
the methodology was disputed (it did not distinguish between organic and inorganic arsenic) the tests showed levels of arsenic up to 36 ppb.[134] In response, FDA testing
of the worst brand from the Oz show showed much lower
levels, and its ongoing testing found 95% of apple juice
samples were below the level of concern. Later testing
by Consumer Reports showed inorganic arsenic at levels
slightly above 10 ppb, with the organization urging parents to reduce consumption.[135] In July 2013, after taking
into account consumption by children, chronic exposure,
and carcinogenic eect, the FDA established an action
level of 10 ppb for apple juice, the same as the drinking
water standard.[128]
147
new potential regulation. It has not recommended any
changes in consumer behavior.[145] Consumer Reports
recommended that the EPA and FDA eliminate arseniccontaining fertilizer, drugs, and pesticides in food production; that the FDA establish a legal limit for food; that
industry change production practices to lower arsenic levels, especially in food for children; and that consumers
test home water supplies, eat a varied diet, and cook rice
with excess water which is drained o (reducing inorganic arsenic by about one third along with a slight reduction in vitamin content).[142] Evidence-based public
health advocates also recommend that, given the lack of
regulation or labeling for arsenic in the U.S., children
should eat no more than 1.5 servings per week of rice
and should not drink rice milk as part of their daily diet
before age 5.[146] They also oer recommendations for
adults and infants on how to limit arsenic exposure from
rice, drinking water, and fruit juice.[146]
A 2014 World Health Organization advisory conference
will consider limits of 200300 ppb for rice.[142]
19.9.3 Occupational exposure limits

19.9.4 Toxicity in animals
19.9.5 Biological mechanism
The high anity of arsenic(III) oxides for thiols is usually
assigned as the cause of the high toxicity. Thiols, usually
in the form of cysteine residues, but also in cofactors such
as lipoic acid and coenzyme A, are situated at the active
sites of many important enzymes.[6]
Arsenic disrupts ATP production through several mechanisms. At the level of the citric acid cycle, arsenic inhibits
lipoic acid, which is a cofactor for pyruvate dehydrogenase. In addition, by competing with phosphate, arsenate uncouples oxidative phosphorylation, thus inhibiting
energy-linked reduction of NAD+, mitochondrial respiration and ATP synthesis. Hydrogen peroxide production
is also increased, which, it is speculated, has potential to
form reactive oxygen species and oxidative stress. These
metabolic interferences lead to death from multi-system
organ failure. The organ failure is presumed to be from
necrotic cell death, not apoptosis, since energy reserves
have been too depleted for apoptosis to occur.[148]
Concern about arsenic in rice in Bangladesh was raised

in 2002, but at the time only Australia had a legal
limit for the level found in food (one milligram per
kilogram).[136][137] The Peoples Republic of China has
a food standard of 150 ppb for arsenic, as of 2011.[138]
Further concern was raised about people who were eating
U.S. rice exceeding WHO standards for personal arsenic
Although arsenic causes toxicity it can also play a protecintake in 2005.[139]
tive role.[149]
In the United States in 2012, testing by separate
groups of researchers at the Childrens Environmental Health and Disease Prevention Research Center at 19.9.6 Exposure risks and remediation
Dartmouth College (early in the year, focusing on urinary levels in children)[140] and Consumer Reports (in Occupational exposure and arsenic poisoning may occur
November)[141][142] found levels of arsenic in rice which in persons working in industries involving the use of inorresulted in calls for the FDA to set limits.[129] The FDA ganic arsenic and its compounds, such as wood preservareleased some testing results in September 2012,[143][144] tion, glass production, nonferrous metal alloys, and elecand as of July 2013 is still collecting data in support of a tronic semiconductor manufacturing. Inorganic arsenic
148
CHAPTER 19. ARSENIC
is also found in coke oven emissions associated with the

smelter industry.[150]
The ability of arsenic to undergo redox conversion between As(III) and As(V) makes its availability in the environment more abundant. According to Croal, Gralnick,
Malasarn and Newman, "[the] understanding [of] what
stimulates As(III) oxidation and/or limits As(V) reduction is relevant for bioremediation of contaminated sites
(Croal). The study of chemolithoautotrophic As(III) oxidizers and the heterotrophic As(V) reducers can help
the understanding of the oxidation and/or reduction of
arsenic.[151] It has been proposed that As (III) which is
more toxic than Arsenic (V) can be removed from the
ground water using bakers yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae.[152]
19.9.7
Treatment
Treatment of chronic arsenic poisoning is possible.

British anti-lewisite (dimercaprol) is prescribed in doses
of 5 mg/kg up to 300 mg every 4 hours for the rst
day, then every 6 hours for the second day, and nally
every 8 hours for 8 additional days.[153] However the
USAs Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR) states that the long-term eects of arsenic exposure cannot be predicted.[84] Blood, urine,
hair, and nails may be tested for arsenic; however, these
tests cannot foresee possible health outcomes from the
exposure.[84] Excretion occurs in the urine and long-term
exposure to arsenic has been linked to bladder and kidney
cancer in addition to cancer of the liver, prostate, skin,
lungs, and nasal cavity.[154]
19.10 See also

Aqua Tofana
Arsenic biochemistry
19.11 References
[1] Standard Atomic Weights 2013. Commission on Isotopic
Abundances and Atomic Weights
[2] Gokcen, N. A (1989).
The As (arsenic) system.
Bull.
Alloy Phase Diagrams 10: 1122.
doi:10.1007/BF02882166.
[3] Ellis, Bobby D.; MacDonald, Charles L. B. (2004). Stabilized Arsenic(I) Iodide: A Ready Source of Arsenic
Iodide Fragments and a Useful Reagent for the Generation of Clusters. Inorganic Chemistry 43 (19): 59816.
doi:10.1021/ic049281s. PMID 15360247.
[4] http://www.owlnet.rice.edu/~{}msci301/
ThermalExpansion.pdf
[5] editor-in-chief, David R. Lide. (2000). Magnetic susceptibility of the elements and inorganic compounds.
Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (PDF) (81 ed.). CRC
press. ISBN 0849304814.
[6] Sabina C. Grund; Kunibert Hanusch; Hans Uwe Wolf
(2005), Arsenic and Arsenic Compounds, Ullmanns
Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, Weinheim: WileyVCH, doi:10.1002/14356007.a03_113.pub2
[7] Norman, Nicholas C (1998). Chemistry of Arsenic, Antimony and Bismuth. Springer. p. 50. ISBN 978-0-75140389-3.
[8] Biberg, Egon; Wiberg, Nils; Holleman, Arnold Frederick (2001). Inorganic Chemistry. Academic Press. ISBN
978-0-12-352651-9.
[9] Holleman, Arnold F.; Wiberg, Egon; Wiberg, Nils (1985).
Arsen. Lehrbuch der Anorganischen Chemie (in German) (91100 ed.). Walter de Gruyter. pp. 675681.
ISBN 3-11-007511-3.
[10] Madelung, Otfried (2004). Semiconductors: data handbook. Birkhuser. pp. 410. ISBN 978-3-540-40488-0.
Arsenic compounds
[11] "http://www.chemicool.com/elements/arsenic.html
Arsenic poisoning
[12] Georges, Audi; Bersillon, O.; Blachot, J.; Wapstra, A.H.

(2003). The NUBASE Evaluation of Nuclear and Decay Properties. Nuclear Physics A (Atomic Mass Data
Center) 729: 3128. Bibcode:2003NuPhA.729....3A.
doi:10.1016/j.nuclphysa.2003.11.001.
Arsenic toxicity
Arsenic trioxide
Fowlers solution
GFAJ-1
Grainger challenge
Hypothetical types of biochemistry
Organoarsenic chemistry
Toxic heavy metal
White arsenic
[13] Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). Arsenic. Encyclopdia

Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
[14] Uher, Ctirad (2001). Recent Trends in Thermoelectric
Materials Research I: Skutterudites: Prospective novel
thermoelectrics. Semiconductors and Semimetals 69:
139253. doi:10.1016/S0080-8784(01)80151-4. ISBN
978-0-12-752178-7.
[15] Arsenic: arsenic(II) sulde compound data. WebElements.com. Archived from the original on 11 December
2007. Retrieved 2007-12-10.
19.11. REFERENCES
149
[16] Tanaka, A (2004). Toxicity of indium arsenide, gallium arsenide, and aluminium gallium arsenide. Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology 198 (3): 40511.
doi:10.1016/j.taap.2003.10.019. PMID 15276420.
[32] Lechtman, H. (1996). Arsenic Bronze: Dirty Copper or Chosen Alloy? A View from the Americas. Journal of Field Archaeology 23 (4): 477514.
doi:10.2307/530550. JSTOR 530550.
[17] Ossicini, Stefano; Pavesi, Lorenzo; Priolo, Francesco (1

January 2003). Light Emitting Silicon for Microphotonics.
ISBN 978-3-540-40233-6. Retrieved 2013-09-27.
[33] Charles, J. A. (1967). Early Arsenical Bronzes-A Metallurgical View. American Journal of Archaeology 71 (1):
2126. doi:10.2307/501586. JSTOR 501586.
[18] Din, M.B.; Gould, R.D. (1998). High eld conduction mechanism of the evaporated cadmium
arsenide thin lms.
ICSE'98.
1998 IEEE International Conference on Semiconductor Electronics.
Proceedings (Cat.
No.98EX187): 168.
doi:10.1109/SMELEC.1998.781173.
ISBN 0-78034971-7.
[34] Emsley, John (2001). Natures Building Blocks: An A-Z

Guide to the Elements. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
pp. 43, 513, 529. ISBN 0-19-850341-5.
[19] Ellison, Hank D. (2007). Handbook of chemical and biological warfare agents. CRC Press. ISBN 978-0-84931434-6.
[36] Seyferth, Dietmar (2001).

Cadets Fuming Arsenical Liquid and the Cacodyl Compounds of
Bunsen.
Organometallics 20 (8):
14881498.
doi:10.1021/om0101947.
[20] Girard, James (2010). Principles of Environmental Chemistry. Jones & Bartlett Learning. ISBN 978-0-7637-59391.
[21] Somani, Satu M (2001). Chemical warfare agents: toxicity
at low levels. CRC Press. ISBN 978-0-8493-0872-7.
[22] Emsley 2011, p. 52
[23] Matschullat, Jrg (2000). Arsenic in the geosphere a
review. The Science of the Total Environment 249 (13):
297312. doi:10.1016/S0048-9697(99)00524-0. PMID
10813460.
[24] Brooks, William E. Mineral Commodity Summaries
2007: Arsenic (PDF). United States Geological Survey.
Archived (PDF) from the original on 17 December 2008.
[25] Brooks, William E. Minerals Yearbook 2007: Arsenic
(PDF). United States Geological Survey. Archived (PDF)
from the original on 17 December 2008. Retrieved 200811-08.
[26] Whelan, J. M.; Struthers, J. D.; Ditzenberger, J. A.
(1960). Separation of Sulfur, Selenium, and Tellurium
from Arsenic. Journal of the Electrochemical Society 107
(12): 982985. doi:10.1149/1.2427585.
[27] Edelstein, Daniel L. Mineral Commodity Summaries
2013: Arsenic (PDF). United States Geological Survey.
[28] arsenic. Online Etymology Dictionary.
2010-05-15.
Retrieved
[29] Bentley, Ronald; Chasteen, Thomas G. (2002). Arsenic

Curiosa and Humanity (PDF). The Chemical Educator 7
(2): 5160. doi:10.1007/s00897020539a. Archived from
the original (PDF) on 7 February 2009.
[35] (Comte), Antoine-Franois de Fourcroy (1804). A general system of chemical knowledge, and its application to
the phenomena of nature and art. pp. 84.
[37] Turner, Alan (1999). Viewpoint: the story so far: An

overview of developments in UK food regulation and associated advisory committees. British Food Journal 101
(4): 274283. doi:10.1108/00070709910272141.
[38] London purple. (8012-74-6)", Chemical Book
[39] Lanman, Susan W. (2000). Colour in the Garden: 'Malignant Magenta'". Garden History 28 (2): 209221.
doi:10.2307/1587270. JSTOR 1587270.
[40] Holton, E. C. (1926). Insecticides and Fungicides.
Industrial & Engineering Chemistry 18 (9): 931933.
doi:10.1021/ie50201a018.
[41] Murphy, E.A.; Aucott, M (1998). An assessment of the
amounts of arsenical pesticides used historically in a geographical area. Science of the Total Environment 218
(23): 89101. doi:10.1016/S0048-9697(98)00180-6.
[42] Marlatt, C. L (1897). Important Insecticides: Directions
for Their Preparation and Use. p. 5.
[43] Kassinger, Ruth (20 April 2010). Paradise Under Glass:
An Amateur Creates a Conservatory Garden. ISBN 9780-06-199130-1.
[44] Rahman, FA; Allan, DL; Rosen, CJ; Sadowsky, MJ
(2004). Arsenic availability from chromated copper arsenate (CCA)-treated wood. Journal of environmental quality 33 (1): 17380. doi:10.2134/jeq2004.0173.
PMID 14964372.
[45] Lichtfouse, Eric (2004). Electrodialytical Removal of
Cu, Cr and As from Threaded Wood. In Lichtfouse,
Eric; Schwarzbauer, Jan; Robert, Didier. Environmental
Chemistry: Green Chemistry and Pollutants in Ecosystems.
Berlin: Springer. ISBN 978-3-540-22860-8.
[30] Holmyard John Eric (2007). Makers of Chemistry. Read

Books. ISBN 1-4067-3275-3.
[46] Mandal, Badal Kumar; Suzuki, K. T. (2002). Arsenic

round the world: a review. Talanta 58 (1): 201235.
doi:10.1016/S0039-9140(02)00268-0. PMID 18968746.
[31] Vahidnia, A.; Van Der Voet, G. B.; De Wol, F.

A. (2007). Arsenic neurotoxicity a review. Human & Experimental Toxicology 26 (10): 82332.
doi:10.1177/0960327107084539. PMID 18025055.
[47] Peryea, F. J. (2026 August 1998). Historical use of lead

arsenate insecticides, resulting in soil contamination and
implications for soil remediation. 16th World Congress of
Soil Science. Montpellier, France.
150
[48] organic arsenicals. EPA.

[49] Nachman, Keeve E; Graham, Jay P.; Price, Lance B.;
Silbergeld, Ellen K. (2005). Arsenic: A Roadblock to
Potential Animal Waste Management Solutions. Environmental Health Perspective 113 (9): 11231124.
doi:10.1289/ehp.7834.
[50] Arsenic (PDF). Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. Section 5.3, p. 310.
[51] Jones, F. T. (2007). A Broad View of Arsenic. Poultry Science 86 (1): 214. doi:10.1093/ps/86.1.2. PMID
17179408.
[52] Bottemiller, Helena (26 September 2009). Bill Introduced to Ban Arsenic Antibiotics in Feed. Food Safety
News. Retrieved 2011-01-10.
[53] Sta (8 June 2011). Questions and Answers Regarding
3-Nitro (Roxarsone)". U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Retrieved 2012-09-21.
[54] Gibaud, Stphane; Jaouen, Grard (2010). Arsenic
based drugs: from Fowlers solution to modern anticancer chemotherapy. Topics in Organometallic Chemistry. Topics in Organometallic Chemistry 32: 120.
doi:10.1007/978-3-642-13185-1_1. ISBN 978-3-64213184-4.
[55] Huet, P. M.; Guillaume, E.; Cote, J.; Lgar, A.; Lavoie,
P.; Viallet, A. (1975). Noncirrhotic presinusoidal portal
hypertension associated with chronic arsenical intoxication. Gastroenterology 68 (5 Pt 1): 12701277. PMID
1126603.
[56] Antman, Karen H. (2001). The History of Arsenic
Trioxide in Cancer Therapy. The oncologist 6 (Suppl
2): 12. doi:10.1634/theoncologist.6-suppl_2-1. PMID
11331433.
[57] Jennewein, Marc; Lewis, M. A.; Zhao, D.; Tsyganov,
E.; Slavine, N.; He, J.; Watkins, L.; Kodibagkar, V. D.;
O'Kelly, S.; Kulkarni, P.; Antich, P.; Hermanne, A.;
Rsch, F.; Mason, R.; Thorpe, Ph. (2008). Vascular
Imaging of Solid Tumors in Rats with a Radioactive
Arsenic-Labeled Antibody that Binds Exposed Phosphatidylserine. Journal of Clinical Cancer 14 (5): 1377
1385. doi:10.1158/1078-0432.CCR-07-1516. PMC
3436070. PMID 18316558.
[58] Bagshaw, N.E. (1995). Lead alloys: Past, present
and future.
Journal of Power Sources 53: 25
30. Bibcode:1995JPS....53...25B. doi:10.1016/03787753(94)01973-Y.
[59] Joseph, Gnter; Kundig, Konrad J. A; Association, International Copper (1999). Dealloying. Copper: Its Trade,
Manufacture, Use, and Environmental Status. pp. 123
124. ISBN 978-0-87170-656-0.
[60] Nayar (1997). The Metals Databook. p. 6. ISBN 978-007-462300-8.
[61] Blister Agents. Code Red Weapons of Mass Destruction. Retrieved 2010-05-15.
CHAPTER 19. ARSENIC
[62] Westing, Arthur H. (1972). Herbicides in war: Current

status and future doubt. Biological Conservation 4 (5):
322327. doi:10.1016/0006-3207(72)90043-2.
[63] Westing, Arthur H. (1971). Forestry and the War in
South Vietnam. Journal of Forestry 69: 777783.
[64] Timbrell, John (2005). Butter Yellow and Scheeles
Green. The Poison Paradox: Chemicals as Friends and
Foes. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-2804952.
[65] Cross, J. D.; Dale, I. M.; Leslie, A. C. D.; Smith,
H. (1979). Industrial exposure to arsenic. Journal of Radioanalytical Chemistry 48:
197208.
doi:10.1007/BF02519786.
[66] Guruswamy, Sivaraman (1999). XIV. Ammunition.
Engineering Properties and Applications of Lead Alloys.
CRC Press. pp. 569570. ISBN 978-0-8247-8247-4.
[67] Davis, Joseph R; Handbook Committee, ASM International (1 August 2001). Dealloying. Copper and copper
alloys. p. 390. ISBN 978-0-87170-726-0.
[68] Arsenic Supply Demand and the Environment.
Pollution technology review 214: Mercury and arsenic
wastes: removal, recovery, treatment, and disposal.
William Andrew. 1993. p. 68. ISBN 978-0-8155-13261.
[69] Stolz, John F.; Basu, Partha; Santini, Joanne M.; Oremland, Ronald S. (2006). Arsenic and Selenium in Microbial Metabolism. Annual Review of Microbiology 60:
10730. doi:10.1146/annurev.micro.60.080805.142053.
PMID 16704340.
[70] Mukhopadhyay, Rita; Rosen, Barry P; Phung, Le T; Silver, Simon (2002). Microbial arsenic: From geocycles
to genes and enzymes. FEMS Microbiology Reviews 26
(3): 31125. doi:10.1111/j.1574-6976.2002.tb00617.x.
PMID 12165430.
[71] Kulp, T. R; Hoeft, S. E.; Asao, M.; Madigan, M. T.;
Hollibaugh, J. T.; Fisher, J. C.; Stolz, J. F.; Culbertson, C. W.; Miller, L. G.; Oremland, R. S. (2008).
Arsenic(III) fuels anoxygenic photosynthesis in hot
spring biolms from Mono Lake, California. Science
321 (5891): 967970. Bibcode:2008Sci...321..967K.
doi:10.1126/science.1160799. PMID 18703741. Lay
summary Chemistry World, 15 August 2008.
[72] Erb, T. J.; Kiefer, P.; Hattendorf, B.; Gnther, D.;
Vorholt, J. A. (2012).
GFAJ-1 is an ArsenateResistant, Phosphate-Dependent Organism. Science
337 (6093): 46770. Bibcode:2012Sci...337..467E.
doi:10.1126/science.1218455. PMID 22773139.
[73] Reaves, M. L.; Sinha, S.; Rabinowitz, J. D.;
Kruglyak, L.; Redeld, R. J. (2012).
Absence
of Detectable Arsenate in DNA from ArsenateGrown GFAJ-1 Cells. Science 337 (6093): 4703.
arXiv:1201.6643.
Bibcode:2012Sci...337..470R.
doi:10.1126/science.1219861. PMC 3845625. PMID
22773140.
19.11. REFERENCES
151
[74] Anke M. Arsenic. In: Mertz W. ed., Trace elements in

human and Animal Nutrition, 5th ed. Orlando, FL: Academic Press, 1986, 347-372; Uthus E.O., Evidency for
arsenical essentiality, Environ. Geochem. Health, 1992,
14:54-56; Uthus E.O., Arsenic essentiality and factors
aecting its importance. In: Chappell W.R, Abernathy
C.O, Cothern C.R. eds., Arsenic Exposure and Health.
Northwood, UK: Science and Technology Letters, 1994,
199-208.
[87] Lamm, S. H.; Engel, A.; Penn, C. A.; Chen, R.; Feinleib, M. (2006). Arsenic cancer risk confounder in southwest Taiwan data set. Environ. Health Perspect. 114 (7):
107782. doi:10.1289/ehp.8704. PMC 1513326. PMID
16835062.
[75] Baccarelli, A.; Bollati, V. (2009). Epigenetics and environmental chemicals. Current Opinion in Pediatrics 21
(2): 243251. doi:10.1097/MOP.0b013e32832925cc.
PMC 3035853. PMID 19663042.
[89] Arsenic in Drinking Water: 3. Occurrence in U.S. Waters (PDF). Retrieved 2010-05-15.
[76] Nicholis, I.; Curis, E.; Deschamps, P.; Bnazeth, S.

(2009). Arsenite medicinal use, metabolism, pharmacokinetics and monitoring in human hair. Biochimie 91
(10): 12607. doi:10.1016/j.biochi.2009.06.003. PMID
19527769.
[77] Lombi, E.; Zhao, F. -J.; Fuhrmann, M.; Ma, L. Q.; McGrath, S. P. (2002). Arsenic Distribution and Speciation in the Fronds of the Hyperaccumulator Pteris vittata.
New Phytologist 156 (2): 195203. doi:10.1046/j.14698137.2002.00512.x. JSTOR 1514012.
[78] Sakurai, Teruaki Sakurai (2003). Biomethylation of
Arsenic is Essentially Detoxicating Event. Journal of
Health Science 49 (3): 171178. doi:10.1248/jhs.49.171.
[79] Reimer, K.J.; Koch, I.; Cullen, W.R. (2010).
Organoarsenicals.
Distribution and transformation
in the environment. Metal ions in life sciences 7:
165229. doi:10.1039/9781849730822-00165. ISBN
978-1-84755-177-1. PMID 20877808.
[80] Bentley, Ronald; Chasteen, TG (2002). Microbial
Methylation of Metalloids: Arsenic, Antimony, and Bismuth. Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews 66
(2): 250271. doi:10.1128/MMBR.66.2.250-271.2002.
PMC 120786. PMID 12040126.
[81] Cullen, William R; Reimer, Kenneth J. (1989). Arsenic
speciation in the environment. Chemical Reviews 89 (4):
713764. doi:10.1021/cr00094a002.
[82] Case Studies in Environmental Medicine (CSEM) Arsenic Toxicity Exposure Pathways (PDF). Agency for
Toxic Substances & Disease Registry. Retrieved 201005-15.
[83] Arsenic in Food: FAQ. 5 December 2011. Retrieved
2010-04-11.
[84] Arsenic. The Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease
Registry (2009).
[85] Meharg, Andrew (2005). Venomous Earth How Arsenic
Caused The Worlds Worst Mass Poisoning. Macmillan
Science. ISBN 978-1-4039-4499-3.
[88] Kohnhorst, Andrew (2005). Arsenic in Groundwater in

Selected Countries in South and Southeast Asia: A Review. J Trop Med Parasitol 28: 73.
[90] Welch, Alan H.; Westjohn, D.B.; Helsel, Dennis R.;

Wanty, Richard B. (2000). Arsenic in Ground Water
of the United States: Occurrence and Geochemistry.
Ground Water 38 (4): 589604. doi:10.1111/j.17456584.2000.tb00251.x.
[91] Knobeloch, L. M.; Zierold, K. M.; Anderson, H. A.
(2006). Association of arsenic-contaminated drinkingwater with prevalence of skin cancer in Wisconsins Fox
River Valley. J. Health Popul Nutr 24 (2): 20613.
PMID 17195561.
[92] In Small Doses:Arsenic". The Dartmouth Toxic Metals
Superfund Research Program. Dartmouth College.
[93] Courtney, D; Ely, Kenneth H.; Enelow, Richard I.; Hamilton, Joshua W. (2009). Low Dose Arsenic Compromises the Immune Response to Inuenza A Infection in
vivo. Environmental Health Perspectives 117 (9): 1441
7. doi:10.1289/ehp.0900911. PMC 2737023. PMID
19750111.
[94] Klassen, R.A.; Douma, S.L.; Ford, A.; Rencz, A.;
Grunsky, E. (2009). Geoscience modeling of relative variation in natural arsenic hazard in potential in
New Brunswick (PDF). Geological Survey of Canada.
Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 May 2013. Retrieved 2012-10-14.
[95] Ferreccio, C.; Sancha, A. M. (2006). Arsenic exposure
and its impact on health in Chile. J Health Popul Nutr 24
(2): 16475. PMID 17195557.
[96] Chu, H. A.; Crawford-Brown, D. J. (2006). Inorganic arsenic in drinking water and bladder cancer:
a meta-analysis for dose-response assessment. Int.
J. Environ. Res.
Public Health 3 (4): 31622.
doi:10.3390/ijerph2006030039. PMID 17159272.
[97] Arsenic in drinking water seen as threat USATODAY.com. USA Today. 30 August 2007. Retrieved
2008-01-01.
[98] Gulledge, John H.; O'Connor, John T. (1973). Removal
of Arsenic (V) from Water by Adsorption on Aluminum
and Ferric Hydroxides. J. American Water Works Assn.
65 (8): 548552.
[99] O'Connor, J. T.; O'Connor, T. L. Arsenic in Drinking
Water: 4. Removal Methods (PDF).
[86] Henke, Kevin R (28 April 2009). Arsenic: Environmental

Chemistry, Health Threats and Waste Treatment. p. 317. [100] In situ arsenic treatment. insituarsenic.org. Retrieved
ISBN 978-0-470-02758-5.
2010-05-13.
152
CHAPTER 19. ARSENIC
[101] Radlo, K. A.; Zheng, Y.; Michael, H. A.; Stute, M.; [112] Zeng Zhaohua, Zhang Zhiliang (2002). The formation
Bostick, B. C.; Mihajlov, I.; Bounds, M.; Huq, M. R.;
of As element in groundwater and the controlling factor.
Choudhury, I.; Rahman, M.; Schlosser, P.; Ahmed,
Shanghai Geology 87 (3): 1115.
K.; Van Geen, A. (2011). Arsenic migration to deep
groundwater in Bangladesh inuenced by adsorption and [113] Y. Zheng, M. Stute, A.van Geen (2004). Redox control
of arsenic mobilization in Bangladesh groundwater. Apwater demand. Nature Geoscience 4 (11): 793798.
plied Geochemistry 19: 201214
Bibcode:2011NatGe...4..793R. doi:10.1038/ngeo1283.
PMC 3269239. PMID 22308168.
[114] Mary Ann Thomas (2007). The Association of Arsenic
With Redox Conditions, Depth, and Ground-Water Age
[102] Yavuz, Cafer T; Mayo, J. T.; Yu, W. W.; Prakash,
in the Glacial Aquifer System of the Northern United
A.; Falkner, J. C.; Yean, S.; Cong, L.; Shipley, H.
States.U.S. Geological Survey,Virginia:1-18.
J.; Kan, A.; Tomson, M.; Natelson, D.; Colvin, V. L.
(2005). Low-Field Magnetic Separation of Monodis[115] Hong Bin (2006). Inuence of microbes on biogeoperse Fe3 O4 Nanocrystals. Science 314 (5801): 964
chemistry of arsenic mechanism of arsenic mobilization
967. doi:10.1126/science.1131475. PMID 17095696.
in groundwater. Advances in earth science 21 (1): 77
82.
[103] Meliker, JR; Wahl, RL; Cameron, LL; Nriagu, JO (2007).
Arsenic in drinking water and cerebrovascular disease,
[116] Johnson, D. L., and M. E. Q. Pilson. The oxidation of
diabetes mellitus, and kidney disease in Michigan: A stanarsenite in seawater. Environmental letters 8.2 (1975):
dardized mortality ratio analysis. Environmental Health
157-171.
6: 4. doi:10.1186/1476-069X-6-4. PMC 1797014.
PMID 17274811.
[117] Cherry, J. A., et al. Arsenic species as an indicator of
redox conditions in groundwater. Developments in Water
[104] Tseng, Chin-Hsiao; Tai, Tong-Yuan; Chong, ChoonScience 12 (1979): 373-392.
Khim; Tseng, Ching-Ping; Lai, Mei-Shu; Lin, Boniface J.; Chiou, Hung-Yi; Hsueh, Yu-Mei; Hsu, Kuang- [118] Cullen, William R., and Kenneth J. Reimer. Arsenic
Hung; Chen, CJ (2000). Long-Term Arsenic Exposure
speciation in the environment. Chemical Reviews 89.4
and Incidence of Non-Insulin-Dependent Diabetes Melli(1989): 713-764.
tus: A Cohort Study in Arseniasis-Hyperendemic Villages
in Taiwan. Environmental Health Perspectives 108 (9): [119] Oremland, Ronald S., et al. Bacterial dissimilatory re84751. doi:10.1289/ehp.00108847. PMC 2556925.
duction of arsenate and sulfate in meromictic Mono Lake,
PMID 11017889.
California. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 64.18
(2000): 3073-3084.
[105] Newspaper article (in Hungarian) published by Magyar
Nemzet on 15 April 2012.
[120] Reese, Jr., Robert G. Commodity Summaries 2002: Arsenic (PDF). United States Geological Survey. Archived
[106] Goering, P.; Aposhian, HV; Mass, MJ; Cebrin, M; Beck,
(PDF) from the original on 17 December 2008. Retrieved
BD; Waalkes, MP (1999). The enigma of arsenic car2008-11-08.
cinogenesis: Role of metabolism. Toxicological Sciences 49 (1): 514. doi:10.1093/toxsci/49.1.5. PMID [121] Chromated Copper Arsenate (CCA)". US Environmen10367337.
tal Protection Agency.
[107] Hopenhayn-Rich, C; Biggs, ML; Smith, AH; Kalman, [122] TRI Releases Map. Toxmap.nlm.nih.gov. Archived
DA; Moore, LE (1996). Methylation study of a populafrom the original on 20 March 2010. Retrieved 2010-03tion environmentally exposed to arsenic in drinking wa23.
ter. Environmental Health Perspectives 104 (6): 620
628. doi:10.1289/ehp.96104620. PMC 1469390. PMID [123] TOXNET Databases on toxicology, hazardous
chemicals, environmental health, and toxic releases.
8793350.
Toxnet.nlm.nih.gov. Retrieved 2011-10-24.
[108] Smith, AH; Arroyo, AP; Mazumder, DN; Kosnett, MJ;
Hernandez, AL; Beeris, M; Smith, MM; Moore, LE [124] Jain, CK; Singh, RD (2012). Technological options for
the removal of arsenic with special reference to South East
(2000). Arsenic-induced skin lesions among Atacame?o
Asia. Journal of Environmental Management 107: 18.
people in Northern Chile despite good nutrition and cendoi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2012.04.016. PMID 22579769.
turies of exposure (PDF). Environmental Health Perspectives 108 (7): 617620. doi:10.1289/ehp.00108617.
[125] Goering, P. (2013).
Bioremediation of arsenicPMC 1638201. PMID 10903614.
contaminated water:
recent advances and future
prospects.
Water, Air and Soil Pollution 224.
[109] Smedley, P. L., and D. G. Kinniburgh. A review of the
doi:10.1007/s11270-013-1722-y.
source, behaviour and distribution of arsenic in natural
waters. Applied geochemistry 17.5 (2002): 517-568.
[126] Goering, P. (2015).
Anaerobic arsenite oxidation
with
an
electrode
serving
as the sole electron
[110] How Does Arsenic Get into the Groundwater
acceptor: A novel approach to the bioremediation
[111] Wang Junfeng. A preliminary study of trivalent arsenic
of arsenic-polluted groundwater.. Journal of Hazremoval in groundwater. Tianjin: Nankai University,
ardous Materials 283 (2015) 617622 283: 617622.
doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2014.10.014.
2003
19.12. BIBLIOGRAPHY
153
[127] Adopted 22 January 2001; eective 23 January 2006. [147] Arsenic. RTECS. National Institute for Occupational
http://water.epa.gov/lawsregs/rulesregs/sdwa/arsenic/
Safety and Health (NIOSH).
regulations.cfm
[148] Hughes, Michael F (2002). Arsenic toxicity and po[128] Supporting Document for Action Level for Arsenic in
tential mechanisms of action. Toxicology Letters 133
Apple Juice. Fda.gov. Retrieved 2013-08-21.
(1): 116. doi:10.1016/S0378-4274(02)00084-X. PMID
12076506.
[129] Lawmakers Urge FDA to Act on Arsenic Standards.
Foodsafetynews.com (2012-02-24). Retrieved 2012-05- [149] Klaassen, Curtis; Watkins, John (2003). Casarett and
23.
Doulls Essentials of Toxicology. McGraw-Hill. p. 512.
ISBN 978-0-07-138914-3.
[130] A Homeowners Guide to Arsenic in Drinking Water.
New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection. [150] OSHA Arsenic. United States Occupational Safety and
Health Administration. Archived from the original on 12
October 2007. Retrieved 2007-10-08.
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health [151] Croal, Laura R.; Gralnick, Jerey A.; Malasarn, Davin;
(NIOSH).
Newman, Dianne K. (2004). The Genetics of Geochemisty. Annual Review of Genetics 38: 175206.
doi:10.1146/annurev.genet.38.072902.091138. PMID
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
15568975.
(NIOSH).
[152] Roy, Debarshi; Gaur, Priya; Verma, Neeraj; Pathireddy,
[133] Total Diet Study and Toxic Elements Program
Monika; Singh, Krishna.P. (2013). Bioremediation
of Arsenic (III) from Water Using Baker Yeast Sac[134] Kotz, Deborah (14 September 2011). Does apple juice
chromyces cerevisiae. International Journal of Envihave unsafe levels of arsenic? The Boston Globe.
ronmental Bioremediation & Biodegradation 1: 1419.
Boston.com. Retrieved 2013-08-21.
doi:10.12691/ijebb-1-1-3.
[135] Morran, Chris. Consumer Reports Study Finds High
Levels Of Arsenic & Lead In Some Fruit Juice. con- [153] The Psychiatric, Psychogenic ans Somatopsychic Disorders
Handbook. New Hyde Park, NY: Medical Examination
sumerist.com.
Publishing Co. 1978. pp. 8182. ISBN 0-87488-596-5.
[136] Arsenic contamination of Bangladeshi paddy eld soils:
implications for rice contribution to arsenic consumption [154] The Tox Guide for Arsenic (2007). The US Agency for
Toxic Substances and Disease Registry.
: Nature News. Nature.com. 22 November 2002. Retrieved 2013-08-21.
[137] Tainted wells pour arsenic onto food crops. New Scientist. 6 December 2002. Retrieved 2013-08-21.
[138] Rice as a source of arsenic exposure.
[139] Peplow, Mark (2 August 2005). US rice may carry an
arsenic burden. Nature News. doi:10.1038/news0508015.
[140] EHP Rice Consumption and Urinary Arsenic Concentrations in U.S. Children. Ehp.niehs.nih.gov. Retrieved
2013-08-21.
[141] High Levels Of Arsenic Found In Rice. NPR. 2 March
2012. Retrieved 2013-08-21.
[142] Arsenic in Your Food | Consumer Reports Investigation. Consumerreports.org. 1 November 2012. Retrieved 2013-08-21.
[143] FDA Looks for Answers on Arsenic in Rice. Fda.gov.
19 September 2012. Retrieved 2013-08-21.
19.12 Bibliography
Emsley, John (2011). Arsenic. Natures Building Blocks: An A-Z Guide to the Elements. Oxford,
England, UK: Oxford University Press. pp. 4755.
ISBN 0-19-960563-7.

James G. Whorton (2011). The Arsenic Century.
Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-9605996.
[144] Arsenic in Rice. Fda.gov. Retrieved 2013-08-21.
CTDs Arsenic page and CTDs Arsenicals page

from the Comparative Toxicogenomics Database
[145] Questions & Answers: FDAs Analysis of Arsenic in

Rice and Rice Products. Fda.gov. 21 March 2013. Retrieved 2013-08-21.
A Small Dose of Toxicology
[146] Arsenic in Rice: What You Need to Know. UC Berkeley

Wellness. Retrieved 3 September 2014.
Arsenic in groundwater Book on arsenic in groundwater by IAHs Netherlands Chapter and the
Netherlands Hydrological Society
154
Contaminant Focus: Arsenic by the EPA.
Environmental Health Criteria for Arsenic and Arsenic Compounds, 2001 by the WHO.
Evaluation of the carcinogenicity of arsenic and arsenic compounds by the IARC.
National Institute for Occupational Safety and
Health Arsenic Page
Arsenic at The Periodic Table of Videos (University
of Nottingham)
CHAPTER 19. ARSENIC
Chapter 20
James Prescott Joule

James Prescott Joule FRS (/dul/;[1] (24 December
1818 11 October 1889) was an English physicist and
brewer, born in Salford, Lancashire. Joule studied the nature of heat, and discovered its relationship to mechanical
work (see energy). This led to the law of conservation
of energy, which led to the development of the rst law
of thermodynamics. The SI derived unit of energy, the
joule, is named after James Joule. He worked with Lord
Kelvin to develop the absolute scale of temperature the
kelvin. Joule also made observations of magnetostriction,
and he found the relationship between the current through
a resistor and the heat dissipated, which is now called
Joules rst law.
20.1 Early years
However, Joules interest diverted from the narrow nancial question to that of how much work could be extracted
from a given source, leading him to speculate about the
convertibility of energy. In 1843 he published results
of experiments showing that the heating eect he had
quantied in 1841 was due to generation of heat in the
conductor and not its transfer from another part of the
equipment. This was a direct challenge to the caloric theory which held that heat could neither be created or destroyed. Caloric theory had dominated thinking in the
science of heat since introduced by Antoine Lavoisier
in 1783. Lavoisiers prestige and the practical success
of Sadi Carnot's caloric theory of the heat engine since
1824 ensured that the young Joule, working outside either academia or the engineering profession, had a dicult road ahead. Supporters of the caloric theory readily
pointed to the symmetry of the Peltier-Seebeck eect to
claim that heat and current were convertible in an, at least
approximately, reversible process.
The son of a wealthy brewer, Joule was tutored as a young

man by the famous scientist John Dalton and was strongly
inuenced by chemist William Henry and Manchester
20.2 The mechanical equivalent of
engineers Peter Ewart and Eaton Hodgkinson. He was
fascinated by electricity, and he and his brother experiheat
mented by giving electric shocks to each other and to the
familys servants.
Further experiments and measurements with his electric
As an adult, Joule managed the brewery. Science was motor led Joule to estimate the mechanical equivalent of
merely a serious hobby. Sometime around 1840, he heat as 838 ftlbf of work to raise the temperature of
started to investigate the feasibility of replacing the brew- a pound of water by one degree Fahrenheit.[3] He anerys steam engines with the newly invented electric mo- nounced his results at a meeting of the chemical section
tor. His rst scientic papers on the subject were con- of the British Association for the Advancement of Science in Cork in August 1843 and was met by silence.[4]
tributed to William Sturgeon's Annals of Electricity.
Motivated in part by a businessmans desire to quantify
the economics of the choice, and in part by his scientic inquisitiveness, he set out to determine which prime
mover was the more ecient. He discovered Joules rst
law in 1841, that the heat which is evolved by the proper
action of any voltaic current is proportional to the square
of the intensity of that current, multiplied by the resistance
to conduction which it experiences.[2] He went on to realise
that burning a pound of coal in a steam engine was more
economical than a costly pound of zinc consumed in an
electric battery. Joule captured the output of the alternative methods in terms of a common standard, the ability
to raise one pound, a height of one foot, the foot-pound.
Joule was undaunted and started to seek a purely mechanical demonstration of the conversion of work into heat.
By forcing water through a perforated cylinder, he could
measure the slight viscous heating of the uid. He obtained a mechanical equivalent of 770 ftlbf/Btu (4.14
J/cal). The fact that the values obtained both by electrical and purely mechanical means were in agreement to
at least one order of magnitude was, to Joule, compelling
evidence of the reality of the convertibility of work into
heat.
155
wherever mechanical force is expended, an

exact equivalent of heat is always obtained
156
CHAPTER 20. JAMES PRESCOTT JOULE

J.P. Joule, August, 1843
Philosophical Magazine, published in September 1845

describing his experiment.[8]
Joule now tried a third route. He measured the heat generated against the work done in compressing a gas. He
obtained a mechanical equivalent of 798 ftlbf/Btu (4.29
J/cal). In many ways, this experiment oered the easiest target for Joules critics but Joule disposed of the
anticipated objections by clever experimentation. Joule
read his paper to the Royal Society on 20 June 1844,[5]
however, his paper was rejected for publishing by the
Royal Society and he had to be content with publishing
in the Philosophical Magazine in 1845.[6] In the paper he
was forthright in his rejection of the caloric reasoning of
Carnot and mile Clapeyron, but his theological motivations also became evident:
I conceive that this theory ... is opposed
to the recognised principles of philosophy
because it leads to the conclusion that vis viva
may be destroyed by an improper disposition
of the apparatus: Thus Mr Clapeyron draws
the inference that 'the temperature of the
re being 1000 C to 2000 C higher than
that of the boiler there is an enormous loss
of vis viva in the passage of the heat from
the furnace to the boiler.' Believing that the
power to destroy belongs to the Creator alone I
arm ... that any theory which, when carried
out, demands the annihilation of force, is
necessarily erroneous.
Joules Heat Apparatus, 1845.
In 1850, Joule published a rened measurement of

Joule here adopts the language of vis viva (energy), possi- 772.692 ftlbf/Btu (4.159 J/cal), closer to twentieth cen[9]
bly because Hodgkinson had read a review of Ewarts On tury estimates.
the measure of moving force to the Literary and Philosophical Society in April 1844.
Joule wrote in his 1844 paper:
20.3 Reception and priority
... the mechanical power exerted in turning a magneto-electric machine is converted

into the heat evolved by the passage of the
currents of induction through its coils; and,
on the other hand, that the motive power of
the electro-magnetic engine is obtained at
the expense of the heat due to the chemical
reactions of the battery by which it is worked.
In June 1845, Joule read his paper On the Mechanical

Equivalent of Heat to the British Association meeting in
Cambridge.[7] In this work, he reported his best-known
experiment, involving the use of a falling weight, in which
gravity does the mechanical work, to spin a paddle-wheel
in an insulated barrel of water which increased the temJoules apparatus for measuring the mechanical equivalent of
perature. He now estimated a mechanical equivalent heat
of 819 ftlbf/Btu (4.41 J/cal). He wrote a letter to the
20.4. KINETIC THEORY

For the controversy over priority with Mayer,
see Mechanical equivalent of heat: Priority
Much of the initial resistance to Joules work
stemmed from its dependence upon extremely precise
measurements. He claimed to be able to measure
temperatures to within 1 200 of a degree Fahrenheit
(3 mK). Such precision was certainly uncommon in
contemporary experimental physics but his doubters may
have neglected his experience in the art of brewing and
his access to its practical technologies.[10] He was also
ably supported by scientic instrument-maker John Benjamin Dancer. Joules experiments complemented the
theoretical work of Rudolf Clausius, who is considered
by some to be the coinventor of the energy concept.
Joule was proposing a kinetic theory of heat (he believed
it to be a form of rotational, rather than translational,
kinetic energy), and this required a conceptual leap: if
heat was a form of molecular motion, why didn't the motion of the molecules gradually die out? Joules ideas
required one to believe that the collisions of molecules
were perfectly elastic. We should also remember that the
very existence of atoms and molecules was not widely accepted for another 50 years.
Although it may be hard today to understand the allure of the caloric theory, at the time it seemed to have
some clear advantages. Carnot's successful theory of
heat engines had also been based on the caloric assumption, and only later was it proved by Lord Kelvin that
Carnots mathematics were equally valid without assuming a caloric uid.
However, in Germany, Hermann Helmholtz became
aware both of Joules work and the similar 1842 work
of Julius Robert von Mayer. Though both men had been
neglected since their respective publications, Helmholtzs
denitive 1847 declaration of the conservation of energy
credited them both.
157
of the Carnot-Clapeyron school. In his 1848 account of
absolute temperature, Thomson wrote that the conversion of heat (or caloric) into mechanical eect is probably
impossible, certainly undiscovered[11] but a footnote
signalled his rst doubts about the caloric theory, referring to Joules very remarkable discoveries. Surprisingly, Thomson did not send Joule a copy of his paper
but when Joule eventually read it he wrote to Thomson
on 6 October, claiming that his studies had demonstrated
conversion of heat into work but that he was planning further experiments. Thomson replied on the 27th, revealing that he was planning his own experiments and hoping
for a reconciliation of their two views. Though Thomson
conducted no new experiments, over the next two years
he became increasingly dissatised with Carnots theory
and convinced of Joules. In his 1851 paper, Thomson
was willing to go no further than a compromise and declared the whole theory of the motive power of heat is
founded on ... two ... propositions, due respectively to
Joule, and to Carnot and Clausius.
As soon as Joule read the paper he wrote to Thomson with his comments and questions. Thus began a
fruitful, though largely epistolary, collaboration between
the two men, Joule conducting experiments, Thomson
analysing the results and suggesting further experiments.
The collaboration lasted from 1852 to 1856, its discoveries including the Joule-Thomson eect, and the published results did much to bring about general acceptance
of Joules work and the kinetic theory.
20.4 Kinetic theory
Also in 1847, another of Joules presentations at the

British Association in Oxford was attended by George
Gabriel Stokes, Michael Faraday, and the precocious
and maverick William Thomson, later to become Lord
Kelvin, who had just been appointed professor of natural
philosophy at the University of Glasgow. Stokes was inclined to be a Joulite and Faraday was much struck with
it though he harboured doubts. Thomson was intrigued
but sceptical.
Unanticipated, Thomson and Joule met later that year
in Chamonix. Joule married Amelia Grimes on 18 August and the couple went on honeymoon. Marital enthusiasm notwithstanding, Joule and Thomson arranged to
attempt an experiment a few days later to measure the
temperature dierence between the top and bottom of
the Cascade de Sallanches waterfall, though this subse- James Prescott Joule
quently proved impractical.
Kinetics is the science of motion. Joule was a pupil of
Though Thomson felt that Joules results demanded the- Dalton and it is no surprise that he had learned a rm
oretical explanation, he retreated into a spirited defence belief in the atomic theory, even though there were many
158
scientists of his time who were still skeptical. He had

also been one of the few people receptive to the neglected
work of John Herapath on the kinetic theory of gases. He
was further profoundly inuenced by Peter Ewart's 1813
paper On the measure of moving force.
Joule perceived the relationship between his discoveries
and the kinetic theory of heat. His laboratory notebooks
reveal that he believed heat to be a form of rotational,
rather than translational motion.
Joule could not resist nding antecedents of his views in
Francis Bacon, Sir Isaac Newton, John Locke, Benjamin
Thompson (Count Rumford) and Sir Humphry Davy.
Though such views are justied, Joule went on to estimate
a value for the mechanical equivalent of heat of 1034
foot-pound from Rumfords publications. Some modern
writers have criticised this approach on the grounds that
Rumfords experiments in no way represented systematic
quantitative measurements. In one of his personal notes,
Joule contends that Mayers measurement was no more
accurate than Rumfords, perhaps in the hope that Mayer
had not anticipated his own work.
Joule has been attributed with explaining the Green Flash
phenomenon in a letter to the Manchester Literary and
Philosophical Society in 1869: actually, he just noted
(with a sketch) the last glimpse as bluish green.[12]
A statue of Joule in the Manchester Town Hall
20.5 Honours
Joule died at home in Sale[13] and is buried in Brooklands
cemetery there. The gravestone is inscribed with the
number 772.55, his climacteric 1878 measurement of
the mechanical equivalent of heat, in which he found that
this amount of foot-pounds of work must be expended at
sea level to raise the temperature of one pound of water
from 60 to 61 F. There is also a quotation from the Gospel
of John, I must work the works of him that sent me,
while it is day: the night cometh, when no man can work
(9:4). The Wetherspoons public house in Sale, the town
of his death, is named after him The J. P. Joule. The
family brewery still lives on but now located in Market
Drayton (see joulesbrewery.co.uk for more information
on origins).
Fellow of the Royal Society, (1850);
Royal Medal, (1852) For his paper on the
mechanical equivalent of heat, printed in the
Philosophical Transactions for 1850;
Copley Medal, (1870) For his experimental
researches on the dynamical theory of heat;
President of Manchester Literary and Philosophical Joules gravestone in Brooklands cemetery, Sale
Society, (1860);
President of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, (1872, 1887);
Honorary Membership of the Institution of Engineers and Shipbuilders in Scotland, (1857);

Honorary degrees:
LL.D., Trinity College Dublin, (1857);
DCL, University of Oxford, (1860);
LL.D., University of Edinburgh, (1871).
He received a civil list pension of 200 per annum
in 1878 for services to science;
Albert Medal of the Royal Society of Arts, (1880)
for having established, after most laborious research, the true relation between heat, electricity
and mechanical work, thus aording to the engineer
a sure guide in the application of science to industrial pursuits.
There is a memorial to Joule in the north choir
aisle of Westminster Abbey, though he is not buried
there, contrary to what some biographies state.
A statue by Alfred Gilbert, stands in Manchester
Town Hall, opposite that of Dalton.

Joule, J.P. (1884). The Scientic Papers of James
Prescott Joule. London: Physical Society.
20.7 Notes
[1] OED: Although some people of this name call themselves
(dal), and others (dl) [the OED format for /dol/],
it is almost certain that J. P. Joule (and at least some of his
relatives) used (dul).
[2] Joule, J.P. (1841). On the Heat evolved by Metallic
Conductors of Electricity, and in the Cells of a Battery
during Electrolysis. Philosophical Magazine 19: 260.
doi:10.1080/14786444108650416. Retrieved 3 March
2014.
[3] Joules unit of 1 ft lbf/Btu corresponds to 5.3803103
J/cal. Thus Joules estimate was 4.51 J/cal, compared to
the value accepted by the beginning of the 20th century
of 4.1860 J/cal (M.W. Zemansky (1968) Heat and Thermodynamics, 5th ed., p. 86).
[4] Joule, J.P. (1843). On the Caloric Eects of MagnetoElectricity, and on the Mechanical Value of Heat.
Philosophical Magazine. 3 23: 263, 347 & 435.
2014.
[5] Joule, J.P. (1844). On the Changes of Temperature Produced by the Rarefaction and Condensation of
Air. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London 5.
doi:10.1098/rspl.1843.0031. and Scientic Papers p. 171
[6] Joule, J.P. (1845). On the Changes of Temperature Produced by the Rarefaction and Condensation of
Air. Philosophical Magazine. 3 26 (174): 369383.
doi:10.1080/14786444508645153.
159
[7] Joule, J.P. (1845) On the Mechanical Equivalent of

Heat, Brit. Assoc. Rep., trans. Chemical Sect, p.31, read
before the British Association at Cambridge, June 1845
[8] Joule, J.P. (1845). On the Existence of an Equivalent Relation between Heat and the ordinary Forms of Mechanical Power. Philosophical Magazine. 3 27 (179): 205
207. doi:10.1080/14786444508645256.
[9] Joule, J.P. (1850). On the Mechanical Equivalent of
Heat. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of
London 140: 6182. doi:10.1098/rstl.1850.0004.
[10] Sibum (1994)
[11] See Thomson, William (1848). On an Absolute Thermometric Scale founded on Carnots Theory of the Motive Power of Heat, and calculated from Regnaults Observations. Philosophical Journal.- See also the account
in Thomson, William (1882). Mathematical and Physical Papers. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University
Press. pp. 100106.
[12] Proc. Manchester Lit. Phil. Soc. 9, 1 (1869) On an
appearance of the setting sun reprinted as On Sunset seen
at Southport
[13] GRO Register of Deaths: DEC 1889 8a 121 ALTRINCHAM James Prescott Joule

Bottomley,
J. T. (1882).
James
Prescott Joule.
Nature 26 (678):
617
620.
Bibcode:1882Natur..26..617B.
doi:10.1038/026617a0.
Cardwell, D. S. L. (1991). James Joule: A Biography. Manchester University Press. ISBN 0-71903479-5.
Forrester, J. (1975). Chemistry and the Conservation of Energy: The Work of James Prescott Joule.
Studies in the History and Philosophy of Science 6
(4): 273313. doi:10.1016/0039-3681(75)900254.
Fox, R, James Prescott Joule, 18181889, in
North, J. (1969). Mid-nineteenth-century scientists.
Elsevier. pp. 72103. ISBN 0-7190-3479-5.
Reynolds, Osbourne (1892). Memoir of James
Prescott Joule. Manchester, England: Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society. Retrieved
2014-03-05.
Sibum, H. O. (1995). Reworking the mechanical
value of heat: instruments of precision and gestures
of accuracy in early Victorian England. Studies
in History and Philosophy of Science 26: 73106.
doi:10.1016/0039-3681(94)00036-9.
160
Smith, C. (1998). The Science of Energy: A Cultural History of Energy Physics in Victorian Britain.
London: Heinemann. ISBN 0-485-11431-3.
Smith, Crosbie (2004). Joule, James Prescott.
Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online
ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:
odnb/15139. (Subscription or UK public library
membership required.). The rst edition of this text
is available as an article on Wikisource:
"Joule,
James Prescott". Dictionary of National Biography.
London: Smith, Elder & Co. 18851900.
Smith, C. & Wise, M.N. (1989). Energy and Empire: A Biographical Study of Lord Kelvin. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-26173-2.
Steens, H.J. (1979). James Prescott Joule and the
Concept of Energy. Watson. ISBN 0-88202-170-2.
Walker, James (1950). Physics 4th Edition. Pearson.
ISBN 978-0-321-54163-5.
20.9 External links

The scientic papers of James Prescott Joule (1884)
- annotated by Joule
The joint scientic papers of James Prescott Joule
(1887) - annotated by Joule
Classic papers of 1845 and 1847 at ChemTeam
website On the Mechanical Equivalent of Heat and
On the Existence of an Equivalent Relation between
Heat and the ordinary Forms of Mechanical Power
Joules water friction apparatus at London Science
Museum
Some Remarks on Heat and the Constitution of Elastic
Fluids, Joules 1851 estimate of the speed of a gas
molecule.
University of Manchester material on Joule includes photographs of Joules house and gravesite
"Joule, James Prescott". Dictionary of National Biography. London: Smith, Elder & Co. 18851900.
Dr. Joule. Electrical Engineer (London: Biggs &
Co) (18 October): 311312. 1889. Retrieved 16
May 2008.- obituary with brief comment on Joules
family
Joule Physics Laboratory at the University of Salford
- contains further information on the origins of
the Joules brewery and the link with James Prescott
Joule
Chapter 21
Atomic mass unit

The unied atomic mass unit (symbol: u) or dalton
(symbol: Da) is the standard unit that is used for indicating mass on an atomic or molecular scale (atomic mass).
One unied atomic mass unit is approximately the mass
of one nucleon (either a single proton or neutron) and
is equivalent to 1 g/mol.[1] It is dened as one twelfth
of the mass of an unbound neutral atom of carbon-12
in its nuclear and electronic ground state,[2] and has a
value of 1.660538921(73)1027 kg.[3] The CIPM has
categorised it as a non-SI unit accepted for use with
the SI, and whose value in SI units must be obtained
experimentally.[2]
The amu without the unied prex is technically an obsolete unit based on oxygen, which was replaced in 1961.
However, some sources may still use the term amu but
now dene it in the same way as u (i.e. based on carbon12). In this sense, most uses of the terms atomic mass
units and amu today actually refer to unied atomic
mass units. For standardization a specic atomic nucleus
(carbon-12 vs. oxygen-16) had to be chosen because average mass of a nucleon depends on the count of the nucleons in the atomic nucleus due to mass defect. This is
also why the mass of a proton (or neutron) by itself is
more than (and not equal to) 1 u.
gen relative atomic mass) given a value of exactly 16

atomic mass units (amu) in chemistry, while pure 16 O
(oxygen-16) was given the mass value of exactly 16 amu
in physics.
The divergence of these values could result in errors in
computations, and was unwieldy. The chemistry amu,
based on the relative atomic mass (atomic weight) of natural oxygen (including the heavy naturally-occurring isotopes 17 O and 18 O), was about 1.000282 as massive as
the physics amu, based on pure isotopic 16 O.
For these and other reasons, the reference standard for
both physics and chemistry was changed to carbon-12 in
1961.[5] The choice of carbon-12 was made to minimise
further divergence with prior literature.[4] The new and
current unit was referred to as the unied atomic mass
unit u.[6] and given a new symbol, u, which replaced
the now deprecated amu that had been connected to
the old oxygen-based system. The Dalton (Da) is another
name for the unied atomic mass unit.[7]
Despite this change, modern sources often still use the

old term amu but dene it as u (1/12 of the mass of a
carbon-12 atom), as mentioned in the articles introduction. Therefore, in general, amu likely does not refer to
the old oxygen standard unit, unless the source material
Atomic mass unit does not stand for the unit of mass in originates from or before the 1960s.
the atomic units system, which is rather m.
The unied atomic mass unit u was dened as:
21.1 History
1u = mu =
The relative atomic mass (atomic weight) scale has traditionally been a relative scale, that is without an explicit
unit, with the rst relative atomic mass basis suggested by
John Dalton in 1803 as 1 H.[4] Despite the initial mass of
1
H being used as the natural unit for relative atomic mass,
it was suggested by Wilhelm Ostwald that relative atomic
mass would be best expressed in terms of units of 1/16
mass of oxygen. This evaluation was made prior to the
discovery of the existence of elemental isotopes, which
occurred in 1912.[4]
1 (12 )
m C
12
21.2 Terminology
The unied atomic mass unit and the dalton are dierent
names for the same unit of measure. As with other unit
names such as watt and newton, dalton is not capitalized in English, but its symbol Da is capitalized. With
the introduction of the name dalton, there has been a
gradual change towards using that name in preference to
the name unied atomic mass unit":
The discovery of isotopic oxygen in 1929 led to a divergence in relative atomic mass representation, with isotopically weighted oxygen (i.e., naturally occurring oxy161
In 1993, the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry approved the use of the dalton with
162
CHAPTER 21. ATOMIC MASS UNIT

the qualication that the CGPM had not given its
approval.[8]
In 2003 the Consultative Committee for Units, part

of the CIPM, recommended a preference for the usage of the "dalton" over the "unied atomic mass
unit" as it "is shorter and works better with prexes".[9]
1. The mole is the amount of substance of a system

which contains as many elementary entities as there
are atoms in 0.012 kilogram of carbon-12; its symbol is mol.
2. When the mole is used, the elementary entities must
be specied and may be atoms, molecules, ions,
electrons, other particles, or specied groups of such
particles.
In 2005, the International Union of Pure and Applied Physics endorsed the use of the dalton as an
alternative to the unied atomic mass unit.[10]
The denition of the mole also determines the value of

the universal constant that relates the number of entities
to amount of substance for any sample. This constant
In 2006, in the 8th edition of the formal denition is called the Avogadro constant, symbol NA or L, and
of SI, the CIPM cataloged the dalton alongside the has the value 6.022140857(74)1023 mol1 (entities per
unied atomic mass unit as a Non-SI units whose mole).[16]
values in SI units must be obtained experimentally:
Units accepted for use with the SI.[2] The denition Given that the unied atomic mass unit is one twelfth the
also noted that "The dalton is often combined with SI mass of one atom of carbon-12, meaning the mass of
such an atom is 12 u, it follows that there are NA atoms
prexes ..."
of carbon-12 in 0.012 kg of carbon-12. This can be ex In 2009, when the International Organization for pressed mathematically as
Standardization published updated versions of ISO
80000, it gave mixed messages as to whether or
NA (12 u) = 0.012 kg/mol, or
not the unied atomic mass unit had been depreNA u = 0.001 kg/mol
cated: ISO ISO 80000-1:2009 (General), identied
the dalton as having "earlier [been] called the uni- Masses of proteins are often expressed in daltons. For
ed atomic mass unit u",[11] but ISO 80000-10:2009 example, a protein with a molecular weight of 64000
(atomic and nuclear physics) catalogued both as be- gmol1 has a mass of 64 kDa.[1]
ing alternatives for each other.[12]
The 2010 version of the Oxford University Press
style guide for authors in life sciences gave the
following guidance "Use the Systme international
d'units (SI) wherever possible ... The dalton (Da) or
more conveniently the kDa is a permitted non-SI unit
for molecular mass or mass of a particular band in
a separating gel."[13] At the same time, the author
guidelines for the journal "Rapid Communications
in Mass Spectrometry" stated "The dalton (Da) is a
unit of mass normally used for the molecular weight
... use of the Da in place of the u has become commonplace in the mass spectrometry literature ... The
atomic mass unit, abbreviated amu, is an archaic
unit".[14]
In 2012, in response to the proposed redenition of
the kilogram, it was proposed that the dalton be redened as being 0.001/NA kg, thereby breaking the
link with 12 C. This would result in the dalton and
the atomic mass unit having slightly dierent denitions, but the suggestion is that the older unit should
be superseded by the new dalton.[15]
21.3 Relationship to SI
The denition of the mole, an SI base unit, was accepted
by the CGPM in 1971 as:
21.4 Examples
A hydrogen-1 atom has a mass of 1.0078250 u
(1.0078250 Da).
By denition, a carbon-12 atom has a mass of 12 u
(12 Da).
A molecule of acetylsalicylic acid (Aspirin) has a
mass of 180.16 u (180.16 Da).
Titin, the largest known protein, has an atomic mass
of 3-3.7 megadaltons (3000000 Da).[17]
21.5 See also

Kendrick mass
Mass-to-charge ratio
Atomic mass constant
21.6 Notes and references

[1] Stryer, Jeremy M. Berg; John L. Tymoczko; Lubert
(2007). 2. Biochemistry (6. ed., 3. print. ed.). New
York: Freeman. p. 35. ISBN 978-0-7167-8724-2.
[2] International Bureau of Weights and Measures (2006),

The International System of Units (SI) (PDF) (8th ed.), p.
126, ISBN 92-822-2213-6
[3] Unied Atomic mass unit. Fundamental Physical Constants from NIST
[4] Petley, B. W., The atomic mass unit, IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas. 38 (2): 17579, doi:10.1109/19.192268
[5] Holden, Norman E. (2004), Atomic Weights and the
International CommitteeA Historical Review, Chem.
Int. 26 (1): 47
(2006) "unied atomic mass unit".
(2006) "dalton".
[8] Mills, Ian; Cvita, Tomislav; Homann, Klaus; Kallay,
Nikola; Kuchitsu, Kozo (1993n). Quantities, Units and
Symbols in Physical Chemistry International Union of
Pure and Applied Chemistry; Physical Chemistry Division
(PDF) (2nd ed.). International Union of Pure and Applied
Chemistry and published for them by Blackwell Science
Ltd. ISBN 0-632-03583-8.
[9] Consultative Committee for Units (CCU); Report of the
15th meeting (1718 April 2003) to the International
Committee for Weights and Measures (PDF). Retrieved
14 Aug 2010.
[10] IU14. IUPAC Interdivisional Committee on Nomenclature and Symbols (ICTNS)". Retrieved 2010-08-14.
[11] International Standard ISO 80000-1:2009 Quantities and
Units Part 1: General, International Organization for
Standardization, 2009
[12] International Standard ISO 80000-10:2009 Quantities
and units Part 10: Atomic and nuclear physics, International Organization for Standardization, 2009
[13] Instructions to Authors. AoB Plants. Oxford journals;
Oxford University Press. Retrieved 2010-08-22.
[14] Author guidelines. Rapid Communications in Mass
Spectrometry (Wiley-Blackwell). 2010. Retrieved 201105-08.
[15] Leonard, B P (2012). Why the dalton should be redened
exactly in terms of the kilogram. Metrologia 49: 487
491. Bibcode:2012Metro..49..487L. doi:10.1088/00261394/49/4/487.
[16] Mohr, Peter J.; Taylor, Barry N.; Newell, David B. (2008).
CODATA Recommended Values of the Fundamental
Physical Constants: 2006. Rev. Mod. Phys. 80 (2): 633
730. arXiv:0801.0028. Bibcode:2008RvMP...80..633M.
doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.80.633. Direct link to value.
[17] Opitz CA, Kulke M, Leake MC, Neagoe C, Hinssen
H, Hajjar RJ, Linke WA (October 2003). Damped
elastic recoil of the titin spring in myobrils of human myocardium. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A.
163
100 (22): 1268893. Bibcode:2003PNAS..10012688O.

doi:10.1073/pnas.2133733100. PMC 240679. PMID
14563922.
21.7 External links

atomic mass unit at sizes.com
Chapter 22
Wilhelm Ostwald
Friedrich Wilhelm Ostwald (Russian: , Latvian: Vilhelms Ostvalds; 2 September 1853 4 April 1932) was a Russian-German chemist.
He received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1909 for his
work on catalysis, chemical equilibria and reaction velocities. Ostwald, Jacobus Henricus van 't Ho, and Svante
Arrhenius are usually credited with being the modern
founders of the eld of physical chemistry.
22.1 Early life and education

Ostwald was born ethnically Baltic German in Riga, to
master-cooper Gottfried Wilhelm Ostwald (18241903)
and Elisabeth Leuckel (18241903). He was the middle of two brothers, Eugen (18511932) and Gottfried
(18551918). Ostwald graduated from the University of
Tartu, Estonia, in 1875, received his Ph.D. there in 1878
under the guidance of Carl Schmidt, and taught at CoArc from 1875 to 1881 and at Riga Polytechnicum from
1881 to 1887.
22.2 Career and research

Ostwald is usually credited with inventing the Ostwald
process (patent 1902), used in the manufacture of nitric
acid, although the basic chemistry had been patented
some 64 years earlier by Kuhlmann,[1] when it was probably of only academic interest due to the lack of a signicant source of ammonia. That may have still been
the state of aairs in 1902, although things were due to
change dramatically in the second half of the decade as
a result of Haber and Boschs work on their nitrogen xing process (completed by 1911 or 1913). The date 1908
(six years after the patent) is often given for the invention
of the Ostwald process, and it may be that these developments motivated him to do additional work to commercialize the process in that time-frame. Alternatively, six
years might simply have been the bureaucratic interval
between ling the patent and the time it was granted.
Jacobus van 't Ho (left) and Wilhelm Ostwald
itself in desperate need during World War I. Ostwald

also did signicant work on dilution theory leading to
his discovery of the law of dilution which is named after him. Ostwalds rule concerns the behaviour of polymorphs. The word mole, according to Gorin, was introduced into chemistry around 1900 by Ostwald. Ostwald
dened one mole as the molecular weight of a substance
in mass grams. The concept was linked to the ideal gas,
according to Ostwald. Ironically, Ostwalds development
of the mole concept was directly related to his philosophical opposition to the atomic theory, against which
he (along with Ernst Mach) was one of the last holdouts.
He explained in a conversation with Arnold Sommerfeld
that he was converted by Jean Perrin's experiments on
Brownian Motion.[2]
In 1906 Ostwald was elected a member of the
International Committee on Atomic Weights. As a consequence of World War I this membership ended in 1917
and was not resumed after the war. The 1917 Annual report of the committee ended with the unusual note: Because of the European war the Committee has had much
diculty in the way of correspondence. The German
member, Professor Ostwald, has not been heard from in
connection with this report. Possibly the censorship of
letters, either in Germany or en route, has led to a miscarriage.
In addition to his work in chemistry, Wilhelm Ostwald

The combination of these two breakthroughs soon led was very productive in an extremely broad range of elds.
to more economical and larger-scale production of His published work, which includes numerous philosophfertilizers and explosives, of which Germany was to nd ical writings, contains about forty thousand pages. Ost164
22.5. IN FICTION
165
wald was also engaged in the peace movement of Berta Willis Rodney Whitney. On his religious views, Ostwald
von Suttner.
was an atheist.[9] Ostwald died in a hospital in Leipzig on
Among his other interests, Ostwald was a passionate am- 4 April 1932, and was buried at his house in Grobothen,
ateur painter who made his own pigments, and who devel- near Leipzig and then in the Great Cemetery of Riga.
oped a strong interest in color theory in the later decades
of his life. He wrote several publications in the eld,
such as his Malerbriefe (Letters to a Painter, 1904) and 22.5 In ction
Die Farbenbel (The Color Primer, 1916). His work in
color theory was inuenced by that of Albert Henry MunHe appears as a character in Joseph Skibell's 2010 novel,
sell, and in turn inuenced Paul Klee and members of
A Curable Romantic.
De Stijl, including Piet Mondrian.[3] He was also interested in the international language movement, rst learning Esperanto, then later supporting Ido and had become
member of Committee of the Delegation for the Adop- 22.6 Publications
tion of an International Auxiliary Language.[4] Ostwald
donated half the proceddings of his 1909 Nobel prize to
Ostwald, W. (1900). Grundriss der allgemeinen
the Ido movement,[5] funding the Ido magazine Progreso
Chemie. Leipzig: Engelmann.
which he had proposed in 1908.[6]
Ostwald, W. (1906). Process of manufacturing nitric
Ostwald adopted the philosophy of Monism as advanced
acid. Patent.
by Ernst Haeckel and became President of the Monistic
Alliance in 1911. He used the Alliances forum to pro Ostwald, W. (1909). Energetische Grundlagen der
mote Social Darwinism, eugenics and euthanasia. OstKulturwissenschaft (1st ed.). Leipzig.
walds Monism inuenced Carl G. Jungs identication of
[7]
psychological types.
Couturat, L.; Jespersen O., Lorenz R., Ostwald WilHe was one of the directors of the Die Brcke institute
helm, and Pfaundler L. (1910). International lanin Mnchen. The institute was sponsored, signicantly,
guage and science: Considerations on the introducfrom Ostwalds Nobel Prize money.[8]
tion of an international language into science. London: Constable and Company Limited.
22.3 Awards
Ostwald, W. (1917). Grundriss der allgemeinen

Chemie (5th ed.). Dresden: Steinkop.
Nobel Prize in Chemistry, 1909

Wilhelm Exner Medal, 1923
22.4 Personal life

On 24 April 1880 Ostwald married Helene von Reyher
(1854 1946), with whom he had ve children:
Grete (born 1882 in Riga; died 1960 in Grobothen)
Wolfgang (born 1883 in Riga; died 1943 in
Dresden)
Elisabeth (born 1884 in Riga; died 1968 in
Grobothen)
Walter (born 1886 in Riga; died 1958 in Freiburg
im Breisgau)
Carl Otto (born 1890 in Leipzig; died 1958 in
Leipzig)
In 1887, he moved to Leipzig where he worked for the rest
of his life. Arthur Noyes was one of his students, as was
22.7 Works
Leitlinien der Chemie : 7 gemeinverstndliche
Vortrge aus der Geschichte der Chemie. Leipzig
: Akad. Verl.-Ges., 1906. Digital edition of the
University and State Library Dsseldorf.
22.8 See also

Ostwald color system
Ostwald dilution law
Ostwalds rule
Ostwald ripening
Power law uid
Timeline of hydrogen technologies
List of Baltic German scientists
166
CHAPTER 22. WILHELM OSTWALD
22.9 Notes
[1] Note:
Frdric Kuhlmann, Pour la fabrication de l'acide
nitrique et des nitrates, French patent no. 11,331
(led: October 1838 ; issued: 22 December 1838).
Supplemental patent issued: 7 June 1839. See: Description des machines et procds consigns dans
les brevets d'invention, [Description of machines
and methods recorded in the patents of invention,
] (Paris, France: Madame Veuve BouchardHuzard, 1854), 82 : 160.
Frd. Kuhlmann (1838) Note sur plusieurs ractions nouvelles dtermines par l'ponge de platine,
et considrations sur les services que cette substance
est appele rendre la science (Note on several
new reactions caused by platinum sponge, and reections on the services that this substance is called
to render to science), Comptes rendus, 7 : 11071110. From page 1109: 1. L'ammoniaque mle
d'air en passant une temprature de 300 environ
sur de l'ponge de platine, est dcompose, et l'azote
qu'il renferme est compltement transform en acide
nitrique, aux dpens de l'oxigne de l'air. (1. Ammonia mixed with air, upon passing at a temperature of about 300 over platinum sponge, is decomposed and the nitrogen that it contains is completely
transformed into nitric acid, at the expense of the
oxygen of the air.)
John Graham Smith (1988) Frdric Kuhlmann:
Pioneer of platinum as an industrial catalyst, Platinum Metals Review, 32 (2) : 84-90.
[2] Nye, M., 1972, Molecular Reality: A Perspective on the
Scientic Work of Jean Perrin, London: MacDonald.
22.10 References
Clark, F.W. (1916). Annual report of the international committee on atomic weights. J.
Am.
Chem.
Soc.
38 (11): 22192221.
doi:10.1021/ja02268a001.
Gorin, G. (1994). Mole and chemical amount:
A discussion of the fundamental measurements of chemistry.
J. Chem.
Education
71 (2): 114.
Bibcode:1994JChEd..71..114G.
doi:10.1021/ed071p114.
Patrick Coey, Cathedrals of Science: The Personalities and Rivalries That Made Modern Chemistry,
Oxford University Press, 2008. ISBN 978-0-19532134-0

Chemistry Tree: Wilhelm Friedrich Ostwald Details
Nobel Lecture On Catalysis from Nobelprize.org
website
Biography Biography from Nobelprize.org website
Works by Wilhelm Ostwald at Project Gutenberg
Works by or about Wilhelm Ostwald at Internet
Archive
Works by Wilhelm Ostwald at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
[3] John Gage, Color and Culture: Practice and Meaning from
Antiquity to Abstraction, Boston, Little, Brown and Co.,
1993; pp. 247 8, 257 60.
"The Origin of the Word 'Mole'" at the Wayback Machine (archived December 22, 2007). ChemTeam.
[4] The Esperanto Movement By Peter Glover Forster
Landsitz Energie Grossbothen/Saxony Ostwald and

his country seat Energie (in English)
[5] Wall, F. E. (1948). Wilhelm Ostwald. Journal of Chemical Education 25: 21. doi:10.1021/ed025p2.
[6] Anton, Gnter (June 2003). L'agado di profesoro Wilhelm Ostwald por la LINGUO INTERNACIONA IDO
(in Ido). Retrieved 12 February 2012.
[7] Noll, Richard, The Jung Cult. Princeton University Press,
1994, p. 50
[8] Michael Keeble Buckland (April 2006). Emanuel Goldberg and his knowledge machine: information, invention,
and political forces. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 64.
ISBN 978-0-313-31332-5. Retrieved 26 May 2011.
[9] Jrgen Kocka (2010). Jrgen Kocka, ed. Work in a Modern Society: The German Historical Experience in Comparative Perspective. Berghahn Books. p. 45. ISBN 978-184545-575-0. Even Wilhelm Ostwald, who was the most
radical atheist among these scholars, uses the instrument
of the 'Monistic Sunday Sermons to spread his ideas on
rationality.
History of the International Committee on Atomic

Weights
Chapter 23
Carbon-12
Carbon-12 is the more abundant carbon of the two stable
isotopes, amounting to 98.93% of the element carbon;[1]
its abundance is due to the triple-alpha process by which it
is created in stars. Carbon-12 is of particular importance
in its use as the standard from which atomic masses of all
nuclides are measured: its mass number is 12 by denition and contains 6 protons, 6 neutrons and 6 electrons.
the Hoyle state has been conrmed experimentally, but its

precise properties are still being investigated.[4] In 2011,
an ab initio calculation of the low-lying states of carbon12 found (in addition to the ground and excited spin-2
state) a resonance with all of the properties of the Hoyle
state.[5][6]
23.3 Isotopic purication
23.1 History
The isotopes of carbon can be separated in the form of

Prior to 1959 both the IUPAP and IUPAC used oxygen carbon dioxide gas by cascaded chemical exchange reacto dene the mole; the chemists dening the mole as the tions with amine carbamate.[7]
number of atoms of oxygen which had mass 16 g, the
physicists using a similar denition but with the oxygen16 isotope only. The two organizations agreed in 1959/60 23.4 See also
to dene the mole as follows.
Avogadro constant
The mole is the amount of substance of a

system which contains as many elementary entities as there are atoms in 0.012 kilogram of
carbon 12; its symbol is mol.
Carbon-11
Carbon-13
Carbon-14
This was adopted by the CIPM (International Committee for Weights and Measures) in 1967, and in 1971 it
was adopted by the 14th CGPM (General Conference on
Weights and Measures).
Isotopes of carbon
Isotopically pure diamond
In 1961 the isotope carbon-12 was selected to replace

oxygen as the standard relative to which the atomic
weights of all the other elements are measured.[2]
In 1980 the CIPM claried the above denition, dening
that the carbon-12 atoms are unbound and in their ground
state.
Mole (unit)
23.5 References
[1] Table of Isotopic Masses and Natural Abundances
(PDF). 1999.
23.2 Hoyle state
[2] Atomic Weights and the International Committee A

Historical Review. 2004-01-26.
The Hoyle state is an excited, spinless, resonant state of

carbon-12. It is produced via the triple-alpha process, and
was predicted to exist by Fred Hoyle in 1954.[3] The existence of the Hoyle state is essential for the nucleosynthesis
of carbon in helium-burning red giant stars, and predicts an amount of carbon production in a stellar environment which matches observations. The existence of
[3] Hoyle, F. (1954). On Nuclear Reactions Occurring in

Very Hot Stars. I. the Synthesis of Elements from Carbon
to Nickel.. The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series
1: 121. doi:10.1086/190005. ISSN 0067-0049.
167
[4] Chernykh, M.; Feldmeier, H.; Ne, T.; Von NeumannStructure of the
Cosel, P.; Richter, A. (2007).
Hoyle State in C12 (PDF). Physical Review Letters
168
CHAPTER 23. CARBON-12
98 (3): 032501.
Bibcode:2007PhRvL..98c2501C.
doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.98.032501. PMID 17358679.
[5] Epelbaum, E.; Krebs, H.; Lee, D.; Meiner, U.-G.
(2011). Ab Initio Calculation of the Hoyle State
(PDF). Physical Review Letters 106 (19): 192501.
arXiv:1101.2547.
Bibcode:2011PhRvL.106s2501E.
PMID
21668146.
[6] Hjorth-Jensen, M. (2011). Viewpoint: The carbon challenge. Physics 4: 38. Bibcode:2011PhyOJ...4...38H.
doi:10.1103/Physics.4.38.
[7] Kenji Takeshita and Masaru Ishidaa (December 2006).
Optimum design of multi-stage isotope separation process by exergy analysis. ECOS 2004 - 17th International
Conference on Eciency, Costs, Optimization, Simulation,
and Environmental Impact of Energy on Process Systems
31 (15): 30973107. doi:10.1016/j.energy.2006.04.002.
Chapter 24
Isotopes of carbon
Carbon-15 redirects here. For the rearm, see Carbon natural proportion of approximately 99:1. 14 C is pro15.
duced by thermal neutrons from cosmic radiation in the
upper atmosphere, and is transported down to earth to
be absorbed by living biological material. Isotopically,
8
22
Carbon (C) has 15 known isotopes, from C to C, 2 14
C constitutes a negligible part; but, since it is radioac12
13
of which ( C and C) are stable. The longest-lived rative with a half-life of 5,700 years, it is radiometrically
14
dioisotope is C, with a half-life of 5,700 years. This is
14
also the only carbon radioisotope found in naturetrace detectable.14 Since dead tissue doesn't absorb C, the
amount of C is one of the methods used within the eld
quantities are formed cosmogenically by the reaction 14 N
1
14
1
+ n C + H. The most stable articial radioisotope of archeology for radiometric dating of biological mateis 11 C, which has a half-life of 20.334 minutes. All other rial.
radioisotopes have half-lives under 20 seconds, most less
than 200 milliseconds. The least stable isotope is 8 C,
with a half-life of 2.0 x 1021 s. Averaging over natural abundances, the standard atomic mass for carbon is
12.0107(8) u.
24.1 Carbon-11
Carbon-11 or 11 C is a radioactive isotope of carbon that
decays to boron-11. This decay mainly occurs due to
positron emission; however, around 0.190.23% of the
time, it is a result of electron capture.[1][2] It has a halflife of 20.334 minutes.
11C 11B + e+ +
e + 0.96 MeV
11C + e 11B +
e + 1.98 MeV
Carbon-11 is commonly used as a radioisotope for the
radioactive labeling of molecules in positron emission tomography. Among the many molecules used in this context is the radioligand [11C]DASB.
24.2 Natural isotopes
24.3 Paleoclimate
12
C and 13 C are measured as the isotope ratio 13 C in

benthic foraminifera and used as a proxy for nutrient cycling and the temperature dependent air-sea exchange of
CO2 (ventilation) (Lynch-Stieglitz et al., 1995). Plants
nd it easier to use the lighter isotopes (12 C) when they
convert sunlight and carbon dioxide into food. So, for example, large blooms of plankton (free-oating organisms)
absorb large amounts of 12 C from the oceans. Originally,
the 12 C was mostly incorporated into the seawater from
the atmosphere. If the oceans that the plankton live in
are stratied (meaning that there are layers of warm water near the top, and colder water deeper down), then the
surface water does not mix very much with the deeper
waters, so that when the plankton dies, it sinks and takes
away 12 C from the surface, leaving the surface layers relatively rich in 13 C. Where cold waters well up from the
depths (such as in the North Atlantic), the water carries
12
C back up with it. So, when the ocean was less stratied
than today, there was much more 12 C in the skeletons of
surface-dwelling species. Other indicators of past climate
include the presence of tropical species, coral growths
rings, etc.[3]
24.4 Tracing food sources and diets
Main articles: Carbon-12, Carbon-13 and Carbon-14
The quantities of the dierent isotopes can be measured

by mass spectrometry and compared to a standard; the
There are three naturally occurring isotopes of carbon: result (e.g. the delta of the 13 C = 13 C) is expressed as
12, 13, and 14. 12 C and 13 C are stable, occurring in a parts per thousand ().
169
170
CHAPTER 24. ISOTOPES OF CARBON
( ( 13 C )
13 C =
12 C
[10] Primarily cosmogenic, produced by neutrons striking

atoms of 14 N (14 N + 1 n -> 14 C + 1 H)
( 13 C )
sample
12 C
standard
1000 o/oo
[11] Has 1 halo neutron
Stable carbon isotopes in carbon dioxide are utilized dif- [12] Has 2 halo neutrons
ferentially by plants during photosynthesis. Grasses in
temperate climates (barley, rice, wheat, rye and oats, plus
sunower, potato, tomatoes, peanuts, cotton, sugar beet, 24.5.1 Notes
and most trees and their nuts/fruits, roses and Kentucky
The precision of the isotope abundances and atomic
bluegrass) follow a C3 photosynthetic pathway that will
13
mass is limited through variations. The given ranges
yield C values averaging about 26.5. Grasses in
should be applicable to any normal terrestrial matehot arid climates (maize in particular, but also millet,
rial.
sorghum, sugar cane and crabgrass) follow a C4 photo13
synthetic pathway that produces C values averaging
Values marked # are not purely derived from exabout 12.5.
perimental data, but at least partly from systematic
It follows that eating these dierent plants will aect the
trends. Spins with weak assignment arguments are
13 C values in the consumers body tissues. If an anienclosed in parentheses.
mal (or human) eats only C3 plants, their 13 C values
will be from 18.5 to 22.0 in their bone collagen and
Uncertainties are given in concise form in parenthe14.5 in their apatite.[4]
ses after the corresponding last digits. Uncertainty
values denote one standard deviation, except isoIn contrast, C4 feeders will have bone collagen with a
topic composition and standard atomic mass from
value of 7.5 and apatite value of 0.5.
IUPAC, which use expanded uncertainties.
In actual case studies, millet and maize eaters can easily be distinguished from rice and wheat eaters. Studying
Carbon-12 nuclide is of particular importance as it
how these dietary preferences are distributed geographiis used as the standard from which atomic masses
cally through time can illuminate migration paths of peoof all nuclides are expressed: its atomic mass is by
ple and dispersal paths of dierent agricultural crops.
denition 12 Da.
However, human groups have often mixed C3 and C4
plants (northern Chinese historically subsisted on wheat
Nuclide masses are given by IUPAP Commission on
and millet), or mixed plant and animal groups together
Symbols, Units, Nomenclature, Atomic Masses and
(for example, southeastern Chinese subsisting on rice and
Fundamental Constants (SUNAMCO).
sh).[5]
Isotope abundances are given by IUPAC
Weights.
24.5 Table
[1] Bold for stable isotopes
[2] Subsequently decays by double proton emission to 4 He for
a net reaction of 8 C -> 4 He + 41 H
[3] Immediately decays by proton emission to 8 Be, which immediately decays to two 4 He atoms for a net reaction of
9
C -> 24 He + 1 H + e+
[4] Immediately decays into two 4 He atoms for a net reaction
of 9 C -> 24 He + 1 H + e+
[5] Immediately decays by proton emission to 4 He for a net
reaction of 9 C -> 24 He + 1 H + e+
[6] Used for labeling molecules in PET scans
[7] The unied atomic mass unit is dened as 1/12 the mass
of an unbound atom of carbon-12 at ground state
12
13
[8] Ratio of C to C used to measure biological productivity in ancient times and diering types of photosynthesis
[9] Has an important use in radiodating (see carbon dating)
24.6 See also

radiocarbon dating
Cosmogenic isotopes
Environmental isotopes
Isotopic signature
24.7 References
[1] Scobie, J.; Lewis, G. M. (1 September 1957). Kcapture in carbon 11.
Philosophical Magazine 2
(21): 10891099.
Bibcode:1957PMag....2.1089S.
2012.
24.7. REFERENCES
[2] Campbell, J. L.; Leiper, W.; Ledingham, K. W. D.;

Drever, R. W. P. The ratio of K-capture to positon
emission in the decay of 11C. Nuclear Physics A
96 (2): 279287.
Bibcode:1967NuPhA..96..279C.
doi:10.1016/0375-9474(67)90712-9.
Retrieved 27
March 2012.
[3] Tim Flannery The weather makers: the history & future
of climate change, The Text Publishing Company, Melbourne, Australia. ISBN 1-920885-84-6
[4] Tycot, R. H. (2004) Stable isotopes and diet: you are
what you eat. Proceedings of the International School of
Physics 'Enrico Fermi' Course CLIV, edited by M. Martini,
M. Milazzo and M. Piacentini. Amsterdam: IOS Press.
[5] Hedges Richard (2006). Where does our protein
come from?". British Journal of Nutrition 95: 10312.
doi:10.1079/bjn20061782.
[6] Universal Nuclide Chart. nucleonica. (registration required (help)).
Isotope masses from:

G. Audi; A. H. Wapstra; C. Thibault;
J. Blachot; O. Bersillon (2003).
The
NUBASE evaluation of nuclear and decay properties (PDF). Nuclear Physics A
729: 3128. Bibcode:2003NuPhA.729....3A.
doi:10.1016/j.nuclphysa.2003.11.001.
Isotopic compositions and standard atomic masses
from:
J. R. de Laeter; J. K. Bhlke; P. De Bivre; H.
Hidaka; H. S. Peiser; K. J. R. Rosman; P. D.
P. Taylor (2003). Atomic weights of the elements. Review 2000 (IUPAC Technical Report)". Pure and Applied Chemistry 75 (6):
683800. doi:10.1351/pac200375060683.
M. E. Wieser (2006). Atomic weights of the
elements 2005 (IUPAC Technical Report)".
Pure and Applied Chemistry 78 (11): 2051
2066. doi:10.1351/pac200678112051. Lay
summary.
Half-life, spin, and isomer data selected from the
following sources. See editing notes on this articles
talk page.
The
729: 3128. Bibcode:2003NuPhA.729....3A.
doi:10.1016/j.nuclphysa.2003.11.001.
National Nuclear Data Center. NuDat 2.1
database. Brookhaven National Laboratory.
Retrieved September 2005.
171
N. E. Holden (2004). Table of the Isotopes.
In D. R. Lide. CRC Handbook of Chemistry
and Physics (85th ed.). CRC Press. Section
11. ISBN 978-0-8493-0485-9.
Chapter 25
Isotopes of boron
Boron (B) naturally occurs in two isotopes, 10 B and 11 B, 25.1.1 Notes
the latter of which makes up about 80% of natural boron.
There are 14 radioisotopes that have been discovered,
with mass numbers from 6 to 21, all with short half-lives,
8
should be applicable to any normal terrestrial matethe longest being that of B, with a half-life of only 770
12
rial.
milliseconds (ms) and B with a half-life of 20.2 ms. All
other isotopes have half-lives shorter than 17.35 ms, with
Commercially available materials may have been
the least stable isotope being 7 B, with a half-life of 150
subjected to an undisclosed or inadvertent isotopic
yoctoseconds (ys). Those isotopes with mass below 10
fractionation. Substantial deviations from the given
decay into helium (via short-lived isotopes of beryllium
mass and composition can occur.
for 7 B and 9 B) while those with mass above 11 mostly
Values marked # are not purely derived from exbecome carbon.
perimental data, but at least partly from systematic
Standard atomic mass: 10.811(7) u
enclosed in parentheses.
Uncertainties are given in concise form in parentheses after the corresponding last digits. Uncertainty
values denote one standard deviation, except isotopic composition and standard atomic mass from
IUPAC, which use folical uncertainties.[2]
Weights.
A chart showing the abundances of the naturally-occurring isotopes of boron.
25.2 Applications
25.1 Table
25.2.1 Boron-10
[1] Subsequently decays by double proton emission to 4 He for

a net reaction of 7 B 4 He + 3 1 H
Boron-10 is used in boron neutron capture therapy

(BNCT) as an experimental treatment of some brain cancers.
[2] Has 1 halo proton

[3] immediately decays into two particles, for a net reaction
of 9 B 2 4 He + 1 H
25.3 References
[4] Immediately decays into two particles, for a net reaction

of 12 B 3 4 He + e
25.3.1 Notes
[5] Has 2 halo neutrons
172
25.3. REFERENCES
[2] 2.5.7. Standard and expanded uncertainties. Engineering Statistics Handbook. Retrieved 2010-09-16.
25.3.2
General references

The
729: 3128. Bibcode:2003NuPhA.729....3A.
doi:10.1016/j.nuclphysa.2003.11.001.
from:
683800. doi:10.1351/pac200375060683.
2066. doi:10.1351/pac200678112051. Lay
summary.
talk page.
The
729: 3128. Bibcode:2003NuPhA.729....3A.
doi:10.1016/j.nuclphysa.2003.11.001.
11. ISBN 978-0-8493-0485-9.
173
Chapter 26
Isotopes of nitrogen
Natural nitrogen (N) consists of two stable isotopes,
nitrogen-14, which makes up the vast majority of naturally occurring nitrogen, and nitrogen-15. Fourteen radioactive isotopes (radioisotopes) have also been found
so far, with atomic masses ranging from 10 to 25, and
one nuclear isomer, 11m N. All of these radioisotopes are
short-lived, with the longest-lived one being nitrogen13 with a half-life of 9.965 minutes. All of the others
have half-lives below 7.15 seconds, with most of these
being below ve-eighths of a second. Most of the isotopes with atomic mass numbers below 14 decay to isotopes of carbon, while most of the isotopes with masses
above 15 decay to isotopes of oxygen. The shortest-lived
known isotope is nitrogen-10, with a half-life of about 2.3
microseconds.
26.1.2 Nitrogen-15
The standard atomic weight of nitrogen is 14.0067.
Nitrogen-15 is frequently used in NMR (Nitrogen-15

NMR spectroscopy), because unlike the more abundant
nitrogen-14, that has an integer nuclear spin and thus a
quadrupole moment, N-15 has a fractional nuclear spin
of one-half, which oers advantages for NMR like narrower line width. Proteins can be isotopically labelled
by cultivating them in a medium containing nitrogen-15
as the only source of nitrogen. In addition, nitrogen-15
is used to label proteins in quantitative proteomics (e.g.
SILAC).
26.1 Natural isotopes

26.1.1
Nitrogen-14
Nitrogen-15 is a rare stable isotope of nitrogen. This isotope is often used in agricultural and medical research,
for example in the MeselsonStahl experiment to establish the nature of DNA replication.[2] An extension of this
research resulted in development of DNA-based stableisotope probing, which allows examination of links between metabolic function and taxonomic identity of microorganisms in the environment, without the need for
culture isolation.[3][4] Nitrogen-15 is extensively used to
trace mineral nitrogen compounds (particularly fertilizers) in the environment and when combined with the use
of other isotopic labels, is also a very important tracer for
describing the fate of nitrogenous organic pollutants.[5][6]
Also, the ratio of 15 N/14 N in an organism can give clues

Nitrogen-14 is one of two stable (non-radioactive) about its diet, as movement up the food chain tends to
15
isotopes of the chemical element nitrogen, which makes concentrate the N isotope, by 34 with each step of
the food chain (see Isotopic signatures Nitrogen Isoabout 99.636% of natural nitrogen.
topes).[7]
Nitrogen-14 is one of the very few stable nuclides with
both an odd number of protons and of neutrons (seven Nitrogen-15 presents one of the lowest thermal neutron
[8]
each). Each of these contributes a nuclear spin of plus or capture cross sections of all isotopes.
minus spin 1/2, giving the nucleus a total magnetic spin Two sources of nitrogen-15 are the positron emission of
of one.
oxygen-15[9] and the beta decay of carbon-15.
Like all elements heavier than lithium, the original source
of nitrogen-14 and nitrogen-15 in the Universe is believed
to be stellar nucleosynthesis, where they are produced as 26.2 Table
part of the carbon-nitrogen-oxygen cycle.
Nitrogen-14 is the source of naturally-occurring carbon14. Some kinds of cosmic radiation cause a nuclear
reaction with nitrogen-14 in the upper atmosphere of
the Earth, creating carbon-14, which decays back to
nitrogen-14 with a half-life of 5,73040 years.[1]
174
[1] Bold for stable isotopes

[2] Immediately decays into two alpha particles for a net reaction of 12 N -> 34 He + e+
[3] Used in positron emission tomography
26.3. REFERENCES
26.2.1
Notes

should be applicable to any normal terrestrial material.
Values marked # are not purely derived from experimental data, but at least partly from systematic
enclosed in parentheses.
Uncertainties are given in concise form in parentheses after the corresponding last digits. Uncertainty
values denote one standard deviation, except isotopic composition and standard atomic mass from
IUPAC, which use expanded uncertainties.
Weights.
26.3 References
[1] Godwin, H (1962). Half-life of radiocarbon. Nature 195 (4845): 984. Bibcode:1962Natur.195..984G.
doi:10.1038/195984a0.
[2] Meselson, M.; Stahl, F. W. (1958). The replication of DNA in E. coli". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of
America 44: 671682. Bibcode:1958PNAS...44..671M.
doi:10.1073/pnas.44.7.671.
PMC 528642.
PMID
16590258.
[3] Radajewski, S.; McDonald, I. R.; Murrell, J. C. (2003).
Stable-isotope probing of nucleic acids: a window to the
function of uncultured microorganisms. Current Opinion in Biotechnology 14: 296302. doi:10.1016/s09581669(03)00064-8.
[4] Cupples, A. M.; E. A. Shaer; J. C. Chee-Sanford, and G.
K. Sims. 2007. DNA buoyant density shifts during 15 N
DNA stable isotope probing. Microbiological Research
162:328334.
[5] Marsh, K. L., G. K. Sims, and R. L. Mulvaney. 2005.
Availability of urea to autotrophic ammonia-oxidizing
bacteria as related to the fate of 14 C- and 15 N-labeled urea
added to soil. Biology and Fertility of Soils 42:137145.
[6] Bichat, F., G. K. Sims, and R. L. Mulvaney. 1999. Microbial utilization of heterocyclic nitrogen from atrazine.
Soil Science Society of America Journal 63:100110.
[7] Adams, Thomas S.; Sterner, Robert W. (2000). The
eect of dietary nitrogen content on trophic level
15
N enrichment (PDF). Limnology and Oceanography
(American Society of Limnology and Oceanography) 45
(3): 601607.
175
[8] Evaluated Nuclear Data File (ENDF) Retrieval & Plotting. National Nuclear Data Center.
[9] CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (64th ed.).
19831984. p. B-234.

The
729: 3128. Bibcode:2003NuPhA.729....3A.
doi:10.1016/j.nuclphysa.2003.11.001.
from:
683800. doi:10.1351/pac200375060683.
2066. doi:10.1351/pac200678112051. Lay
summary.
talk page.
The
729: 3128. Bibcode:2003NuPhA.729....3A.
doi:10.1016/j.nuclphysa.2003.11.001.
11. ISBN 978-0-8493-0485-9.
Chapter 27
Decay chain
In nuclear science, the decay chain refers to the
radioactive decay of dierent discrete radioactive decay
products as a chained series of transformations. They are
also known as radioactive cascades. Most radioisotopes
do not decay directly to a stable state, but rather undergo a series of decays until eventually a stable isotope
is reached.
ing thorium and/or uranium (such as some granites) emits

radon gas that can accumulate in enclosed places such
as basements or underground mines. Radon exposure
is considered the leading cause of lung cancer in nonsmokers.[1]
Decay stages are referred to by their relationship to previous or subsequent stages. A parent isotope is one that
undergoes decay to form a daughter isotope. One example of this is uranium (atomic number 92) decaying into
thorium (atomic number 90). The daughter isotope may
be stable or it may decay to form a daughter isotope of
its own. The daughter of a daughter isotope is sometimes
called a granddaughter isotope.
27.1 History
The time it takes for a single parent atom to decay to an

atom of its daughter isotope can vary widely, not only
for dierent parent-daughter chains, but also for identical
pairings of parent and daughter isotopes. While the decay of a single atom occurs spontaneously, the decay of an
initial population of identical atoms over time t, follows a
decaying exponential distribution, et , where is called
a decay constant. Because of this exponential nature, one
of the properties of an isotope is its half-life, the time
by which half of an initial number of identical parent radioisotopes have decayed to their daughters. Half-lives
have been determined in laboratories for thousands of
radioisotopes (or, radionuclides). These can range from
nearly instantaneous to as much as 1019 years or more.
All the elements and isotopes we encounter on Earth, with

the exceptions of hydrogen, deuterium, helium, helium3, and perhaps trace amounts of stable lithium and beryllium isotopes which were created in the Big Bang, were
created by the s-process or the r-process in stars, and
for those to be today a part of the Earth, must have
been created not later than 4.5 billion years ago. All
the elements created more than 4.5 billion years ago are
termed primordial, meaning they were generated by the
universes stellar processes. At the time when they were
created, those that were unstable began decaying immediately. All the isotopes which have half-lives less than 100
million years have been reduced to 0.0000000000028%
(2.81012 %) or less of whatever original amounts were
created and captured by Earths accretion; they are of
trace quantity today, or have decayed away altogether.
There are only two other methods to create isotopes: articially, inside a man-made (or perhaps a natural) reactor,
or through decay of a parent isotopic species, the process
known as the decay chain.
The intermediate stages each emit the same amount of

radioactivity as the original radioisotope (though not the
same energy). When equilibrium is achieved, a granddaughter isotope is present in direct proportion to its
half-life; but since its activity is inversely proportional to
its half-life, each nuclide in the decay chain nally contributes as much radioactivity as the head of the chain,
though not the same energy. For example, uranium-238
is weakly radioactive, but pitchblende, a uranium ore, is
13 times more radioactive than the pure uranium metal of
the same amount because of the radium and other daughter isotopes it contains. Not only are unstable radium
isotopes signicant radioactivity emitters, but as the next
stage in the decay chain they also generate radon, a heavy,
inert, naturally occurring radioactive gas. Rock contain-
Unstable isotopes are in a continual struggle to become

more stable; the ultimate goal is becoming one of the
200 or so stable isotopes in the universe. Stable isotopes have ratios of neutrons to protons in their nucleus
that start out at 1 in stable helium-4 and smoothly rise
to ~1.5 for lead (there is no complete stability for anything heavier than lead-208). The elements heavier than
that have to shed weight to achieve stability, most usually as alpha decay. The other common method for isotopes of the proper weight but high n/p ratio is beta decay, in which the nuclide changes elemental identity while
keeping the same weight and lowering its n/p ratio. Also
there is an inverse beta decay, which assists isotopes too
light in neutrons to approach the ideal; however, since ssion almost always produces products which are neutron
176
27.3. ACTINIDE ALPHA DECAY CHAINS
177
heavy, positron emission is relatively rare compared to

beta emission. There are many relatively short beta decay chains, at least two (a heavy, beta decay and a light,
positron decay) for every discrete weight up to around 207
and some beyond, but for the higher weight elements (often referred to as transuranics, but actually used for all
isotopes heavier than lead) there are only four pathways in
which all are represented. This fact is made inevitable by
the two decay methods possible: alpha radiation, which
reduces the weight by 4 AMUs, and beta, which does not
change the weight at all (just the atomic number and the
p/n ratio). The four paths are termed 4n, 4n + 1, 4n +
2, and 4n + 3; the remainder of the atomic weight divided by four gives the chain the isotope will use to decay.
There are other decay modes, but they invariably occur at
a lower probability than alpha or beta decay.
decay changes the atomic mass number (A) of the nucleus, and always decreases it by four. Because of this,
almost any decay will result in a nucleus whose atomic
mass number has the same residue mod 4, dividing all
nuclides into four chains. The members of any possible decay chain must be drawn entirely from one of these
classes. All four chains also produce helium-4 (alpha particles are helium-4 nuclei).
Three main decay chains (or families) are observed in

nature, commonly called the thorium series, the radium
or uranium series, and the actinium series, representing
three of these four classes, and ending in three dierent,
stable isotopes of lead. The mass number of every isotope in these chains can be represented as A = 4n, A = 4n
+ 2, and A = 4n + 3, respectively. The long-lived starting isotopes of these three isotopes, respectively thoriumThree of those chains have a long-lived isotope near the 232, uranium-238, and uranium-235, have existed since
top; they are bottlenecks in the process through which the formation of the earth, ignoring the articial isotopes
the chain ows very slowly, and keep the chain below and their decays since the 1940s.
them alive with ow. The three materials are uranium- Due to the quite short half-life of its starting isotope
238 (half-life=4.5 billion years), uranium-235 (half- neptunium-237 (2.14 million years), the fourth chain, the
life=700 million years) and thorium-232 (half-life=14 neptunium series with A = 4n + 1, is already extinct in
billion years). The fourth chain has no such long lasting nature, except for the nal rate-limiting step, decay of
bottleneck isotope, so almost all of the isotopes in that bismuth-209. The ending isotope of this chain is now
chain have long since decayed down to very near the sta- known to be thallium-205. Some older sources give the
bility at the bottom. Near the end of that chain is bismuth- nal isotope as bismuth-209, but it was recently discov209, which was long thought to be stable. Recently, how- ered that it is radioactive, with a half-life of 1.91019
ever, Bi-209 was found to be unstable with a half-life of years.
19 billion billion years; it is the last step before stable
thallium-205. In the far past, around the time that the There are also non-transuranic decay chains, for examsolar system formed, there were more kinds of unstable ple those of magnesium-28 and chlorine-39. On Earth,
high-weight isotopes available, and the four chains were most of the starting isotopes of these chains before 1945
longer with isotopes that have since decayed away. Today were generated by cosmic radiation. Since 1945, the testwe have manufactured extinct isotopes, which again take ing and use of nuclear weapons has also released numertheir places: plutonium-239, the nuclear bomb fuel, as ous radioactive ssion products. Almost all such isotopes
the major example has a half-life of only 24,500 years, decay by either beta or beta+ decay modes, changing
from one element to the another without changing atomic
and decays by alpha emission into uranium-235.
mass. These later daughter products, being closer to stability, generally have longer half-lives until they nally
decay into stability.
27.2 Types of decay

95 Americium (Am)
alpha decay
94 Plutonium (Pu)
93 Neptunium (Np)
92 Uranium (U)
91 Protactinium (Pa)
90 Thorium (Th)
89 Actinium (Ac)
88 Radium (Ra)
87 Francium (Fr)
93 Neptunium (Np)
beta decay
stable isotope
91 Protactinium (Pa)
thorium chain
90 Thorium (Th)
radium chain
89 Actinium (Ac)
actinium chain
88 Radium (Ra)
neptunium chain
87 Francium (Fr)
86 Radon (Rn)
86 Radon (Rn)
85 Astatine (At)
85 Astatine (At)
84 Polonium (Po)
84 Polonium (Po)
83 Bismuth (Bi)
82 Lead (Pb)
81 Thallium (Tl)
27.3 Actinide alpha decay chains
92 Uranium (U)
83 Bismuth (Bi)
82 Lead (Pb)
81 Thallium (Tl)
Element
241 240 239 238 237 236 235 234 233 232 231 230 229 228 227 226 225 224 223 222 221 220 219 218 217 216 215 214 213 212 211 210 209 208 207 206 205
Atomic mass
This diagram illustrates the four decay chains discussed in the

text: thorium (4n, in blue), neptunium (4n+1, in purple), radium
(4n+2, in red) and actinium (4n+3, in green).
The four most common modes of radioactive decay are:

alpha decay, beta decay, inverse beta decay (considered as both positron emission and electron capture), and
isomeric transition. Of these decay processes, only alpha
In the four tables below, the minor branches of decay

(with the branching probability of less than 0.0001%) are
omitted. The energy release includes the total kinetic energy of all the emitted particles (electrons, alpha particles,
gamma quanta, neutrinos, Auger electrons and X-rays)
and the recoil nucleus, assuming that the original nucleus
was at rest. The letter 'a' represents a year (from the Latin
annus).
In the tables below (except neptunium), the historic
names of the naturally occurring nuclides are also given.
These names were used at the time when the decay chains
were rst discovered and investigated. From these historical names one can locate the particular chain to which the
178
CHAPTER 27. DECAY CHAIN
nuclide belongs, and replace it with its modern name.

The three naturally-occurring actinide alpha decay chains
given belowthorium, uranium/radium (from U-238),
and actinium (from U-235)each ends with its own specic lead isotope (Pb-208, Pb-206, and Pb-207 respectively). All these isotopes are stable and are also present
in nature as primordial nuclides, but their excess amounts
in comparison with lead-204 (which has only a primordial origin) can be used in the technique of uranium-lead
dating to date rocks.
27.3.1
232
90
Th
228
90
Neptunium
233
92
228
89
Ac
233
91
Pa
5.7
Years
Uranium
26.967
Days
Protactinium
229
90
Th
7340
Years
Thorium
225
89
225
88
Th
Ra
Radium
221
87
Thorium
Actinium
Radon
217
85
Radium
Francium
Rn
213
83
Radon
Astatine
Po
212
84
0.14
Seconds
Po
3e-07
Seconds
212
83
Bi
Alkali Metals
Alkaline Earth Metals
Halogens
Noble Gases
Post Transition Metals
Transition Metals
Tl
208
82
Alkaline earth metal
Bi
1.9e+19
Years
209
82
Pb
3.253
Hours
209
81
Tl
2.161
Minutes
Bismuth
Lead
205
81
Tl
Stable
Thallium
Pb
Lead
Thallium
The total energy released from thorium-232 to lead-208,

including the energy lost to neutrinos, is 42.6 MeV.
Neptunium series
Alkali metal
Post-transition metal
The 4n chain of Th-232 is commonly called the thorium

series or thorium cascade. Beginning with naturally
occurring thorium232, this series includes the following elements: actinium, bismuth, lead, polonium, radium,
and radon. All are present, at least transiently, in any
natural thorium-containing sample, whether metal, compound, or mineral. The series terminates with lead-208.
27.3.2
Polonium
209
83
Bismuth
Stable
3.1
Minutes
Metalloid
10.6
Hours
208
81
Metalloids
Bi
Actinide
Polonium
61
Minutes
Pb
Po
45.59
Minutes
212
82
Astatine
213
84
4.2e-06
Seconds
55
Seconds
Actinides
At
0.0323
Seconds
Francium
Ra
3.6
Days
216
84
Fr
4.9
Minutes
220
86
Actinium
14.9
Days
224
88
Ac
10
Days
6.1
Minutes
159200
Years
1.9
Years
Ra
Np
2.144e+06
Years
Thorium series
1.41e+10
Years
228
88
237
93
ries, only two of the isotopes involved are found naturally, namely the nal two: bismuth-209 and thallium205. A smoke detector containing an americium241
ionization chamber accumulates a signicant amount of
neptunium237 as its americium decays; the following
elements are also present in it, at least transiently, as decay products of the neptunium: actinium, astatine, bismuth, francium, lead, polonium, protactinium, radium,
thallium, thorium, and uranium. Since this series was
only studied more recently, its nuclides do not have historic names. One unique trait of this decay chain is that
it does not include the noble-gas radon, and thus does not
migrate through rock nearly as much as the other three
decay chains.
The total energy released from californium-249 to

The 4n + 1 chain of Np-237 is commonly called the thallium-205, including the energy lost to neutrinos, is
neptunium series or neptunium cascade. In this se- 66.8 MeV.
27.4. BETA DECAY CHAINS IN FISSION PRODUCTS
238
92
4.5 Gy
234m
91
1.17 min
Pa
234
90
24.1 d
234
92
245.5 ky
235
92
Uranium
Th
7.04e+8
Years
Protactinium
230
90
75.38 ky
Th
179
Uranium
231
91
Pa
3.276e+4
Years
Thorium
231
90
Th
Protactinium
227
90
25.52
Hours
226
88
1 602 y
Ra
227
89
Radium
Th
18.68
Days
Ac
Thorium
21.772
Years
222
86
3.82 d
Rn
Astatine
Polonium
Bismuth
218
84
3.1 min
Po
214
82
26.8 min
Pb
Lead
Thallium
Radon
At
-
214
83
19.9 min
Bi
210
81
1.3 min
Tl
Mercury
223
87
214
84
164.3 s
Po
210
82
22.2 y
Pb
210
83
5.01 d
Bi
Fr
Radium
22.0
Minutes
210
84
138 d
Po
Francium
219
86
Rn
3.96
Seconds
206
82
Stable
Pb
219
85
At
Tl
206
80
8.32 min
Hg
Radon
215
85
At
1e-4
Seconds
215
84
Po
Astatine
211
84
1.781e-3
Seconds
Bi
Actinides
Alkali Metals
Alkaline Earth Metals
Halogens
Metalloids
Noble Gases
Post Transistion Metals
Po
0.516
Seconds
211
83
7.6
Minutes
(More comprehensive graphic)
Uranium series
56
Seconds
206
81
4.2 min
215
83
27.3.3
Ra
11.43
Days
218
85
1.5 s
Actinium
223
88
Bi
Polonium
2.14
Minutes
211
82
Pb
Bismuth
207
82
36.1
Minutes
Pb
Stable
207
81
Tl
4.77
Lead
Minutes
The 4n+2 chain of U-238 is called the uranium series
Transition Metals
or uranium cascade. Beginning with naturally occurring uranium-238, this series includes the following ele- (More detailed graphic)
ments: astatine, bismuth, lead, polonium, protactinium,
radium, radon, thallium, and thorium. All are present, at
least transiently, in any natural uranium-containing sample, whether metal, compound, or mineral. The series 27.4 Beta decay chains
terminates with lead-206.
products
Thallium
in ssion
The total energy released from uranium-238 to lead-206,

Since the heavy original nuclei always have a greater proportion of neutrons, the ssion product nuclei almost always start out with a neutron/proton ratio signicantly
greater than what is stable for their mass range. Therefore
27.3.4 Actinium series
they undergo multiple beta decays in succession, each
converting a neutron to a proton. The rst decays tend
The 4n+3 chain of uranium-235 is commonly called to have higher decay energy and shorter half-life. These
the actinium series or plutonium cascade. Be- last decays may have low decay energy and/or long halfginning with the naturally-occurring isotope U-235, life.
this decay series includes the following elements: For example, uranium-235 has 92 protons and 143 neuActinium, astatine, bismuth, francium, lead, polonium, trons. Fission takes one more neutron, then produces two
protactinium, radium, radon, thallium, and thorium. All or three more neutrons; assume that 92 protons and 142
are present, at least transiently, in any sample containing neutrons are available for the two ssion product nuclei.
uranium-235, whether metal, compound, ore, or mineral. Suppose they have mass 99 with 39 protons and 60 neuThis series terminates with the stable isotope lead-207.
trons (yttrium99), and mass 135 with 53 protons and
The total energy released from uranium-235 to lead-207, 82 neutrons (iodine135), then the decay chains can be
found in the tables below.
180
27.5 See also

Nuclear science
Radioactive decay
Decay product
Radioisotopes (Radionuclide)
27.6 Notes
[1] http://www.epa.gov/radon/
[2] Plus radium (element 88). While actually a sub-actinide, it
immediately precedes actinium (89) and follows a threeelement gap of instability after polonium (84) where no
isotopes have half-lives of at least four years (the longestlived isotope in the gap is radon-222 with a half life of less
than four days). Radiums longest lived isotope, at 1600
years, thus merits the elements inclusion here.
[3] Specically from thermal neutron ssion of U-235, e.g. in
a typical nuclear reactor.
[4] Milsted, J.; Friedman, A. M.; Stevens, C. M. (1965).
The alpha half-life of berkelium-247; a new long-lived
isomer of berkelium-248. Nuclear Physics 71 (2): 299.
doi:10.1016/0029-5582(65)90719-4.
The isotopic analyses disclosed a species of mass 248 in
constant abundance in three samples analysed over a period of about 10 months. This was ascribed to an isomer
of Bk248 with a half-life greater than 9 y. No growth of
Cf248 was detected, and a lower limit for the half-life
can be set at about 104 y. No alpha activity attributable
to the new isomer has been detected; the alpha half-life is
probably greater than 300 y.
[5] This is the heaviest isotope with a half-life of at least four
years before the "Sea of Instability".
[6] Excluding those "classically stable" isotopes with halflives signicantly in excess of 232 Th, e.g. while 113m Cd
has a half-life of only fourteen years, that of 113 Cd is
nearly eight quadrillion.
27.7 References
C.M. Lederer, J.M. Hollander, I. Perlman (1968).
Table of Isotopes (6th ed.). New York: John Wiley
& Sons.
27.8 External links

Nucleonica nuclear science portal
Nucleonicas Decay Engine for professional online
decay calculations
Decay chains
CHAPTER 27. DECAY CHAIN

Government website listing isotopes and decay energies
National Nuclear Data Center Freely available
databases that can be used to check or construct decay chains. Fully referenced.
The Live Chart of Nuclides - IAEA with

decay chains
Decay Chain Finder
Chapter 28
Carbon-13
Carbon-13 (13 C) is a natural, stable isotope of carbon
with a nucleus containing 6 protons and 7 neutrons. One
of the environmental isotopes, it makes up about 1.07%
of all natural carbon on Earth.[2]
28.1 Detection by mass spectrometry

A mass spectrum of an organic compound will usually
contain a small peak of one mass unit greater than the
apparent molecular ion peak (M) of the whole molecule.
This is known as the M+1 peak and comes from the handful of molecules that contain a 13 C atom in place of a 12 C.
A molecule containing one carbon atom will be expected
to have an M+1 peak of approximately 1.1% of the size
of the M peak, as 1.1% of the molecules will have a 13 C
rather than a 12 C. Similarly, a molecule containing two
carbon atoms will be expected to have an M+1 peak of
approximately 2.2% of the size of the M peak, as there
is double the previous likelihood that any molecule will
contain a 13 C atom.
In the above, the mathematics and chemistry have been
simplied, however it can be used eectively to give
the number of carbon atoms for small- to medium-sized
organic molecules. In the following formula the result
should be rounded to the nearest integer:
bon xation. Because the dierent isotope ratios for the

two kinds of plants propagate through the food chain, it is
possible to determine if the principal diet of a human or
other animal consists primarily of C3 plants or C4 plants
by measuring the isotopic signature of their collagen and
other tissues. Deliberate increase of proportion of 13 C in
diet is the concept of i-food, a proposed way to increase
longevity.
28.2 Uses in earth science

Due to dierential uptake in plants as well as marine carbonates of 13 C, it is possible to use these isotopic signature in earth science. In aqueous geochemistry, by analyzing the 13 C value of surface and ground waters the
source of the water can be identied. This is because atmospheric, carbonate, and plant derived 13 C values all
dier with respect to Pee Dee Belemnite (PDB) standard.
To calculate 13 C:
( 13 12
)
C/ C
13 CSample = 13 C/12 CSample
1
1000
PDB
The same calculation can be used to distinguish between

biomass produced by C3 and C4 metabolic pathways (e.g.
trees versus tropical grasses), which allows for spatiotemporal reconstruction of species and ecosystems range
C = 100Y
1.1X
shifts based on the isotopic characterization of soil orC = number of C atoms X = amplitude of the M ion peak ganic matter.[3][4][5][6][7]
Y = amplitude of the M+1 ion peak
Within C3 plants processes regulating changes in 13 C
13
C-enriched compounds are used in the research of are well understood, particularly at the leaf level,[8] but
metabolic processes by means of mass spectrome- also during wood formation.[9][10] Many recent studies
try. Such compounds are safe because they are non- combine leaf level isotopic fractionation with annual patradioactive. In addition, 13 C is used to quantify pro- terns of wood formation (i.e. tree ring 13 C) to quantify
teins (quantitative proteomics). One important applica- the impacts of climatic variations and atmospheric comtion is in Stable isotope labeling with amino acids in position on physiological processes of individual trees
cell culture (SILAC). 13 C-enriched compounds are used and forest stands.[11][12][13] The next phase of underin medical diagnostic tests such as the urea breath test. standing, in terrestrial ecosystems at least, seems to be
Analysis in these tests is usually of the ratio of 13 C to the combination of multiple isotopic proxies to decipher
12
C by Isotope ratio mass spectrometry.
interactions between plants, soils and the atmosphere,
The ratio of 13 C to 12 C is slightly higher in plants employ- and predict how changes in land use will aect climate
ing C4 carbon xation than in plants employing C3 car- change.[14][15][16]
181
182
28.3 See also

Isotopes of carbon
Isotope fractionation
28.4 Notes
[1] http://www.sisweb.com/referenc/source/exactmas.htm
[2] Carbon
[3] SILVA L.C.R, GIORGIS M., ANAND M., ENRICO
L., PREZ-HARGUINDEGUY N., FALCZUK V.,
TIESZEN L.L., CABIDO M. (2011) Evidence of shift
in C4 species range in central Argentina during the Late
Holocene. Plant & Soil 349: 261-279.
[4] SILVA L.C.R., STERNBERG L. da S.L., HAIDAR R.F.,
VALE G.D. (2010) Deciphering earth mound origins in
central Brazil. Plant & Soil 336: 314
[5] SILVA L.C.R., HARIDASAN M., STERNBERG L.S.L.,
FRANCO A.C., HOFFMANN W.A. (2010) Not all
forests are expanding into central Brazilian savannas.
Plant & Soil 333: 431-443.
[6] SILVA L.C.R., ANAND M. (2011) Mechanisms of
Araucaria (Atlantic) forest expansion into southern
Brazilian grasslands. Ecosystems 14: 1354-1371.
[7] SILVA L.C.R., STERNBERG L.S.L., HARIDASAN
M., HOFFMANN W.A., MIRALLES-WILHELM F.,
FRANCO A.C. (2008) Expansion of gallery forests into
central Brazilian savannas. Global Change Biology 14:111.
[8] Farquhar, G.D., Ehleringer, J.R. & Hubick, K.T. (1989)
Carbon isotope discrimination and photosynthesis. Annual Review of Plant Physiology and Plant Molecular Biology, 40, 503-537.
[9] McCarroll D, Loader NJ (2004) Stable isotopes in
tree rings. Quaternary Science Reviews 23: 771
801 doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2003.06.017.
.
doi:
10.1016/j.quascirev.2003.06.017.
[10] Ewe SML, Da Silveira Lobo Sternberg L, Busch DE
(1999) Water-use patterns of woody species in pineland
and hammock communities of South Florida. Forest Ecology and Management 118: 139148 doi:10.
1016/S0378-1127(98)00493-9. . doi: 10.1016/S03781127(98)00493-9.
[11] SILVA L.C.R., ANAND M., OLIVEIRA J.M., PILLAR
V.D. (2009) Past century changes in Araucaria angustifolia (Bertol.) Kuntze water use eciency and growth in
forest and grassland ecosystems of southern Brazil: implications for forest expansion. Global Change Biology 15:
23872396.
[12] SILVA L.C.R., ANAND M. (2013) Probing for the
inuence of atmospheric CO2 and climate change on
forest ecosystems across biomes. Global Ecology and
Biogeography.DOI:10.1111/j.1466-8238.2012.00783.x
CHAPTER 28. CARBON-13
[13] SILVA L.C.R., HORWATH W.R. (2013) Explaining

global changes in water use eciency: Why have we overestimated forest responses to rising atmospheric CO2?
PLoS One 8(1): e53089. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.
0053089
[14] GMEZ-GUERRERO A., SILVA L.C.R., HORWATH W.R., BARRERA-REYES M., KISHCHUK
B., VELZQUEZ-MARTNEZ A., TRINIDADHERNNDEZ T., PLASCENCIA-ESCALANTE O.
(2013) Growth decline and divergent tree-ring isotopic
composition (13C and 18O) contradict predictions
of CO2 stimulation in high altitudinal forests. Global
Change Biology. DOI: 10.1111/gcb.12170
[15] ROSSATTO D.R., HOFFMANN W.A., SILVA L.C.R.,
HARIDASAN M., STERNBERG L.S.L., FRANCO
A.C. (2013) Seasonal variation in leaf traits between congeneric savanna and forest trees in Central Brazil: implications for forest expansion into savanna. Trees DOI
10.1007/s00468-013-0864-2
[16] SILVA L.C.R., CORRA R.S., DOANE T., PEREIRA
E., HORWATH W.R. (2013) Unprecedented carbon accumulation in mined soils: the synergistic eect of resource input and plant species invasion. Ecological Applications. http://dx.doi.org/10.1890/12-1957.1
Chapter 29
Ampere
For other uses, see Ampere (disambiguation).
The ampere (SI unit symbol: A), often shortened to
amp,[1] is the SI unit of electric current[2][3] (dimension
symbol: I)[4] and is one of the seven[5] SI base units.
It is named after Andr-Marie Ampre (17751836),
French mathematician and physicist, considered the father of electrodynamics.
The ampere is equivalent to one coulomb (roughly
6.2411018 times the elementary charge) per second.[6]
Amperes are used to express ow rate of electric charge.
For any point experiencing a current, if the number of
charged particles passing or the charge on the particles is
increased, the amperes of current at that point will proportionately increase.
The ampere should not be confused with the coulomb
(also called ampere-second) or the ampere-hour (Ah).
The ampere is a unit of current, the amount of charge
transiting per unit time, and the coulomb is a unit of
charge. When SI units are used, constant, instantaneous
and average current are expressed in amperes (as in the
charging current is 1.2 A) and the charge accumulated,
or passed through a circuit over a period of time is expressed in coulombs (as in the battery charge is 30000
C). The relation of the ampere to the coulomb is the
same as that of the watt to the joule, and that of metre
per second to metre.
Illustration of the denition of the ampere unit
1 A = 1 Cs .
In general, charge Q is determined by steady current I
owing for a time t as Q = It.
29.2 History
29.1 Denition
Ampres force law[7][8] states that there is an attractive
or repulsive force between two parallel wires carrying an
electric current. This force is used in the formal denition
of the ampere, which states that the ampere is the constant
current that will produce an attractive force of 2 107
newtons per metre of length between two straight, parallel
conductors of innite length and negligible circular cross
section placed one metre apart in a vacuum.[2][9]
The SI unit of charge, the coulomb, is the quantity
of electricity carried in 1 second by a current of 1
ampere.[10] Conversely, a current of one ampere is one
coulomb of charge going past a given point per second:
The ampere was originally dened as one tenth of the unit

of electric current in the centimetregramsecond system
of units; that unit, now known as the abampere, was dened as the amount of current that generates a force of
two dynes per centimetre of length between two wires
one centimetre apart.[11] The size of the unit was chosen so that the units derived from it in the MKSA system
would be conveniently sized.
The international ampere was an early realization of
the ampere, dened as the current that would deposit
0.001118000 grams of silver per second from a silver
nitrate solution.[12] Later, more accurate measurements
revealed that this current is 0.99985 A.
183
184
CHAPTER 29. AMPERE
29.3 Realization
29.5.2 Motor vehicles 12 V DC
A typical motor vehicle has a 12 V battery. The various

The standard ampere is most accurately realized using
accessories that are powered by the battery might include:
a watt balance, but is in practice maintained via Ohms
law from the units of electromotive force and resistance,
Instrument panel light (typically 2 W): 166 mA.
the volt and the ohm, since the latter two can be tied
to physical phenomena that are relatively easy to repro Headlights (typically 60 W): 5 A each.
duce, the Josephson junction and the quantum Hall effect, respectively.[13]
Starter motor (typically 12 kW): 80160 A
At present, techniques to establish the realization of an
ampere have a relative uncertainty of approximately a few 29.5.3
parts in 107 , and involve realizations of the watt, the ohm
and the volt.[13]
North American domestic supply

120 V AC
Most United States, Canada and Mexico domestic power

suppliers run at 120 V.
Household circuit breakers typically provide a maximum

of 15 A or 20 A of current to a given set of outlets.
Main article: New SI denitions
22-inch/56-centimeter portable television (35 W):

290 mA
Rather than a denition in terms of the force between two current-carrying wires, it has been proposed
to dene the ampere in terms of the rate of ow
of elementary charges.[8] Since a coulomb is approximately equal to 6.24150931018 elementary charges
(such as electrons), one ampere is approximately equivalent to 6.24150931018 elementary charges moving past
a boundary in one second, or the reciprocal of the value
of the elementary charges in coulombs.[14] The proposed
change would dene 1 A as being the current in the
direction of ow of a particular number of elementary
charges per second. In 2005, the International Committee for Weights and Measures (CIPM) agreed to study
the proposed change. The new denition was discussed
at the 25th General Conference on Weights and Measures
(CGPM) in 2014 but for the time being was not adopted.
Tungsten light bulb (60100 W): 500830 mA

Toaster, kettle (1.5 kW): 12.5 A
Hair dryer (1.8 kW): 15 A
29.5.4 European & Commonwealth domestic supply 230-240 V AC

Most European domestic power supplies run at 230 V,
and most Commonwealth domestic power supplies run
at 240 V. For the same amount of power (in watts),
the current drawn by a particular European or Commonwealth appliance (in Europe or a Commonwealth country) will be less than for an equivalent North American
appliance.[Note 1] Typical circuit breakers will provide 16
A.
The current drawn by a number of typical appliances are:
29.5 Everyday examples

Main article: Orders of magnitude (current)
22-inch/56-centimeter portable television (35 W):

145150 mA
Tungsten light bulb (60100 W): 240450 mA
The current drawn by typical constant-voltage energy distribution systems is usually dictated by the power (watts)
consumed by the system and the operating voltage. For
this reason the examples given below are grouped by voltage level.
Compact uorescent lamp (1130 W): 56112 mA

Toaster, kettle (2 kW): 9 A
Immersion heater (4.6 kW): 1920 A
29.6 See also

29.5.1
Portable gadgets
Ammeter
Hearing aid (typically 1 mW at 1.4 V): 0.7 mA
Ampacity (current-carrying capacity)

Electric current
Electric shock
185
29.9 External links
Hydraulic analogy
The NIST Reference on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty
Magnetic constant
NIST Denition of ampere and 0
Orders of magnitude (current)
Tutorial video explaining amperes and current
29.7 Notes
[1] The formula for power is given by
P (t) = I(t) V (t)
so it follows that if the voltage is doubled and the power
remains the same, the current will be halved.
29.8 References
[1] SI supports only the use of symbols and deprecates the use
of abbreviations for units.Bureau International des Poids
et Mesures (PDF). 2006. p. 130. Retrieved 21 November 2011.
[2] 2.1. Unit of electric current (ampere)", SI brochure (8th
ed.), BIPM, retrieved 19 November 2011
[3] Base unit denitions: Ampere. Physics.nist.gov. Retrieved on 2010-09-28.
[4] 2. SI base units, SI brochure (8th ed.), BIPM, retrieved
19 November 2011
[5] The other six are the metre, kelvin, second, mole, candela,
and kilogram
[6] Bodanis, David (2005), Electric Universe, New York:
Three Rivers Press, ISBN 978-0-307-33598-2
[7] Serway, Raymond A; Jewett, JW (2006). Serways principles of physics: a calculus based text (Fourth ed.). Belmont, CA: Thompson Brooks/Cole. p. 746. ISBN 053449143-X.
[8] Beyond the Kilogram: Redening the International System
of Units, USA: National Institute of Standards and Technology, 2006, archived from the original on 21 March
2008, retrieved March 2008.
[9] Monk, Paul MS (2004), Physical Chemistry: Understanding our Chemical World, John Wiley & Sons, ISBN 0-47149180-2.
[10] The International System of Units (SI) (PDF) (8th ed.),
Bureau International des Poids et Mesures, 2006, p. 144.
[11] Kowalski, L, A short history of the SI units in electricity,
Montclair.
[12] History of the ampere, Sizes
[13] Appendix 2: Practical realization of unit denitions:
Electrical quantities, SI brochure, BIPM.
[14] Value, Physics, USA: NIST.
Chapter 30
Candela
750
620
590
570
495
450
380
This article is about the unit of luminous intensity. For The candela is sometimes still called by the old name canother uses, see Candela (disambiguation).
dle,[7] such as in foot-candle and the modern denition of
The candela (/kndl/ or /kndil/; symbol: cd) candlepower.
30.2 Explanation
is the SI base unit of luminous intensity; that is, luminous power per unit solid angle emitted by a point
light source in a particular direction. Luminous intensity is analogous to radiant intensity, but instead of simply adding up the contributions of every wavelength of
light in the sources spectrum, the contribution of each
wavelength is weighted by the standard luminosity function (a model of the sensitivity of the human eye to dierent wavelengths).[4][5] A common candle emits light with
a luminous intensity of roughly one candela. If emission
in some directions is blocked by an opaque barrier, the
emission would still be approximately one candela in the
directions that are not obscured.
The word candela means candle in Latin.
30.1 Denition
Iv () = 683.002 y() Ie ()
where I() is the luminous intensity in candelas, I()
is the radiant intensity in W/sr and y() is the standard
luminosity function (photopic). If more than one wavelength is present (as is usually the case), one must sum or
integrate over the spectrum of wavelengths present to get
the total luminous intensity.
30.2.1 Examples
Like most other SI base units, the candela has an

operational denitionit is dened by a description of
a physical process that will produce one candela of luminous intensity. Since the 16th General Conference on
Weights and Measures (CGPM) in 1979, the candela has
been dened as:[6]
The candela is the luminous intensity,
in a given direction, of a source that emits
monochromatic radiation of frequency
5401012 hertz and that has a radiant intensity
in that direction of 1 683 watt per steradian.
The frequency chosen is in the visible spectrum near

green, corresponding to a wavelength of about 555
nanometres. The human eye is most sensitive to this frequency, when adapted for bright conditions. At other frequencies, more radiant intensity is required to achieve the
same luminous intensity, according to the frequency response of the human eye. The luminous intensity for light
of a particular wavelength is given by
A common candle emits light with roughly 1 cd luminous

intensity. A 25 W compact uorescent light bulb puts out
around 1700 lumens; if that light is radiated equally in all
directions, it will have an intensity of around 135 cd (135
lumens/steradian). Focused into a 20 beam, it will have
an intensity of around 18 000 cd.
The luminous intensity of light-emitting diodes is measured in millicandelas (mcd), or thousandths of a candela.
Indicator LEDs are typically in the 50 mcd range; ultrabright LEDs can reach 15 000 mcd (15 cd), or higher.
The denition describes how to produce a light source 30.3 Origin

that (by denition) emits one candela. Such a source
could then be used to calibrate instruments designed to Prior to 1948, various standards for luminous intensity
measure luminous intensity.
were in use in a number of countries. These were typi186
30.5. SEE ALSO

cally based on the brightness of the ame from a standard candle of dened composition, or the brightness
of an incandescent lament of specic design. One of
the best-known of these was the English standard of candlepower. One candlepower was the light produced by a
pure spermaceti candle weighing one sixth of a pound and
burning at a rate of 120 grains per hour. Germany, Austria and Scandinavia used the Hefnerkerze, a unit based
on the output of a Hefner lamp.[8]
It became clear that a better-dened unit was needed. The
Commission Internationale de l'clairage (International
Commission on Illumination) and the CIPM proposed a
new candle based on the luminance of a Planck radiator
(a black body) at the temperature of freezing platinum.
The value of the new unit was chosen to make it similar
to the earlier unit candlepower. The decision was promulgated by the CIPM in 1946:
The value of the new candle is such that
the brightness of the full radiator at the temperature of solidication of platinum is 60 new
candles per square centimetre.[9]
It was then ratied in 1948 by the 9th CGPM which
adopted a new name for this unit, the candela. In 1967 the
13th CGPM removed the term new candle and gave an
amended version of the candela denition, specifying the
atmospheric pressure applied to the freezing platinum:
The candela is the luminous intensity, in
the perpendicular direction, of a surface of 1
/ 600 000 square metre of a black body at the
temperature of freezing platinum under a pressure of 101 325 newtons per square metre.[10]
187
30.4.1 Relationships between luminous intensity, luminous ux, and illuminance

If a source emits a known luminous intensity I (in candelas) in a well-dened cone, the total luminous ux
in lumens is given by
= I 2 [1 cos(A/2)],
where A is the radiation angle of the lampthe full vertex angle of the emission cone. For example, a lamp that
emits 590 cd with a radiation angle of 40 emits about
224 lumens. See MR16 for emission angles of some common lamps.[13][14]
If the source emits light uniformly in all directions, the
ux can be found by multiplying the intensity by 4: a
uniform 1 candela source emits 12.6 lumens.
For the purpose of measuring illumination, the candela is
not a practical unit, as it only applies to idealized point
light sources, each approximated by a source small compared to the distance from which its luminous radiation is
measured, also assuming that it is done so in the absence
of other light sources. What gets directly measured by a
light meter is incident light on a sensor of nite area, i.e.
illuminance in lm/m2 (lux). However, if designing illumination from many point light sources, like light bulbs,
of known approximate omnidirectionally-uniform intensities, the contributions to illuminance from incoherent
light being additive, it is mathematically estimated as follows. If ri is the position of the i-th source of uniform
intensity Ii, and is the unit vector normal to the illuminated elemental opaque area dA being measured, and
provided that all light sources lie in the same half-space
divided by the plane of this area,
In 1979, because of the diculties in realizing a Planck

radiator at high temperatures and the new possibilities offered by radiometry, the 16th CGPM adopted the modern denition of the candela.[11] The arbitrary (1/683)
|^
a (r ri )|
term was chosen so that the new denition would exactly point at illuminancer on dA ,E (r) =
Ii .
v
|r ri |3
match the old denition. Although the candela is now
i
dened in terms of the second (an SI base unit) and the
watt (a derived SI unit), the candela remains a base unit In the case of a single point light source of intensity Iv, at
a distance r and normally incident, this reduces to
of the SI system, by denition.[12]
30.4 SI photometric light units

[1] Standards organizations recommend that photometric
quantities be denoted with a sux v (for visual) to
avoid confusion with radiometric or photon quantities.
For example: USA Standard Letter Symbols for Illuminating Engineering USAS Z7.1-1967, Y10.18-1967
[2] Alternative symbols sometimes seen: W for luminous energy, P or F for luminous ux, and or K for luminous
ecacy.
[3] "J" here is the symbol for the dimension of luminous intensity, not the symbol for the unit joules.
Ev (r) =
Iv
.
r2
30.5 See also

New SI denitions
30.6 References
[1] CIE Scotopic luminosity curve (1951)
188
[2] CIE (1931) 2-deg color matching functions

[3] JuddVos modied CIE 2-deg photopic luminosity curve
(1978)
[4] Sharpe, Stockman, Jagla & Jgle (2005) 2-deg V*(l) luminous eciency function
[5] Wyzecki, G.; Stiles, W.S. (1982). Color Science: Concepts
and Methods, Quantitative Data and Formulae (2nd ed.).
Wiley-Interscience. ISBN 0-471-02106-7.
[6] Base unit denitions: Candela. The NIST Reference on
Constants, Units, and Uncertainty. Retrieved 27 September 2010.
[7] Merriam-Webster
[8] Hefner unit, or Hefner candle. Sizes.com. 30 May 2007.
Retrieved 25 February 2009.
[9] Barry N. Taylor (1992). The Metric System: The International System of Units (SI). U. S. Department of Commerce. p. 18. ISBN 0-941375-74-9. (NIST Special Publication 330, 1991 ed.)
[10] 13th CGPM Resolution 5, CR, 104 (1967), and Metrologia, 4, 4344 (1968).
[11] 16th CGPM Resolution 3, CR, 100 (1979), and Metrologia, 16, 56 (1980).
[12] The photometric base unit the candela (pdf). SI
Brochure. Bureau International des Poids et Mesures. 7
September 2007.
[13] Theory
[14] Online converter
CHAPTER 30. CANDELA
Chapter 31
Mole (unit)
This article is about the chemistry unit mole (amount
of substance). For other uses, see Mole (disambiguation).
Nmol redirects here. For the mathematical technique,
see Method of lines.
31.1 Denition and related concepts

As of 2011, the mole is dened by BIPM to be the
amount of substance of a system which contains the same
number of elementary entities (e.g. atoms, molecules,
ions, electrons) as atoms in 0.012 kilograms of carbon12 (12 C), the isotope of carbon with relative atomic mass
12.[1] Thus, by denition, one mole of pure 12 C has a
mass of exactly 12 g. It also follows from the denition
that X moles of any substance will contain the same number of molecules as X moles of any other substance.
The mole is a unit of measurement for amount of substance. It is dened as the amount of any chemical substance that contains as many elementary entities, e.g.,
atoms, molecules, ions, or electrons, as there are atoms in
12 grams of pure carbon-12 (12 C), the isotope of carbon
with relative atomic mass 12 by denition. This number
is expressed by the Avogadro constant, which has a value
of 6.02214129(27)1023 . It is one of the base units in
the International System of Units; it has the unit symbol The mass per mole of a substance is called its molar
mass. Since the standard unit for expressing the mass of
mol.
molecules or atoms (atomic mass unit or the dalton) is deThe mole is widely used in chemistry as a convenient way ned as 1/12 of the mass of a 12 C atom, it follows that the
to express amounts of reactants and products of chemical molar mass of a substance, measured in grams per mole,
reactions. For example, the chemical equation 2 H2 + O2 is exactly equal to its mean molecular or atomic mass,
2 H2 O implies that 2 mol of dihydrogen (H2 ) and 1 mol measured in unied atomic mass units or daltons; which
of dioxygen (O2 ) react to form 2 mol of water (H2 O). The is to say, to the substances mean molecular or relative
mole may also be used to express the number of atoms, atomic mass.
ions, or other elementary entities in a given sample of any
substance. The concentration of a solution is commonly The number of elementary entities in a sample of a subexpressed by its molarity, dened as the number of moles stance is technically called its (chemical) amount. Therefore, the mole is a convenient unit for that physical quanof the dissolved substance per litre of solution.
tity. One can determine the chemical amount of a known
The number of molecules in a mole (known as Avogadros substance, in moles, by dividing the samples mass by
constant) is dened such that the mass of one mole of the substances molar mass.[4] Other methods include the
a substance, expressed in grams, is equal to the mean use of the molar volume or the measurement of electric
molecular mass of the substance. For example, the mean charge.[4]
molecular mass of natural water is about 18.015, therefore, one mole of water has a mass of about 18.015 grams. The mass of one mole of a substance depends not only
on its molecular formula, but also on the proportion of
The term gram-molecule was formerly used for essentially the isotopes of each element present in it. For example,
the same concept.[1] The term gram-atom has been used one mole of calcium-40 is 39.96259098 0.00000022
for a related but distinct concept, namely a quantity of grams, whereas one mole of calcium-42 is 41.95861801
a substance that contains Avogadros number of atoms, 0.00000027 grams, and one mole of calcium with the
whether isolated or combined in molecules. Thus, for ex- normal isotopic mix is 40.078 0.004 grams.
ample, 1 mole of MgB2 is 1 gram-molecule of MgB2 but
Since the denition of the gram is not (as of 2011)
3 gram-atoms of MgB2 .[2][3]
mathematically tied to that of the atomic mass unit, the
In honour of the unit, some chemists celebrate October 23 number NA of molecules in a mole (Avogadros num(a reference to the 1023 part of the Avogadro constant) as ber) must be determined experimentally. The value
"Mole Day". Some also do the same for February 6 and adopted by CODATA in 2010 is NA = 6.022141291023
June 2.
0.000000271023 .[5] In 2011 the measurement was re189
190
CHAPTER 31. MOLE (UNIT)
ned to 6.022140781023 0.000000181023 .[6]
ever, the related concept of equivalent mass had been in

use
at least a century earlier.[11]
The number of moles in a sample is simply the sample
mass divided by the molar mass of the material.
The mole was made the seventh SI base unit in 1971 by
the 14th CGPM.[12]
31.2 History
31.3 The mole as a unit
The history of the mole is intertwined with that of

Since its adoption into the International System of Units
molecular mass, atomic mass unit, Avogadros number
in 1971, there have been a number of criticisms of the
and related concepts.
concept of the mole as a unit like the metre or the second:
The rst table of relative atomic mass (atomic weight) was
published by John Dalton (17661844) in 1805, based on
the number of molecules, etc. in a given lump of
a system in which the relative atomic mass of hydrogen
material is a xed dimensionless quantity that can be
was dened as 1. These relative atomic masses were
expressed simply as a number, so does not require its
based on the stoichiometric proportions of chemical reown base unit;[7]
actions and compounds, a fact that greatly aided their ac the SI thermodynamic mole is irrelevant to analyticeptance: It was not necessary for a chemist to subscribe
cal chemistry and could cause avoidable costs to adto atomic theory (an unproven hypothesis at the time) to
vanced economies;[13]
make practical use of the tables. This would lead to some
confusion between atomic masses (promoted by propo the mole is not a true metric (i.e. measuring) unit,
nents of atomic theory) and equivalent weights (promoted
rather it is a parametric unit and amount of substance
by its opponents and which sometimes diered from relis a parametric base quantity;[14]
ative atomic masses by an integer factor), which would
the SI denes numbers of entities as quantities of
last throughout much of the nineteenth century.
dimension one, and thus ignores the ontological
Jns Jacob Berzelius (17791848) was instrumental in
distinction between entities and units of continuous
the determination of relative atomic masses to everquantities.[15]
increasing accuracy. He was also the rst chemist to use
oxygen as the standard to which other masses were re- In chemistry, it has been known since Prousts law of defferred. Oxygen is a useful standard, as, unlike hydrogen, inite proportions (1794) that knowledge of the mass of
it forms compounds with most other elements, especially each of the components in a chemical system is not sufmetals. However, he chose to x the atomic mass of oxy- cient to dene the system. Amount of substance can
gen as 100, an innovation that did not catch on.
be described as mass divided by Prousts denite proCharles Frdric Gerhardt (181656), Henri Victor Regnault (181078) and Stanislao Cannizzaro (18261910)
expanded on Berzelius works, resolving many of the
problems of unknown stoichiometry of compounds, and
the use of atomic masses attracted a large consensus by
the time of the Karlsruhe Congress (1860). The convention had reverted to dening the atomic mass of hydrogen
as 1, although at the level of precision of measurements
at that time relative uncertainties of around 1% this
was numerically equivalent to the later standard of oxygen = 16. However the chemical convenience of having
oxygen as the primary atomic mass standard became ever
more evident with advances in analytical chemistry and
the need for ever more accurate atomic mass determinations.
portions, and contains information that is missing from

the measurement of mass alone. As demonstrated by
Daltons law of partial pressures (1803), a measurement
of mass is not even necessary to measure the amount of
substance (although in practice it is usual). There are
many physical relationships between amount of substance
and other physical quantities, the most notable one being
the ideal gas law (where the relationship was rst demonstrated in 1857). The term mole was rst used in a textbook describing these colligative properties.
31.4 Other units called mole
Chemical engineers use the concept extensively, but the

unit is rather small for industrial use.[16] For convenience
in avoiding conversions in the Imperial (or American
Customary Units), some engineers adopted the poundmole (notation lb-mol or lbmol), which is dened as the
number of entities in 12 lb of 12 C. One lb-mol is equal
[17]
The name mole is an 1897 translation of the German unit to 453.59237 mol.
Mol, coined by the chemist Wilhelm Ostwald in 1894 In the metric system, chemical engineers once used the
from the German word Molekl (molecule).[8][9][10] How- kilogram-mole (notation kg-mol), which is dened as the
Developments in mass spectrometry led to the adoption
of oxygen-16 as the standard substance, in lieu of natural oxygen. The current denition of the mole, based on
carbon-12, was approved during the 1960s.[1][7] The four
dierent denitions were equivalent to within 1%.
31.7. THE UNITS HOLIDAY
191
number of entities in 12 kg of 12 C, and often referred to 31.7 The units holiday

the mole as the gram-mole (notation g-mol), when dealing
with laboratory data.[17]
October 23 is called Mole Day.[19] It is an informal holiLate 20th century chemical engineering practice came to day in honor of the unit among chemists. The date is deuse the kilomole (kmol), which is numerically identical to rived from Avogadros constant, which is approximately
23
the kilogram-mole, but whose name and symbol adopt the 6.02210 . It starts at 6:02 a.m. and ends at 6:02 p.m.
SI convention for standard multiples of metric units - thus Alternatively, some chemists celebrate June 2 or February
kmol means 1000 moles. This is analogous to the use of 6, a reference to the 6.02 part of the constant.[20][21][22]
kg instead of g. The use of kmol is not only for magnitude convenience but also makes the equations used for
modelling chemical engineering systems coherent. For
31.8 See also
example, the conversion of a owrate of kg/s to kmol/s
only requires the molecular mass not the factor 1000 un Avogadro constant
less the basic SI unit of mol/s were to be used. Indeed,
the appearance of any conversion factors in a model can
Einstein (unit)
cause confusion and is to be avoided; possibly a denition
Faraday (unit)
of coherence is the absence of conversion factors in sets
of equations developed for modelling.
Molar concentration
Concentrations expressed as kmol/m3 are numerically the
Molar volume
same as those in mol/dm3 i.e. the molarity conventionally
used by chemists for bench measurements; this equality
can be convenient for scale-up.
Mole fraction
Stoichiometry

Main article: New SI denitions
In 2011, the 24th meeting of the General Conference on
Weights and Measures (CGPM) agreed a plan for a possible revision of the SI base unit denitions on an as yet
undetermined date. This plan, set forward in the meetings rst resolution, included a proposal to redene the
mole in a way that will x the Avogadro constant to be
equal to exactly 6.022 14X 1023 when it is expressed
in the SI unit mol1 ....[18] .... the symbol X in this Draft
Resolution represents one or more additional digits to be
added to the numerical values .... using values based on
the most recent CODATA adjustment.

The International System of Units (SI) (PDF) (8th ed.), pp.
11415, ISBN 92-822-2213-6
[2] Wang, Yuxing; Bouquet, Fr d ric; Sheikin, Ilya; Toulemonde, Pierre; Revaz, Bernard; Eisterer, Michael; Weber,
Harald W; Hinderer, Joerg; Junod, Alain et al. (2003).
Specic heat of MgB2 after irradiation. Journal of
Physics: Condensed Matter 15 (6): 883893. arXiv:condmat/0208169.
Bibcode:2003JPCM...15..883W.
doi:10.1088/0953-8984/15/6/315.
[3] Lortz, R.; Wang, Y.; Abe, S.; Meingast, C.; Paderno,
Yu.; Filippov, V.; Junod, A. et al. (2005). Specic heat, magnetic susceptibility, resistivity and
thermal expansion of the superconductor ZrB12.
Phys.
Rev.
B 72 (2): 024547.
arXiv:condBibcode:2005PhRvB..72b4547L.
mat/0502193.
doi:10.1103/PhysRevB.72.024547.
[4] International Bureau of Weights and Measures. "Realising
the mole. Retrieved 25 September 2008.
31.6 Related units

The SI units for molar concentration are mol/m3 . However, most chemical literature traditionally uses mol/dm3 ,
or mol dm3 , which is the same as mol/L. These traditional units are often denoted by a capital letter M (pronounced molar), sometimes preceded by an SI prex,
for example, millimoles per litre (mmol/L) or millimolar
(mM), micromoles/litre (mol/L) or micromolar (M),
or nanomoles/L (nmol/L) or nanomolar (nM).
[5]
[6] Andreas, Birk et al. (2011). Determination of the
Avogadro Constant by Counting the Atoms in a 28 Si
Crystal. Physical Review Letters 106 (3): 30801.
arXiv:1010.2317.
Bibcode:2011PhRvL.106c0801A.
[7] de Bivre, P.; Peiser, H.S. (1992).
"'Atomic
Weight'The Name, Its History, Denition, and
Units (PDF). Pure Appl. Chem. 64 (10): 153543.
doi:10.1351/pac199264101535.
192
[8] Helm, Georg (1897). The Principles of Mathematical

Chemistry: The Energetics of Chemical Phenomena.
transl. by Livingston, J.; Morgan, R. New York: Wiley.
p. 6.
[9] Some sources place the date of rst usage in English as
1902. MerriamWebster proposes an etymology from
Molekulrgewicht (molecular weight).
[10] Ostwald, Wilhelm (1893). Hand- und Hilfsbuch zur Ausfhrung Physiko-Chemischer Messungen. Leipzig. p. 119.
[11] mole, n.8 , Oxford English Dictionary, Draft Revision
Dec. 2008
[12] 14th CGPM (1971):Resolution 3
[13] Price, Gary (2010). Failures of the global measurement
system. Part 1: the case of chemistry. Accreditation and
Quality Assurance 15 (7): 421427. doi:10.1007/s00769010-0655-z..
[14] Johansson, Ingvar (2010).
Metrological thinking
needs the notions of parametric quantities, units,
and dimensions..
Metrologia 47 (3): 219230.
Bibcode:2010Metro..47..219J.
doi:10.1088/00261394/47/3/012.
[15] Cooper, G; Humphry, S (2010). The ontological distinction between units and entities. Synthese 187 (2): 393.
doi:10.1007/s11229-010-9832-1.
[16] In particular, when the mole is used, alongside the SI unit
of volume of a cubic metre, in thermodynamic calculations such as the ideal gas law, a factor of 1000 is introduced which engineering practice chooses to simplify by
adopting the kilomole.
[17] Himmelblau, David (1996). Basic Principles and Calculations in Chemical Engineering (6 ed.). pp. 1720. ISBN
0-13-305798-4.
[18] RESOLUTIONS ADOPTED BY THE 24TH MEETING OF THE GENERAL CONFERENCE ON
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES (CGPM)" (PDF). Paris:
BIPM. 1721 Oct 2011.
[19] History of National Mole Day Foundation, Inc
[20] Happy Mole Day!, Mary Bigelow. SciLinks blog, National Science Teachers Association. October 17, 2013.
[21] What Is Mole Day? - Date and How to Celebrate, Anne
Marie Helmenstine. About.com
[22] The Perse School (Feb 7, 2013), The Perse School celebrates moles of the chemical variety, Cambridge Network,
retrieved Feb 11, 2015, As 6.02 corresponds to 6th February, the School has adopted the date as their Mole Day.

ChemTeam: The Origin of the Word 'Mole' at the
Wayback Machine (archived December 22, 2007)
CHAPTER 31. MOLE (UNIT)
Chapter 32
Coulomb
For other uses, see Coulomb (disambiguation).
international prototype kilogram, a metal cylinder housed

in France.[6] In practice, the watt balance is used to mea[6]
The coulomb (unit symbol: C) is the International Sys- sure amperes with the highest possible accuracy.
tem of Units (SI) unit of electric charge. It is the charge Since the charge of one electron is known to be about
(symbol: Q or q) transported by a constant current of one 1.6021766208(98)1019 C,[7] 1 C can also be conampere in one second:
sidered the charge of roughly 6.2415091018 electrons
(or +1 C the charge of that many positrons or protons),
where the number is the reciprocal of 1.6021771019 .
1C = 1A 1s
The proposed redenition of the ampere and other SI

base units would have the eect of xing the numerical
Thus, it is also the amount of excess charge on a capacitor value of the fundamental charge to an explicit constant
of one farad charged to a potential dierence of one volt: expressed in coulombs, and therefore it would implicitly
x the value of the coulomb when expressed as a multiple
of the fundamental charge (the numerical values of those
1C = 1F 1V
quantities are the multiplicative inverses of each other).
It is equivalent to the charge of approximately
6.2411018 (1.036105 mol) protons, and 1 C is
equivalent to the charge of approximately 6.2411018
electrons.
32.1 Name and notation
32.3 SI prexes
See also SI prex.
32.4 Conversions
This SI unit is named after Charles-Augustin de

Coulomb. As with every International System of Units
(SI) unit named for a person, the rst letter of its symbol
is upper case (C). However, when an SI unit is spelled out
in English, it should always begin with a lower case letter
(coulomb)except in a situation where any word in that
position would be capitalized, such as at the beginning
of a sentence or in material using title case. Note that
degree Celsius" conforms to this rule because the d is
lowercase. Based on The International System of Units,
section 5.2.[2]
The magnitude of the electrical charge of one mole

of elementary charges (approximately 6.0221023 ,
or Avogadros number) is known as a faraday unit
of charge (closely related to the Faraday constant).
One faraday equals 96485.3399 coulombs. In terms
of Avogadros number (NA), one coulomb is equal
to approximately 1.036 NA105 elementary
charges.
32.2 Denition
One statcoulomb (statC), the obsolete CGS

electrostatic unit of charge (esu), is approximately 3.33561010 C or about one-third of a
nanocoulomb.
The SI system denes the coulomb in terms of the ampere

and second: 1 C = 1 A 1 s.[3] The second is dened
in terms of a frequency naturally emitted by caesium
atoms.[4] The ampere is dened using Ampres force
law;[5] the denition relies in part on the mass of the
193
One ampere-hour = 3600 C, 1 mAh = 3.6 C.

The elementary charge is 1.6021766208(98)1019
C.[7]
One coulomb is the magnitude (absolute value) of

electrical charge in 6.24150934(14)1018 protons
or electrons.[1]
194
CHAPTER 32. COULOMB
32.5 Relation to elementary charge 32.7 See also

The elementary charge, the charge of a proton (equivalently, the negative of the charge of an electron), is approximately 1.6021766208(98)1019 C[7] . In SI, the elementary charge in coulombs is an approximate value:
no experiment can be innitely accurate. However, in
other unit systems, the elementary charge has an exact value by denition, and other charges are ultimately
measured relative to the elementary charge.[8] For example, in conventional electrical units, the values of the
Josephson constant KJ and von Klitzing constant RK are
exact dened values (written KJ- and RK-), and it follows that the elementary charge e = 2/(KJRK) is also an
exact dened value in this unit system.[8] Specically,
e90 = (2109 )/(25812.807 483597.9) C exactly.[8]
SI itself may someday change its denitions in a similar way.[8] For example, one possible proposed redenition is the ampere...is [dened] such that the value of
the elementary charge e (charge on a proton) is exactly
1.6021764871019 coulombs,[9] (in which the numeric
value is the 2006 CODATA recommended value, since
superseded). This proposal is not yet accepted as part of
the SI; the SI denitions are unlikely to change until at
least 2015.[10]
Abcoulomb, a cgs unit of charge

Ampres circuital law
Coulombs law
Electrostatics
Elementary charge
Faraday (unit), an obsolete unit
Quantity of electricity

[1] 6.24150934(14)1018 is the reciprocal of the 2010 CODATA recommended value 1.602176565(35)1019 for
the elementary charge in coulomb.
[2] SI Brochure, Appendix 1, (PDF). BIPM. p. 144.
[3] SI brochure, section 2.2.2. BIPM.
[4] SI brochure, section 2.2.1.3. BIPM.
[5] SI brochure, section 2.2.1.4. BIPM.
32.6 In everyday terms

The charges in static electricity from rubbing materials together are typically a few microcoulombs.[11]
The amount of charge that travels through a
lightning bolt is typically around 15 C, although
large bolts can be up to 350 C.[12]
The amount of charge that travels through a typical
alkaline AA battery from being fully charged to discharged is about 5 kC = 5000 C 1400 mAh.[13]
[6] Watt Balance. BIPM.

[7] CODATA Value: elementary charge. The NIST Reference on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty. US National
Institute of Standards and Technology. June 2015. Retrieved 2015-09-22.
[8] Mills, I. M.; Mohr, P. J.; Quinn, T. J.; Taylor, B. N.;
Williams, E. R. (2005). Redenition of the kilogram:
a decision whose time has come. Metrologia 42 (2):
71. Bibcode:2005Metro..42...71M. doi:10.1088/00261394/42/2/001.
[9] Report of the CCU to the 23rd CGPM
[10] Anon (November 2010). BIPM Bulletin (PDF). BIPM.
According to Coulombs law, two negative point

charges of 1 C, placed one meter apart, would [11] Martin Karl W. Pohl. Physics: Principles with Applications (PDF). DESY.
experience a repulsive force of 9109 N, a force
roughly equal to the weight of 920000 metric tons
[12] Hasbrouck, Richard. Mitigating Lightning Hazards, Sciof mass on the surface of the Earth.
ence & Technology Review May 1996. Retrieved on
2009-04-26.
The hydraulic analogy uses everyday terms to illustrate movement of charge and the transfer of en- [13] How to do everything with digital photography David
Huss, p. 23, at Google Books, The capacity range of an
ergy. The analogy equates charge to a volume of
AA battery is typically from 11002200 mAh.
water, and voltage to pressure. One coulomb equals
18
(the negative of) the charge of 6.2410 electrons.
The amount of energy transferred by the ow of 1
coulomb can vary; for example, 300 times fewer
electrons ow through a lightning bolt than in the
discharge of an AA battery, but the total energy
transferred by the ow of the lightnings electrons
is 300 million times greater.
Chapter 33
Henry (unit)
The henry (symbol H) is the unit of electrical inductance
in the International System of Units.[1] The unit is named
after Joseph Henry (17971878), the American scientist
who discovered electromagnetic induction independently
of and at about the same time as Michael Faraday (1791
1867) in England.[2] The magnetic permeability of a vacuum is 4107 H m1 (henry per metre).
reluctance, the reciprocal of the inductance. It is dened

as: 1 yrneh = 1 henry1 .[5] This word is not listed in
the Oxford English Dictionary,[6] however it is listed in
Chambers Dictionary (11th edition).
33.3 See also
The National Institute of Standards and Technology provides guidance for American users of SI to write the plural as henries.[3]:31
Impedance
Inductor
Weber (unit)
33.1 Denition
The inductance of an electric circuit is one henry when an
electric current that is changing at one ampere per second
results in an electromotive force across the inductor of
one volt:
v(t) = L
33.4 References
[2] Herbert S. Bailey, Jr. A Princeton Companion.
di
dt
where v(t) denotes the resulting voltage across the circuit,

i(t) is the current through the circuit, and L is the inductance of the circuit.
The henry is a derived unit based on four of the seven
base units of the International System of Units: kilogram
(kg), meter (m), second (s), and ampere (A). Expressed
in combinations of SI units, the henry is:[4]
H=
[1] Rowlett, Russ. How Many? A Dictionary of Units of

Measurement. University of North Carolina at Chapel
Hill.
[3] Ambler Thompson & Barry N. Taylor (2008). NIST

Special Publication 811: Guide for the Use of the International System of Units (SI)" (PDF). National Institute
of Standards and Technology. Retrieved 2013-03-21.
[4] Essentials of the SI: Base & derived units. The NIST
Reference on Constants, Units and Uncertainty. National
Institute of Standards and Technology.
[5] Cardarelli, F. (2003). Encyclopaedia of Scientic Units,
Weights and Measures. Their SI Equivalences and Origins.
Springer. p. 24. ISBN 978-1-4471-1122-1.
kg m2
kg m2
J
T m2
Wb
V s [6]s2Full OED
1 consulted online 1 March 2015
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
= s
2
2
2
2
A
A
A
F
F Hz2
s A
A
C
in which the following additional derived units occur:

coulomb (C), farad (F), joule (J), weber (Wb), tesla (T),
volt (V), hertz (Hz), and ohm ().
33.2 Yrneh
The term yrneh, obtained by reversing the letters of
henry, is said to have been used as a measure of
195
Chapter 34
Ohm
This article is about the SI derived unit (). For other siemens (S), watt (W), second (s), farad (F), joule (J),
meanings, see Ohm (disambiguation).
kilogram (kg), metre (m), and coulomb (C).
The ohm (symbol: ) is the SI derived unit of electrical
resistance, named after German physicist Georg Simon
Ohm. Although several empirically derived standard
units for expressing electrical resistance were developed
in connection with early telegraphy practice, the British
Association for the Advancement of Science proposed
a unit derived from existing units of mass, length and
time and of a convenient size for practical work as early
as 1861. The denition of the ohm was revised several
times. Today the denition of the ohm is expressed from
the quantum Hall eect.
In many cases the resistance of a conductor in ohms is

approximately constant within a certain range of voltages, temperatures, and other parameters; one speaks
of linear resistors. In other cases resistance varies (e.g.,
thermistors).
Commonly used multiples and submultiples in electrical and electronic usage are the microohm, milliohm,
kilohm, megohm, and gigaohm,[2] the term gigohm,
though not ocial, is in common use for the latter.[3]
In alternating current circuits, electrical impedance is also
measured in ohms ().
34.2 Conversions
34.1 Denition
The siemens (symbol: S) is the SI derived unit of electric

conductance and admittance, also known as the mho
(ohm spelled backwards, symbol is ); it is the reciprocal
of resistance in ohms ().
34.3 Power as a function of resistance

The power dissipated by a resistor may be calculated from
its resistance, and the voltage or current involved. The
formula is a combination of Ohms Law and Joules law:
A multimeter can be used to measure resistance in ohms, among
other things.
P =V I =
V2
= I2 R
R
The ohm is dened as a electrical resistance between two

points of a conductor when a constant potential dier- where:
ence of 1 volt, applied to these points, produces in the
P = power in watts
conductor a current of 1 ampere, the conductor not being the seat of any electromotive force.[1]
R = resistance in ohms
V = voltage across the resistor
1
W
V2
s
Js
V
kg m2
= = 2 =
= = 2 =
=
2
A
S
W
F
A
C
sC
I = current through the resistor in amps
J
kg m2
= 3 2
s A2
s A
A linear resistor has a constant resistance value over all
in which the following units appear: volt (V), ampere (A), applied voltages or currents; many practical resistors are
=
196
34.4. HISTORY
197
linear over a useful range of currents. Non-linear resistors

have a value that may vary depending on the applied voltage (or current). Where alternating current is applied to
the circuit,(or where the resistance value is a function of
time), the relation above is true at any instant but calculation of average power over an interval of time will require
integration of instantaneous power over that interval.
Various artifact standards were proposed as the denition of the unit of resistance. In 1860 Werner Siemens
published a suggestion for a reproducible resistance standard in Poggendors Annalen der Physik und Chemie.[5]
He proposed a column of pure mercury, of one square
millimetre cross section, one metre long : Siemens mercury unit. However, this unit was not coherent with other
units. One proposal was to devise a unit based on a mercury column that would be coherent - in eect, adjusting
the length to make the resistance one ohm. Not all users
34.4 History
of units had the resources to carry out metrology experiments to the required precision, so working standards noThe rapid rise of electrotechnology in the last half of the tionally based on the physical denition were required.
19th century created a demand for a rational, coherent, In 1861, Latimer Clark and Sir Charles Bright presented
consistent, and international system of units for electrical a paper at the British Association for the Advancement
quantities. Telegraphers and other early uses of electric- of Science meeting [6] suggesting that standards for elecity in the 19th century needed a practical standard unit trical units be established and suggesting names for these
of measurement for resistance. Resistance was often ex- units derived from eminent philosophers, 'Ohma', 'Farad'
pressed as a multiple of the resistance of a standard length and 'Volt'. The BAAS in 1861 appointed a committee inof telegraph wires; dierent agencies used dierent bases cluding Maxwell and Thomson to report upon Standards
for a standard, so units were not readily interchangeable. of Electrical Resistance.[7] Their objectives were to deElectrical units so dened were not a coherent system vise a unit that was of convenient size, part of a comwith the units for energy, mass, length, and time, requir- plete system for electrical measurements, coherent with
ing conversion factors to be used in calculations relating the units for energy, stable, reproducible and based on the
energy or power to resistance.[4]
French metrical system.[8] In the third report of the comTwo dierent methods of establishing a system of electri- mittee, 1864, the[9]resistance unit is referred to as B.A.
By 1867 the unit is referred to as simcal units can be chosen. Various artifacts, such as a length unit, or Ohmad.
[10]
ply
Ohm.
of wire or a standard electrochemical cell, could be specied as producing dened quantities for resistance, voltage, and so on. Alternatively, the electrical units can be
related to the mechanical units by dening, for example,
a unit of current that gives a specied force between two
wires, or a unit of charge that gives a unit of force between
two unit charges. This latter method ensures coherence
with the units of energy. Dening a unit for resistance
that is coherent with units of energy and time in eect
also requires dening units for potential and current. It
is desirable that one unit of electrical potential will force
one unit of electric current through one unit of electrical
resistance, doing one unit of work in one unit of time,
otherwise all electrical calculations will require conversion factors.
Since so-called absolute units of charge and current are
expressed as combinations of units of mass, length, and
time, dimensional analysis of the relations between potential, current and resistance show that resistance is expressed in units of length per time - a velocity. Some early
denitions of a unit of resistance, for example, dened a
unit resistance as one quadrant of the Earth per second.
The B.A. ohm was intended to be 109 CGS units but owing to an error in calculations the denition was 1.3% too
small. The error was signicant for preparation of working standards.
On September 21, 1881 the Congrs internationale
d'lectriciens (international conference of electricians)
dened a practical unit of Ohm for the resistance, based
on CGS units, using a mercury column at zero deg. Celsius, similar to the apparatus suggested by Siemens.
A legal ohm, a reproducible standard, was dened by the
international conference of electricians at Paris in 1884
as the resistance of a mercury column of specied weight
and 106 cm long; this was a compromise value between
the B. A. unit (equivalent to 104.7 cm), the Siemens unit
(100 cm by denition), and the CGS unit. Although
called legal, this standard was not adopted by any national legislation. The international ohm was dened as
a mercury column 106.3 cm long of mass 14.4521 grams
and 0 C at the International Electrical Conference 1893
in Chicago. This denition became the basis for the legal denition of the ohm in several countries. In 1908,
the next Electrical Conference conrmed this denition.
The mercury column standard was maintained until the
1948 General Conference on Weights and Measures, at
which the ohm was redened in absolute terms instead of
as an artifact standard.
Absolute units system related magnetic and electrostatic quantities to metric base units of mass, time, and
length. These units had the great advantage of simplifying the equations used in the solution of electromagnetic
problems, and eliminated conversion factors in calculations about electrical quantities. However, the CGS units
By the end of the 19th century, units were wellturned out to have impractical sizes for practical measureunderstood and consistent. Denitions would change
ments.
198
CHAPTER 34. OHM
with little eect on commercial uses of the units. Ad- does the same.
vances in metrology allowed denitions to be formulated
with a high degree of precision and repeatability.
34.7 See also

34.4.1
Historical units of resistance
34.5 Realization of standards

The mercury column method of realizing a physical standard ohm turned out to be dicult to reproduce, owing
to the eects of non-constant cross section of the glass
tubing. Various resistance coils were constructed by the
British Association and others, to serve as physical artifact standards for the unit of resistance. The long-term
stability and reproducibility of these artifacts was an ongoing eld of research, as the eects of temperature, air
pressure, humidity, and time on the standards were detected and analyzed.
Artifact standards are still used, but metrology experiments relating accurately-dimensioned inductors and capacitors provided a more fundamental basis for the definition of the ohm. Since 1990 the quantum Hall eect
has been used to dene the ohm with high precision and
repeatability. The quantum Hall experiments are used to
check the stability of working standards that have convenient values for comparison.[13]
34.6 Symbol
When preparing electronic documents, some document
editing software applications have used the Symbol typeface to render the character . Where the font is not supported, a W is displayed instead (10 W instead of 10
", for instance). As W represents the watt, the SI unit
of power, this can lead to confusion.
In the electronics industry it is common to use the character R instead of the symbol, thus, a 10 resistor
may be represented as 10R. This is the British standard
BS 1852 code. It is used in many instances where the
value has a decimal place. For example, 5.6 is listed
as 5R6. This method avoids overlooking the decimal period which may not be rendered reliably on components
or when duplicating documents.
In documents printed before WWII the unit symbol often
consisted of the raised lowercase omega (), such that 56
was written as 56 .
Unicode encodes the symbol as U+2126 ohm sign,
distinct from Greek omega among letterlike symbols,
but it is only included for backwards compatibility and
the Greek uppercase omega character U+03A9 greek
capital letter omega (HTML Ω Ω) is
preferred.[14] In DOS and Windows, the alt code ALT
234 may produce the symbol. In Mac OS, Opt+Z
History of measurement
International Committee for Weights and Measures
Resistivity

[1] BIPM SI Brochure: Appendix 1, p. 144
[2] The NIST Guide to the SI: 9.3 Spelling unit names with
prexes reports that IEEE/ASTM SI 10-2002 IEEE/ASTM
Standard for Use of the International System of Units (SI):
The Modern Metric System states that there are three cases
in which the nal vowel of an SI prex is commonly omitted: megohm, kilohm, and hectare. In all other cases
in which the unit name begins with a vowel, both the nal vowel of the prex and the vowel of the unit name are
retained and both are pronounced.
[3] gigohm: Denition from. Answers.com. Retrieved
2013-09-16.
[4] Hunt, Bruce J (1994). The Ohm Is Where the Art
Is: British Telegraph Engineers and the Development
of Electrical Standards (PDF). Osiris. 2nd 9: 4863.
doi:10.1086/368729. Retrieved 27 February 2014.
[5] Werner Siemens (1860), Vorschlag eines reproducirbaren Widerstandsmaaes (in German), Annalen der Physik und Chemie 186 (5): pp. 120,
doi:10.1002/andp.18601860502
[6] Clark, Latimer; Bright, Sir Charles (1861-11-09).
Measurement of Electrical Quantities and Resistance.
The Electrician 1 (1): 34. Retrieved 27 February 2014.
[7] Report of the Thirty-First Meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science; held at Manchester
in September 1861. September 1861. pp. xxxixxl.
[8] Williamson, Professor A; Wheatstone, Professor
C; Thomson, Professor W; Miller, Professor WH;
Matthiessen, Dr. A; Jenkin, Mr. Fleeming (September
1862). Provisional Report of the Committee appointed by
the British Association on Standards of Electrical Resistance. Thirty-second Meeting of the British Association
for the Advancement of Science. London: John Murray.
pp. 125163. Retrieved 2014-02-27.
Matthiessen, Dr. A; Jenkin, Mr. Fleeming; Bright,
Sir Charles; Maxwell, Professor; Siemens, Mr. CW;
Stewart, Mr. Balfour; Joule, Dr.; Varley, Mr. CF
(September 1864). Report of the Committee on Standards
of Electrical Resistance. Thirty-fourth Meeting of the
British Association for the Advancement of Science.
London: John Murray. p. Foldout facing page 349.

Matthiessen, Dr. A; Jenkin, Mr. Fleeming; Bright,
Sir Charles; Maxwell, Professor; Siemens, Mr. CW;
Stewart, Mr. Balfour; Varley, Mr. CF; Foster, Professor
GC; Clark, Mr. Latimer; Forbes, Mr. D.; Hockin,
Mr. Charles; Joule, Dr. (September 1867). Report
of the Committee on Standards of Electrical Resistance.
Thirty-seventh Meeting of the British Association for the
Advancement of Science. London: John Murray. p. 488.
[11] Gordon Wigan (trans. and ed.), Electricians Pocket Book,
Cassel and Company, London, 1884
[12] Historical Studies in International Corporate Business.
Teich p34
[13] R. Dzuiba and others, Stability of Dobule-Walled Maganin
Resistors in NIST Special Publication Proceedings of SPIE-the International Society for Optical Engineering, The Institute, 1988 pages 63-64
[14] Excerpts from The Unicode Standard, Version 4.0, accessed 11 October 2006
34.9 External links

Scanned books of Georg Simon Ohm at the library
of the University of Applied Sciences Nuernberg
Ocial SI brochure
NIST Special Publication 811
History of the ohm at sizes.com
History of the electrical units.
199
Chapter 35
Radian
For a measure of ionizing radiation, see Rad (unit). For
other uses, see Radian (disambiguation).
35.1 Denition
Radian describes the plane angle subtended by a circular
arc as the length of the arc divided by the radius of the
arc. One radian is the angle subtended at the center of a
circle by an arc that is equal in length to the radius of the
circle. More generally, the magnitude in radians of such
a subtended angle is equal to the ratio of the arc length
to the radius of the circle; that is, = s /r, where is the
subtended angle in radians, s is arc length, and r is radius.
Conversely, the length of the enclosed arc is equal to the
radius multiplied by the magnitude of the angle in radians;
that is, s = r.
As the ratio of two lengths, the radian is a "pure number"
that needs no unit symbol, and in mathematical writing
the symbol rad is almost always omitted. When quantifying an angle in the absence of any symbol, radians are
assumed, and when degrees are meant the symbol is
used.
An arc of a circle with the same length as the radius of that circle
corresponds to an angle of 1 radian. A full circle corresponds to
an angle of 2 radians.
The radian is the standard unit of angular measure, used

in many areas of mathematics. An angle's measurement
in radians is numerically equal to the length of a corresponding arc of a unit circle; one radian is just under 57.3
degrees (when the arc length is equal to the radius). The
unit was formerly an SI supplementary unit, but this category was abolished in 1995 and the radian is now considered an SI derived unit.[1]
Separately, the SI unit of solid angle measurement is the
steradian.
The radian is represented by the symbol rad (Unicodeencoded as U+33AD rad ). An alternative symbol is the
superscript letter c, for circular measure or the letter r,
but both of those symbols are infrequently used as it can
be easily mistaken for a degree symbol () or a radius (r).
So for example, a value of 1.2 radians could be written as
1.2 rad, 1.2 r, 1.2rad , or 1.2c .
A complete revolution is 2 radians (shown here with a circle of

radius one and thus circumference 2).
It follows that the magnitude in radians of one complete

revolution (360 degrees) is the length of the entire circumference divided by the radius, or 2r /r, or 2. Thus
2 radians is equal to 360 degrees, meaning that one radian is equal to 180/ degrees.
35.2 History
The concept of radian measure, as opposed to the degree of an angle, is normally credited to Roger Cotes
in 1714.[2][3] He described the radian in everything but
name, and he recognized its naturalness as a unit of angular measure. The idea of measuring angles by the length
200
35.4. ADVANTAGES OF MEASURING IN RADIANS
201
of the arc was already in use by other mathematicians. Conversely, to convert from degrees to radians, multiply
For example, al-Kashi (c. 1400) used so-called diameter by /180.
parts as units where one diameter part was 1/60 radian
and they also used sexagesimal subunits of the diameter
part.[4]
radians in angle = degrees in angle
180
The term radian rst appeared in print on 5 June 1873,
in examination questions set by James Thomson (brother For example:
of Lord Kelvin) at Queens College, Belfast. He had used
the term as early as 1871, while in 1869, Thomas Muir,
then of the University of St Andrews, vacillated between

1 =1
0.0175rad
the terms rad, radial, and radian. In 1874, after a consul180
[5][6][7]
tation with James Thomson, Muir adopted radian.
23 = 23 180
0.4014rad
Radians can be converted to turns (complete revolutions)
by dividing the number of radians by 2.
35.3 Conversions
180
2
2
3
2.0
2.1
3
4
1.9
1.6
1.8 1.7
1.1
0.9
110
2.5
100
90
80
120
130
140
150
160
3.0
170
3.1
sin
cos
tan
cot
sec
csc
II I
III IV
180
3.2
190
3.3
200
3.4
210
3.5
220
3.6
230
3.7
sin
cos
tan
cot
sec
csc
250
3.9
60
0.5
40
0.4
30
10
sin
cos
tan
cot
sec
csc
260 270 280
By the denition of radian, a full circle represents:
6.0
5.8
310
5.7
300
5.6
11
6
2r
rad
r
5.5
5.0
5.1
5.2
7
4
5
3
3
2
A chart to convert between degrees and radians
35.3.1
360 2r [Since a 360 sweep is needed to draw

a full circle]
5.9
320
290
4.7 4.8 4.9
So the following equivalent relation is true:
6.1
340
5.4
4.5 4.6
0 & 2
6.2
330
5.3
4.4
0.1
350
4.2
4.3
0.2
0 & 360
4.1
4
3
0.3
20
4.0
5
4
0.6
50
sin
cos
tan
cot
sec
csc
240
3.8
0.7
70
Radian to degree conversion derivation

The length of circumference of a circle is given by 2r ,
where r is the radius of the circle.
1.0
2.6
2.9
Radians
180
0.8
2.8
7
6
1.2
2.2
2.7
1.3
2.3
2.4
5
6
1.5 1.4
Degrees
= 2rad
Combining both the above relations:
2rad = 360
360
1rad
=
Conversion between radians and
2
degrees
As stated, one radian is equal to 180/ degrees. Thus, to

convert from radians to degrees, multiply by 180/.
degrees in angle = radians in angle

For example:
1rad = 1
180
57.2958
180
2.5rad = 2.5
143.2394
180
rad =
= 60
3
3
180
1rad =
180
35.3.2 Conversion between radians and

gradians
2 radians are equal to one turn, which is by denition
400 gradians (400 gons or 400g ). So, to convert from radians to gradians multiply by 200/ , and to convert from
gradians to radians multiply by /200 . For example,
1.2rad = 1.2
50g = 50
200g
76.3944g
0.7854rad
200g
202
CHAPTER 35. RADIAN

If x were expressed in degrees then the series would contain messy factors involving powers of /180: if x is the
number of degrees, the number of radians is y = x /180,
so
( )3 x3 ( )5 x5 ( )7 x7
x
+
+
180
180
3!
180
5!
180
7!
Mathematically important relationships between the sine
and cosine functions and the exponential function (see,
for example, Eulers formula) are, again, elegant when the
functions arguments are in radians and messy otherwise.
sin xdeg = sin yrad =
Some common angles, measured in radians. All the large polygons in this diagram are regular polygons.
35.5 Dimensional analysis

35.4 Advantages of measuring in
radians
In calculus and most other branches of mathematics beyond practical geometry, angles are universally measured
in radians. This is because radians have a mathematical
naturalness that leads to a more elegant formulation of
a number of important results.
Although the radian is a unit of measure, it is a

dimensionless quantity. This can be seen from the definition given earlier: the angle subtended at the centre of
a circle, measured in radians, is equal to the ratio of the
length of the enclosed arc to the length of the circles radius. Since the units of measurement cancel, this ratio is
dimensionless.
Although polar and spherical coordinates use radians to

Most notably, results in analysis involving trigonometric describe coordinates in two and three dimensions, the
functions are simple and elegant when the functions ar- unit is derived from the radius coordinate, so the angle
guments are expressed in radians. For example, the use measure is still dimensionless.[8]
of radians leads to the simple limit formula
sin h
lim
= 1,
h0 h
35.6 Use in physics
The radian is widely used in physics when angular meawhich is the basis of many other identities in mathemat- surements are required. For example, angular velocity
ics, including
is typically measured in radians per second (rad/s). One
revolution per second is equal to 2 radians per second.
d
sin x = cos x
dx
d2
sin x = sin x.
dx2
Because of these and other properties, the trigonometric
functions appear in solutions to mathematical problems
that are not obviously related to the functions geometrical meanings (for example, the solutions to the dierend2 y
tial equation dx
2 = y , the evaluation of the integral
dx
,
and
so
on). In all such cases it is found that the
2
1+x
arguments to the functions are most naturally written in
the form that corresponds, in geometrical contexts, to the
radian measurement of angles.
Similarly, angular acceleration is often measured in radians per second per second (rad/s2 ).
For the purpose of dimensional analysis, the units are s1
and s2 respectively.
Likewise, the phase dierence of two waves can also be
measured in radians. For example, if the phase dierence
of two waves is (k2) radians, where k is an integer, they
are considered in phase, whilst if the phase dierence of
two waves is (k2 + ), where k is an integer, they are
considered in antiphase.
35.7 Multiples of radian units
The trigonometric functions also have simple and elegant Metric prexes have limited use with radians, and none in
series expansions when radians are used; for example, the mathematics. A milliradian (mrad) is a thousandth of a
following Taylor series for sin x :
radian and a microradian (rad) is a millionth of a radian,
i.e. 103 mrad = 106 rad = 1 rad.
sin x = x
x3
x5
x7
+
+ .
3!
5!
7!
There are 2 1000 milliradians ( 6283.185 mrad) in a

circle. So a trigonometric milliradian is just under 1 6283

of a circle. This real trigonometric unit of angular measurement of a circle is in use by telescopic sight manufacturers using (stadiametric) rangending in reticles. The
divergence of laser beams is also usually measured in milliradians.
An approximation of the trigonometric milliradian
(0.001 rad), known as the (angular) mil, is used by NATO
and other military organizations in gunnery and targeting.
Each angular mil represents 1 6400 of a circle and is 1
7
8 % smaller than the trigonometric milliradian. For the
small angles typically found in targeting work, the convenience of using the number 6400 in calculation outweighs the small mathematical errors it introduces. In the
past, other gunnery systems have used dierent approximations to 1 ; for example Sweden used the 1 6300
streck and the USSR used 1 6000 . Being based on the milliradian, the NATO mil subtends roughly 1 m at a range
of 1000 m (at such small angles, the curvature is negligible).
Smaller units like microradians (rad) and nanoradians
(nrad) are used in astronomy, and can also be used to
measure the beam quality of lasers with ultra-low divergence. More common is arc second, which is , radians (around 4.8481 microradians). Similarly, the prexes smaller than milli- are potentially useful in measuring extremely small angles.
35.8 See also

Angular frequency
Angular mil military measurement
Grad
Harmonic analysis
Steradian the square radian
Trigonometry

[1] Resolution 8 of the CGPM at its 20th Meeting (1995)".
Bureau International des Poids et Mesures. Retrieved
2014-09-23.
[2] O'Connor, J. J.; Robertson, E. F. (February 2005).
Biography of Roger Cotes. The MacTutor History of
Mathematics.
[3] Roger Cotes died in 1716. By 1722, his cousin Robert
Smith had collected and published Cotes mathematical
writings in a book, Harmonia mensurarum . In a chapter of editorial comments by Smith, he gives, for the rst
time, the value of one radian in degrees. See: Roger
Cotes with Robert Smith, ed., Harmonia mensurarum
(Cambridge, England: 1722), chapter: Editoris not ad
203
Harmoniam mensurarum, top of page 95. From page

95: After stating that 180 corresponds to a length of
(3.14159) along a unit circle (i.e., radians), Smith
writes: Unde Modulus Canonis Trigonometrici prodibit
57.2957795130 &c. " (Whence the unit of trigonometric measure, 57.2957795130 [degrees per radian], will
appear.)
[4] Luckey, Paul (1953) [Translation of 1424 book]. Siggel,
A., ed. Der Lehrbrief ber den kreisumfang von Gamshid
b. Masud al-Kasi [Treatise on the Circumference of alKashi] (6). Berlin: Akademie Verlag. p. 40.
[5] Cajori, Florian (1929). History of Mathematical Notations
2. pp. 147148. ISBN 0-486-67766-4.
[6] Muir, Thos.
(1910).
The Term Radian in Trigonometry.
Nature 83 (2110):
156.
Bibcode:1910Natur..83..156M.
doi:10.1038/083156a0.Thomson,
James
(1910).
The Term Radian in Trigonometry.
Nature
83 (2112):
217.
Bibcode:1910Natur..83..217T.
doi:10.1038/083217c0.Muir, Thos. (1910). The Term
Radian in Trigonometry. Nature 83 (2120): 459460.
Bibcode:1910Natur..83..459M. doi:10.1038/083459d0.
[7] Miller, Je (Nov 23, 2009). Earliest Known Uses of
Some of the Words of Mathematics. Retrieved Sep 30,
2011.
[8] For a debate on this meaning and use see: Brownstein, K. R. (1997).
AnglesLets treat them
squarely. American Journal of Physics 65 (7): 605.
Bibcode:1997AmJPh..65..605B. doi:10.1119/1.18616.,
Romain, J.E. (1962). Angles as a fourth fundamental quantity. Journal of Research of the National
Bureau of Standards-B. Mathematics and Mathematical Physics 66B (3): 97., LVy-Leblond, Jean-Marc
(1998).
Dimensional angles and universal constants. American Journal of Physics 66 (9): 814.
Bibcode:1998AmJPh..66..814L. doi:10.1119/1.18964.,
and Romer, Robert H. (1999).
UnitsSI-Only,
or Multicultural Diversity?".
American Journal of
Physics 67:
13.
Bibcode:1999AmJPh..67...13R.
doi:10.1119/1.19185.

Radian at MathWorld
Chapter 36
Steradian
The steradian (symbol: sr) or square radian[1][2] is the its surface with area A = r2 subtends one steradian.[3]
SI unit of solid angle. It is used in three-dimensional The solid angle is related to the area it cuts out of a sphere:
space, and functions analogously to the manner in which
the radian quanties planar angles. The name is derived
from the Greek stereos for solid and the Latin radius for
ray, beam.
A
= 2 sr
r
The steradian, like the radian, is dimensionless, essentially because a solid angle is the ratio between the area
where
subtended and the square of its distance from the vertex:
both the numerator and denominator of this ratio have
A is the surface area of the spherical
dimension length squared (i.e., L/L = - no unit). It
cap, 2rh,
is useful, however, to distinguish between dimensionless
r is the radius of the sphere, and
quantities of a dierent nature, so in practice the symbol
sr is the unit, steradian.
sr is used to indicate a solid angle. For example, radiant
intensity can be measured in watts per steradian (Wsr1 ).
2
The steradian was formerly an SI supplementary unit, but Because the surface area A of a sphere is 4r , the defthis category was abolished from the SI in 1995 and the inition implies that a sphere measures 4 ( 12.56637)
steradians. By the same argument, the maximum solid
steradian is now considered an SI derived unit.
angle that can be subtended at any point is 4 sr.
36.1 Denition
36.2 Other properties

Since A = r2 , it corresponds to the area of a spherical cap
(A = 2rh) (wherein h stands for the height of the cap),
and the relationship h/r = 1/(2) holds. Therefore one
steradian corresponds to the plane (i.e. radian) angle of
the cross-section of a simple cone subtending the plane
angle 2, with given by:
(
)
rh
= arccos
r
(
)
h
= arccos 1
r
)
(
1
0.572 rad, or 32.77 .
= arccos 1
2
Section of cone (1) and spherical cap (2) that subtend a solid
angle of one steradian inside a sphere
This angle corresponds to the plane aperture angle of 2

1.144 rad or 65.54.
A steradian is also equal to the spherical area of a polygon

A steradian can be dened as the solid angle subtended having an angle excess of 1 radian, to 1/(4) of a comat the center of a unit sphere by a unit area on its plete sphere, or to (180/)2 3282.80635 square desurface. For a general sphere of radius r, any portion of grees.
204
36.4. SI MULTIPLES
The solid angle of a cone whose cross-section subtends
the angle 2 is:
= 2 (1 cos ) sr
205
36.4 SI multiples
A complete sphere subtends only 4 12.56637 steradians, so multiples larger than the decasteradian are rarely
used.
Any range in excess of the whole area of a sphere would

only be needed in conjunction with non-Euclidean, spher36.3 Analogue to radians
ical geometry. Then it would also usually only be required
in the context of nonlocal analysis. As such, solid angles
In two dimensions, an angle is related to the arc length it over 4 are used exceedingly rarely in the literature.
cuts out:
0.001 sr
0.1 sr
l
= rad
r
where
l is arc length,
r is the radius of the circle, and
rad is the radian.
Instead in three dimensions, the solid angle is related to
the area it cuts out:
10 sr
0.01 sr
1 sr
Solid angle of various areas relative to Earth
36.5 See also

List of constellations by area
A
sr
r2
where
A is the surface area of the spherical
cap, 2rh,
r is the radius of the sphere, and
sr is the steradian.
So to give an example, a measurement of the width of
an object seen would be given in radians. At the same
time its visible area over ones visible eld would be given
in steradians. Just as the area of a circle is quadratically
related to its diameter or radius, so is the area of the piece
of a spherical surface cut out by a circular cone related to
the angle across the patch. That area, or equivalently the
proportion of a sphere its cone takes up, is a measure of
three dimensional proportional volume, analogous to the
two dimensional measure over the circle represented by
an angle.
Square degree

[1] Stutzman, Warren L; Thiele, Gary A (2012-05-22).
Antenna Theory and Design. ISBN 978-0-470-57664-9.
[2] Woolard, Edgar (2012-12-02).
ISBN 978-0-323-14912-9.
Spherical Astronomy.
[3] Steradian, McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientic and

Technical Terms, fth edition, Sybil P. Parker, editor in
chief. McGraw-Hill, 1997. ISBN 0-07-052433-5.
[4] 10.0 sr (404 million km out of 510 million km)
[5] 1.01 sr (40.8 million km out of 510 million km)
[6] 0.102 sr (4.14 million km out of 510 million km)
[7] 0.00963 sr (391 000 km out of 510 million km);
Paraguay, at 0.0100 sr (407 000 km) is closer to 1 csr,
but has been shaded for the 10 sr region as part of the
Americas
The one dimensional circular measure has the units of degree, while the two dimensional one is expressed in stera- [8] 0.00102 sr (41 300 km out of 510 million km)
dians. In higher dimensional mathematical spaces, units
for analogous solid angles haven't been explicitly named. [9] Near-side/far-side impact crater counts | NASA Lunar
Science Institute
When they are used, they are dealt with by analogy with
the circular or spherical cases. That is, as a proportion of
[10] 0.00000100 sr (40.7 km out of 510 million km)
the relevant unit hypersphere taken up by the generalized
[11] (25.113 / 60 / 60 / 2)2 / 3282.80635 1 000 000 000
angle, or set expressed in spherical coordinates.
206
[12] (0.115 / 60 / 60 / 2)2 / 3282.80635 1 000 000 000

[13] (0.007 / 60 / 60 / 2)2 / 3282.80635 1 000 000 000
[14] (0.001 / 60 / 60 / 2)2 / 3282.80635 1 000 000 000
CHAPTER 36. STERADIAN
Chapter 37
Volt
For other uses, see Volt (disambiguation).
It can also be expressed as amperes times ohms (current

times resistance, Ohms law), watts per ampere (power
per unit current, Joules law), or joules per coulomb (enThe volt (symbol: V) is the derived unit for electric
potential, electric potential dierence (voltage), and ergy per unit charge) which is also equivalent to electron
volts per elementary charge:
electromotive force.[1] The volt is named in honour of the
Italian physicist Alessandro Volta (17451827), who invented the voltaic pile, possibly the rst chemical battery.
W
J
eV
V=A=
= =
A
C
e
37.1 Description
37.2.1 Josephson junction denition
The volt is a measure of electric potential. Electrical potential is a type of potential energy, and refers to the energy that could be released if electric current is allowed to
ow. An analogy is that a suspended object (a mass) that
is said to have gravitational potential energy (as a result of
a gravitational eld), which is the amount of energy that
would be released if the object was allowed to fall.
The "conventional" volt, V 90 , dened in 1988 by the

18th General Conference on Weights and Measures and
in use from 1990, is implemented using the Josephson effect for exact frequency-to-voltage conversion, combined
with the cesium frequency standard. For the Josephson
constant, KJ = 2e/h (where e is the elementary charge and
h is the Planck constant), the conventional value KJ-
is
used:
In alternating current, the voltages increase, decrease and
change direction at regular intervals. As a result, voltage for alternating current almost never refers to the voltGHz
age at a particular instant, but instead is the root mean KJ90 = 0.4835979 V
square (RMS) voltage, which is a way of dening an efThis standard is typically realized using a series confective voltage when calculating power (RMS voltage
nected array of several thousand or tens of thousands of
RMS current). In most cases, the fact that a voltage is an
junctions, excited by microwave signals between 10 and
RMS voltage is not explicitly stated, but assumed.
80 GHz (depending on the array design).[3] Empirically,
several experiments have shown that the method is independent of device design, material, measurement setup,
37.2 Denition
etc., and no correction terms are required in a practical
implementation.[4]
One volt is dened as the dierence in electric potential
between two points of a conducting wire when an electric
current of one ampere dissipates one watt of power be- 37.3 Water ow analogy
tween those points.[2] It is also equal to the potential difference between two parallel, innite planes spaced 1 In the water ow analogy sometimes used to explain elecmeter apart that create an electric eld of 1 newton per tric circuits by comparing them with water-lled pipes,
coulomb. Additionally, it is the potential dierence be- voltage (dierence in electric potential) is likened to diftween two points that will impart one joule of energy per ference in water pressure.
coulomb of charge that passes through it. It can be exThe relationship between voltage and current is dened
pressed in terms of SI base units (m, kg, s, and A) as:
(in ohmic devices like resistors) by Ohms Law. Ohms
Law is analogous to the HagenPoiseuille equation, as
2
are linear models relating ux and potential in their
Potential Energy
Nm
kg m m
kg mboth
V=
=
= 2
=
3
respective
systems.
charge
coulomb
s As
As
207
208
37.4 Common voltages
CHAPTER 37. VOLT

Transistor-transistor logic/CMOS (TTL) power supply: 5 V
USB: 5 V DC
PP3 battery: 9 V
Automobile electrical system: nominal 12 V, about
11.8 V discharged, 12.8 V charged, and 13.814.4
V while charging (vehicle running).
Trucks/lorries: 24 V DC (Europe), 12 V DC (North
America)
Household mains electricity AC: (see List of countries with mains power plugs, voltages and frequencies)
A multimeter can be used to measure the voltage between two

positions.
100 V in Japan
120 V in North America,
230 V in Europe, Asia and Africa,
Rapid transit third rail: 600750 V (see List of current systems for electric rail traction)
High-speed train overhead power lines: 25 kV at 50
Hz, but see the list of current systems for electric rail
traction and 25 kV at 60 Hz for exceptions.
High-voltage electric power transmission lines: 110
kV and up (1.15 MV was the record as of 2005)
Lightning: Varies greatly, often around 100 MV.
Further information: Galvanic cell Cell voltage
1.5 V C-cell batteries
The voltage produced by each electrochemical cell in a

battery is determined by the chemistry of that cell. Cells
can be combined in series for multiples of that voltage, or
additional circuitry added to adjust the voltage to a different level. Mechanical generators can usually be constructed to any voltage in a range of feasibility.
37.5 History
In 1800, as the result of a professional disagreement

over the galvanic response advocated by Luigi Galvani,
Alessandro Volta developed the so-called voltaic pile, a
forerunner of the battery, which produced a steady electric current. Volta had determined that the most eective pair of dissimilar metals to produce electricity was
Nominal voltages of familiar sources:
zinc and silver. In the 1880s, the International Electrical
Congress, now the International Electrotechnical Com Nerve cell resting potential: around 75 mV[5]
mission (IEC), approved the volt as the unit for electro8
Single-cell, rechargeable NiMH or NiCd battery: motive force. They made the volt equal to 10 cgs units of
voltage, the cgs system at the time being the customary
1.2 V
system of units in science. They chose such a ratio be Single-cell, non-rechargeable (e.g., AAA, AA, C cause the cgs unit of voltage is inconveniently small and
and D cells): alkaline battery: 1.5 V; zinc-carbon one volt in this denition is approximately the emf of a
battery: 1.56 V if fresh and unused
Daniell cell, the standard source of voltage in the telegraph systems of the day.[6] At that time, the volt was
LiFePO4 rechargeable battery: 3.3 V
dened as the potential dierence [i.e., what is nowa Lithium polymer rechargeable battery: 3.75 V (see days called the voltage (dierence)"] across a conducRechargeable battery#Table of rechargeable battery tor when a current of one ampere dissipates one watt of
technologies)
power.
37.7. REFERENCES
209
Voltmeter
37.7 References
[1] SI Brochure, Table 3 (Section 2.2.2)". BIPM. 2006. Retrieved 2007-07-29.
[2] BIPM SI Brochure: Appendix 1, p. 144
[3] Burroughs, Charles J.; Bent, Samuel P.; Harvey, Todd
E.; Hamilton, Clark A. (1999-06-01), 1 Volt DC Programmable Josephson Voltage Standard, IEEE Transactions on Applied Superconductivity (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)) 9 (3): 4145
4149, doi:10.1109/77.783938, ISSN 1051-8223, retrieved 2014-06-27
Alessandro Volta
The international volt was dened in 1893 as 1/1.434 of

the emf of a Clark cell. This denition was abandoned
in 1908 in favor of a denition based on the international
ohm and international ampere until the entire set of reproducible units was abandoned in 1948.
Prior to the development of the Josephson junction
voltage standard, the volt was maintained in national
laboratories using specially constructed batteries called
standard cells. The United States used a design called
the Weston cell from 1905 to 1972.
This SI unit is named after Alessandro Volta. As with
every International System of Units (SI) unit named for
a person, the rst letter of its symbol is upper case (V).
However, when an SI unit is spelled out in English, it
should always begin with a lower case letter (volt)
except in a situation where any word in that position
would be capitalized, such as at the beginning of a sentence or in material using title case. Note that degree Celsius" conforms to this rule because the d is
section 5.2.
37.6 See also

Orders of magnitude (voltage)
Rail traction voltage
SI electromagnetism units
SI prex for unit prexes
Standardised railway voltages
[4] Keller, Mark W (2008-01-18), Current status of

the quantum metrology triangle (PDF), Metrologia
45 (1):
102109, Bibcode:2008Metro..45..102K,
doi:10.1088/0026-1394/45/1/014, ISSN 0026-1394,
Theoretically, there are no current predictions for any
correction terms. Empirically, several experiments have
shown that KJ and RK are independent of device design,
material, measurement setup, etc. This demonstration
of universality is consistent with the exactness of the
relations, but does not prove it outright.
[5] Bullock, Orkand, and Grinnell, pp. 150151; Junge, pp.
8990; Schmidt-Nielsen, p. 484
[6] Hamer, Walter J. (January 15, 1965). Standard Cells:
Their Construction, Maintenance, and Characteristics
(PDF). National Bureau of Standards Monograph #84.
US National Bureau of Standards.
37.8 External links

History of the electrical units.
Chapter 38
Watt
For other uses, see Watt (disambiguation).
Kilowatt and Kilowatts redirect here. For the place
in the United States, see Kilowatt, California. For the
musician James Watts, see KiloWatts (musician).
KW redirects here. For other uses, see KW (disambiguation).
The watt (symbol: W) is a derived unit of power in the
International System of Units (SI), named after the Scottish engineer James Watt (17361819). The unit is dened as joule per second[1] and can be used to express
the rate of energy conversion or transfer with respect to
time. It has dimensions of L2 MT3 .
time it takes to lift the object to the given height

gives the rate of doing work or power.[notes 1]
A laborer over the course of an 8-hour day can sustain an average output of about 75 watts; higher
power levels can be achieved for short intervals and
by athletes.[2]
38.2 Origin and adoption as an SI

unit
The watt is named after the Scottish scientist James Watt

for his contributions to the development of the steam
engine. The measurement unit was recognized by the
38.1 Examples
Second Congress of the British Association for the Advancement of Science in 1882, concurrent with the start
When an objects velocity is held constant at one meter per
of commercial power production from both water and
second against constant opposing force of one newton the
steam. In 1960 the 11th General Conference on Weights
rate at which work is done is 1 watt.
and Measures adopted it for the measurement of power
into the International System of Units (SI).
W=
J
Nm
kg m2
=
=
s
s
s3
In terms of electromagnetism, one watt is the rate at

which work is done when one ampere (A) of current ows
through an electrical potential dierence of one volt (V).
38.3 Multiples
For additional examples of magnitude for multiples and submultiples of the watt, see Orders
of magnitude (power)
W=VA
Two additional unit conversions for watt can be found using the above equation and Ohms Law.
W=
V2
= A2
Where ohm ( ) is the SI derived unit of electrical resistance.

A person having a mass of 100 kilograms who
climbs a 3-meter-high ladder in 5 seconds is doing
work at a rate of about 600 watts. Mass times acceleration due to gravity times height divided by the
38.3.1 Femtowatt
The femtowatt is equal to one quadrillionth (1015 ) of a
watt. Technologically important powers that are measured in femtowatts are typically found in reference(s)
to radio and radar receivers. For example, meaningful
FM tuner performance gures for sensitivity, quieting and
signal-to-noise require that the RF energy applied to the
antenna input be specied. These input levels are often
stated in dBf (decibels referenced to 1 femtowatt). This is
0.2739 microvolt across a 75-ohm load or 0.5477 microvolt across a 300-ohm load; the specication takes into
account the RF input impedance of the tuner.
210
38.3. MULTIPLES
38.3.2
Picowatt
211
38.3.7 Megawatt
The megawatt is equal to one million (106 ) watts. Many

events or machines produce or sustain the conversion of
energy on this scale, including lightning strikes; large
electric motors; large warships such as aircraft carriers,
cruisers, and submarines; large server farms or data centers; and some scientic research equipment, such as
supercolliders, and the output pulses of very large lasers.
A large residential or commercial building may use sev38.3.3 Nanowatt
eral megawatts in electric power and heat. On railways,
modern high-powered electric locomotives typically have
The nanowatt is equal to one billionth (109 ) of a watt. a peak power output of 5 or 6 MW, although some proImportant powers that are measured in nanowatts are also duce much more. The Eurostar, for example, uses more
typically used in reference to radio and radar receivers.
than 12 MW, while heavy diesel-electric locomotives typically produce/use 3 to 5 MW. U.S. nuclear power plants
have net summer capacities between about 500 and 1300
MW.[7]
38.3.4 Microwatt
The picowatt is equal to one trillionth (1012 ) of a watt.

Technologically important powers that are measured in
picowatts are typically used in reference to radio and
radar receivers, acoustics and in the science of radio astronomy.
The microwatt is equal to one millionth (106 ) of a watt.

Important powers that are measured in microwatts are
typically stated in medical instrumentation systems such
as the EEG and the ECG, in a wide variety of scientic
and engineering instruments and also in reference to radio and radar receivers. Compact solar cells for devices
such as calculators and watches are typically measured in
microwatts.[3]
The earliest citing of the megawatt in the Oxford English

Dictionary (OED) is a reference in the 1900 Websters
International Dictionary of English Language. The OED
also states that megawatt appeared in a 28 November
1947 article in the journal Science (506:2).
38.3.8 Gigawatt
The gigawatt is equal to one billion (109 ) watts or 1 gigawatt = 1000 megawatts. This unit is often used for large
power plants or power grids. For example, by the end of
38.3.5 Milliwatt
2010 power shortages in Chinas Shanxi province were
[8]
3
The milliwatt is equal to one thousandth (10 ) of a watt. expected to increase to 56 GW and the installed ca[9]
A typical laser pointer outputs about ve milliwatts of pacity of wind power in Germany was 25.8 GW. The
light power, whereas a typical hearing aid for people uses largest unit (out of four) of the Belgian Nuclear Plant
Doel has a peak output of 1.04 GW.[10] HVDC converters
less than one milliwatt.[4]
have been built with power ratings of up to 2 GW.[11] The
London Array, the worlds largest oshore wind farm, is
designed to produce a gigawatt of power.[12]
38.3.6
Kilowatt
The kilowatt is equal to one thousand (103 ) watts, or one

sthene-metre per second. This unit is typically used to
express the output power of engines and the power of
electric motors, tools, machines, and heaters. It is also a
common unit used to express the electromagnetic power
output of broadcast radio and television transmitters.
38.3.9 Terawatt
The terawatt is equal to one trillion (1012 ) watts. The total power used by humans worldwide is commonly measured in terawatts (see primary energy). The most powerful lasers from the mid-1960s to the mid-1990s produced
One kilowatt is approximately equal to 1.34 horsepower. power in terawatts, but only for nanosecond time frames.
A small electric heater with one heating element can The average lightning strike peaks at 1 terawatt, but these
use 1.0 kilowatt, which is equivalent to the power of a strikes only last for 30 microseconds.
household in the United States averaged over the entire
year.[notes 2][5]
38.3.10 Petawatt
Also, kilowatts of light power can be measured in the output pulses of some lasers.
The petawatt is equal to one quadrillion (1015 ) watts and
A surface area of one square meter on Earth receives typ- can be produced by the current generation of lasers for
ically about one kilowatt of sunlight from the sun (the time-scales on the order of picoseconds (1012 s). One
solar irradiance) (on a clear day at mid day, close to the such laser is the Lawrence Livermores Nova laser, which
equator).[6]
achieved a power output of 1.25 PW (1.251015 W) by
212
a process called chirped pulse amplication. The duration of the pulse was roughly 0.5 ps (51013 s), giving a
total energy of 600 J, or enough energy to power a 100
W light bulb for six seconds.[13] Another example is the
Laser for Fast Ignition Experiments (LFEX) at the Institute of Laser Engineering (ILE), Osaka University, which
achieved a power output of 2 PW (21015 W) for a duration of approximately 1 ps.[14][15]
CHAPTER 38. WATT

watts would be correct.[22] Watts per hour properly refers
to the change of power per hour. Watts per hour (W/h)
might be useful to characterize the ramp-up behavior of
power plants. For example, a power plant that reaches a
power output of 1 MW from 0 MW in 15 minutes has
a ramp-up rate of 4 MW/h. Hydroelectric power plants
have a very high ramp-up rate, which makes them particularly useful in peak load and emergency situations.
Based on the average total solar irradiance[16] of 1.366 Major energy production or consumption is often exkW/m2 , the total power of sunlight striking Earths at- pressed as terawatt hours for a given period that is often a
mosphere is estimated at 174 PW (see: solar constant).
calendar year or nancial year. One terawatt hour is equal
to a sustained power of approximately 114 megawatts for
a period of one year.
38.4 Electrical and thermal watts
The watt second is a unit of energy, equal to the joule.

One kilowatt hour is 3,600,000 watt seconds. The watt
In the electric power industry, megawatt electrical second is used, for example, to rate the energy storage of
(MWe[17] or MW[18] ) is electric power, while megawatt ash lamps used in photography, although the term joule
thermal or thermal megawatt [19] (MWt, MW , or MWth, is generally employed.
MW ) refers to thermal power produced. Other SI prexes are sometimes used, for example gigawatt electrical (GW). watt electrical and watt thermal are not 38.6 See also
SI units,[20] The International Bureau of Weights and
Measures states that further information about a quantity
Conversion of units
should not be attached to the unit symbol but instead to
Declared net capacity (power plants)
the quantity symbol (i.e., P = 270 W rather than P
[21]
= 270 W ) and regards these symbols as incorrect.
Metretonnesecond system of units
For example, the Embalse nuclear power plant in Argentina uses a ssion reactor to generate 2109 MW of
heat, which creates steam to drive a turbine, which generates 648 MW of electricity (a numerical energy conversion eciency of 648/2109 = 0.307, or 30.7%). The
dierence is due to the ineciency of steam-turbine generators and the limitations of the theoretical Rankine cycle.
Orders of magnitude (power)

Power factor
Root mean square (RMS)
Volt-ampere
Watt balance
Watt-peak
38.5 Confusion of watts, watthours and watts per hour

The terms power and energy are frequently confused.
Power is the rate at which energy is generated or consumed and hence is measured in units (e.g. watts) that
represent 'energy per unit time'.
For example, when a light bulb with a power rating of
100W is turned on for one hour, the energy used is 100
watt hours (Wh), 0.1 kilowatt hour, or 360 kJ. This same
amount of energy would light a 40-watt bulb for 2.5 hours,
or a 50-watt bulb for 2 hours. A power station would
be rated in multiples of watts, but its annual energy sales
would be in multiples of watt hours. A kilowatt hour is
the amount of energy equivalent to a steady power of 1
kilowatt running for 1 hour, or 3.6 MJ (1000 watts 3600
seconds (i.e., 60 seconds per minute 60 minutes per
hour) = 3,600,000 joules = 3.6 MJ).
Terms such as watts per hour are often misused when
Wattmeter
38.7 Notes
[1] The energy in climbing the stairs is given by mgh. Setting
m = 100 kg, g = 9.8 m/s2 and h = 3 m gives 2940 J. Dividing this by the time taken (5 s) gives a power of 588
W.
[2] Average household power consumption is 1.19 kW in the
US, 0.53 kW in the UK. In India it is 0.13 kW (urban)
and 0.03 kW (rural) computed from GJ gures quoted
by Nakagami, Murakoshi and Iwafune.
38.8 References
118,144, ISBN 92-822-2213-6
213
[2] Eugene A. Avallone et. al, (ed), Marks Standard Handbook for Mechanical Engineers 11th Edition , Mc-Graw
Hill, New York 2007 ISBN 0-07-142867-4 page 9-4
[20] Thompson; Taylor. Guide for the Use of the International System of Units (SI), NIST Special Publication
SP811 (PDF).
[3] Bye-Bye Batteries: Radio Waves as a Low-Power Source

138, ISBN 92-822-2213-6
[4] Trudy Stetzler, Neeraj Magotra, Pedro Gelabert, Preethi

Kasthuri, Sridevi Bangalore. Low-Power Real-Time
Programmable DSP Development Platform for Digital
Hearing Aids. Datasheet Archive. Retrieved 8 February
2010.
[5] Nakagami, Hidetoshi; Murakoshi, Chiharu; Iwafune, Yumiko (2008). International Comparison of Household Energy Consumption and Its Indicator (PDF). ACEEE Summer Study on Energy Eciency in Buildings. Pacic
Grove, California: American Council for an EnergyEcient Economy. Figure 3. Energy Consumption per
Household by Fuel Type. 8:2148:224. Retrieved 14
February 2013.
[6] Elena Papadopoulou, Photovoltaic Industrial Systems:
An Environmental Approach Springer 2011 ISBN
3642163017, p.153
[7] 20072008 Information Digest, Appendix A (PDF).
Nuclear Regulatory Commission. 2007. Retrieved 27
January 2008.
[8] Chinas Shanxi to face 56 GW power shortage by yrend-paper. Reuters. 11 November 2010.
[9] Not on my beach, please. The Economist. 19 August
2010.
[10] Chires cls. Electrabel. 2011.
[11] Davidson, C.C., Preedy, R.M., Cao, J., Zhou, C., Fu,
J., Ultra-High-Power Thyristor Valves for HVDC in Developing Countries, IET 9th International Conference on
AC/DC Power Transmission, London, October 2010.
[12] The London Array: the worlds largest oshore wind
farm. The Telegraph. 28 Jul 2012. Retrieved 2013-0812.
[13] Crossing the Petawatt threshold. Livermore, California:
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. Retrieved 19
June 2012.
[14] http://www.iflscience.com/technology/
world-s-most-powerful-laser-2000-trillion-watts-what-s-it
[15] http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2015-08/
ou-wpl080615.php
[16] Construction of a Composite Total Solar Irradiance (TSI)
Time Series from 1978 to present. Retrieved 2005-1005.
[17] How Many? A Dictionary of Units of Measurement.
[18] Cleveland, C. J. (2007). Watt. Encyclopedia of Earth.
[19] Solar Energy Grew at a Record Pace in 2008 (excerpt
from EERE Network News U.S. Department of Energy)". 25 March 2009.
[22] Inverter Selection. Northern Arizona Wind and Sun.

Retrieved 27 March 2009.
38.9 External links

Nelson, Robert A., "The International System of
Units Its History and Use in Science and Industry".
Via Satellite, February 2000.
Online Conversion Power Conversion
Borvon, Grard. History of the electrical units.
Chapter 39
Weber (unit)
In physics, the weber /vebr/[1] (symbol: Wb) is the SI sentence or in material using title case. Note that deunit of magnetic ux. A ux density of one Wb/m2 (one gree Celsius" conforms to this rule because the d is
weber per square metre) is one tesla.
The weber is named after the German physicist Wilhelm section 5.2.
Eduard Weber (18041891).
39.2 History
39.1 Denition
The weber may be dened in terms of Faradays law,
which relates a changing magnetic ux through a loop to
the electric eld around the loop. A change in ux of one
weber per second will induce an electromotive force of
one volt (produce an electric potential dierence of one
volt across two open-circuited terminals).
Ocially,
Weber (unit of magnetic ux) The weber is the magnetic ux which, linking a circuit
of one turn, would produce in it an electromotive force of 1 volt if it were reduced to zero at
a uniform rate in 1 second.[2]
In 1861, the British Association for the Advancement of

Science (known as The BA[3] ) established a committee under William Thomson (later Lord Kelvin) to study
electrical units.[4] In a February 1902 manuscript, with
handwritten notes of Oliver Heaviside, Giovanni Giorgi
proposed a set of rational units of electromagnetism including the weber, noting that the product of the volt into
the second has been called the weber by the B. A.[5] The
International Electrotechnical Commission began work
on terminology in 1909 and established Technical Committee 1 in 1911, its oldest established committee, to
sanction the terms and denitions used in the dierent
electrotechnical elds and to determine the equivalence
of the terms used in the dierent languages.[6][7]
The weber is commonly expressed in a multitude of other

units:
kg m2
J
= V s = T m2 =
= 108 Mx
2
s A
A
where Wb = weber,
V = volt,
T = tesla,
J = joule,
m = meter,
s = second,
A = ampere,
Mx = maxwell.
Wb =
It was not until 1927 that TC1 dealt with

the study of various outstanding problems concerning electrical and magnetic quantities and
units. Discussions of a theoretical nature were
opened at which eminent electrical engineers
and physicists considered whether magnetic
eld strength and magnetic ux density were
in fact quantities of the same nature. As disagreement continued, the IEC decided on an
eort to remedy the situation. It instructed a
task force to study the question in readiness for
the next meeting.[8]
In 1930,[8] TC1 decided that the magnetic eld strength

This SI unit is named after Wilhelm Eduard Weber. As (H) is of a dierent nature from the magnetic ux density
with every International System of Units (SI) unit named (B), and took up the question of naming the units for these
for a person, the rst letter of its symbol is upper case elds and related quantities, among them the integral of
(Wb). However, when an SI unit is spelled out in En- magnetic ux density.
glish, it should always begin with a lower case letter (we- In 1935, TC 1 recommended names for several electrical
ber)except in a situation where any word in that posi- units, including the weber for the practical unit of magtion would be capitalized, such as at the beginning of a netic ux (and the maxwell for the CGS unit).[8][9]
214
39.3. NOTES AND REFERENCES

It was decided to extend the existing series of practical units into a complete comprehensive system of physical units, the recommendation being adopted in 1935 that the
system with four fundamental units proposed
by Professor Giorgi be adopted subject to the
fourth fundamental unit being eventually selected. This system was given the designation
of Giorgi system.[10]
215
This page incorrectly states that the units

were established in 1930, since that year,
TC 1 decided that the question of names to
be allocated to magnetic units should not be
considered until general agreement had been
reached on their denitions
[10] Ruppert, Louis. IEC History 19061956: Brief History
of the International Electrotechnical Commission (PDF).
International Electrotechnical Commission. pp. 45. Retrieved 2008-04-29.
Also in 1935, TC1 passed responsibility for electric and [11] Raeburn, Anthony. IEC technical committee creation:
magnetic magnitudes and units to the new TC24. This
the rst half-century (1906-1949)". International Electrotechnical Commission. Retrieved 2008-04-29.
led eventually to the universal adoption of the Giorgi system, which unied electromagnetic units with the MKS
dimensional system of units, the whole now known simply as the SI system (Systme International dunits).[11]
In 1938, TC24 recommended as a connecting link [from
mechanical to electrical units] the permeability of free
space with the value of 0 = 4107 H/m. This group
also recognized that any one of the practical units already
in use (ohm, ampere, volt, henry, farad, coulomb, and
weber), could equally serve as the fourth fundamental
unit.[8] After consultation, the ampere was adopted as
the fourth unit of the Giorgi system in Paris in 1950.[10]

[1] In America also /wbr/.
weber (main entry is American English, Collins World
English (further down) is British)". Dictionary.com.
[2] CIPM, 1946: Resolution 2 / Denitions of Electrical
Units. International Committee for Weights and Measures
(CIPM) Resolutions. International Bureau of Weights and
Measures (BIPM). 1946. Retrieved 2008-04-29.
[3] The BA (British Association for the Advancement of Science)".
[4] Frary, Mark. The world of electricity: 1820-1904.
International Electrotechnical Commission. Retrieved
2008-04-29.
[5] Giorgi, Giovanni (February 1902). Rational Units of
Electromagnetism (Manuscript with handwritten notes
by Oliver Heaviside). p. 9. Retrieved 2014-02-21.
[6] IEC Technical Committee 1. International Electrotechnical Commission. Retrieved 2008-04-29.
[7] Strategic Policy Statement, IEC Technical Committee
on Terminology (PDF). International Electrotechnical
Commission. Retrieved 2008-04-29.
[8] The role of the IEC / Work on quantities and units. History of the SI. International Electrotechnical Commission.
[9] Summary: Electrical Units. IEC History. International
Electrotechnical Commission. Retrieved 2008-04-29.
Chapter 40
Astronomical unit
The astronomical unit (symbol au,[1][2] AU[3][4][5] or
ua[6] ) is a unit of length, roughly the distance from the
Earth to the Sun. However, that distance varies as the
Earth orbits the Sun, from a maximum (aphelion) to a
minimum (perihelion) and back again once a year. Originally conceived as the average of Earths aphelion and
perihelion, it is now dened as exactly 149597870700
meters (about 150 million kilometers, or 93 million
miles).[7] The astronomical unit is used primarily as a
convenient yardstick for measuring distances within the
Solar System or around other stars. However, it is also a
fundamental component in the denition of another unit
of astronomical length, the parsec.
the largest straight-line distance that the earth traverses

over the course of a year, dening times and places for
observing the largest parallax eects (apparent shifts of
position) in nearby stars. Knowing the earths shift and a
stars shift enabled the stars distance to be calculated. But
all measurements are subject to some degree of error or
uncertainty, and the uncertainties in the length of the astronomical unit only increased uncertainties in the stellar
distances. Improvements in precision have always been a
key to improving astronomical understanding. Throughout the twentieth century, measurements became increasingly precise and sophisticated, and ever more dependent on accurate observation of the eects described by
Einsteins theory of relativity and upon the mathematical
tools it used.
40.1 Symbol usage
Improving measurements were continually checked and

cross-checked by means of our understanding of the laws
of celestial mechanics, which govern the motions of objects in space. The expected positions and distances of
objects at an established time are calculated (in AU) from
these laws, and assembled into a collection of data called
an ephemeris. NASA 's Jet Propulsion Laboratory provides one of several ephemeris computation services.[13]
A variety of unit symbols and abbreviations are in use

for the astronomical unit. In a 1976 resolution, the
International Astronomical Union (IAU) used the symbol A for the AU.[8] In 2006, the International Bureau
of Weights and Measures (BIPM) recommended ua as
the symbol for the unit.[9] In 2012, the IAU, noting that
various symbols are presently in use for the astronomical
unit, recommended the use of the symbol au.[1] In the
2014 revision of the SI Brochure, the BIPM used the unit
symbol au.[10] The symbol AU[3][4][5] and abbreviation a.u.[11][12] are also used. In ISO 80000-3, the symbol
of the astronomical unit is ua.
40.2 Development of unit denition

See also: Earths orbit
In 1976, in order to establish a yet more precise measure for the astronomical unit, the IAU formally adopted
a new denition. While directly based on the then-best
available observational measurements, the denition was
recast in terms of the then-best mathematical derivations
from celestial mechanics and planetary ephemerides. It
stated that the astronomical unit of length is that length
(A) for which the Gaussian gravitational constant (k)
takes the value 0.01720209895 when the units of measurement are the astronomical units of length, mass and
time.[8][14][15] Equivalently, by this denition, one AU
is the radius of an unperturbed circular Newtonian orbit about the sun of a particle having innitesimal mass,
moving with an angular frequency of 0.01720209895 radians per day;[16] or alternatively that length for which the
heliocentric gravitational constant (the product GM) is
equal to (0.01720209895)2 AU3 /d2 , when the length is
used to describe the positions of objects in the Solar System.
The Earths orbit around the Sun is shaped like an ellipse.

The semi-major axis of this ellipse is dened to be half
of the straight line segment that joins the aphelion and
perihelion. The center of the sun lies on this straight line
segment, but not at its midpoint. Since ellipses are wellunderstood shapes, measuring the points of its extremes
dened the exact shape mathematically, and made possible calculations for the entire orbit as well as predictions Subsequent explorations of the Solar System by space
based on observation. In addition, it mapped out exactly probes made it possible to obtain precise measurements
216
40.3. USAGE AND SIGNIFICANCE
217
of the relative positions of the inner planets and other objects by means of radar and telemetry. As with all radar
measurements, these rely on measuring the time taken for
photons to be reected from an object. Since all photons move at the speed of light in vacuum, a fundamental
constant of the universe, the distance of an object from
the probe is basically the product of the speed of light
and the measured time. For precision though, the calculations require adjustment for things such as the motions of the probe and object while the photons are in
transit. In addition, the measurement of the time itself
must be translated to a standard scale that accounts for
relativistic time dilation. Comparison of the ephemeris
positions with time measurements expressed in the TDB
scale leads to a value for the speed of light in astronomical units per day (of 86400 s). By 2009, the IAU had
updated its standard measures to reect improvements,
and calculated the speed of light at 173.1446326847(69)
AU/d (TDB).[17]
ned as exactly 299792458 m/s, equal to exactly 29979245886400/149597870700 or about

173.144632674240... AU/d, some 60 parts per trillion
less than the 2009 estimate.
In 2006, the BIPM reported a value of the astronomical unit as 1.49597870691(6)1011 m.[9] In the 2014
revision of the SI Brochure, the BIPM recognised the
IAUs 2012 redenition of the astronomical unit as
149597870700 m.[10]
appears to change in length compared to the planetary

meter on a periodic basis.
40.3 Usage and signicance
With the denitions used before 2012, the astronomical

unit was dependent on the heliocentric gravitational constant, that is the product of the gravitational constant G
and the solar mass M. Neither G nor M can be measured to high accuracy in SI units, but the value of their
product is known very precisely from observing the relative positions of planets (Keplers Third Law expressed in
terms of Newtonian gravitation). Only the product is required to calculate planetary positions for an ephemeris,
so ephemerides are calculated in astronomical units and
Meanwhile, in 1983, the International Committee for not in SI units.
Weights and Measures (CIPM) modied the International The calculation of ephemerides also requires a considSystem of Units (SI, or modern metric system) to make eration of the eects of general relativity. In particuthe meter independent of physical objects entirely, be- lar, time intervals measured on the surface of the Earth
cause other measurements had become too precise for (terrestrial time, TT) are not constant when compared to
reference to the prototype platinum meter to remain use- the motions of the planets: the terrestrial second (TT)
ful. Instead, the meter was redened in terms of the speed appears to be longer during the Northern Hemisphere
of light in vacuum, which could be independently deter- winter and shorter during the Northern Hemisphere summined at need. The speed of light could then be expressed mer when compared to the planetary second (convenexactly as c0 = 299792458 m/s, a standard also adopted tionally measured in barycentric dynamical time, TDB).
by the IERS numerical standards.[18] From this denition This is because the distance between the Earth and the
and the 2009 IAU standard, the time for light to traverse Sun is not xed (it varies between 0.9832898912 and
an AU is found to be A = 499.00478380610.00000001 1.0167103335 AU) and, when the Earth is closer to the
s, more than 8 minutes. By simple multiplication Sun (perihelion), the Suns gravitational eld is stronger
then, the best IAU 2009 estimate was A = c0 A = and the Earth is moving faster along its orbital path. As
1495978707003 m,[19] based on a comparison of JPL the meter is dened in terms of the second and the speed
and IAARAS ephemerides.[20][21][22]
of light is constant for all observers, the terrestrial meter
This estimate was still derived from observation and measurements subject to error, and based on techniques that
did not yet standardize all relativistic eects, and thus
were not constant for all observers. In 2012, nding that
the equalization of relativity alone would make the definition overly complex, the IAU simply used the 2009
estimate to redene the astronomical unit as a conventional unit of length directly tied to the meter (exactly
149597870700 m).[19][23] The new denition also recognizes as a consequence that the astronomical unit is now
to play a role of reduced importance, limited in its use to
that of a convenience in some applications.[19]
This denition makes the speed of light,
The meter is dened to be a unit of proper length, but the

SI denition does not specify the metric tensor to be used
in determining it. Indeed, the International Committee
for Weights and Measures (CIPM) notes that its denition applies only within a spatial extent suciently small
that the eects of the non-uniformity of the gravitational
eld can be ignored.[24] As such, the meter is undened
for the purposes of measuring distances within the Solar
System. The 1976 denition of the astronomical unit was
incomplete because it did not specify the frame of reference in which time is to be measured, but proved practical for the calculation of ephemerides: a fuller denition
that is consistent with general relativity was proposed,[25]
and vigorous debate ensued[26] until in August 2012 the
IAU adopted the current denition of 1 astronomical unit
= 149597870700 meters.
The astronomical unit is typically used for stellar system

scale distances, such as the size of a protostellar disk or
de- the heliocentric distance of an asteroid, while other units
218
are used for other distances in astronomy. The astronomical unit is too small to be convenient for interstellar distances, where the parsec and light year are widely used.
The parsec (parallax arcsecond) is dened in terms of the
astronomical unit, being the distance of an object with a
parallax of 1 arcsecond. The light year is often used in
popular works, but is not an approved non-SI unit and is
rarely used by professional astronomers.[27]
40.4 History
According to Archimedes in the Sandreckoner (2.1),
Aristarchus of Samos estimated the distance to the Sun to
be 10000 times the Earths radius (the true value is about
23000).[28] However, the book On the Sizes and Distances
of the Sun and Moon, which has long been ascribed to
Aristarchus, says that he calculated the distance to the
Sun to be between 18 and 20 times the distance to the
Moon, whereas the true ratio is about 389.174. The latter
estimate was based on the angle between the half moon
and the Sun, which he estimated as 87 (the true value
being close to 89.853). Depending on the distance that
Van Helden assumes Aristarchus used for the distance to
the Moon, his calculated distance to the Sun would fall
between 380 and 1520 Earth radii.[29]
According to Eusebius of Caesarea in the Praeparatio
Evangelica (Book XV, Chapter 53), Eratosthenes found
the distance to the Sun to be "
" (literally of stadia
myriads 400 and 80000 but with the additional note
that in the Greek text the grammatical agreement is between myriads (not stadia) on the one hand and both
400 and 80000 on the other, as in Greek, unlike English, all three (or all four if one were to include stadia) words are inected). This has been translated either
as 4080000 stadia (1903 translation by Edwin Hamilton
Giord), or as 804000000 stadia (edition of douard
des Places, dated 19741991). Using the Greek stadium of 185 to 190 meters,[30][31] the former translation
comes to 754800 km to 775200 km, which is far too low,
whereas the second translation comes to 148.7 to 152.8
million kilometers (accurate within 2%).[32] Hipparchus
also gave an estimate of the distance of the Sun from the
Earth, quoted by Pappus as equal to 490 Earth radii. According to the conjectural reconstructions of Noel Swerdlow and G. J. Toomer, this was derived from his assumption of a least perceptible solar parallax of 7 arc
minutes.[33]
A Chinese mathematical treatise, the Zhoubi suanjing (c.
1st century BCE), shows how the distance to the Sun can
be computed geometrically, using the dierent lengths of
the noontime shadows observed at three places 1000 li
apart and the assumption that the Earth is at.[34]
In the 2nd century CE, Ptolemy estimated the mean distance of the Sun as 1210 times the Earths radius.[35][36]
CHAPTER 40. ASTRONOMICAL UNIT

To determine this value, Ptolemy started by measuring
the Moons parallax, nding what amounted to a horizontal lunar parallax of 1 26, which was much too large.
He then derived a maximum lunar distance of 64 1 6
Earth radii. Because of cancelling errors in his parallax gure, his theory of the Moons orbit, and other factors, this gure was approximately correct.[37][38] He then
measured the apparent sizes of the Sun and the Moon
and concluded that the apparent diameter of the Sun was
equal to the apparent diameter of the Moon at the Moons
greatest distance, and from records of lunar eclipses, he
estimated this apparent diameter, as well as the apparent diameter of the shadow cone of the Earth traversed
by the Moon during a lunar eclipse. Given these data,
the distance of the Sun from the Earth can be trigonometrically computed to be 1210 Earth radii. This gives
a ratio of solar to lunar distance of approximately 19,
matching Aristarchuss gure. Although Ptolemys procedure is theoretically workable, it is very sensitive to
small changes in the data, so much so that changing a
measurement by a few percent can make the solar distance innite.[37]
After Greek astronomy was transmitted to the medieval Islamic world, astronomers made some changes to
Ptolemys cosmological model, but did not greatly change
his estimate of the EarthSun distance. For example,
in his introduction to Ptolemaic astronomy, al-Farghn
gave a mean solar distance of 1170 Earth radii, while
in his zij, al-Battn used a mean solar distance of 1108
Earth radii. Subsequent astronomers, such as al-Brn,
used similar values.[39] Later in Europe, Copernicus and
Tycho Brahe also used comparable gures (1142 and
1150 Earth radii), and so Ptolemys approximate Earth
Sun distance survived through the 16th century.[40]
Johannes Kepler was the rst to realize that Ptolemys estimate must be signicantly too low (according to Kepler, at least by a factor of three) in his Rudolphine Tables
(1627). Keplers laws of planetary motion allowed astronomers to calculate the relative distances of the planets
from the Sun, and rekindled interest in measuring the absolute value for the Earth (which could then be applied to
the other planets). The invention of the telescope allowed
far more accurate measurements of angles than is possible with the naked eye. Flemish astronomer Godefroy
Wendelin repeated Aristarchus measurements in 1635,
and found that Ptolemys value was too low by a factor of
at least eleven.
A somewhat more accurate estimate can be obtained by
observing the transit of Venus.[41] By measuring the transit in two dierent locations, one can accurately calculate
the parallax of Venus and from the relative distance of the
Earth and Venus from the Sun, the solar parallax (which
cannot be measured directly[42] ). Jeremiah Horrocks had
attempted to produce an estimate based on his observation of the 1639 transit (published in 1662), giving a solar
parallax of 15 arcseconds, similar to Wendelins gure.
The solar parallax is related to the EarthSun distance as
40.5. DEVELOPMENTS
measured in Earth radii by
A = cot .
The smaller the solar parallax, the greater the distance
between the Sun and the Earth: a solar parallax of 15 is
equivalent to an EarthSun distance of 13750 Earth radii.
Christiaan Huygens believed that the distance was even
greater: by comparing the apparent sizes of Venus and
Mars, he estimated a value of about 24000 Earth radii,[43]
equivalent to a solar parallax of 8.6. Although Huygens estimate is remarkably close to modern values, it is
often discounted by historians of astronomy because of
the many unproven (and incorrect) assumptions he had to
make for his method to work; the accuracy of his value
seems to be based more on luck than good measurement,
with his various errors cancelling each other out.
219
Venus occur in pairs, but less than one pair every century, and observing the transits in 1761 and 1769 was
an unprecedented international scientic operation. Despite the Seven Years War, dozens of astronomers were
dispatched to observing points around the world at great
expense and personal danger: several of them died in
the endeavour.[45] The various results were collated by
Jrme Lalande to give a gure for the solar parallax of
8.6.
Another method involved determining the constant of
aberration. Simon Newcomb gave great weight to this
method when deriving his widely accepted value of 8.80
for the solar parallax (close to the modern value of
8.794143), although Newcomb also used data from the
transits of Venus. Newcomb also collaborated with A.
A. Michelson to measure the speed of light with Earthbased equipment; combined with the constant of aberration (which is related to the light time per unit distance),
this gave the rst direct measurement of the EarthSun
distance in kilometers. Newcombs value for the solar parallax (and for the constant of aberration and the
Gaussian gravitational constant) were incorporated into
the rst international system of astronomical constants
in 1896,[46] which remained in place for the calculation
of ephemerides until 1964.[47] The name astronomical
unit appears rst to have been used in 1903.[48]
The discovery of the near-Earth asteroid 433 Eros and its
passage near the Earth in 19001901 allowed a considerable improvement in parallax measurement.[49] Another
international project to measure the parallax of 433 Eros
was undertaken in 19301931.[42][50]
Direct radar measurements of the distances to Venus and

Mars became available in the early 1960s. Along with imTransits of Venus across the face of the Sun were, for a long time, proved measurements of the speed of light, these showed
the best method of measuring the astronomical unit, despite the that Newcombs values for the solar parallax and the condiculties (here, the so-called "black drop eect") and the rarity stant of aberration were inconsistent with one another.[51]
of observations.
Jean Richer and Giovanni Domenico Cassini measured

the parallax of Mars between Paris and Cayenne in
French Guiana when Mars was at its closest to Earth in
1672. They arrived at a gure for the solar parallax of 9
1
2 ", equivalent to an EarthSun distance of about 22000
Earth radii. They were also the rst astronomers to have
access to an accurate and reliable value for the radius of
the Earth, which had been measured by their colleague
Jean Picard in 1669 as 3269 thousand toises. Another
colleague, Ole Rmer, discovered the nite speed of light
in 1676: the speed was so great that it was usually quoted
as the time required for light to travel from the Sun to the
Earth, or light time per unit distance, a convention that
is still followed by astronomers today.
40.5 Developments
The unit distance A (the value of the astronomical unit in
meters) can be expressed in terms of other astronomical
constants:
A3 =
GM D2
k2
where G is the Newtonian gravitational constant, M

is the solar mass, k is the numerical value of Gaussian
gravitational constant and D is the time period of one
day. The Sun is constantly losing mass by radiating away
[52]
A better method for observing Venus transits was devised energy, so the orbits of the planets are steadily expandabandon
by James Gregory and published in his Optica Promata ing outward from the Sun. This has led to calls to[53]
the
astronomical
unit
as
a
unit
of
measurement.
[44]
(1663). It was strongly advocated by Edmond Halley
and was applied to the transits of Venus observed in 1761 As the speed of light has an exact dened value in SI units
and 1769, and then again in 1874 and 1882. Transits of and the Gaussian gravitational constant k is xed in the
220
40.7 See also
Distant stars
Orders of magnitude (length)
Apparent parallax
motion of near star
Parallax angle
= 1 arc second
1 Parsec
Imaginary
near star
Lunar distance (astronomy)
40.8 References
[1] International Astronomical Union, ed. (31 August 2012),
RESOLUTION B2 on the re-denition of the astronomical unit of length (PDF), RESOLUTION B2, Beijing,
China: International Astronomical Union, The XXVIII
General Assembly of International Astronomical Union
recommends 5. that the unique symbol au be used
for the astronomical unit.
[2] Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society:
Instructions for Authors. Oxford Journals. Retrieved
2015-03-20. The units of length/distance are , nm, m,
mm, cm, m, km, au, light-year, pc.
[3] Linton, Christopher (2004), From Eudoxus to Einstein :
a history of mathematical astronomy, New York: Cambridge University Press, p. 359, ISBN 9781139453790
1 AU
Earth's motion around Sun
The astronomical unit is used as the baseline of the triangle to
measure stellar parallaxes (distances in the image are not to
scale).
[4] Zeilik, Michael; Gregory, Stephen A. (1998). Introductory Astronomy & Astrophysics (fourth ed.). Saunders College Publishing. pp. 6, G2. ISBN 0030062284.
[5] Manuscript Preparation: AJ & ApJ Author Instructions.
American Astronomical Society. Retrieved 2015-03-20.
Use standard abbreviations for SI... and natural units (e.g.,
AU, pc, cm).
[6] ISO 80000-3, Quantities and units - Space and time
astronomical system of units, measuring the light time per

unit distance is exactly equivalent to measuring the product GM in SI units. Hence, it is possible to construct
ephemerides entirely in SI units, which is increasingly becoming the norm.
A 2004 analysis of radiometric measurements in the inner
Solar System suggested that the secular increase in the
unit distance was much larger than can be accounted for
by solar radiation, +154 meters per century.[54][55]
The measurements of the secular variations of the astronomical unit are not conrmed by other authors and
are quite controversial. Furthermore, since 2010, the
astronomical unit is not yet estimated by the planetary
ephemerides.[56]
40.6 Examples
[7] International Astronomical Union, ed. (31 August 2012),

RESOLUTION B2 on the re-denition of the astronomical unit of length (PDF), RESOLUTION B2, Beijing,
Kina: International Astronomical Union, The XXVIII
General Assembly of International Astronomical Union
recommends [adopted] that the astronomical unit be redened to be a conventional unit of length equal to exactly 149597870700 meters, in agreement with the value
adopted in IAU 2009 Resolution B2
[8] Resolution No. 10 of the XVIth General Assembly of the
International Astronomical Union, Grenoble, 1976
[9] Bureau International des Poids et Mesures (2006), The International System of Units (SI) (PDF) (8th ed.), Organisation Intergouvernementale de la Convention du Mtre,
p. 126
[10] SI Brochure: The International System of Units (SI) [8th
edition, 2006; updated in 2014]". BIPM. 2014. Retrieved
2015-01-03.
[11] Berry, Michael (1976), Principles of Cosmology and Grav-
itation, Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, p.

The following table contains some distances given in as7, ISBN 0-521-21061-5
tronomical units. It includes some examples with distances that are normally not given in astronomical units, [12] Weinberg, Steven (1972), Chapter 14: Cosmography,
because they are either too short or far too long. DisGravitation and Cosmology: Principles and Applications of
tances normally change over time. Examples are listed
the General Theory of Relativity, New York: John Wiley
& Sons, Inc., p. 426, ISBN 0-471-92567-5
by increasing distance.
40.8. REFERENCES
[13] HORIZONS System, Solar system dynamics (NASA:

Jet Propulsion Laboratory), 4 January 2005, retrieved 16
January 2012
[14] H. Hussmann, F. Sohl, J. Oberst (2009), "4.2.2.1.3: Astronomical units, in Joachim E Trmper, Astronomy, astrophysics, and cosmology Volume VI/4B Solar System,
Springer, p. 4, ISBN 3-540-88054-2
[15] Gareth V Williams (1997), Astronomical unit, in James
H. Shirley, Rhodes Whitmore Fairbridge, Encyclopedia of
planetary sciences, Springer, p. 48, ISBN 0-412-06951-2
126, ISBN 92-822-2213-6
[17] Selected Astronomical Constants (PDF). The Astronomical Almanac Online. USNOUKHO. 2009. p. K6.
Archived from the original (PDF) on July 26, 2014.
[18] Grard Petit and Brian Luzum, eds. (2010), Table 1.1:
IERS numerical standards (PDF), IERS technical note
no. 36: General denitions and numerical standards
(International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service) For complete document see Grard Petit and Brian
Luzum, eds. (2010), IERS Conventions (2010): IERS technical note no. 36, International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service, ISBN 978-3-89888-989-6
[19] Capitaine, Nicole; Klioner, Sergei; McCarthy, Dennis
(2012), The re-denition of the astronomical unit of
length:reasons and consequences (PDF), IAU Joint Discussion 7: Space-Time Reference Systems for Future Research at IAU General Assembly-Beijing 7, Beijing, China,
p. 40, Bibcode:2012IAUJD...7E..40C, retrieved 16 May
2013
[20] IAU WG on NSFA Current Best Estimates, retrieved 25
September 2009
[21] Pitjeva, E. V.; Standish, E. M. (2009), Proposals
for the masses of the three largest asteroids, the
Moon-Earth mass ratio and the Astronomical Unit,
Celest. Mech. Dynam. Astron. 103 (4): 36572,
Bibcode:2009CeMDA.103..365P, doi:10.1007/s10569009-9203-8
[22] The Final Session of the General Assembly (PDF), Estrella d'Alva, 14 August 2009: 1
[23] Geo Brumel (14 September 2012), The astronomical
unit gets xed: EarthSun distance changes from slippery
equation to single number., retrieved 14 September 2012
16667, ISBN 92-822-2213-6
[25] Huang, T.-Y.; Han, C.-H.; Yi, Z.-H.; Xu, B.-X.;
Han; Yi; Xu (1995), What is the astronomical unit
Astrophys.
298: 62933,
of length?", Astron.
Bibcode:1995A&A...298..629H
[26] Richard Dodd (2011), "6.2.3: Astronomical unit: Denition of the astronomical unit, future versions", Using SI
Units in Astronomy, Cambridge University Press, p. 76,
ISBN 0-521-76917-5 and also p. 91, Summary and recommendations.
221
[27] Richard Dodd (2011-12-01), "6.2.8: Light year, Using

SI Units in Astronomy, p. 82, ISBN 0-521-76917-5
[28] Gomez, A. G. (2013) Aristarchos of Samos, the Polymath
AuthorHouse, ISBN 978-1481789493.
[29] Van Helden, Albert (1985), Measuring the Universe: Cosmic Dimensions from Aristarchus to Halley, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, pp. 59, ISBN 0-226-84882-5
[30] Engels, Donald (1985), The Length of Eratosthenes Stade, The American Journal of Philology
(Johns Hopkins University Press) 106 (3): 298311,
doi:10.2307/295030, JSTOR 295030
[31] Gulbekian, Edward (1987), The origin and value of the
stadion unit used by Eratosthenes in the third century
B.C., Archive for History of Exact Sciences 37 (4): 359
63, doi:10.1007/BF00417008 (inactive 2015-05-02)
[32] Rawlins, D. (March 2008), Eratosthenes Too-Big Earth
& Too-Tiny Universe (PDF), DIO 14: 312
[33] Toomer, G. J. (1974), Hipparchus on the distances of the
sun and moon, Archive for the History of Exact Sciences
14 (2): 126142, doi:10.1007/BF00329826
[34] Lloyd, G. E. R. (1996), Adversaries and Authorities: Investigations into Ancient Greek and Chinese Science, Cambridge University Press, pp. 5960, ISBN 0-521-55695-3
[35] Goldstein, Bernard R. (1967), The Arabic Version of
Ptolemys Planetary Hypotheses", Trans. Am. Phil. Soc.
57 (4): 912, doi:10.2307/1006040, JSTOR 1006040
[36] van Helden, Albert (1985), Measuring the Universe: Cosmic Dimensions from Aristarchus to Halley, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, pp. 1527, ISBN 0-226-848825
[37] pp. 1619, van Helden 1985
[38] p. 251, Ptolemys Almagest, translated and annotated by
G. J. Toomer, London: Duckworth, 1984, ISBN 0-71561588-2
[39] pp. 2933, van Helden 1985
[40] pp. 4153, van Helden 1985
[41] An extended historical discussion of this method is provided by Trudy E Bell, Quest for the astronomical unit
(PDF), The Bent of Tau Beta Pi, Summer 2004, p. 20,
retrieved 16 January 2012
[42] Weaver, Harold F. (1943), The Solar Parallax, Astronomical Society of the Pacic Leaets 4: 14451,
Bibcode:1943ASPL....4..144W
[43] Goldstein, S. J., Jr. (1985), Christiaan Huygens Measurement of the Distance to the Sun, Observatory 105:
3233, Bibcode:1985Obs...105...32G
[44] Halley, E. (1716), A new Method of determining the Parallax of the Sun, or his Distance from the Earth, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society 29: 45464,
doi:10.1098/rstl.1714.0056
222
[45] Pogge, Richard (May 2004), How Far to the Sun? The
Venus Transits of 1761 & 1769, Ohio State University,
retrieved 15 November 2009
[46] Confrence internationale des toiles fondamentales,
Paris, 1821 May 1896
[47] Resolution No. 4 of the XIIth General Assembly of the
International Astronomical Union, Hamburg, 1964
[48] astronomical unit Merriam-Websters Online Dictionary
[49] Hinks, Arthur R. (1909), Solar Parallax Papers
No.
7: The General Solution from the Photographic Right Ascensions of Eros, at the Opposition of 1900, Month. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 69
(7):
54467,
Bibcode:1909MNRAS..69..544H,
doi:10.1093/mnras/69.7.544
[50] Spencer Jones, H. (1941), The Solar Parallax and the
Mass of the Moon from Observations of Eros at the Opposition of 1931, Mem. R. Astron. Soc. 66: 1166
[51] Mikhailov, A. A. (1964), The Constant of Aberration
and the Solar Parallax, Sov. Astron. 7 (6): 73739,
Bibcode:1964SvA.....7..737M
[61] Chris Peat, Spacecraft escaping the Solar System, HeavensAbove, retrieved 25 January 2008
[62] Voyager 1, Where are the Voyagers NASA Voyager 1
[63] http://www.iau.org, Measuring the UniverseThe IAU
and astronomical units
[64] Chebotarev, G.A. (1964), Gravitational Spheres of the
Major Planets, Moon and Sun, Soviet Astronomy 7 (5):
618622, Bibcode:1964SvA.....7..618C

Williams, D.; Davies, R. D. (1968), A radio
method for determining the astronomical unit,
Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
140 (4): 537, Bibcode:1968MNRAS.140..537W,
doi:10.1093/mnras/140.4.537
[52] Noerdlinger, Peter D. (2008), Solar Mass Loss, the

Astronomical Unit, and the Scale of the Solar System, Celest. Mech. Dynam. Astron. 0801: 3807,
arXiv:0801.3807, Bibcode:2008arXiv0801.3807N
The IAU and astronomical units
[53] AU may need to be redened, New Scientist, 6 February

2008
Chasing Venus, Observing the Transits of Venus
[54] Krasinsky, G. A.; Brumberg, V. A. (2004), Secular

increase of astronomical unit from analysis of the
major planet motions, and its interpretation, Celest.
Mech.
Dynam.
Astron.
90 (34): 267288,
Bibcode:2004CeMDA..90..267K, doi:10.1007/s10569004-0633-z
[55] John D. Anderson and Michael Martin Nieto (2009), Astrometric Solar-System Anomalies;2: Increase in the
astronomical unit, American Astronomical Society 261:
0702, arXiv:0907.2469, Bibcode:2009IAU...261.0702A,
doi:10.1017/s1743921309990378.
[56] Fienga, A. et al. (2011), The INPOP10a planetary ephemeris and its applications in fundamental
physics, Celest. Mech. Dynam. Astron. 111 (3): 363,
arXiv:1108.5546,
Bibcode:2011CeMDA.111..363F,
doi:10.1007/s10569-011-9377-8
[57] http://www.esa.int What are Lagrange points, 21 June
2013
[58] Alan Stern; Colwell, Joshua E. (1997), Collisional
Erosion in the Primordial Edgeworth-Kuiper Belt
and the Generation of the 3050 AU Kuiper
Gap, The Astrophysical Journal 490 (2): 879882,
Bibcode:1997ApJ...490..879S, doi:10.1086/304912.
[59] As of 16 July 2015
[60] AstDys (90377) Sedna Ephemerides, Department of
Mathematics, University of Pisa, Italy, retrieved 5 May
2011
Recommendations concerning Units (HTML version of the IAU Style Manual)
Transit of Venus
Chapter 41
Inductor
41.1 Overview
Inductance (L) results from the magnetic eld around a
current-carrying conductor; the electric current through
the conductor creates a magnetic ux. Mathematically speaking, inductance is determined by how much
magnetic ux through the circuit is created by a given
current i[1][2][3][4]
Axial lead inductors (100 H)
L=
An inductor, also called a coil or reactor, is a passive

two-terminal electrical component which resists changes
in electric current passing through it. It consists of a conductor such as a wire, usually wound into a coil. When
a current ows through it, energy is stored temporarily
in a magnetic eld in the coil. When the current owing through an inductor changes, the time-varying magnetic eld induces a voltage in the conductor, according
to Faradays law of electromagnetic induction, According to Lenzs law the direction of induced e.m.f is always
such that it opposes the change in current that created it.
As a result, inductors always oppose a change in current,
in the same way that a ywheel oppose a change in rotational velocity. Care should be taken not to confuse this
with the resistance provided by a resistor.
An inductor is characterized by its inductance, the ratio
of the voltage to the rate of change of current, which
has units of henries (H). Inductors have values that typically range from 1 H (106 H) to 1 H. Many inductors have a magnetic core made of iron or ferrite inside
the coil, which serves to increase the magnetic eld and
thus the inductance. Along with capacitors and resistors,
inductors are one of the three passive linear circuit elements that make up electric circuits. Inductors are
widely used in alternating current (AC) electronic equipment, particularly in radio equipment. They are used
to block AC while allowing DC to pass; inductors designed for this purpose are called chokes. They are also
used in electronic lters to separate signals of dierent
frequencies, and in combination with capacitors to make
tuned circuits, used to tune radio and TV receivers.
(1)
Inductors that have ferromagnetic cores are nonlinear; the

inductance changes with the current, in this more general
case inductance is dened as
L=
d
di
Any wire or other conductor will generate a magnetic

eld when current ows through it, so every conductor
has some inductance. The inductance of a circuit depends on the geometry of the current path as well as the
magnetic permeability of nearby materials. An inductor
is a component consisting of a wire or other conductor
shaped to increase the magnetic ux through the circuit,
usually in the shape of a coil or helix. Winding the wire
into a coil increases the number of times the magnetic
ux lines link the circuit, increasing the eld and thus the
inductance. The more turns, the higher the inductance.
The inductance also depends on the shape of the coil, separation of the turns, and many other factors. By adding
a "magnetic core" made of a ferromagnetic material like
iron inside the coil, the magnetizing eld from the coil
will induce magnetization in the material, increasing the
magnetic ux. The high permeability of a ferromagnetic
core can increase the inductance of a coil by a factor of
several thousand over what it would be without it.
41.1.1 Constitutive equation

Any change in the current through an inductor creates a
changing ux, inducing a voltage across the inductor. By
Faradays law of induction, the voltage induced by any
change in magnetic ux through the circuit is[4]
223
224
v=
CHAPTER 41. INDUCTOR

At higher frequencies, resistive losses in the windings increase due to skin eect and proximity eect.
d
dt
From (1) above[4]

v=
d
dt (Li)
di
= L dt
(2)
So inductance is also a measure of the amount of

electromotive force (voltage) generated for a given rate
of change of current. For example, an inductor with an
inductance of 1 henry produces an EMF of 1 volt when
the current through the inductor changes at the rate of
1 ampere per second. This is usually taken to be the
constitutive relation (dening equation) of the inductor.
The dual of the inductor is the capacitor, which stores
energy in an electric eld rather than a magnetic eld. Its
current-voltage relation is obtained by exchanging current
and voltage in the inductor equations and replacing L with
the capacitance C.
41.1.2
Inductors with ferromagnetic cores have additional energy losses due to hysteresis and eddy currents in the core,
which increase with frequency. At high currents, iron
core inductors also show gradual departure from ideal behavior due to nonlinearity caused by magnetic saturation
of the core. An inductor may radiate electromagnetic
energy into surrounding space and circuits, and may absorb electromagnetic emissions from other circuits, causing electromagnetic interference (EMI). Real-world inductor applications may consider these parasitic parameters as important as the inductance.
41.2 Applications
Lenzs law
The polarity (direction) of the induced voltage is given by

Lenzs law, which states that it will be such as to oppose
the change in current. For example, if the current through
an inductor is increasing, the induced voltage will be positive at the terminal through which the current enters and
negative at the terminal through which it leaves, tending
to oppose the additional current. The energy from the external circuit necessary to overcome this potential hill
is being stored in the magnetic eld of the inductor; the
Large 50 MVAR three-phase iron-core loading inductor at a Gerinductor is said to be "charging" or energizing. If the man utility substation
current is decreasing, the induced voltage will be negative at the terminal through which the current enters and
positive at the terminal through which it leaves, tending
to maintain the current. Energy from the magnetic eld
is being returned to the circuit; the inductor is said to be
discharging.
41.1.3
Ideal and real inductors
In circuit theory, inductors are idealized as obeying the

mathematical relation (2) above precisely. An ideal inductor has inductance, but no resistance or capacitance,
and does not dissipate or radiate energy. However real
inductors have side eects which cause their behavior to
depart from this simple model. They have resistance (due
to the resistance of the wire and energy losses in core
material), and parasitic capacitance (due to the electric
eld between the turns of wire which are at slightly dierent potentials). At high frequencies the capacitance begins to aect the inductors behavior; at some frequency,
real inductors behave as resonant circuits, becoming selfresonant. Above the resonant frequency the capacitive
reactance becomes the dominant part of the impedance.
A ferrite bead choke, consisting of an encircling ferrite cylinder,

removes electronic noise from a computer power cord.
Inductors are used extensively in analog circuits and signal processing. Applications range from the use of large
inductors in power supplies, which in conjunction with lter capacitors remove residual hums known as the mains
hum or other uctuations from the direct current output,
41.3. INDUCTOR CONSTRUCTION
Example of signal ltering. In this conguration, the inductor

blocks AC current, while allowing DC current to pass.
225
Because inductors have complicated side eects (detailed
below) which cause them to depart from ideal behavior, because they can radiate electromagnetic interference (EMI), and most of all because of their bulk which
prevents them from being integrated on semiconductor chips, the use of inductors is declining in modern
electronic devices, particularly compact portable devices.
Real inductors are increasingly being replaced by active
circuits such as the gyrator which can synthesize inductance using capacitors.
41.3 Inductor construction
Example of signal ltering. In this conguration, the inductor

decouples DC current, while allowing AC current to pass.
to the small inductance of the ferrite bead or torus installed around a cable to prevent radio frequency interference from being transmitted down the wire. Inductors
are used as the energy storage device in many switchedmode power supplies to produce DC current. The inductor supplies energy to the circuit to keep current owing
during the o switching periods.
An inductor connected to a capacitor forms a tuned circuit, which acts as a resonator for oscillating current.
Tuned circuits are widely used in radio frequency equipment such as radio transmitters and receivers, as narrow
bandpass lters to select a single frequency from a composite signal, and in electronic oscillators to generate sinusoidal signals.
Two (or more) inductors in proximity that have coupled
magnetic ux (mutual inductance) form a transformer,
which is a fundamental component of every electric
utility power grid. The eciency of a transformer may
decrease as the frequency increases due to eddy currents
in the core material and skin eect on the windings. The
size of the core can be decreased at higher frequencies.
For this reason, aircraft use 400 hertz alternating current
rather than the usual 50 or 60 hertz, allowing a great saving in weight from the use of smaller transformers.[5]
Inductors are also employed in electrical transmission
systems, where they are used to limit switching currents
and fault currents. In this eld, they are more commonly
referred to as reactors.
A ferrite core inductor with two 47 mH windings.
An inductor usually consists of a coil of conducting material, typically insulated copper wire, wrapped
around a core either of plastic or of a ferromagnetic (or
ferrimagnetic) material; the latter is called an iron core
inductor. The high permeability of the ferromagnetic
core increases the magnetic eld and connes it closely
to the inductor, thereby increasing the inductance. Low
frequency inductors are constructed like transformers,
with cores of electrical steel laminated to prevent eddy
currents. 'Soft' ferrites are widely used for cores above
audio frequencies, since they do not cause the large energy losses at high frequencies that ordinary iron alloys
do. Inductors come in many shapes. Most are constructed as enamel coated wire (magnet wire) wrapped
around a ferrite bobbin with wire exposed on the outside,
while some enclose the wire completely in ferrite and are
referred to as shielded. Some inductors have an adjustable core, which enables changing of the inductance.
226
Inductors used to block very high frequencies are some- can occur in air core coils in which the winding is not
times made by stringing a ferrite bead on a wire.
rigidly supported on a form is 'microphony': mechanical
Small inductors can be etched directly onto a printed cir- vibration of the windings can cause variations in the incuit board by laying out the trace in a spiral pattern. Some ductance.
such planar inductors use a planar core.
Small value inductors can also be built on integrated cir- Radio frequency inductor
cuits using the same processes that are used to make
transistors. Aluminium interconnect is typically used,
laid out in a spiral coil pattern. However, the small dimensions limit the inductance, and it is far more common
to use a circuit called a "gyrator" that uses a capacitor and
active components to behave similarly to an inductor.
41.4 Types of inductor

41.4.1
Air core inductor
Collection of RF inductors, showing techniques to reduce

losses. The three top left and the ferrite loopstick or rod
antenna,[6][7][8][9] bottom, have basket windings.
At high frequencies, particularly radio frequencies (RF),

inductors have higher resistance and other losses. In
addition to causing power loss, in resonant circuits this
can reduce the Q factor of the circuit, broadening the
bandwidth. In RF inductors, which are mostly air core
types, specialized construction techniques are used to
minimize these losses. The losses are due to these effects:
Skin eect: The resistance of a wire to high frequency current is higher than its resistance to direct
current because of skin eect. Radio frequency alternating current does not penetrate far into the body
of a conductor but travels along its surface. Therefore, in a solid wire, most of the cross sectional area
of the wire is not used to conduct the current, which
is in a narrow annulus on the surface. This eect increases the resistance of the wire in the coil, which
may already have a relatively high resistance due to
its length and small diameter.
Resonant oscillation transformer from a spark gap transmitter.

Coupling can be adjusted by moving the top coil on the support
rod. Shows high Q construction with spaced turns of large diameter tubing.
The term air core coil describes an inductor that does

not use a magnetic core made of a ferromagnetic material. The term refers to coils wound on plastic, ceramic,
or other nonmagnetic forms, as well as those that have
only air inside the windings. Air core coils have lower
inductance than ferromagnetic core coils, but are often
used at high frequencies because they are free from energy losses called core losses that occur in ferromagnetic
cores, which increase with frequency. A side eect that
Proximity eect: Another similar eect that also

increases the resistance of the wire at high frequencies is proximity eect, which occurs in parallel
wires that lie close to each other. The individual
magnetic eld of adjacent turns induces eddy currents in the wire of the coil, which causes the current
in the conductor to be concentrated in a thin strip on
the side near the adjacent wire. Like skin eect, this
reduces the eective cross-sectional area of the wire
conducting current, increasing its resistance.
41.4. TYPES OF INDUCTOR
227
tubing which has a larger surface area, and the surface is
silver-plated.
Basket-weave coils: To reduce proximity eect and
parasitic capacitance, multilayer RF coils are wound
in patterns in which successive turns are not parallel
but crisscrossed at an angle; these are often called
honeycomb or basket-weave coils. These are occasionally wound on a vertical insulating supports with
dowels or slots, with the wire weaving in and out
through the slots.
High Q tank coil in a shortwave transmitter
(left) Spiderweb coil (right) Adjustable ferrite slug-tuned

RF coil with basketweave winding and litz wire
Spiderweb coils: Another construction technique

with similar advantages is at spiral coils.These are
often wound on a at insulating support with radial
spokes or slots, with the wire weaving in and out
through the slots; these are called spiderweb coils.
The form has an odd number of slots, so successive
turns of the spiral lie on opposite sides of the form,
increasing separation.
Litz wire: To reduce skin eect losses, some coils
are wound with a special type of radio frequency
wire called litz wire. Instead of a single solid conductor, litz wire consists of several smaller wire
strands that carry the current. Unlike ordinary
stranded wire, the strands are insulated from each
other, to prevent skin eect from forcing the current to the surface, and are twisted or braided together. The twist pattern ensures that each wire
strand spends the same amount of its length on the
outside of the wire bundle, so skin eect distributes
the current equally between the strands, resulting
in a larger cross-sectional conduction area than an
equivalent single wire.
Dielectric losses: The high frequency electric eld

near the conductors in a tank coil can cause the motion of polar molecules in nearby insulating materials, dissipating energy as heat. So coils used for
tuned circuits are often not wound on coil forms but
are suspended in air, supported by narrow plastic or 41.4.2 Ferromagnetic core inductor
ceramic strips.
Ferromagnetic-core or iron-core inductors use a magnetic
core made of a ferromagnetic or ferrimagnetic material
Parasitic capacitance: The capacitance between
such as iron or ferrite to increase the inductance. A magindividual wire turns of the coil, called parasitic
netic core can increase the inductance of a coil by a factor
capacitance, does not cause energy losses but can
of several thousand, by increasing the magnetic eld due
change the behavior of the coil. Each turn of the
to its higher magnetic permeability. However the magcoil is at a slightly dierent potential, so the electric
netic properties of the core material cause several side
eld between neighboring turns stores charge on the
eects which alter the behavior of the inductor and rewire, so the coil acts as if it has a capacitor in parquire special construction:
allel with it. At a high enough frequency this capacitance can resonate with the inductance of the coil
Core losses: A time-varying current in a ferromagforming a tuned circuit, causing the coil to become
netic inductor, which causes a time-varying magself-resonant.
netic eld in its core, causes energy losses in the core
material that are dissipated as heat, due to two proTo reduce parasitic capacitance and proximity eect, RF
cesses:
coils are constructed to avoid having many turns lying
close together, parallel to one another. The windings of
Eddy currents: From Faradays law of inducRF coils are often limited to a single layer, and the turns
tion, the changing magnetic eld can induce
circulating loops of electric current in the conare spaced apart. To reduce resistance due to skin eect,
ductive metal core. The energy in these curin high-power inductors such as those used in transmitrents is dissipated as heat in the resistance of
ters the windings are sometimes made of a metal strip or
228

Laminated core inductor
A variety of types of ferrite core inductors and transformers
the core material. The amount of energy lost

increases with the area inside the loop of curLaminated iron core ballast inductor for a metal halide lamp
rent.
Hysteresis: Changing or reversing the magnetic eld in the core also causes losses due to
the motion of the tiny magnetic domains it is
composed of. The energy loss is proportional
to the area of the hysteresis loop in the BH
graph of the core material. Materials with low
coercivity have narrow hysteresis loops and so
low hysteresis losses.
For both of these processes, the energy loss per
cycle of alternating current is constant, so core
losses increase linearly with frequency. Online
core loss calculators[10] are available to calculate the energy loss. Using inputs such as input voltage, output voltage, output current, frequency, ambient temperature, and inductance
these calculators can predict the losses of the
inductors core and AC/DC based on the operating condition of the circuit being used.[11]
Low-frequency inductors are often made with laminated

cores to prevent eddy currents, using construction similar
to transformers. The core is made of stacks of thin steel
sheets or laminations oriented parallel to the eld, with
an insulating coating on the surface. The insulation prevents eddy currents between the sheets, so any remaining
currents must be within the cross sectional area of the individual laminations, reducing the area of the loop and
thus reducing the energy losses greatly. The laminations
are made of low-coercivity silicon steel, to reduce hysteresis losses.
Ferrite-core inductor
For higher frequencies, inductors are made with cores of

ferrite. Ferrite is a ceramic ferrimagnetic material that
is nonconductive, so eddy currents cannot ow within it.
The formulation of ferrite is xxFe2 O4 where xx represents various metals. For inductor cores soft ferrites are
Nonlinearity: If the current through a ferromag- used, which have low coercivity and thus low hysteresis
netic core coil is high enough that the magnetic core losses. Another similar material is powdered iron cesaturates, the inductance will not remain constant mented with a binder.
but will change with the current through the device. This is called nonlinearity and results in distortion of the signal. For example, audio signals can Toroidal core inductor
suer intermodulation distortion in saturated inductors. To prevent this, in linear circuits the current Main article: Toroidal inductors and transformers
through iron core inductors must be limited below In an inductor wound on a straight rod-shaped core, the
the saturation level. Some laminated cores have a magnetic eld lines emerging from one end of the core
narrow air gap in them for this purpose, and pow- must pass through the air to re-enter the core at the other
dered iron cores have a distributed air gap. This al- end. This reduces the eld, because much of the magnetic
lows higher levels of magnetic ux and thus higher eld path is in air rather than the higher permeability core
currents through the inductor before it saturates.[12] material. A higher magnetic eld and inductance can be
41.4. TYPES OF INDUCTOR
229
impedance increases with frequency. Its low electrical resistance allows both AC and DC to pass with little power
loss, but it can limit the amount of AC passing through it
due to its reactance.
41.4.3 Variable inductor
Toroidal inductor in the power supply of a wireless router
achieved by forming the core in a closed magnetic circuit. The magnetic eld lines form closed loops within
the core without leaving the core material. The shape often used is a toroidal or doughnut-shaped ferrite core. Because of their symmetry, toroidal cores allow a minimum
of the magnetic ux to escape outside the core (called
leakage ux), so they radiate less electromagnetic interference than other shapes. Toroidal core coils are manufactured of various materials, primarily ferrite, powdered
iron and laminated cores.[13]
Choke
Main article: Choke (electronics)
A choke is designed specically for blocking higher(left) Inductor with a threaded ferrite slug (visible at top)
that can be turned to move it into or out of the coil. 4.2
cm high. (right) A variometer used in radio receivers in
the 1920s
Probably the most common type of variable inductor to-
An MF or HF radio choke for tenths of an ampere, and a ferrite

bead VHF choke for several amperes.
frequency alternating current (AC) in an electrical circuit, while allowing lower frequency or DC current to
pass. It usually consists of a coil of insulated wire often
wound on a magnetic core, although some consist of a
donut-shaped bead of ferrite material strung on a wire.
Like other inductors, chokes resist changes to the current passing through them, and so alternating currents of
higher frequency, which reverse direction rapidly, are resisted more than currents of lower frequency; the chokes
A roller coil, an adjustable air-core RF inductor used in the

tuned circuits of radio transmitters. One of the contacts to the
coil is made by the small grooved wheel, which rides on the wire.
Turning the shaft rotates the coil, moving the contact wheel up or
down the coil, allowing more or fewer turns of the coil into the
circuit, to change the inductance.
day is one with a moveable ferrite magnetic core, which
230
can be slid or screwed in or out of the coil. Moving the
core farther into the coil increases the permeability, increasing the magnetic eld and the inductance. Many inductors used in radio applications (usually less than 100
MHz) use adjustable cores in order to tune such inductors
to their desired value, since manufacturing processes have
certain tolerances (inaccuracy). Sometimes such cores
for frequencies above 100 MHz are made from highly
conductive non-magnetic material such as aluminum.[14]
They decrease the inductance because the magnetic eld
must bypass them.
Air core inductors can use sliding contacts or multiple
taps to increase or decrease the number of turns included
in the circuit, to change the inductance. A type much used
in the past but mostly obsolete today has a spring contact
that can slide along the bare surface of the windings. The
disadvantage of this type is that the contact usually shortcircuits one or more turns. These turns act like a singleturn short-circuited transformer secondary winding; the
large currents induced in them cause power losses.
A type of continuously variable air core inductor is the
variometer. This consists of two coils with the same number of turns connected in series, one inside the other. The
inner coil is mounted on a shaft so its axis can be turned
with respect to the outer coil. When the two coils axes
are collinear, with the magnetic elds pointing in the same
direction, the elds add and the inductance is maximum.
When the inner coil is turned so its axis is at an angle
with the outer, the mutual inductance between them is
smaller so the total inductance is less. When the inner
coil is turned 180 so the coils are collinear with their
magnetic elds opposing, the two elds cancel each other
and the inductance is very small. This type has the advantage that it is continuously variable over a wide range. It
is used in antenna tuners and matching circuits to match
low frequency transmitters to their antennas.
v(t) = L
di(t)
dt
When there is a sinusoidal alternating current (AC)

through an inductor, a sinusoidal voltage is induced. The
amplitude of the voltage is proportional to the product of
the amplitude (IP) of the current and the frequency (f)
of the current.
i(t) = IP sin(2f t)
di(t)
= 2f IP cos(2f t)
dt
v(t) = 2f LIP cos(2f t)
In this situation, the phase of the current lags that of the
voltage by /2 (90). For sinusoids, as the voltage across
the inductor goes to its maximum value, the current goes
to zero, and as the voltage across the inductor goes to zero,
the current through it goes to its maximum value.
If an inductor is connected to a direct current source with
value I via a resistance R, and then the current source is
short-circuited, the dierential relationship above shows
that the current through the inductor will discharge with
an exponential decay:
i(t) = Ie L t
R
41.5.1 Reactance
The ratio of the peak voltage to the peak current in an inductor energised from a sinusoidal source is called the
reactance and is denoted XL. The sux is to distinguish inductive reactance from capacitive reactance due
to capacitance.
Another method to control the inductance without any

moving parts requires an additional DC current bias
winding which controls the permeability of an easily satVP
2f LIP
XL =
=
urable core material. See Magnetic amplier.
IP
IP
Thus,
41.5 Circuit theory

The eect of an inductor in a circuit is to oppose changes
in current through it by developing a voltage across it proportional to the rate of change of the current. An ideal inductor would oer no resistance to a constant direct current; however, only superconducting inductors have truly
zero electrical resistance.
The relationship between the time-varying voltage v(t)
across an inductor with inductance L and the timevarying current i(t) passing through it is described by the
dierential equation:
XL = 2f L
Reactance is measured in the same units as resistance
(ohms) but is not actually a resistance. A resistance will
dissipate energy as heat when a current passes. This does
not happen with an inductor; rather, energy is stored in
the magnetic eld as the current builds and later returned
to the circuit as the current falls. Inductive reactance is
strongly frequency dependent. At low frequency the reactance falls, and for a steady current (zero frequency)
the inductor behaves as a short-circuit. At increasing frequency, on the other hand, the reactance increases and at
a suciently high frequency the inductor approaches an
open circuit.
41.6. Q FACTOR
41.5.2
231
Laplace circuit analysis (s-domain)
1
1
1
1
=
+
+ +
Leq
L1
L2
Ln
When using the Laplace transform in circuit analysis, the The current through inductors in series stays the same,
impedance of an ideal inductor with no initial current is but the voltage across each inductor can be dierent. The
represented in the s domain by:
sum of the potential dierences (voltage) is equal to the
total voltage. To nd their total inductance:
Z(s) = Ls
where
L1
L is the inductance, and

s is the complex frequency.
L2
If the inductor does have initial current, it can be repreLeq = L1 + L2 + + Ln

sented by:
These simple relationships hold true only when there is
adding a voltage source in series with the inductor, no mutual coupling of magnetic elds between individual
having the value:
inductors.
LI0
41.5.4 Stored energy
where
L is the inductance, and
I0 is the initial current in the inductor.
Neglecting losses, the energy (measured in joules, in SI)

stored by an inductor is equal to the amount of work required to establish the current through the inductor, and
therefore the magnetic eld. This is given by:
(Note that the source should have a polarity that is aligned

with the initial current)
Estored =
1 2
LI
2
or by adding a current source in parallel with the

where L is inductance and I is the current through the
inductor, having the value:
inductor.
I0
s
where
I0 is the initial current in the inductor.
This relationship is only valid for linear (non-saturated)

regions of the magnetic ux linkage and current relationship. In general if one decides to nd the energy stored
in a LTI inductor that has initial current in a specic time
between t0 and t1 can use this:
s is the complex frequency.
41.5.3
t1
P (t) dt =
E=
Inductor networks
t0
Main article: Series and parallel circuits
1
1
LI(t1 )2 LI(t0 )2
2
2
41.6 Q factor
Inductors in a parallel conguration each have the same An ideal inductor would have no resistance or energy
potential dierence (voltage). To nd their total equiva- losses. However, real inductors have winding resistance
lent inductance (L ):
from the metal wire forming the coils. Since the winding resistance appears as a resistance in series with the
inductor, it is often called the series resistance. The inductors series resistance converts electric current through
the coils into heat, thus causing a loss of inductive quality.
The quality factor (or Q) of an inductor is the ratio of its
inductive reactance to its resistance at a given frequency,
n
1
2
and is a measure of its eciency. The higher the Q factor of the inductor, the closer it approaches the behavior
Ln
232
of an ideal, lossless, inductor. High Q inductors are used

with capacitors to make resonant circuits in radio transmitters and receivers. The higher the Q is, the narrower
the bandwidth of the resonant circuit.
41.8 See also
The Q factor of an inductor can be found through the following formula, where L is the inductance, R is the inductors eective series resistance, is the radian operating
frequency, and the product L is the inductive reactance:
Induction coil
Gyrator a network element that can simulate an

inductor
Induction cooking
Induction loop
RL circuit
L
Q=
R
Notice that Q increases linearly with frequency if L and
R are constant. Although they are constant at low frequencies, the parameters vary with frequency. For example, skin eect, proximity eect, and core losses increase
R with frequency; winding capacitance and variations in
permeability with frequency aect L.
Qualitatively, at low frequencies and within limits, increasing the number of turns N improves Q because L
varies as N 2 while R varies linearly with N. Similarly, increasing the radius r of an inductor improves Q because
L varies as r2 while R varies linearly with r. So high Q air
core inductors often have large diameters and many turns.
Both of those examples assume the diameter of the wire
stays the same, so both examples use proportionally more
wire (copper). If the total mass of wire is held constant,
then there would be no advantage to increasing the number of turns or the radius of the turns because the wire
would have to be proportionally thinner.
Using a high permeability ferromagnetic core can greatly
increase the inductance for the same amount of copper,
so the core can also increase the Q. Cores however also
introduce losses that increase with frequency. The core
material is chosen for best results for the frequency band.
At VHF or higher frequencies an air core is likely to be
used.
Inductors wound around a ferromagnetic core may
saturate at high currents, causing a dramatic decrease in
inductance (and Q). This phenomenon can be avoided by
using a (physically larger) air core inductor. A well designed air core inductor may have a Q of several hundred.
RLC circuit
Magnetomotive force
Reactance (electronics) opposition to a change of
electric current or voltage
Saturable reactor a type of adjustable inductor
Solenoid
41.9 Notes
[1] Singh, Yaduvir (2011). Electro Magnetic Field Theory.
Pearson Education India. p. 65. ISBN 8131760618.
[2] Wadhwa, C. L. (2005). Electrical Power Systems. New
Age International. p. 18. ISBN 8122417221.
[3] Pelcovits, Robert A.; Josh Farkas (2007). Barrons AP
Physics C. Barrons Educatonal Series. p. 646. ISBN
0764137107.
[4] Purcell, Edward M.; David J. Morin (2013). Electricity
and Magnetism. Cambridge Univ. Press. p. 364. ISBN
1107014026.
[5] Aircraft electrical systems. Wonderquest.com. Retrieved 2010-09-24.
[6] An Unassuming Antenna - The Ferrite Loopstick. Radio Time Traveller. January 23, 2011. Retrieved March
5, 2014.
[7] Frost, Phil (December 23, 2013). Whats an appropriate
core material for a loopstick antenna?". Amateur Radio
beta. Stack Exchange, Inc. Retrieved March 5, 2014.
[8] Poisel, Richard (2011). Antenna Systems and Electronic
Warfare Applications. Artech House. p. 280. ISBN
1608074846.
41.7 Inductance formulas
[9] Yadava, R. L. (2011). Antenna and Wave Propagation.

PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd. p. 261. ISBN 8120342917.
See also: Inductance Self-inductance of simple electri- [10] Vishay. Products - Inductors - IHLP inductor loss calcucal circuits in air
lator tool landing page. Vishay. Retrieved 2010-09-24.
[11] View: Everyone Only Notes. IHLP inductor loss calcu-
The table below lists some common simplied formulas

lator tool. element14. Retrieved 2010-09-24.
for calculating the approximate inductance of several in[12] Inductors 101 (PDF). vishay. Retrieved 2010-09-24.
ductor constructions.
233
[13] Inductor and Magnetic Product Terminology (PDF).

Vishay Dale. Retrieved 2012-09-24.
[14] http://www.coilcraft.com/pdfs/uni5.pdf Coilcraft catalog
page with aluminum cores. Accessed 10 July 2015.
Online coil inductance calculator. Online calculator calculates the inductance of conventional and
toroidal coils using formulas 3, 4, 5, and 6, above.
AC circuits
[15] Nagaoka, Hantaro (1909-05-06). The Inductance Coefcients of Solenoids (PDF) 27. Journal of the College of
Science, Imperial University, Tokyo, Japan. p. 18. Retrieved 2011-11-10.
Understanding coils and transforms
[16] Kenneth L. Kaiser, Electromagnetic Compatibility Handbook, p. 30.64, CRC Press, 2004 ISBN 0849320879.
Inductors 101 Instructional Guide
[17] Rosa, Edward B. (1908).

The Self and Mutual Inductances of Linear Conductors (PDF). Bulletin of the Bureau of Standards 4 (2): 301344.
doi:10.6028/bulletin.088
[18] Rosa 1908, equation (11a), subst. radius = d/2 and cgs
units
[19] Terman 1943, pp. 4849, convert to natural logarithms
and inches to mm.
[20] Terman (1943, p. 48) states for l < 100 d, include d/2l
within the parentheses.
[21] ARRL Handbook, 66th Ed.
League (1989).
American Radio Relay
[22] Wheeler, H.A. (October 1928). Simple Inductance Formulas for Radio Coils. Proceedings of the Institute of Radio Engineers 16 (10): 1398. Retrieved 22 June 2015.
[23] For the second formula, Terman 1943, p. 58 which cites
to Wheeler 1928.
[24] Terman 1943, p. 58
[25] Terman 1943, p. 57
41.10 References
Terman, Frederick (1943).
Handbook. McGraw-Hill
Radio Engineers
Wheeler, H. A. (October 1928). Simple Inductance Formulae for Radio Coils. Proc. I. R. E. 16
(10): 1398. doi:10.1109/JRPROC.1928.221309

General
How stu works The initial concept, made very simple
Capacitance and Inductance A chapter from an online textbook
Spiral inductor models. Article on inductor characteristics and modeling.
Bowley, Roger (2009). Inductor. Sixty Symbols.

Brady Haran for the University of Nottingham.
234
41.12 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

41.12.1
Text
John Dalton Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Dalton?oldid=678237813 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Tobias Hoevekamp, Magnus

Manske, Sodium, Vicki Rosenzweig, Malcolm Farmer, Ed Poor, Alex.tan, Andre Engels, XJaM, PierreAbbat, Shii, Heron, Olivier, Renata, Agitate, BrianHansen~enwiki, SGBailey, Menchi, Ixfd64, Ahoerstemeier, DavidWBrooks, Ronz, Jimfbleak, Docu, Theresa knott,
Notheruser, Bogdangiusca, Cyan, Kwekubo, Kaihsu, Evercat, Ilyanep, BRG, Charles Matthews, Adam Bishop, Greatpatton, RickK, Reddi,
Dysprosia, Tarosan~enwiki, Wik, DJ Clayworth, Maximus Rex, Furrykef, Jerzy, Proteus, Johnleemk, Paul W, Gentgeen, AlexPlank,
Pigsonthewing, Smallweed, Academic Challenger, Texture, Blainster, Hadal, Wereon, Carlj7, Cutler, David Gerard, Fabiform, Giftlite,
Lunkwill, Tom harrison, Ferkelparade, Dissident, Everyking, Snowdog, Dratman, Curps, NeoJustin, Aoi, Duncharris, Yekrats, Gracefool, BesigedB, Jackol, Utcursch, Andycjp, Dullhunk, R. end, Quadell, Antandrus, OverlordQ, Am088, SimonArlott, Rdsmith4, Kevin
B12, PFHLai, Icairns, Joyous!, Ukexpat, Tgerla, Adashiel, Canterbury Tail, ELApro, Apwoolrich, Dryazan, Discospinster, Solitude,
Rich Farmbrough, Brutannica, Vsmith, Suchire, Paul August, Mwng, Bender235, Limbo socrates, Nick5000, Billlion, RoyBoy, Quercus,
Bobo192, Whosyourjudas, Evolauxia, Redquark, Rje, Helix84, Nsaa, Methegreat, Jumbuck, Alansohn, TheParanoidOne, Ryanmcdaniel,
DenisHowe, Mr Adequate, Babajobu, ABCD, Lightdarkness, Robert Mercer, Malo, Avenue, Bart133, Snowolf, SidP, Super-Magician,
Postrach, Megan1967, Nuno Tavares, Woohookitty, Mindmatrix, Moitio, Camw, Logophile, Kurzon, Kzollman, Bratsche, GeorgeTSLC,
MONGO, Twthmoses, GregorB, Mathewtse, Isnow, Hard Raspy Sci, Wayward, MarcoTolo, Dysepsion, Paxsimius, V8rik, Kbdank71, FreplySpang, Island, Jclemens, Grammarbot, Mendaliv, Josh Parris, Sjakkalle, Rjwilmsi, Tizio, Jake Wartenberg, Vary, Blarneytherinosaur,
PinchasC, Mike Peel, DonSiano, CQJ, Bubba73, Durin, Bhadani, TBHecht, GregAsche, Yamamoto Ichiro, Titoxd, FlaBot, Old Moonraker,
CalJW, Doc glasgow, Jak123, RexNL, Gurch, Joedeshon, Physchim62, King of Hearts, Chobot, John Dalton, Cactus.man, Hall Monitor,
Gwernol, YurikBot, TexasAndroid, Hyad, Vlad4599, Dili, Bergsten, Bovineone, David R. Ingham, NawlinWiki, Wiki alf, Howcheng,
Irishguy, Ragesoss, Shinmawa, Dppowell, Dhollm, Raven4x4x, Misza13, Aaron Schulz, DeadEyeArrow, Bota47, Crozitis, Alister Namarra, Wikivek, Fang Aili, Reyk, Tevildo, JoanneB, Smurrayinchester, JLaTondre, Mais oui!, Jaranda, T. Anthony, Curpsbot-unicodify,
Kf4bdy, ChemGardener, Sycthos, SmackBot, YellowMonkey, ThreeDee912, Soccer pup 11, KnowledgeOfSelf, Olorin28, Unyoyega,
Pgk, Blue520, Yuyudevil, Salmyxn, Edgar181, HalfShadow, Yamaguchi , Marktreut, Gilliam, Betacommand, Qtoktok, Persian Poet
Gal, Bjmullan, Ittybitty~enwiki, Miquonranger03, Bethling, JoeBlogsDord, Dawnakilgore, DHN-bot~enwiki, Sbharris, Colonies Chris, Strigiforme, Ramas Arrow, Anabus, Crstar20, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Smallbones, PrivateWiddle, CanDo, Khukri, Decltype, R107,
MichaelBillington, Zvis~enwiki, Dreadstar, Mtelewicz, DMacks, Amphion~enwiki, Kukini, Carlosp420, Qmwne235, Ohconfucius, Pinktulip, SashatoBot, Nishkid64, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Srikeit, John, Treyt021, Heimstern, Lazylaces, Chodorkovskiy, Accurizer, Tlesher,
Peterlewis, Munita Prasad, StanBrinkerho, Mr Stephen, Waggers, Mets501, RadonX, Iridescent, JMK, Igoldste, The.Q, Spk ben, Avi cri,
Tawkerbot2, Jim McFadden, JForget, InvisibleK, Dodo64, Randhirreddy, NSD Student, Sir Vicious, Earthlyreason, Mrperson27, Bigblister, Drinibot, Runningonbrains, GHe, Im.a.lumberjack, Stevo1000, DanielRigal, Lazulilasher, WeggeBot, Tex, MrFish, Hindude, Cydebot, Matty781, Robinatron, MC10, Astrochemist, Gogo Dodo, Lancsalot, Chasingsol, Pascal.Tesson, Mirrormundo, Tawkerbot4, DumbBOT, Chrislk02, Bprsolt Qaoddz, Dinnerbone, NMChico24, Omicronpersei8, Thijs!bot, Ebmonkey2, Epbr123, Daa89563, Ante Aikio,
N5iln, Headbomb, John254, YFNH, Whooooooknows, CharlotteWebb, AntiVandalBot, Luna Santin, DarkAudit, Mary Mark Ockerbloom,
NSH001, Dcorzine, DShamen, Amberroom, Wahabijaz, Joehall45, JAnDbot, Husond, MER-C, The Transhumanist, NatGoodden, Arturo
7, Paper.plane.pilot, Andonic, Sitethief, Hut 8.5, Maias, Connormah, VoABot II, Soren515, Tomzhang0126, A. Nonymous, TrentonGB,
Avicennasis, 28421u2232nfenfcenc, Ciaccona, Lord GaleVII, Gaunnett, Johnbrownsbody, Infovarius, Cocytus, Abhiramguda, Gwern, Kornfan71, BetBot~enwiki, Jerry teps, Nono64, Lilac Soul, J.delanoy, Mattgk, Pharaoh of the Wizards, Nev1, Tacticus.V1, Tlim7882, Uncle
Dick, Ginsengbomb, FabulousAndy, MJStadler, Haydenhayden, It Is Me Here, Darkspots, Anakotan, L'Aquatique, Gurchzilla, NewEnglandYankee, Gregtzy, Heyitspeter, Sunderland06, Juliancolton, Cometstyles, Jamesontai, Jamesofur, DorganBot, Bonadea, Andy Marchbanks, Useight, Halmstad, Scewing, Idioma-bot, Jnsalt3191, Deor, VolkovBot, ABF, DSRH, Yoho2001, Philip Trueman, Martinevans123,
TXiKiBoT, Eddiehimself, Hqb, GcSwRhIc, Someguy1221, Anna Lincoln, Lradrama, Martin451, Siny4459, BotKung, Scienceman101,
Ajrocke, AlleborgoBot, Symane, IndulgentReader, PokeYourHeadO, EmxBot, Hmwith, EJF, SieBot, Scarian, Cwkmail, RJaguar3, Yintan, Calabraxthis, Keilana, A. Carty, Faradayplank, Steven Crossin, Techman224, Diego Grez-Caete, Maelgwnbot, Schlier22, Smartypantsprincess, Mygerardromance, Jza84, Barkjon, Atif.t2, ClueBot, The Thing That Should Not Be, QueenAdelaide, 09woodcr, Shinpah1,
Blanchardb, Harland1, PMDrive1061, Bwwm, Alexbot, Jusdafax, Christine1107, Eeekster, Feline Hymnic, Gtstricky, Vivio Testarossa,
Wiki libs, Jotterbot, Ember of Light, Tnxman307, Razorame, ChrisHamburg, Thingg, Aitias, Versus22, Apparition11, Lubin5792,
Gnowor, Gonzonoir, Jovianeye, Rror, Cloudycap, Nepenthes, NellieBly, Alexius08, Good Olfactory, Ejosse1, RyanCross, HexaChord,
Wyatt915, Felix Folio Secundus, Addbot, American Eagle, Willking1979, Luna Imper, DOI bot, Jojhutton, Landon1980, Balla207, Friginator, TutterMouse, Ironholds, D0762, Leszek Jaczuk, NjardarBot, Cst17, Im a very very very smart guy that looks good, LaaknorBot,
Chamal N, Redheylin, Debresser, SpBot, Doniago, 5 albert square, Tassedethe, Bavgang123, Tide rolls, Lightbot, Luckas Blade, Tallorno,
Benni111000, Wikirandom, X TvM X Grifter, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Fenrir-of-the-Shadows, Washburnmav, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?,
QueenCake, Gunnar Hendrich, Synchronism, AnomieBOT, Davidsnowlu, Rubinbot, IRP, Galoubet, Dwayne, Piano non troppo, Breadchastick, AdjustShift, Avinash Sirjoosingh, Kingpin13, Flewis, St11691, Materialscientist, Rtyq2, Citation bot, Maxis ftw, Thinker08,
Neurolysis, ..24, Cureden, Capricorn42, Jmundo, George.boeck, Inferno, Lord of Penguins, Finchbeak, Kangoroo lover, Omnipaedista, Shirik, Nedim Ardoa, Dsaasdasd, Shadowjams, Hamamelis, Erik9, Some standardized rigour, Bishboshj, Citizen Six, Unitanode,
Rkr1991, Anaphysik, OgreBot, Citation bot 1, Hashbron, Cubs197, Notedgrant, Plucas58, Tom.Reding, SpaceFlight89, Subhamrony, HyperCapitalist, White Shadows, Gamewizard71, Ruzihm, Kurukutung, Sheogorath, ProjectSHiNKiROU, Firstclasspimp23, Yousuf190,
Gesstudend, Jhessian Zombie, Gene Omission, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, The Utahraptor, Bento00, CrazyVietDude, DASHBot, EmausBot,
Gimmemoretime, Dewritech, Zumatrix, Stephencdickson, Tommy2010, Ozymandias444, Denver & Rio Grande, H3llBot, MrWilkinzz,
L Kensington, ChuispastonBot, ClueBot NG, 3JSHMerryPippin, Helpful Pixie Bot, , Bibcode Bot, Guy vandegrift, Frze,
GKFX, Suzukaze-c, Cyberbot II, LezFraniak, VIAFbot, SFK2, PrairieKid, Mew4657, ThoughtIdRetired, Monkbot, Kchemistry123, IiKkEe, Jonarnold1985, KasparBot and Anonymous: 802
Atomic theory Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_theory?oldid=680437255 Contributors: Mav, Ubiquity, Tim Starling, Tannin, Ixfd64, Ahoerstemeier, Smack, David Shay, HarryHenryGebel, Bloodshedder, Sverdrup, Rursus, Blainster, Hadal, Michael Snow,
Rho~enwiki, Giftlite, Awolf002, Bensaccount, Beland, Karol Langner, H Padleckas, Gscshoyru, Neutrality, Engleman, Karl Dickman,
Deglr6328, Discospinster, Qutezuce, Pjacobi, Vsmith, Paul August, Eric Forste, RJHall, El C, Laurascudder, Grick, Bobo192, DanielNuyu, AnyFile, Wipe, BrokenSegue, Maurreen, Joe Jarvis, Hooperbloob, Nsaa, Alansohn, Iothiania, Riana, BryanD, CJ, Malo, Velella,
CloudNine, Bsadowski1, Falcorian, Feezo, Kelly Martin, Linas, Mindmatrix, Kurzon, MONGO, Terence, Mathewtse, Wayward, MarcoTolo, Mandarax, Rjwilmsi, Ctdunstan, R.e.b., Ems57fcva, Bubba73, Brighterorange, Krash, Yamamoto Ichiro, Jameshsher, Alphachimp,
41.12. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
235
Physchim62, King of Hearts, Chobot, Moocha, Cactus.man, Hall Monitor, Gwernol, Banaticus, YurikBot, Sceptre, Brandmeister (old),
Petiatil, DanMS, ColoradoZ, Shell Kinney, Gaius Cornelius, NawlinWiki, Wiki alf, Grafen, Ragesoss, Mlouns, Syrthiss, Derek.cashman,
Oysteinp, Petri Krohn, Tevildo, Archer7, TLSuda, Moomoomoo, Banus, Zvika, Elliskev, Finell, Luk, Itub, SmackBot, Tarret, Prodego,
Vald, Jagged 85, Delldot, Eskimbot, Ga, Betacommand, Kurykh, Audacity, NCurse, Bduke, Jprg1966, Miquonranger03, Complexica,
Dustimagic, Sbharris, Colonies Chris, Hallenrm, Darth Panda, Sct72, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, ApolloCreed, Voyajer, Thrane, SnappingTurtle, TrogdorPolitiks, DMacks, Salamurai, Pkeets, SashatoBot, Nishkid64, ALUOPline2, Mathboy965, Ckatz, Rinnenadtrosc, Noah
Salzman, KNBDunlop, Timmy2, Ryanjrr, Waggers, SandyGeorgia, Mets501, This is so strange, Ryulong, LaMenta3, Sifaka, Iridescent,
Shoeofdeath, Francl, Igoldste, Blehfu, Courcelles, Tawkerbot2, Kurtan~enwiki, JForget, CmdrObot, KyraVixen, JohnCD, NickW557, MrFish, Jac16888, Bddmagic, Misterhay, Bellerophon5685, Synergy, Tawkerbot4, Carstensen, Doug Weller, Christian75, Codetiger, DumbBOT, Kozuch, SteveMcCluskey, Vanished User jdksfajlasd, Casliber, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Qwyrxian, Headbomb, Marek69, JustAGal, Natalie Erin, CTZMSC3, Mentisto, AntiVandalBot, KP Botany, Danger, Indian Chronicles, Etr52, JAnDbot, MER-C, Arch dude, MSBOT,
Bongwarrior, VoABot II, Ling.Nut, Catgut, Froman77, Nposs, Allstarecho, J Hill, User A1, Adventurer, DerHexer, Hbent, Yensin, Slippknotryan, S3000, MartinBot, Kbrewer, Rettetast, R'n'B, AlexiusHoratius, J.delanoy, Adavidb, Bogey97, Mthibault, Rhinestone K, Yonidebot, Choihei, Hellomoto021, L337 kybldmstr, P.wormer, Belovedfreak, King turtal, Sunderland06, TottyBot, Idioma-bot, Bottobbot,
Moblinmaniac, Deor, TreasuryTag, Je G., Rtrace, Hilarious Bookbinder, Kyle the bot, Philip Trueman, Zarcusian, TXiKiBoT, Oshwah,
Kriak, Hqb, Dchall1, Z.E.R.O., Crohnie, JayC, Billy1223billy1223, Sintaku, Dgiroux, The Wilschon, Martin451, Sanfranman59, TehZorroness, Bean915, Herindes, Enigmaman, SallyBoseman, Falcon8765, RaseaC, Superhockeyman, Ajrocke, Sfmammamia, Aanankhurma,
Hrafn, SieBot, Ivan tambuk, Caltas, Dzexon, Keilana, Happysailor, Flyer22, Oda Mari, Lightmouse, Techman224, KathrynLybarger,
Pappapippa, Sunrise, Maxxamaxx, Anchor Link Bot, Mygerardromance, Mr. Stradivarius, Athenean, Tomasz Prochownik, Elassint, ClueBot, Trojancowboy, Snigbrook, Fyyer, The Thing That Should Not Be, Gaia Octavia Agrippa, WDavis1911, J8079s, CounterVandalismBot, LizardJr8, Ratreuser, Anthon01, Djr32, Excirial, Jusdafax, Mrmoney426, Runningamok19, Praveen khm, Vivio Testarossa, Eagleman343, NuclearWarfare, Hans Adler, Mynameisages, J99867, Thingg, Aitias, BVBede, PCHS-NJROTC, Egmontaz, BarretB, Pippin254,
Proofreader77, Non-dropframe, DaughterofSun, Mathew Rammer, Ronhjones, TutterMouse, CanadianLinuxUser, WFPM, Download,
CarsracBot, LAAFan, DFS454, Glane23, Bassbonerocks, 5 albert square, Barak Sh, Tassedethe, Tide rolls, OlEnglish, Jan eissfeldt, Krano,
QuadrivialMind, Gail, Loupeter, Zorrobot, Suiseiseki, Ben Ben, Legobot, Yobot, Tohd8BohaithuGh1, Anypodetos, Eric-Wester, Tempodivalse, Synchronism, AnomieBOT, Killiondude, Piano non troppo, Flewis, Materialscientist, Citation bot, OllieFury, Addihockey10,
Capricorn42, Ibanezer23, Samiam2312, SassoBot, Spellage, SlavaPhD, Dougofborg,
, Chjoaygame, Wupop, Happy1npink13, Legion23, Priyul2020, Steve Quinn, Machine Elf 1735, Diremarc, DrilBot, Pinethicket, I dream of horses, Elockid, MJ94, Calmer Waters, 124Nick, FoxBot, Trappist the monk, Sheogorath, Aarmentapalacios, Tbhotch, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, RjwilmsiBot, NameIsRon,
Noommos, Bloopityblab, DASHBot, John of Reading, Immunize, *devunt, Super48paul, Da500063, Dewritech, Syncategoremata, Itsamee, Exmadxman2, K6ka, AsceticRose, Hhhippo, CanonLawJunkie, Amrodrgz, Bollyje, Traxs7, Editingallmistakes22, Access Denied,
Esaethan, Gz33, Wayne Slam, Smurf03, PaulRobertson1, Nicoaslolbooze, L Kensington, Mayur, Sunshine4921, Dazmansimmons, DASHBotAV, Bbourne20, Shadowbloodzzz, ClueBot NG, Cwmhiraeth, Hiperfelix, Photoemission, Gartxoak, O.Koslowski, Widr, Harkalelibre, MerlIwBot, Helpful Pixie Bot, Calabe1992, Bibcode Bot, Lowercase sigmabot, ElamTheStiPole, MusikAnimal, Mark Arsten, CitationCleanerBot, Account.ka.naam, Duxwing, BattyBot, ChrisGualtieri, EuroCarGT, Douglas2012, Dexbot, Jscher18, Webclient101,
TwoTwoHello, LlamaDude78, Syum90, Jamesx12345, SassyLilNugget, Joeinwiki, MercurianTerr, Lovebug2013, Beuracrat, Wikichman,
Zenibus, Dansantos303, Mahusha, SantiLak, Michaeldmoreno, L.exhc, Tayahgirlxo, Tymon.r, Bose skipper, PossiblyLying, Bhatde, Harsh
mahesheka, Rennzomataastumalon and Anonymous: 773
Lake District Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_District?oldid=682099477 Contributors: Berek, William Avery, R Lowry, Renata, Edward, Matthewmayer, Ixfd64, Pcb21, Cferrero, Angela, GregRobson, Maximus Rex, Taxman, Donarreiskoer, Owain, Mervyn,
David Edgar, Wereon, Lupo, Alan Liefting, Decumanus, Christopher Parham, Wighson, Zigger, Monedula, Niteowlneils, Zaphod Beeblebrox, Duncharris, Gilgamesh~enwiki, Bobblewik, Utcursch, Andycjp, Adamsan, Grinner, Daniel11, Asbestos, Mschlindwein, Grstain,
Mike Rosoft, Rich Farmbrough, Guanabot, Cnyborg, Vsmith, CanisRufus, Kloy1334, Vintagesound~enwiki, Worldtraveller, Pablo X,
Bobo192, Neforum, Franey, Naturenet, BillCook, Linuxlad, Grutness, Alansohn, Mick Knapton, Richard Harvey, Halsteadk, AzaToth,
GillardReid, Saga City, Dabbler, Paul1337, NicholasJones, SteinbDJ, Crosbiesmith, Stemonitis, Boothy443, The JPS, Starblind, PaulHammond, DavidArthur, SP-KP, JBellis, Help ive been blockrd, MONGO, StephenDawson, Wayward, Mandarax, Graham87, Blisco, BD2412,
MC MasterChef, Kbdank71, Demonuk, Chenxlee, Sjakkalle, Rjwilmsi, Funnyhat, Simono1958, Ttwaring, Yamamoto Ichiro, Daderot,
RobertG, Gillian Tipson, Mark J, Str1977, Gareth E Kegg, Cause of death, DVdm, Gdrbot, Bgwhite, YurikBot, Wavelength, Huw Powell,
Jimp, TodorBozhinov, Anonymous editor, Dili, Chensiyuan, Stephenb, Gaius Cornelius, CambridgeBayWeather, Rsrikanth05, Wimt,
NawlinWiki, Grafen, Welsh, Dureo, Robdurbar, Raven4x4x, MarkSG, Dbrs, Giddylake, Closedmouth, Hayden120, Spliy, David Biddulph, Allens, Katieh5584, DVD R W, True Pagan Warrior, SmackBot, KnowledgeOfSelf, Canthusus, Newsquestpaul, Moralis, Gilliam,
Donama, Horus Kol, Bluebot, Keegan, MalafayaBot, Tim P, CSWarren, Colonies Chris, Darth Panda, Suicidalhamster, Xchbla423, Can't
sleep, clown will eat me, Penrithguy, MJCdetroit, Sanchez NI, M1aja, Bob Castle, KeithB, Andeggs, Kukini, Ohconfucius, Lambiam,
Mukadderat, Quendus, Mouse Nightshirt, Aquilina, Soumyasch, Sir Nicholas de Mimsy-Porpington, ErinKM, Peterlewis, Glynhughes,
Chris 42, Stuartfanning, JHunterJ, Slakr, Cratylus3, Psammead, Skinsmoke, Nuttah, CapitalR, Kkkdc, Dscottag, Tawkerbot2, J Milburn,
JForget, Ale jrb, Van helsing, Ajscott, Phiz, Stevo1000, Ballista, Casper2k3, Hebrides, MountainMan, Lancsalot, Tawkerbot4, Ameliorate!, PamD, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Dmhoch720, Dougsim, Tcturner2002, X201, NigelR, Stevvvv4444, AntiVandalBot, Prince Godfather, QuiteUnusual, Golgofrinchian, Mikenorton, JAnDbot, MER-C, Ericoides, Rothorpe, Acroterion, Wasell, Magioladitis, VoABot II,
ChrisAllison, Turkishbob, Steven Walling, Rollercow, The Anomebot2, Hanbrook, Theroadislong, MiPe, 28421u2232nfenfcenc, Khalid
Mahmood, Bobble Hat, Stpwainwright, Jackson Peebles, Ugajin, Dkplan, Rettetast, Keith D, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, Snozzer, 03rp110,
J.delanoy, Nev1, Herbythyme, Algrif, LordAnubisBOT, TheTrojanHought, AntiSpamBot, SuzanneKn, 83d40m, HighKing, SoCalSuperEagle, Andyfgh, Ben1234567890, Matty2020, Frederick23, Fellside, GrahamHardy, Wikieditor06, Hugo999, Thomas.W, ABF, LokiClock, Philip Trueman, Mike Cline, TXiKiBoT, Jasondearden, MrCampbell, Someguy1221, Nick7213, DennyColt, Mzmadmike,
AndrewJD, Jackfork, Mannafredo, Andy Dingley, Blencathra, Wavehunter, GavinTing, Brenont, PeterCanthropus, Scarian, BotMultichill, Yintan, Igfrace, Vanished User 8a9b4725f8376, Le Pied-bot~enwiki, Cornrobo, Oxymoron83, Nk.sheridan, Benea, Lightmouse,
Techman224, RSStockdale, Gayboy-ds, Greatnightsout, Spartan-James, Kentynet, CultureDrone, Torkil Valla, Nn123645, Superbeecat,
Pinkadelica, Seanyseanysean, Denisarona, Sitush, Killersean, William von Zehle, MenoBot, Martarius, ClueBot, Barrypyatt, Snigbrook,
The Thing That Should Not Be, Blue bear sd, Mirefoot, Barcohouse, Puchiko, Dmp01, Fozzi900, Gnome de plume, Jusdafax, CrazyChemGuy, X Gui, Caitlinhalstead, MickMacNee, 7&6=thirteen, Billicus999, Antiquary, SchreiberBike, Thingg, Versus22, Mhockey,
SoxBot III, DumZiBoT, DH LDW, Neiltonks, Rror, Dthomsen8, Wikipeidia is great, Avoided, Jprw, Badgernet, ZooFari, MystBot,
Felix Folio Secundus, Addbot, Wyliet, Landon1980, Dkohara, NjardarBot, MrOllie, Proxima Centauri, Morning277, Chzz, Mjandrew,
Tide rolls, Lightbot, Yobot, Ptbotgourou, Fraggle81, Hardman911, Mmxx, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, Psdeano, Max, Shaggy35,
Starbois, AnomieBOT, Steve glenridding guides, Jim1138, Jeni, Lakeditrict, Harrykelsey, Danno uk, Xqbot, Gazhiley, Capricorn42,
236
Wcoole, Alanchard, Luckyleafus, LevenBoy, J04n, Shark15994, Hauganm, Geopersona, Hopsacks, Rlockheed, Us441, Clarkey5000,
Haldraper, Andysima, FrescoBot, NSH002, Fortdj33, Jonathansuh, Jamesooders, Tetraedycal, Sajid52, Steve81kat, Simple Bob, Hallucegenia, Pinethicket, Purelakeland, A8UDI, RedBot, Jfarrell1969, Cnwilliams, A.Beaz, Vrenator, Suzannafox, Shortfatlad, Specs112,
Innotata, Pikemaster, Mean as custard, RjwilmsiBot, Adhemarius, Acather96, Susie Brooke, WikitanvirBot, Algerone, Onlinekiller71,
ZroBot, F, Midas02, Tolly4bolly, Erianna, Rcsprinter123, Donner60, Emperyan, Hazard-Bot, DASHBotAV, Davidbaker77, Gary Dee,
ClueBot NG, Peter James, Gareth Grith-Jones, Gilderien, 23deano23, RogerCal, Widr, MarcusBritish, Fat9900, Daniel10656, MonK
Tedmyster, Fart9900, Fiddle78, Ipeh21, Jobbielad, Keindrech, WNYY98, TCN7JM, M4road, Emayv, PhnomPencil, MusikAnimal, AvocatoBot, Squidgems, Compfreak7, Prancuze, Benzband, Gala1337, BattyBot, Bilbanzabar, GoShow, BlevintronBot, Darkwillies, Dpirtle,
Dominicgordon, Samak, Mogism, Jamesx12345, Robmarsh3, OXONSchoolView, Cadillac000, Motorhome hire lake district, Ekips39,
Faizan, Cat620, Vanessabryony, Ginsuloft, EverythingGeography, Yellow Traveller, BananaMan999, Avis85, OdieFan3107, EatRunEat,
Investinsouthlakeland, Sl3nderman3006, Becky921, MrFrid, The Mustard Tiger, Nickw64 and Anonymous: 526
Vacuum Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum?oldid=680272389 Contributors: JeLuF, Ben-Zin~enwiki, Heron, Bignose, Frecklefoot, Patrick, D, Tim Starling, Bcrowell, Shoaler, GTBacchus, JeremyR, Kosebamse, Stevenj, Docu, TUF-KAT, Andrewa, Jll, Glenn,
Andres, Glueball, Cherkash, Mulad, Emperorbma, Charles Matthews, Timwi, Reddi, Wik, Zoicon5, Maximus Rex, Bevo, JorgeGG, Shantavira, Branddobbe, Nufy8, Robbot, Hankwang, Pigsonthewing, Zandperl, Romanm, Postdlf, Academic Challenger, Rursus, Spamhog,
Moink, UtherSRG, Michael Snow, Cyrius, Dina, Enochlau, Dave6, Giftlite, Christopher Parham, Wolfkeeper, Herbee, Starsong, Nayuki,
Glengarry, Bobblewik, Tagishsimon, DougEngland, Geni, Anoopm, Karol Langner, ArneBab, AlexanderWinston, DragonySixtyseven, H
Padleckas, RetiredUser2, Icairns, Lumidek, Iantresman, Peter bertok, Deglr6328, Zondor, Mike Rosoft, Perey, JTN, Mark Zinthefer, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Pak21, FT2, Vsmith, Number 0, Martpol, RJHall, Karmast, Shanes, Dreish, Cmdrjameson, VBGFscJUn3,
Sam Korn, Polylerus, Jumbuck, Alansohn, Interiot, Atlant, Wtmitchell, Velella, Rebroad, MikeMaller, Jheald, Gene Nygaard, Dismas,
Hojimachong, Reinoutr, Woohookitty, Gafaddict, BillC, Benbest, Robert K S, Maxwell C., MONGO, Ljfeliu, Richardgaywood, SDC,
Ulcph, Dysepsion, Graham87, BD2412, Pmj, Josh Parris, Canderson7, Sjakkalle, Rjwilmsi, Quale, Strait, MarSch, Salix alba, Oblivious,
Ligulem, Dudegalea, Brighterorange, Krash, FlaBot, Vegardw, RobertG, Kolbasz, Nivaca, Goudzovski, King of Hearts, Chobot, Visor,
DVdm, Scoo, WijzeWillem, PointedEars, YurikBot, Wavelength, Jimp, Pip2andahalf, DMahalko, Lexi Marie, Chris Capoccia, Masterhatch, Ytrottier, Hellbus, Stephenb, Gaius Cornelius, Salsb, Wimt, NawlinWiki, Efenstor, DragonHawk, Dialectric, Jsellick100, Tearlach,
Aaron Brenneman, Muu-karhu, Scs, Voidxor, E2mb0t~enwiki, Scottsher, Kkmurray, Gnusbiz, Dna-webmaster, Wknight94, Light current,
Zzuuzz, Tabby, Sean Whitton, Sprocketeer, JoanneB, Georey.landis, Profero, Gone999, Sbyrnes321, DVD R W, SmackBot, H2eddsf3,
Nocat50, Prodego, Melchoir, Kilo-Lima, Yuyudevil, KocjoBot~enwiki, Jagged 85, Eskimbot, Edgar181, Yamaguchi , Gilliam, Tyciol,
Chris the speller, Complexica, Octahedron80, EdgeOfEpsilon, DHN-bot~enwiki, QuantumDynamo, Darth Panda, Hgrosser, Scwlong,
Chlewbot, Yidisheryid, Rrburke, Bowlhover, DMacks, Lambiam, Dr. Sunglasses, Finejon, Vanished user 9i39j3, Anachron~enwiki,
Jaganath, Shadowlynk, Dicklyon, Waggers, Spiel496, ProTestOxford, MTSbot~enwiki, EricR, Hgrobe, Dan Gluck, UltraHighVacuum,
Iridescent, Craigboy, Igoldste, Ceilidthbear, Mwistey, Millatce, Johnlu 78759, Tawkerbot2, The Alex, MightyWarrior, LeQuantum, JForget, CmdrObot, Van helsing, Dgw, FlyingToaster, NickFr, Buskieboy, Cydebot, Peripitus, Beta Trom, Rieman 82, Gogo Dodo, ST47,
ANTIcarrot, Gproud, Dr.enh, Bigwhiteyeti, Chrislk02, Shahrukhmohammed, Robertinventor, NMChico24, Mbell, Naucer, Mojo Hand,
Headbomb, Dtgriscom, Marek69, Electron9, E. Ripley, Dave t uk, Sturm55, SomeHuman, AntiVandalBot, Jethompson, Luna Santin,
Seaphoto, QuiteUnusual, KentoIkeda, Jj137, Iarnell, Eddie12390, LibLord, Tim Shuba, Tuor~enwiki, Jwkane, Rico402, MortimerCat,
JAnDbot, Husond, Edwardspec TalkBot, Roleplayer, LittleOldMe, SiobhanHansa, Elmschrat, Pedro, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, Scowie,
JBKramer, ClaudeSB, Catgut, MetsBot, JJ Harrison, Yapete, MartinBot, Nikpapag, Rettetast, CommonsDelinker, Leyo, Jarhed, Ash,
J.delanoy, BillWSmithJr, Ginsengbomb, Athaenara, Keesiewonder, Johnbod, (jarbarf), 97198, Eva2pare, TottyBot, Cometstyles, WJBscribe, Ken g6, DorganBot, TheNewPhobia, The Behnam, Blackfell, Craitman17, VolkovBot, Je G., JohnBlackburne, Philip Trueman,
TXiKiBoT, Vipinhari, Rogator, FrstFrs, Ask123, Anna Lincoln, Robert1947, Deneys, Robert.vandyk, Acornsandsquirrels, Sesshomaru,
Alcmaeonid, HiDrNick, Twooars, Logan, NHRHS2010, TheXenocide, Brianriceca, Madeinchina4567, Biscuittin, SieBot, Pool1010101,
Paradoctor, Gerakibot, Caltas, MikeGogulski, Vacume, Keilana, Iames, Flyer22, Masgatotkaca, Doc Perel, ScAvenger lv, OsamaBinLogin,
BjrnEF, John fromer, Falconalconalco, Tombomp, Sasawat, TopGUN71691, CultureDrone, Altzinn, Escape Orbit, Chem-awb, Athenean,
WikipedianMarlith, Nondistinguished, Tomasz Prochownik, ClueBot, Thechamp69er, ArdClose, Drmies, Razimantv, HDP, Parkwells,
SamuelTheGhost, Sustainablefutures2015, Alexbot, Sgc21896, SpikeToronto, Brews ohare, Tyler, Jack.m.gill, Grisunge, Omer88f, SoxBot
III, DumZiBoT, TimothyRias, XLinkBot, Ost316, Don Mattox, CalumH93, Addbot, Willking1979, Evacuumstore, DOI bot, Landon1980,
Eutactic, AnnaFrance, Favonian, West.andrew.g, Numbo3-bot,
, VASANTH S.N., Tide rolls, Lightbot, Anxietycello, Luckasbot, Yobot, Fraggle81, Mmxx, Mindbuilder, Iroony, AnomieBOT, Aaberg123, Bsimmons666, Rjanag, Killiondude, Jim1138, Piano non
troppo, Sz-iwbot, Materialscientist, Citation bot, ArthurBot, Bobsmellslikeshit, LilHelpa, Lukerider86, Obersachsebot, Xqbot, MikeCorsi,
JimVC3, Drilnoth, Cavila, Vistaarjuneja, Rjcyer, Gdogboy, NOrbeck, Almabot, Vaccuumsauce, GrouchoBot, Frankie0607, Sophus Bie,
Hooverf5914900, E0steven, Erik9, Ronburgandy99, GliderMaven, Nagualdesign, FrescoBot, LucienBOT, Tobby72, Arrowsmaster, Idyllic press, Machine Elf 1735, Vikrantkorde, DivineAlpha, Citation bot 1, Jajetheman, DrilBot, Pinethicket, Metricmike, Danielrwright,
HRoestBot, Skillionair, Tom.Reding, Teebos, DecayConstant, Serols, SpaceFlight89, Curtis23, Johann137, Utility Monster, IVAN3MAN,
Skrounge, FoxBot, TobeBot, Sean hemingway process, Jerd10, Ghjthgh, Tythuey, Khpatil, Gyrocompa, Johhny 0h, Weakopedia, Kri.fot,
Metaferon, DASHBot, Wrexham25, EmausBot, John of Reading, WikitanvirBot, Dewritech, Syncategoremata, GoingBatty, RenamedUser01302013, CarlosMarti123, Wikipelli, V642336, Iwan Novirion, ZroBot, Knight1993, Azuris, H3llBot, DaveC426913, GrindtXX,
Laxtroy17, Wayne Slam, Rcsprinter123, Quincy c3, Donner60, Bulwersator, Orange Suede Sofa, ChuispastonBot, Whoop whoop pull
up, ClueBot NG, Ieatchips84, Qwerty24cb, Ulund, Malanoqa, SusikMkr, Flghtmstr1, Centaurrr, Save me, Barry!, DevilBirdman, Reifytech, Helpful Pixie Bot, Curb Chain, Haeretica Pravitas, Bibcode Bot, BG19bot, Mynameisnoted, JohnSinclair, Ahitchcox, Scubasteve19,
Trevayne08, Razaakperk, You700, Mr.viktor.stepanov, Brainssturm, Haileexhunn, Glacialfox, 220 of Borg, BattyBot, Tutelary, Yulutngu, Mojschele, Chrisvelnet, JYBot, Dexbot, Yendore, Titus Varus, Denysbondar, 1Todd1, Frosty, Davy Atomic Crockett, Butliker,
The Anonymouse, Nsbrar3, DavidLeighEllis, You-is-ratchet, Comp.arch, Apostatis, Joemiks, Bakumaster, Kogge, Kishoregupta89, Anrnusna, Maido Merisalu, Danhegner, Broski98789, Danielcruzespada, RareMonk, Blazetheraider, Teus21, Jenny204012, Nadia 23212,
Memeza1988, KasparBot, Abdelrahman1236, Littleyingdog, Glory of Space, AndreaWilliam, Williamandrea2015 and Anonymous: 475
Atmosphere of Earth Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmosphere_of_Earth?oldid=678315477 Contributors: Bryan Derksen, Zundark, Malcolm Farmer, Andre Engels, Youssefsan, XJaM, Christian List, SimonP, Ram-Man, Patrick, JohnOwens, Pit~enwiki, Dante
Alighieri, Gdarin, Ixfd64, Minesweeper, Ahoerstemeier, William M. Connolley, Bronger, Aarchiba, , Glenn, Ciphergoth,
Nikai, Jeandr du Toit, Lancevortex, Caelice~enwiki, Mxn, Pizza Puzzle, Victor Engel, Trainspotter~enwiki, Pablo Mayrgundter, Denni,
Cos111, Fuzheado, Doradus, Zoicon5, Maya~enwiki, Tpbradbury, Dragons ight, SEWilco, Omegatron, Morn, Wetman, Jusjih, Carbuncle,
Donarreiskoer, Robbot, Sander123, Friedo, Chrism, Fredrik, Stephan Schulz, Lowellian, Academic Challenger, Caknuck, Bkell, Mushroom, Seth Ilys, Alan Liefting, Giftlite, DocWatson42, Fudoreaper, Tom harrison, Mihail Vasiliev, Mark.murphy, Karn, Theon~enwiki,
Peruvianllama, Everyking, Curps, Alison, Michael Devore, Home Row Keysplurge, Waltpohl, Guanaco, Mboverload, Mobz, Brockert, JRR
237
Trollkien, Robsteadman, Antandrus, Beland, Onco p53, Eroica, MistToys, Rdsmith4, Kesac, Aeconley, Latitude0116, Borameer, Icairns,
Rlcantwell, Cynical, Marcos, Aknorals, Syvanen, Clemwang, Deglr6328, GreenReaper, Adashiel, ELApro, Mike Rosoft, Rncox, Eyrian,
JTN, Imaglang, Discospinster, Zaheen, Rich Farmbrough, Alsadius, Vsmith, Florian Blaschke, Murtasa, Xezbeth, Ponder, Dbachmann,
GregBenson, Paul August, ESkog, Loren36, Brian0918, Pmetzger, RJHall, CanisRufus, El C, Lankiveil, Joanjoc~enwiki, Worldtraveller,
Aude, Shanes, Art LaPella, Antwerp42, Triona, Jpgordon, Adambro, Sole Soul, Bobo192, Dreish, Duk, Sampo Torgo, Pokrajac, Jerryseinfeld, Pschemp, Merope, Knucmo2, Ranveig, Mrzaius, Alansohn, Anthony Appleyard, Iggykin, LtNOWIS, Eric Kvaalen, Arthena,
Rd232, Nicorojas, Riana, SlimVirgin, RoySmith, Hu, Avenue, Bart133, Mbimmler, Wtmitchell, Velella, ClockworkSoul, Knowledge
Seeker, Yuckfoo, Max Naylor, Tony Sidaway, Haros, Bsadowski1, Sleigh, Gene Nygaard, LukeSurl, Kazvorpal, Loren, Markaci, Ktzner,
Woohookitty, Poppafuze, Cimex, Etacar11, LOL, Wackyvorlon, Tripodics, MONGO, KarlJorgensen, Miss Madeline, Natsmith9, Keta,
Mangojuice, Sega381, Hard Raspy Sci, Tea maven, CharlesC, Noetica, DESiegel, Asdfdsa, Mandarax, Magister Mathematicae, Hillbrand,
Yurik, Sj, Drbogdan, Sjakkalle, Rjwilmsi, Tizio, Sveinb, Strait, Lordsatri, Tangotango, Seraphimblade, Ryk, MariusStrom, Heinovh, Sferrier, Lairor, Concordia, The wub, Bhadani, Dar-Ape, Sango123, Ptdecker, Yamamoto Ichiro, SchuminWeb, Geldart, Beigeotter, Nihiltres,
Nivix, Celestianpower, Tonyboy, RexNL, Gurch, Arctic.gnome, Kolbasz, Mpradeep, Fosnez, Gesiwuj, Lmatt, Alphachimp, Bmicomp, Srleer, Physchim62, Snailwalker, Chobot, SirGrant, Jaraalbe, Korg, Bgwhite, Cactus.man, Hall Monitor, Gwernol, Amaurea, The Rambling
Man, Wavelength, RobotE, Hairy Dude, Phantomsteve, Peter S., Chamdarae, Shell Kinney, Gaius Cornelius, Shaddack, Wimt, NawlinWiki,
Kristinc82, Kipster, Ngorongoro, Dhollm, Dayana Hashim, My Cat inn, Semperf, Zwobot, Dbrs, Mysid, Bota47, Haemo, Kkmurray, Jemebius, Avraham, WAS 4.250, Georgewilliamherbert, Jkhoury, Chesnok, Ageekgal, Closedmouth, Triops~enwiki, Arthur Rubin, Pb30,
NHSavage, Reyk, Dspradau, Petri Krohn, JoanneB, Vicarious, Thelb4, Anclation~enwiki, Emc2, Wbrameld, Phredward, ThunderBird,
AGToth, Sscomp2004, Katieh5584, Cmglee, DVD R W, Anthony717, Marquez~enwiki, David Wahler, Hiddekel, SpLoT, SmackBot, GeneralJ~enwiki, CJLippert, KnowledgeOfSelf, Hydrogen Iodide, Melchoir, K-UNIT, Bomac, CMD Beaker, Delldot, ZerodEgo, HalfShadow,
Gilliam, Kaiwen1, Andy M. Wang, Tytrain, Anastasios~enwiki, NormStephens, Saros136, TheDarkArchon, Keegan, Jcc1, CrookedAsterisk, Jprg1966, Master of Puppets, Thumperward, DMS, Oli Filth, Liamdaly620, EncMstr, SchftyThree, Stevage, Jfsamper, Jxm, Sbharris, Colonies Chris, Hallenrm, William Allen Simpson, Darth Panda, Lenin and McCarthy, Salmar, Sneltrekker, Can't sleep, clown will eat
me, Sahmeditor, Kelvin Case, JonHarder, Addshore, Mr.Z-man, Sidious1701, Flyguy649, Bowlhover, Nakon, VegaDark, Blake-, Ezhiukas
7, EdGl, DMacks, O RLY?, Just plain Bill, Pilotguy, Ged UK, Rory096, Archimerged, Vanished user 9i39j3, T-dot, John, Dreslough,
Vgy7ujm, J 1982, Shirifan, Loodog, Pat Payne, Jaganath, Soumyasch, Mbeychok, Chodorkovskiy, JorisvS, Dumelow, Robert Stevens, Joffelo, Mjmorris, Ocatecir, Mr. Lefty, Patau, Thegreatdr, BillFlis, Slakr, George The Dragon, Teeteetee, Npa213, Stizz, Smenjas, Texas
Dervish, Papadopolis, Levineps, Esoltas, Pepperosa, Iridescent, MFago, Joseph Solis in Australia, V111P, NeonNero, Igoldste, Octane,
Blehfu, Civil Engineer III, Courcelles, Mountainhawk, Tawkerbot2, MarylandArtLover, Alegoo92, Dlohcierekim, Jonathan W, Flubeca,
Orangutan, Andymease, LeQuantum, JForget, Vaughan Pratt, CmdrObot, Nightstryk3r, Tigers1rgby, Scohoust, Makeemlighter, Anakata,
User92361, JohnCD, DSachan, Rwammang, Fmeggers, Benwildeboer, N2e, NickW557, Egmonster, FlyingToaster, Neelix, Lesqual,
Brumpz, JustToHelp, ArcadianRefugee, CovenantD, Nick Wilson, Gogo Dodo, JFreeman, Tawkerbot4, Dynaow, Shirulashem, Roberta
F., DumbBOT, Narayanese, Daven200520, Thrapper, Omicronpersei8, Vanished User jdksfajlasd, Max Randor, Casliber, Oleksii0,
Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Qwyrxian, Kablammo, Tidus the BlitzStar, Mungomba, Headbomb, Marek69, West Brom 4ever, A3RO, Electron9,
Mailseth, Dgies, OrenBochman, WhaleyTim, Deipnosophista, Uruiamme, Sean William, Escarbot, Dzubint, KrakatoaKatie, AntiVandalBot, Luna Santin, Seaphoto, Ricnun, Opelio, Yomangani, Jayron32, Sweart1, Nachosos, Jhsounds, Spencer, Ingolfson, Golgofrinchian,
Mikenorton, JAnDbot, Husond, MER-C, Skomorokh, Plantsurfer, Inks.LWC, Sln3412, Belg4mit, Hut 8.5, Savant13, LittleOldMe,
Guy0307, Acroterion, Wasell, Ophion, I80and, Magioladitis, WolfmanSF, Eggietheman, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, AuburnPilot, JamesBWatson, Scowie, Charlesreid1, SineWave, Midgrid, Suez Canal, Animum, Phoenix521, Cyktsui, Daarznieks, Aquarat, Loonymonkey,
Frozen banana, Cpl Syx, Pegminer, DerHexer, JaGa, Esanchez7587, Calltech, Honi, Stephenchou0722, Hdt83, MartinBot, Dinny McGee,
Mksdiiw, Ebellii, Arjun01, Sigmundg, Kiore, ARC Gritt, Dlary, NReitzel, Nicklink483, Bissinger, Roastytoast, Jay Litman, Rigmahroll,
Nowayok, Zealotii, PrestonH, Eplack, EdBever, RJBurkhart3, J.delanoy, Pharaoh of the Wizards, GZUS96, UBeR, Uncle Dick, All Is
One, Tdadamemd, Janeanne, Fishback, Barts1a, Shawn in Montreal, Katalaveno, McSly, Aboutmovies, Onexdata, Bdodo1992, Jayden54,
Rocket71048576, (jarbarf), HiLo48, DarylNickerson, Jyuichi, Vanished User 4517, Belovedfreak, NewEnglandYankee, Srpnor, The chels,
Nwbeeson, Kraftlos, Shoessss, Wimox, Cmichael, Juliancolton, Vanished user 39948282, Gtg204y, SkyBoxx, Lithgon, Zeosurfer, DASonnenfeld, Xiahou, Squids and Chips, Rob 301, Idioma-bot, Lights, VolkovBot, Cireshoe, ABF, Aid85, Tomtheebomb, Je G., Zygomorph,
Barneca, Sdsds, Philip Trueman, Teleria, Af648, Greatwalk, Charleca, Jogar2, Coinboybrian, Vipinhari, Masterben555, Caster23, Miranda, Rei-bot, SK soccer, Ann Stouter, Woodsstock, Sankalpdravid, Qxz, Packa, Jpalme, Anna Lincoln, Lradrama, Corvus cornix,
Michael H 34, Leafyplant, CanOfWorms, Sanfranman59, Lou.weird, LeaveSleaves, Tpk5010, Mrsadmin, UnitedStatesian, Shaun123, Cremepu222, Dragana666, Ozalid, Q Science, Billinghurst, Yahyayahya, Gillyweed, Lova Falk, Falcon8765, Erikmartin, Lacrymachristi,
Amber48, Ageyban, Bobo The Ninja, Northfox, Pachang, Onceonthisisland, Supermaner, Kehrbykid, Maskedskulker, Ansdldks95,
MrChupon, CT Cooper, W4chris, Tvinh, ShadowZ5ightZ, Petergans, Shrute, Demmy, Amoreno65, Maxerhard, Botev, SieBot, Whiskey
in the Jar, Portalian, PlanetStar, Damorbel, Borovy3488, Zephyrus67, Improvman2, Xxfriendsfan4lyfxx, Caltas, Triwbe, Yintan, Jason
Patton, The way, the truth, and the light, Andrewjlockley, Mister weatherly, Trigger820, AdamButtery, Tiptoety, Radon210, Permacultura, Wowrogue, JetLover, Wilson44691, Jake cadenhead, Seospamer, Jc-S0CO, Aruton, Oxymoron83, Faradayplank, Kamell305,
Lightmouse, Alphablast, Wikiwikiwee, Poindexter Propellerhead, Syed Tirmizi, Techman224, The-G-Unit-Boss, BenoniBot~enwiki, Dr
Thermo, LonelyMarble, Mygerardromance, Allaboutbball, Yitscar, Vy7, C0nanPayne, Angelo De La Paz, Missing Ace, Martarius, ClueBot, LAX, Yumlick, Appanouki, Snigbrook, The Thing That Should Not Be, IceUnshattered, Sonarpulse, VsBot, Taroaldo, Nsteinme,
SavijN, DanielDeibler, Msgarrett, Blue bear sd, Regibox, Blanchardb, Lobot baho, Marinefooch, Crazycool12, Cirt, Puchiko, Gu1dry,
Mspraveen, Utswert909, DragonBot, Jufglanville, Excirial, Gustavocarra, Eeekster, Spanishclassinmediacenter, Robert the dee dee dee,
Leonard^Bloom, Delswick, Nintendoggys, Njardarlogar, LarryMorseDCOhio, Iohannes Animosus, M.O.X, Naruto82494, Darkemagik,
TheresaWilson, Calor, 25abs25, Thingg, Aitias, Laurenraeieskites, Johnuniq, SoxBot III, HumphreyW, Egmontaz, Apparition11, Vanished user uih38riiw4hjlsd, Attaboy, HimsAhimsa, DumZiBoT, Ramisses, Crazy Boris with a red beard, BendersGame, Evababygirl,
XLinkBot, Hotcrocodile, Gohglendon, Fastily, Nathan Johnson, Ovis23, Allsaints23, Little Mountain 5, Avoided, WikHead, Sergay, SilvonenBot, Mifter, Aog2000a, Alexius08, Benboy00, ZooFari, HexaChord, Addbot, Willking1979, Jojhutton, Tcncv, AnnaJGrant, Crazysane,
Montgomery '39, Ronhjones, Sarkozila, Amrad, CanadianLinuxUser, NjardarBot, Cst17, MrOllie, DFS454, Glane23, Tosan, Chzz, Debresser, Doniago, LinkFA-Bot, Clansmugglar, 5 albert square, IOLJe, DubaiTerminator, Tide rolls, , QuadrivialMind, Teles, Ettrig,
Martin Hanson, Frehley, Dunk402, Luckas-bot, TheSuave, Yobot, 2D, Boto dakkel, NGYlions, Tohd8BohaithuGh1, TaBOT-zerem, Bubblesf11, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, KamikazeBot, Sedathut, Pentajism, , Eric-Wester, Synchronism, AnomieBOT, AndrooUK, Bavetta, Kristen Eriksen, 1exec1, Xosema, Anotherstani, Beryllium-9, Killiondude, IRP, Galoubet, Reaper45693, Levipetersisgay, Short Brigade Harvester Boris, AdjustShift, Kingpin13, Ulric1313, Flewis, Materialscientist, ImperatorExercitus, The High Fin Sperm
Whale, Citation bot, Eyal Morag, OllieFury, E2eamon, ArthurBot, RealityApologist, LovesMacs, Xqbot, 216Kleopatra, Capricorn42,
ChrisPZK5, Gaturman2, Tad Lincoln, Br77rino, Ninjaman548, Maddie!, Omnipaedista, Shirik, Imhatap, RibotBOT, Hoifon, Geoper-
238
sona, Wongo237, Doulos Christos, MerlLinkBot, N419BH, Natural Cut, SOS48, Shadowjams, WaysToEscape, Erik9, SD5, Buneezfolife,
Thejadefalcon, Dave3457, Edgars2007, Prari, Brian.lockwood, No Bars In No Places, Menwith, Originalwana, Pepper, Riventree, Matthurricane, Dan.Seidel, Titus.jon, Michael93555, Skylerdray, Nojan, Poborak, Jonnie Kid, Kooljeena, Ratpole, CheesyBiscuit, Bryce111111,
49ersfanforlife, Tavernsenses, Cashewbrick, Bsneaky123, Besitos4bs, Tetraedycal, Gire 3pich2005, Xhaoz, HamburgerRadio, Jolivio,
PHR34K50, Stefan Alb, James472, Pinethicket, TheJiggySaw, 10metreh, Hamtechperson, Achaemenes, Hoo man, Pikiwyn, Btilm, Brian
Everlasting, SpaceFlight89, JamousMarc, Jujutacular, Wiki editor 6, MichaelExe, December21st2012Freak, IVAN3MAN, Double sharp,
TobeBot, Sma0002, Zairatool, Republican42069, Sheogorath, TheStrayCat, Lotje, John3mac, SeoMac, Eliza bangbang, Reaper Eternal,
Maek123, 69Legend, Tbhotch, Minimac, Lord of the Pit, Hornlitz, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Andrea105, Aniten21, RjwilmsiBot, NameIsRon,
Bhawani Gautam, DASHBot, EmausBot, David Laing, Asw138, Primefac, RenamedUser01302013, Slightsmile, Tommy2010, Mmeijeri, Wikipelli, Mirandarockstar, GalenD, Solomonfromnland, John Cline, ZOMG.co, F, Gzap4me, Nyi.napper, Fred Gandt, Science
enthusiast343, Confession0791, Wayne Slam, Zimmermanstein, JustPlaneEditing, NYMets2000, Sio6627, L Kensington, Scientic29,
EvenGreenerFish, David1010, ChuispastonBot, ChrisCarss Former24.108.99.31, RockMagnetist, 08004KAREN, 9Questions, Cdhdude,
Jdr900nf, DASHBotAV, 16pfrady, ClueBot NG, Nbv123~enwiki, Tumblrfannn, Yerrik, Gilderien, Coastwise, 7D HMS, Gggbgggb, Inblakey, Cntras, Friecode, Sbeyda72, Pragmaticstatistic, Hello4680, Calabe1992, Bibcode Bot, Thek4k1ng, Zijiwiki, BG19bot, Pine, MKar,
TimOsborn, PTJoshua, Blake Burba, Northamerica1000, Benzx132, Gaga123456789, PhnomPencil, Hallows AG, ElphiBot, Mikeditol,
Stick9Figure, BattyBot, Th4n3r, GoShow, Zgomez99, JYBot, Kelvinsong, Dexbot, Mogism, Ranze, RPgzLp, Respect.compassion, Reatlas,
Rfassbind, SamoaBot, Sotkil, Clr324, Kuyi123w, Blackbombchu, The Herald, Prokaryotes, BoDeppen, Monkbot, LollyBear12, ZackeryTaylor, Walpurgishacked, Cruithne9 and Anonymous: 1443
Evaporation Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evaporation?oldid=681224871 Contributors: Mav, Bryan Derksen, Andre Engels,
XJaM, Heron, Edward, Oliver Pereira, Ixfd64, Ahoerstemeier, Kragen, Glenn, Smack, Grendelkhan, Parabolis, Jusjih, Donarreiskoffer, Gentgeen, Robbot, Eman, Postdlf, Hadal, Robinh, Jleedev, Buster2058, Giftlite, Nichalp, Zigger, Foobar, Bobblewik, LiDaobing,
Quadell, Antandrus, Gunnar Larsson, Tadchem, Oneiros, Icairns, Tsemii, Trevor MacInnis, Grunt, Lacrimosus, Grstain, Brianjd, Mormegil,
Freakofnurture, NathanHurst, Discospinster, Alby, Vsmith, Mani1, Kbh3rd, Adambro, Bobo192, O18, Func, Shenme, Zwilson, La goutte
de pluie, Nickolay Stelmashenko, Haham hanuka, Nsaa, Ranveig, Jumbuck, Alansohn, Enirac Sum, Arthena, Walkerma, Edwards, Hu,
Bart133, Shoey, SteinbDJ, Gene Nygaard, Kazvorpal, Bobrayner, Nuno Tavares, Jerey O. Gustafson, OwenX, JarlaxleArtemis, Guy M,
Mazca, Astator, MONGO, Kgrr, Schzmo, Macaddct1984, SDC, Hard Raspy Sci, Tutmosis, Xiong Chiamiov, Koavf, Vary, Strait, Daniel
Collins, Krash, Bratch, Matt Deres, Winhunter, RexNL, Gurch, Waltersom, KFP, Alphachimp, BradBeattie, Spencerk, Chobot, DaGizza,
Scoops, Mhking, Roboto de Ajvol, Wavelength, Borgx, Retaggio, Stephenb, Gaius Cornelius, Wimt, NawlinWiki, Wiki alf, NickBush24,
Nrets, Howcheng, EverettColdwell, Amcfreely, Jeremy Visser, Wknight94, Ms2ger, FF2010, Poppy, Deville, Ace025, E Wing, Josh3580,
DGaw, Vicarious, Anclation~enwiki, Chaiken, Allens, Katieh5584, Kungfuadam, JCheng, Eenu, Cynthia Bennett, Luk, ChemGardener,
Itub, SmackBot, UbUb, Ashenai, Hux, KnowledgeOfSelf, Jagged 85, Delldot, Yamaguchi , Gilliam, Skizzik, Cowman109, Schmiteye,
Quinsareth, GregRM, Miquonranger03, Moshe Constantine Hassan Al-Silverburg, Colonies Chris, Darth Panda, Nazgjunk, Can't sleep,
clown will eat me, Shalom Yechiel, KerathFreeman, DGerman, Pax85, RandomP, Drphilharmonic, DMacks, Mion, Sarfa, Eliyak, Kuru,
UberCryxic, Markdr, Kipala, Ocee, Gobonobo, JorisvS, Mgiganteus1, Goodnightmush, Bjankuloski06en~enwiki, Patau, Thegreatdr, Ben
Moore, Beetstra, Noah Salzman, Androl, Ryulong, Jmkrest, Biscoherent, Andreworkney, Ginkgo100, BranStark, Igoldste, Shmget, Professor Newcomb, Hyperman 42, Courcelles, Fdp, JForget, Frenchgurl89, Vaughan Pratt, Insanephantom, 10wellsmit, Pkeys1018, CWY2190,
Dgw, MarsRover, Gran2, Cydebot, Abeg92, Road Wizard, Slp1, Steel, Rieman 82, Gogo Dodo, JFreeman, GRBerry, A Softer Answer, DumbBOT, JodyB, Satori Son, Epbr123, Pajz, Teh tennisman, Amitprabhakar, Mailseth, Escarbot, Mentisto, AntiVandalBot, Majorly, Seaphoto, Opelio, Bigtimepeace, Quintote, Mrshaba, Accordionman, Storkk, Mikenorton, JAnDbot, Leuko, Davewho2, MER-C,
EKindig, Connormah, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, JNW, Kevinmon, Catgut, Dirac66, Allstarecho, Seashorewiki, DerHexer, Lawrie.skinner,
Robin S, Triradiates, Pere prlpz, Adriaan, Youkai no unmei, MartinBot, Onlynone, TheEgyptian, J.delanoy, Pharaoh of the Wizards, SiliconDioxide, MrBell, Gamerboy22, McSly, Ignatzmice, Samtheboy, RedClaw42, Pyrospirit, AntiSpamBot, Mufka, Fylwind, Dhaluza,
KylieTastic, Steve.kimberley, Juliancolton, Bcostley, Bonadea, KudzuVine, Useight, Dan Hickman, Lights, VolkovBot, CWii, Thedjatclubrock, ABF, Soliloquial, Philip Trueman, TXiKiBoT, Technopat, ArisaRox, Rei-bot, Qxz, Slammer 525, Dendodge, Stafusa, Hetahhh,
JhsBot, Jackfork, LeaveSleaves, Seb az86556, Vgranucci, Cremepu222, DrVerlucci, Comrade Tux, Eckert09, Falcon8765, Enviroboy,
Anton Gutsunaev, Phmoreno, Kevin Beals, Ageyban, Alcmaeonid, Bromine stanton, TheBendster, MrChupon, Scottywong, PAntoni,
7625s, Oxtoby, Viggio, EJF, SieBot, TJRC, Ttonyb1, PlanetStar, Tiddly Tom, Krawi, Dawn Bard, Caltas, Matthew Yeager, Flyer22,
Radon210, Zucchini Marie, Captain Yankee, Sneakernets, Antonio Lopez, Faradayplank, Pac72, Hobartimus, Sportzstar, Spartan-James,
RO BlueMonday, Denisarona, Escape Orbit, Ainlina, Loren.wilton, Martarius, ClueBot, Rumping, Gits (Neo), Pmajsztr, The Thing That
Should Not Be, DesertAngel, Arakunem, Drmies, SuperHamster, LizardJr8, Neverquick, DragonBot, Excirial, Jusdafax, AlphaAqua,
Abrech, Leonard^Bloom, Shinkolobwe, Lartoven, ParisianBlade, Daveroo69, Doodooshcake2, The Red, Thingg, 7, SoxBot III, ClanCC,
DumZiBoT, RexxS, BarretB, Nickeeeeeeeeee, Nepenthes, WikHead, Mclarendude558, PL290, Thatguyint, HexaChord, Ibstrock, Lou86, Some jerk on the Internet, EdgeNavidad, Mecheze, Fieldday-sunday, CanadianLinuxUser, Mnmmichael4, Download, MrVanBot,
CarsracBot, Glane23, AnnaFrance, Jrodstuntman177, Tide rolls, Lightbot, Genius101, FSIM, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, THEN WHO
WAS PHONE?, KamikazeBot, Gerard1lover, Eric-Wester, Backslash Forwardslash, AnomieBOT, KDS4444, DemocraticLuntz, Gtz,
Daniele Pugliesi, Jim1138, Galoubet, Aditya, Kingpin13, Materialscientist, Jacksonroberts25, Neurolysis, Xqbot, Alexdantico, Mitchyrox,
Abce2, Larryu11, Shirik, Bahahs, Rickproser, Doulos Christos, WebCiteBOT, SchnitzelMannGreek, P0p4rt, Tangent747, Michael93555,
Pmdennis, Unapiedra, Age Happens, Gullbrekken, HamburgerRadio, Pinethicket, I dream of horses, Ghettosauce, Serols, SpaceFlight89,
Xxjumpman2387xx, Mikespedia, Jujutacular, Merlion444, DC, LogAntiLog, Vrenator, Vazgen4, Missapril jade, Suusion of Yellow,
Mean as custard, Forenti, Thesmatestguy, EmausBot, John of Reading, Ibbn, Racerx11, 12thmandown, Wikipelli, Lou1986, Assaunta,
Acategory, KaliumPropane, KuduIO, QEDK, Wayne Slam, L Kensington, Alborzagros, MonoAV, TYelliot, DASHBotAV, Xanchester,
ClueBot NG, Gareth Grith-Jones, Iiii I I I, Gilderien, CherryX, Cntras, O.Koslowski, Loginpassword, Antiqueight, Stinvurger, Geek302,
Esnascosta, Huskies3, BG19bot, MusikAnimal, Mark Arsten, Shikhars24, Saran2008msc, Shaun, Truespeck, YodaWhat, BattyBot, NGC
2736, Teammm, NeiallsWheel, Mediran, LHcheM, AlanParkerFrance, Baba Bhola, Adhirawr, G.Kiruthikan, Michael Anon, Lugia2453,
Kevin12xd, Reatlas, Chicken987567, Ybidzian, DavidLeighEllis, Fbryce, YiFeiBot, Gravuritas, Library Guy, Da Bad Boyz, Nikhiljain711,
SantiLak, Btlastic, Gokudragonball0120, Iwilsonp, TaqPol, Rajeevkumarsingh87, BiographySandy, Hacker404, BiopharmaProcess, Bosslady1011, Sakshamkhurana, KasparBot, and Anonymous: 956
Thermal expansion Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_expansion?oldid=681897045 Contributors: Fred Bauder, Delirium,
Andrewman327, Cdang, Giftlite, BenFrantzDale, Alexf, Deewiant, Thorsten1, Grm wnr, ChrisRuvolo, Vsmith, Quietly, Art LaPella,
Hooperbloob, Knucmo2, Zachlipton, Alansohn, PAR, Snowolf, TaintedMustard, Gene Nygaard, StuTheSheep, Linas, Mindmatrix, Aidanlister, Pol098, Firien, Knuckles, Prashanthns, Susato, Paxsimius, Mandarax, NCdave, Jclemens, Nanite, Rjwilmsi, Matt Deres, ACrush,
Gurch, Chobot, YurikBot, Charles Gaudette, Akamad, Alex Bakharev, ArcticFlame, Grafen, Dhollm, Moe Epsilon, DeadEyeArrow,
CWenger, GrinBot~enwiki, That Guy, From That Show!, Luk, Yvwv, SmackBot, Slashme, Da2ce7, Eupedia, Gilliam, Reza1615, End-
239
ingPop, Mion, Harryboyles, ML5, Paladinwannabe2, Dan Gluck, Wizard191, Courcelles, Mcginnly, Ironmagma, Saintrain, Thijs!bot,
Epbr123, Headbomb, Nick Number, Escarbot, Porqin, QuiteUnusual, RogueNinja, JAnDbot, Ibjt4ever, Jinxinzzi, Asplace, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, JamesBWatson, Christophe.Finot, Raggiante~enwiki, Cardamon, R'n'B, Zygimantus, Eybot~enwiki, J.delanoy, Trusilver,
Dani setiawan, Mike.lifeguard, Davidprior, Auegel, Jcwf, TomasBat, In Transit, STBotD, Ojovan, AntoniusJ~enwiki, Squids and Chips,
WOSlinker, Hqb, Leaf of Silver, Claidheamohmor, Gerakibot, Yintan, Mothmolevna, Chromaticity, Masgatotkaca, Csloomis, OKBot,
AllHailZeppelin, Kanonkas, ClueBot, Sealsrock!, The Thing That Should Not Be, Ken l lee, Harland1, Largedizkool, Adrian dakota,
DragonBot, Awickert, CohesionBot, PixelBot, Leonard^Bloom, P1415926535, La Pianista, Ammm3478, 1ForTheMoney, Ngebbett, Addbot, Xp54321, Otisjimmy1, Chzz, Jgrosay~enwiki, Quercus solaris, Tide rolls, Teles, Karthik3186, Yobot, AnomieBOT, Gtz, Piano
non troppo, Materialscientist, E235, Citation bot, Clark89, LilHelpa, Xqbot, Qq19342174, Cristianrodenas, RibotBOT, Kyng, Dpinna85,
Dan6hell66, Jatosado, Black.je, Pinethicket, A8UDI, , Tbhotch, RjwilmsiBot, MagnInd, Bento00, DASHBot, Hhhippo,
Confession0791, AManWithNoPlan, Pun, RockMagnetist, Teaktl17, ClueBot NG, Ronaldjo, Gareth Grith-Jones, Satellizer, Ulrich67,
Mmarre, Helpful Pixie Bot, Bibcode Bot, BG19bot, Angry birds fan Club, Dentalplanlisa, Eio, Arc1977, BattyBot, Tmariem, Mahmud
Halimi Wardag, Owoturo tboy, YannLar, Csuino, TwoTwoHello, Hwangrox99, QueenMisha, Reatlas, LukeMcMahon, Katelyn.kitzinger,
Alexwho314, Aguner, Lektio, Prokaryotes, Ginsuloft, Stamptrader, JOb, VolpeCenter, Emaw61, Monkbot, Jkutil18, Mybalonyhasarstname, R-joven, Richard Hebb, Deepak pandey mj and Anonymous: 298
Pressure Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pressure?oldid=680109579 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Magnus Manske, Mav, Bryan Derksen, Zundark, The Anome, Tarquin, Cable Hills, Peterlin~enwiki, DavidLevinson, Jdpipe, Heron, Patrick, Infrogmation, Smelialichu,
Michael Hardy, Tim Starling, Pit~enwiki, Fuzzie, GTBacchus, Delirium, Minesweeper, Egil, Mkweise, Ellywa, Ahoerstemeier, Mac,
, Glenn, Smack, GRAHAMUK, Halfdan, Ehn, Emperorbma, RodC, Charles Matthews, Jay, Pheon, DJ Clayworth, Tpbradbury, Jimbreed, Omegatron, Fvw, Robbot, Hankwang, Pigsonthewing, Chris 73, R3m0t, Peak, Merovingian, Bkell, Moink, Hadal, UtherSRG, Cronian~enwiki, Tobias Bergemann, Giftlite, Smjg, Harp, Wolfkeeper, Tom harrison, Herbee, Mark.murphy, Wwoods, Michael
Devore, Bensaccount, Thierryc, Jackol, Simian, Gadum, Lst27, Anoopm, Ackerleytng, Jossi, DragonySixtyseven, Johnux, Icairns,
Zfr, Sam Hocevar, Lindberg G Williams Jr, Urhixidur, Peter bertok, Sonett72, Rich Farmbrough, Guanabot, Vsmith, Sam Derbyshire,
Mani1, Paul August, MarkS, SpookyMulder, LemRobotry, Calair, Pmcm, Lankiveil, Joanjoc~enwiki, Shanes, Sietse Snel, RoyBoy,
Spoon!, Bobo192, Marco Polo, Fir0002, Meggar, Duk, LeonardoGregianin, Foobaz, Dungodung, La goutte de pluie, Unused000701,
MPerel, Hooperbloob, Musiphil, Alansohn, Brosen~enwiki, Dbeardsl, Jeltz, Goldom, Kotasik, Katana, PAR, Malo, Snowolf, Velella,
Ish ishwar, Shoey, Gene Nygaard, ZakuSage, Oleg Alexandrov, Reinoutr, Armando, Pol098, Commander Keane, Keta, Wocky, Isnow,
Crucis, Gimboid13, Palica, FreplySpang, NebY, Koavf, Isaac Rabinovitch, RayC, Tawker, Daano15, Yamamoto Ichiro, FlaBot, Gurch,
AlexCovarrubias, Takometer, Yggdrasilsroot, Srleer, Ahunt, Chobot, YurikBot, Zaidpjd~enwiki, Jimp, Spaully, Ytrottier, SpuriousQ,
Stephenb, Gaius Cornelius, Yyy, Alex Bakharev, Bovineone, Wimt, NawlinWiki, Wiki alf, Test-tools~enwiki, Kdkeller, Dhollm, Moe
Epsilon, Alex43223, JHCaueld, Scottsher, Deeday-UK, FF2010, Light current, Johndburger, Redgolpe, HereToHelp, Tonyho, RG2,
Profero, NeilN, ChemGardener, SmackBot, RDBury, Blue520, KocjoBot~enwiki, Jrockley, Skizzik, Jamie C, Bluebot, NCurse, MK8, Oli
Filth, MalafayaBot, SchftyThree, Complexica, Kourd, DHN-bot~enwiki, Colonies Chris, Zven, Suicidalhamster, Can't sleep, clown will
eat me, DHeyward, Fiziker, JonHarder, Yidisheryid, Fuhghettaboutit, Tvaughn05, Bowlhover, Nakon, Kntrabssi, Dreadstar, Smokefoot,
Drphilharmonic, Sadi Carnot, FelisLeo, Cookie90, SashatoBot, Finejon, Dbtfz, Gobonobo, Middlec, Tktktk, Mbeychok, BLUE, Chodorkovskiy, Patau, MarkSutton, Willy turner, Waggers, Peter Horn, Hgrobe, Shoeofdeath, Wjejskenewr, CharlesM, Courcelles, Tawkerbot2,
Bstepp99, Petr Matas, Zakian49, Fnfal, WeggeBot, Gerhardt m, Cydebot, Fnlayson, Gogo Dodo, Rracecarr, Dancter, Odie5533, AndersFeder, Bookgrrl, Karuna8, Epbr123, Bot-maru, LeBofSportif, Headbomb, Marek69, Iviney, Greg L, Oreo Priest, Porqin, AntiVandalBot,
Garbagecansrule, Opelio, Credema, Adz 619, B7582, JAnDbot, Hemingrubbish, MER-C, Marsey04, Hello32020, Andonic, Easchi,
Magioladitis, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, JNW, Rivertorch, Midgrid, Dirac66, Chris G, DerHexer, Waninge, Yellowing, Mania112, Ashishbhatnagar72, Wikianon, Seba5618, MartinBot, Rob0571, LedgendGamer, J.delanoy, Trusilver, Piercetheorganist, Mike.lifeguard, Gzkn,
Lantonov, Salih, Mikael Hggstrm, Yadevol, Warut, Belovedfreak, Cmichael, Fylwind, SlightlyMad, M bastow, TraceyR, Idioma-bot,
VolkovBot, Trebacz, Martin Cole, Philip Trueman, Dbooksta, TXiKiBoT, Oshwah, Zidonuke, Malinaccier, Ranmamaru, Hqb, JayC, Qxz,
Anna Lincoln, Jetforme, Martin451, From-cary, Zondi, Greg searle, Krushia, Vincent Grosskopf, Neparis, Admkushwaha, EJF, SieBot,
Coee, Tresiden, Caltas, Arda Xi, AlonCoret, Flyer22, Tiptoety, Antzervos, Oxymoron83, Sr4delta, Lightmouse, The Valid One, OKBot, StaticGull, Anchor Link Bot, TheGreatMango, Geo Plourde, Dolphin51, Denisarona, Xjwiki, Faithlessthewonderboy, Codynke6,
ClueBot, LAX, The Thing That Should Not Be, Uxorion, Jan1nad, Smichr, Drmies, Mild Bill Hiccup, Wolvereness, Orthoepy, Liempt,
DragonBot, Djr32, Excirial, SubstanceDx99, Joa po, Nigelleelee, Lartoven, Sun Creator, L1f07bscs0035, JamieS93, Razorame, Plasmic
Physics, Versus22, SoxBot III, Uri2~enwiki, Rvoorhees, Antti29, XLinkBot, BodhisattvaBot, FactChecker1199, TZGreat, Gotta catch
'em all yo, Gonfer, Fzxboy, WikiDao, Jpfru2, Addbot, AVand, Some jerk on the Internet, Vanished user kksudjekkdfjlrd, Betterusername, Sir cumalot, Sen Travers, Ronhjones, Fieldday-sunday, Adrian147, CanadianLinuxUser, Fluernutter, Morning277, Glane23,
Favonian, 84user, Tide rolls, Lightbot, Cesiumfrog, Ralf Roletschek, Superboy112233, HerculeBot, Snaily, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot,
Ht686rg90, AnomieBOT, DemocraticLuntz, Daniele Pugliesi, Sfaefaol, Jim1138, AdjustShift, Rudolf.hellmuth, Kingpin13, Nyanhtoo,
Flewis, Bluerasberry, Materialscientist, Felyza, GB fan, Jemandwicca, Xqbot, Transity, .45Colt, Jerey Mall, Wyklety, Time501, GrouchoBot, Derintelligente, Mathonius, Energybender, Shadowjams, Keo Ross Sangster, Aaron Kauppi, SD5, Imveracious, BoomerAB, GliderMaven, Pascaldulieu, FrescoBot, LucienBOT, Tlork Thunderhead, BenzolBot, Jamesooders, Haein45, Pinethicket, HRoestBot, Calmer
Waters, Hamtechperson, Jschnur, RedBot, Marcmarroquin, Pbsouthwood, Jujutacular, Bgpaulus, Jonkerz, Navidh.ahmed, Vrenator, Jeffrd10, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Mean as custard, DRAGON BOOSTER, Newty23125, William Shi, EmausBot, Tommy2010, Wikipelli,
K6ka, Thecheesykid, JSquish, Shuipzv3, Empty Buer, Hazard-SJ, Quondum, Talyor Will, Morgankevinj, Perseus, Son of Zeus, Tls60,
Orange Suede Sofa, RockMagnetist, DASHBotAV, 28bot, ClueBot NG, Jack Greenmaven, Mythicism, This lousy T-shirt, Neeraj1997,
Cj005257, Frietjes, Jessica-NJITWILL, Braincricket, Angelo Michael, Widr, Christ1013, Rectangle546, Becarlson, Analwarrior, Wiki13,
ElphiBot, Joydeep, Saurabhbaptista, Franz99, YVSREDDY, Cky2250, Matt Hayter, Shikhar1089,
, Kasamasa, Anujjjj, Mrt3366, Jack
No1, Shyncat, Avengingbandit, Forcez, JYBot, Librscorp, Mysterious Whisper, Superduck463, Frosty, Sriharsh1234, The Anonymouse,
Reatlas, Resolution3.464, Paikrishnan, Masterbait123, Jasualcomni, DavidLeighEllis, Montyv, FizykLJF, Wyn.junior, Mahusha, Trackteur, Bog snorkeller, Crystallizedcarbon, Jokeop, Alicemitchellweddingpressure, Esquivalience, Engmeas, KasparBot, Christoerekman
and Anonymous: 749
GayLussac law Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gay%E2%80%93Lussac_law?oldid=682360648 Contributors: William Avery,
LouI, Choster, SatyrTN, Giftlite, Jason Quinn, Slowking Man, Quadell, Eroica, Karol Langner, Icairns, Vsmith, Jon the Geek, Atlant,
Super-Magician, Deacon of Pndapetzim, Bsadowski1, Gene Nygaard, Galaxiaad, Sam Vimes, Benbest, Rjwilmsi, The wub, Alphachimp,
Chobot, DVdm, YurikBot, Borgx, Split, NTBot~enwiki, Quinlan Vos~enwiki, Ondenc, Lepidoptera, Dr Debug, E2mb0t~enwiki, 2over0,
Allens, Hmains, George Rodney Maruri Game, Darth Panda, Hkchan123~enwiki, Ligulembot, KK700, Dead3y3, Drparticle, GoRenGo,
Astrochemist, Gimmetrow, Headbomb, Scottmsg, Greg L, Duh Svemira, JAnDbot, Acroterion, Smihael, Recurring dreams, Jvhertum,
Cpl Syx, JaGa, MarkM, J.delanoy, Peko2, Ryansk8erboy, Nemo bis, Atropos235, KylieTastic, 28bytes, Egmason, LeaveSleaves, Envi-
240
roboy, Turgan, Pizzachicken, Cwkmail, Kropotkine 113, Dolphin51, Efe, A.C. Norman, ClueBot, Snigbrook, The Thing That Should
Not Be, Wysprgr2005, Boing! said Zebedee, Blanchardb, Pointillist, DragonBot, Excirial, Jotterbot, Drooger23, Versus22, Katanada,
Erodium, Alexius08, Addbot, Neodop, Jncraton, NjardarBot, Kisbesbot, Tide rolls, Lightbot, Paulthenerd, Ale66, Yobot, Vs64vs, Winjaime, IW.HG, Materialscientist, Citation bot, Dromioofephesus, AdmiralHood, Xqbot, HHahn, Seanvan92, Samwb123, Spongefrog,
Omar35880, Eriderolo, Nathanrobertsonline, 1ssklk, Danthemanmcumber, Theblackestpersonever, KyleRedman09, I dream of horses,
Pbsouthwood, Artem Korzhimanov, FoxBot, Thrissel, Tbhotch, The Utahraptor, Noommos, EmausBot, Tdindorf, Pisgahchemist, JSquish,
ZroBot, F, Truthsort, Rabbitfang, Thine Antique Pen, Donner60, ClueBot NG, Widr, Bibcode Bot, Alberteinstein isback, MusikAnimal,
CaptPrommy, Snow Blizzard, Uopchem25A12, BattyBot, Eduardofeld, Khazar2, Lugia2453, Baconfry, Livvysoda147, Chemistryhelp,
WordSeventeen, Kingblizza, Jershan.kr, Akresben2016 4, Tinjappantoxic, The Temples of Syringe, Robert S. Barlow and Anonymous:
198
Charless law Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles{}s_law?oldid=681864624 Contributors: Vicki Rosenzweig, Mav, Tarquin,
Heron, Bdesham, Michael Hardy, Egil, Ahoerstemeier, The Anomebot, Mrand, David.Monniaux, Carbuncle, Robbot, Cutler, Giftlite,
Tom harrison, HangingCurve, Everyking, Curps, Jason Quinn, Slowking Man, Jossi, Karol Langner, Icairns, C4~enwiki, Joyous!, Spiy
sperry, Discospinster, Vsmith, Ivan Bajlo, SpookyMulder, AdamTheHun, MBisanz, Art LaPella, Rcsheets, Prsephone1674, Duk, Oolong, BernardH, Snowolf, Amorymeltzer, Mikeo, DrGaellon, Henry W. Schmitt, Gene Nygaard, Feezo, Benbest, Rejnal, Leapfrog314,
Graham87, Rjwilmsi, Pfctdayelise, Physchim62, Chobot, Krishnavedala, DVdm, Antiuser, Bgwhite, YurikBot, Quinlan Vos~enwiki, Sentausa, Dugosz, Ms2ger, 21655, Closedmouth, CWenger, NeilN, Shoy, Bomac, Gilliam, George Rodney Maruri Game, DHN-bot~enwiki,
Hkchan123~enwiki, Charles Moss, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Flyguy649, Nibuod, Shadow1, DMacks, Mion, BrownHairedGirl, Claidheamhmor, Minna Sora no Shita, IronGargoyle, Ryulong, Iridescent, Ksaraf, Robotarmies, Pit-yacker, SleepyHead, Ibanix, JamesAM,
Thijs!bot, Adam ccfc, Epbr123, Bill Nye the wheelin' guy, O, N5iln, Mahrabu, Pampas Cat, Marek69, John254, Sturm55, F l a n k e
r, AntiVandalBot, Seaphoto, SummerPhD, Jj137, Gkhan, JAnDbot, Leuko, Instinct, PhilKnight, Magioladitis, Bongwarrior, VoABot
II, Jvhertum, G-my, YUiCiUS, Keith D, Kostisl, J.delanoy, SiliconDioxide, Sir Umz, Dreamm, Uncle Dick, Katalaveno, Zojj, Kraftlos,
KylieTastic, VolkovBot, Lechatjaune, JayC, Qxz, LeaveSleaves, Staka, Gobberpooper, Minestrone Soup, SieBot, Cwkmail, Santoreeves,
Keilana, Radon210, Thomassucks, John fromer, Lisatwo, Lightmouse, Kropotkine 113, Efe, A.C. Norman, ClueBot, Dem393, The Thing
That Should Not Be, Drmies, Uncle Milty, Excirial, Ts24390, Jotterbot, Thehelpfulone, Katanada, BoobleGub, Erodium, XLinkBot, Nathan
Johnson, NewAgeServer2, TenTonParasol, Subversive.sound, Ben.iza.beast, Addbot, Some jerk on the Internet, Tcncv, Ronhjones, Bte99,
CanadianLinuxUser, Glane23, Favonian, AtheWeatherman, Tassedethe, Tide rolls, OlEnglish, Trotter, LuK3, TaBOT-zerem, Kilom691,
QueenCake, AnomieBOT, Daniele Pugliesi, Chuckiesdad, Materialscientist, RobertEves92, AdmiralHood, Cuty&smarty101, HHahn,
4twenty42o, , Shirik, Pikachu sensei, SchnitzelMannGreek, FrescoBot, Citation bot 1, Pinethicket, 5Celcious, , Loresayer, Pbsouthwood, Jauhienij, Longliveemomusic, DixonDBot, Seaofpeople0, Mean as custard, , Gorlingor, Deagle AP,
EmausBot, RenamedUser01302013, Dem1995, Bkkidyoyo, Solarra, Wikipelli, K6ka, JSquish, ZroBot, , Stockwellapril, Arman Cagle, Donner60, Status, RockMagnetist, ClueBot NG, Rezabot, Widr, Helpful Pixie Bot, , Electriccatsh2, HMSSolent,
Roberticus, Vagobot, Snow Blizzard, Glacialfox, Webclient101, SteenthIWbot, Telfordbuck, Epicgenius, Fawwad Jabbar, TheProfRobin,
RiskNerd, MrScorch6200, Crow, Skr15081997, Vieque, P-123, TerryAlex, Chemistryhelp, Bryyyyyyyy, OverworldGamer and Anonymous: 371
Mercury (element) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(element)?oldid=679675004 Contributors: Lee Daniel Crocker, CYD,
Vicki Rosenzweig, Mav, Bryan Derksen, Zundark, Timo Honkasalo, Stephen Gilbert, Ed Poor, Andre Engels, JeLuF, William Avery, Cayzle, Ktsquare, Heron, Montrealais, Olivier, Ram-Man, Dwmyers, RTC, Erik Zachte, Liftarn, MartinHarper, Blacklite, Ixfd64, (, Paul A,
Minesweeper, Egil, Ahoerstemeier, Angela, Julesd, Schneelocke, Ideyal, Emperorbma, Crusadeonilliteracy, Mpt, Charles Matthews, RickK,
Random832, Stone, Zemat~enwiki, Zoicon5, Tpbradbury, Maximus Rex, Grendelkhan, SEWilco, Paul-L~enwiki, Joy, Fvw, Pstudier,
Pakaran, Jerzy, GPHemsley, Jamesday, Finlay McWalter, Jeq, Lumos3, Phil Boswell, Donarreiskoer, Vt-aoe, Robbot, Cdang, YahoKa,
Fredrik, Chris 73, Jredmond, Romanm, Naddy, Merovingian, Tualha, Blainster, Mervyn, Hadal, Raeky, Bobjoejill, Seth Ilys, Xanzzibar,
Wile E. Heresiarch, Carnildo, David Gerard, Centrx, Giftlite, DavidCary, Zigger, Everyking, Rpyle731, Bovlb, Yekrats, Darrien, Jaan513,
Chameleon, Bobblewik, Tagishsimon, Golbez, Wmahan, Isidore, ChicXulub, Chowbok, Utcursch, Geni, Zeimusu, LucasVB, Quadell,
Antandrus, Beland, OverlordQ, WhiteDragon, Chiu frederick, PDH, ShakataGaNai, Greydream, DragonySixtyseven, Yggdrsil, Icairns,
Karl-Henner, Neutrality, Joyous!, Frau Holle, Sword~enwiki, Deglr6328, Ulmanor, M1ss1ontomars2k4, JasticE, Adashiel, Grunt, D6,
Freakofnurture, Kaverin, Spiy sperry, Indosauros, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Alby, Cacycle, Vsmith, Paul August, SpookyMulder, Night Gyr, Bender235, Mykhal, ESkog, JoeSmack, Geoking66, Pusher, Pedant, El C, Kwamikagami, Mwanner, Shadow demon,
Linkoman, Remember, Sietse Snel, Femto, Adambro, Bobo192, Spalding, Mboedick, Duk, Viriditas, Jung dalglish, Arcadian, Dlarmore,
I9Q79oL78KiL0QTFHgyc, Timecop, Nsaa, A2Kar, Lysdexia, Jumbuck, Yoweigh, Alansohn, JYolkowski, YerlittleMonster, Keenan
Pepper, Andrewpmk, Paleorthid, Benjah-bmm27, Sl, Riana, Echuck215, Lightdarkness, Apoc2400, Walkerma, InShaneee, Alex '05,
Avenue, Yummifruitbat, Snowolf, Wtmitchell, Velella, Wtshymanski, Paul1337, Docboat, RainbowOfLight, Randy Johnston, TenOfAllTrades, Pethr, LFaraone, Wadems, Skatebiker, Kusma, Gene Nygaard, Paraphelion, Tainter, HenryLi, Kay Dekker, Edisonwhite, Kbolino,
Sproul, Y0u, Stemonitis, Novacatz, OwenX, Woohookitty, TigerShark, LOL, Oliphaunt, Mazca, Urod, LeaMaimone, Keta, Kelisi, Zilog
Jones, Terence, BartBenjamin, Sengkang, John Hill, Tkessler, Zzyzx11, Wayward, Prashanthns, Graham87, Grundle, Cuvtixo, Magister
Mathematicae, V8rik, BD2412, Galwhaa, Kbdank71, Xxpor, DePiep, Reisio, Grammarbot, Kane5187, Search4Lancer, Saperaud~enwiki,
Rjwilmsi, Totti~enwiki, Omodaka, Nightscream, Koavf, Wikibofh, Vary, Sdornan, Agiorgio, HappyCamper, Vuong Ngan Ha, PatVanHove, RobertG, Ground Zero, Nihiltres, Fragglet, AJR, SuperDude115, Wctaiwan, Gurch, BjKa, Quuxplusone, Rob*, Common Man,
MGSpiller, Zotel, King of Hearts, Chobot, Jaraalbe, GangofOne, Gwernol, Sus scrofa, Theymos, YurikBot, Wavelength, Turq, Sceptre, Deeptrivia, Jimp, Kiscica, Midgley, Phantomsteve, RussBot, Sillybilly, Postglock, Hede2000, Bhny, Pigman, Epolk, Jmauro2000,
Hellbus, Hydrargyrum, Stephenb, Gaius Cornelius, CambridgeBayWeather, Yyy, Shaddack, Shanel, NawlinWiki, Ithacagorges, Wiki alf,
BGManofID, Borbrav, Mmanderson7, Janke, Grafen, Dforest, Kvn8907, ZacBowling, Irishguy, Pyrotec, Anetode, Dmoss, JulesH, Nick
C, Emersoni, Zwobot, Epipelagic, Ospalh, Romarin, Mugwumpjism, DeadEyeArrow, Bota47, Jeremy Visser, Derek.cashman, Pettythug,
Dv82matt, Ms2ger, Tetracube, FF2010, 2over0, Encephalon, Mateo LeFou, Theda, Closedmouth, Pb30, CharlesHBennett, BorgQueen,
GraemeL, Downward machine, Georey.landis, Kungfuadam, Junglecat, Lewis R, Asterion, Rehevkor, Mejor Los Indios, DVD R W, Tom
Morris, Itub, Twilight Realm, SmackBot, Looper5920, Mark Tranchant, Brammers, KnowledgeOfSelf, Olorin28, Hydrogen Iodide, Melchoir, Rayward, Pavlovi, Fdt, Praetor alpha, InvictaHOG, Rrius, Rokfaith, Jacek Kendysz, Kilo-Lima, Jagged 85, Alksub, Delldot, Doctorglasseye, Edgar181, Relaxing, KYN, Gilliam, Hmains, Betacommand, Mirasmus, Anwar saadat, Bluebot, Kurykh, Keegan, Static Universe,
Agateller, Romen, DStoykov, Dolive21, Thumperward, Moogle001, BabuBhatt, Desert Tripper, GregRM, Miquonranger03, MalafayaBot,
Deli nk, Kevin Ryde, TheFeds, Ikiroid, EdgeOfEpsilon, Darth Panda, Drkashik, Onceler, Bill Shillito, Ajaxkroon, Edgjerp, PhnxFyreG,
TheGerm, Alexmcre, , Rrburke, Aquahelper, Addshore, Kcordina, RedHillian, Midnightcomm, SundarBot, Esin0420, Smooth O, Cybercobra, VanHelsing~enwiki, Nakon, TedE, Dreadstar, NRW, Smokefoot, BullRangifer, Iridescence, Kellyprice, BCAttwood, DMacks,
Wizardman, Vina-iwbot~enwiki, Bejnar, Pilotguy, Coconuteire, Mystic Pixel, Sarfa, Vasiliy Faronov, SashatoBot, SpareHeadOne, Ar-
241
glebargleIV, Rory096, Erimus, Archimerged, Srikeit, Zahid Abdassabur, RJM, Potosino, John, Genericme, Aussie Alchemist, 3Jane,
Heimstern, Shrew, Gobonobo, Jaganath, Mikevick, Shadowlynk, Anoop.m, JorisvS, Evan Robidoux, Smartyllama, Minna Sora no Shita,
Jaywubba1887, Bryanm61, IronGargoyle, JHunterJ, Slakr, Hvn0413, Pranayurved, Beetstra, Waggers, , Dalstadt, Ryulong, Kurtle,
MTSbot~enwiki, Hgrobe, Pejman47, DabMachine, Norm mit, BranStark, Shoeofdeath, Scribner, Newone, Wjejskenewr, Mradigan, Twas
Now, Ouzo~enwiki, Gil Gamesh, Courcelles, Hkiahsebag, Tawkerbot2, Wspencer11, DAMurphy, Ouishoebean, Chetvorno, Poolkris, Eastlaw, JForget, Stifynsemons, CmdrObot, Ale jrb, Dycedarg, Scohoust, John Riemann Soong, Homang, Nunquam Dormio, GHe, Kylu,
Fitzaubrey, Dr. Imbeau, OMGsplosion, Saleemhali, Joelholdsworth, WeggeBot, Evilgohan2, Anil1956, Dr Zak, Cydebot, Peripitus, Newworld~enwiki, A876, Steel, Rieman 82, Gogo Dodo, Naer, Borisattva, Bobo12345, Benjiboi, Dancter, Naudefj, Christian75, Roberta F.,
DumbBOT, Chrislk02, Nabokov, Lee, Underpants, Daven200520, Omicronpersei8, FrancoGG, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Barticus88, Wpostma,
Hugo.arg, Nonagonal Spider, Headbomb, Marek69, John254, Horologium, Aquilosion, Sinn, Big Bird, Klausness, SusanLesch, Uruiamme,
Escarbot, Mentisto, Thelongroad1980, Jokem, Cyclonenim, AntiVandalBot, Majorly, Yonatan, Luna Santin, Widefox, QuiteUnusual,
Cmagnan~enwiki, Bovlk, Kram490000, Courtjester555, Prolog, Kbthompson, Jj137, Johnian144, Scepia, Smartse, LibLord, Tillman,
Dougher, Lfstevens, Corey Bryant, Elaragirl, Mdz, Myanw, MishMich, Hayesgm, JAnDbot, Deective, Husond, MER-C, CosineKitty,
Plantsurfer, Mark Grant, Arch dude, NATTO, Jrennie, Plm209, Andonic, Hut 8.5, J-stan, Simon Burchell, LittleOldMe, Bencherlite, Karlhahn, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, TheAllSeeingEye, Professor marginalia, Wikidudeman, Benimatt, Kuyabribri, JamesBWatson, Jay Gatsby,
Bwhack, Soulbot, Baccyak4H, WODUP, SparrowsWing, Rockjet, Bubba hotep, Animum, Travisbrady, Ben Tre, 28421u2232nfenfcenc,
Allstarecho, A3nm, Bobby H. Heey, Milindsmart, Fourthcourse, DerHexer, JaGa, Pyrochem, WLU, TimidGuy, Almadenbu, NatureA16, Gjd001, Stephenchou0722, Sasper, Atulsnischal, Iporter, Yobol, Hdt83, MartinBot, Keith D, Tbone55, Burnedthru, R'n'B, Idria
Quicksilver, Watch37264, Mikek999, J.delanoy, Captain panda, Trusilver, Jediforce, Arock0930, Bogey97, Piercetheorganist, Uncle Dick,
Javawizard, Lee Vonce, Eliz81, Siryendor, Neon white, Polenth, Fishyghost, Captain Innity, Icseaturtles, Acalamari, Rod57, IdLoveOne,
BrokenSphere, Katalaveno, Pikminlover, AtteLynx, McSly, Starnestommy, Langara College, (jarbarf), Plasticup, NewEnglandYankee,
Han Solar de Harmonics, Potatoswatter, Hanacy, Cmichael, TottyBot, Cornbinks, Juliancolton, Cometstyles, Whiteandnerdy52, Jamesontai, GCFreak2, Nigelloring, HazyM, Vanished user 39948282, Jamesryanjcrjcr, Cow1995, MartinBotIII, Useight, TheNewPhobia, Greg-si,
Squids and Chips, CardinalDan, Idioma-bot, Funandtrvl, Agamemnus, VaderSS, Lights, X!, Wadefan1933, Deor, VolkovBot, Amaraiel,
ABF, Myoung9718, Je G., Holme053, AlnoktaBOT, Bacchus87, Soliloquial, Chienlit, Ryan032, Philip Trueman, Sweetness46, TXiKiBoT, Irwin McLean, Tavix, Showjumpersam, Davehi1, AlexTingle, Ceorl, Auent Rider, Qxz, Cosmium, Turm, Lexington50, Bass shing
physicist, Fry010, Kalothira, Martin451, JhsBot, Axiosaurus, Catalystman, Dlae, LeaveSleaves, Seb az86556, UnitedStatesian, ConorHil,
Ilyushka88, Cheesybananas, Katimawan2005, Eubulides, Brian Human, Plazak, RandomXYZb, Enigmaman, Mckennaa, Y, Lamro,
Wyseman101, Shadowbeast656, Falcon8765, Enviroboy, Temporaluser, Itachi8009, Ceranthor, Hansissocool, Mcbf111, AlleborgoBot,
LuigiManiac, Jamescho~enwiki, Neparis, Crindalli21, Kbrose, Mgy93, SieBot, Llamahumper, Coee, Inks002, PlanetStar, Jauerback,
Caltas, Matthew Yeager, Triwbe, Yintan, Revent, Bleeisme, Yulu, Keilana, Exert, Egyptian4life, JSpung, Allmightyduck, Faradayplank,
Chrisrwood, Nuttycoconut, Steven Crossin, Lightmouse, GregCampbellUSA, LuciusValens, Techman224, Grunkhead, Alex.muller, Macy,
OKBot, Stfg, Spartan-James, StaticGull, Dabomb87, Florentino oro, Joshschr, Kortaggio, Nergaal, Ed Avis, Ryancormack, ClueBot, Trojancowboy, Admiral Norton, Avenged Eightfold, Binksternet, Snigbrook, The Thing That Should Not Be, Audacitor, Bionerd~enwiki,
Drmies, Ajonlime, Polyamorph, JTBX, Miguillo, State99, Blanchardb, Nichna, Cam123cam123, Neverquick, ChandlerMapBot, Puchiko,
Pointillist, Whiteknight521, Tisdalepardi, Excirial, AssegaiAli, Alexbot, Anon lynx, AprilHare, ZMan620, SpeiranVaun, Woofwoof2, NuclearWarfare, Flip69, Jotterbot, Printer222, 7&6=thirteen, Nvvchar, Shpadoinkleperrywinkle, Nukeless, BOTarate, Thehelpfulone, Janagiramanpp, Kakofonous, DJ Creamity, Thingg, Redrocketboy, Aitias, LadyEditor, Plasmic Physics, Sharkie3000, MelonBot, HumphreyW,
Egmontaz, Party, NERIC-Security, DumZiBoT, David.cormier, Skunkboy74, Fastily, Spitre, Mathea45, Cenax, Little Mountain 5, Asmodeus Samael, IngerAlHaosului, Mifter, Frood, Noctibus, Puppy9797, Dnvrfantj, Airplaneman, Atjous, Stormcloud51090, Thebestofall007, Ketchup krew, Wyatt915, Mutzinet, Gus Bus37, Vegetarianrage, Motop, Mr0t1633, Ilikegabe, C6541, DOI bot, Sharp gx15,
Fyrael, Hda3ku, DougsTech, TutterMouse, IchWeigereMich, Ed menendez, CactusWriter, Cst17, CarsracBot, Bassbonerocks, Glass
Sword, Debresser, Doctor Barry, Jasper Deng, Savitzjackie, Patton123, Nolelover, Numbo3-bot, VASANTH S.N., RDWRacount, Tide
rolls, Bguras puppy, Energycrystal7, Tenth Plague, Gail, Mico8195, Quantumobserver, Luckas-bot, Yobot, 2D, Lil' Lemur, Fraggle81,
Arthurbrown, Legobot II, Librsh, Dfe6543, II MusLiM HyBRiD II, NotARusski, Buddy431, Daniel 1992, Eric-Wester, Tempodivalse,
AnomieBOT, 1exec1, Jim1138, Galoubet, JackieBot, Piano non troppo, 90, AdjustShift, Auranor, Kingpin13, Yachtsman1, Theseeker4,
Jo3sampl, Materialscientist, Hunnjazal, RadioBroadcast, Citation bot, Questionic, Amit6, Robyrules777, MidnightBlueMan, ArthurBot,
Dinonatic, Durbnpoisn, Parthian Scribe, Xqbot, Zad68, Sionus, Addihockey10, Capricorn42, Jerey Mall, Raziel12345, NFD9001,
IForgotToEatBreakFast, Inferno, Lord of Penguins, Srich32977, Greendayfrickinrocks101, J04n, GrouchoBot, Frosted14, Omnipaedista,
RibotBOT, SassoBot, Carrite, Wiki emma johnson, Superspongebobfan, Haneymc, Zkamran53, Doulos Christos, Calcinations, GhalyBot,
MerlLinkBot, Hourswhom, Rplucken, MichealaD, PM800, Erik9, SD5, Cekli829, R8R Gtrs, Ryryrules100, Vartan555, Riventree, LoLaSBAMF, LeCookieMonster, DrBreen34, Idyllic press, Ionutzmovie, Fatpoke, Sushiman10, KateCatton, Citation bot 1, Diwas, Busukxuan,
Redrose64, Gautier lebon, Evagalets, CaptainPinko, Gscrane, Tom.Reding, Calmer Waters, Achim1999, Hoo man, RedBot, MrHighway,
Jcsbija, Isofox, Xeworlebi, Coronium, Reconsider the static, Jauhienij, Eumonia, TheLewisRepublic, Double sharp, TobeBot, Trappist
the monk, Ticklewickleukulele, PianomanZ, Medchemct, Dinamik-bot, Allen4names, Antipastor, Diannaa, Tbhotch, Randomman919,
MarlinMr, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Bokorember, TheArguer, Ripchip Bot, Teravolt, Thesmatestguy, Balph Eubank, DASHBot, Krish rdkb,
EmausBot, Williammehlhorn, Orphan Wiki, Donutman123, Nn302, Immunize, Pete Hobbs, Gerardovenegas, GoingBatty, Tommy2010,
ColetteHoch, Reb188, Wikipelli, Lucas Thoms, Aves914, Teemozzzzz, Scout365, ElationAviation, Chemicalinterest, H3llBot, DCH29,
QEDK, Ocaasi, ChemMater, Cragmonkey, Cmathio, Brandmeister, L Kensington, Anonimski, WaterCrane, YOSF0113, ChuispastonBot, Jazzbert, 1234qwerzxcv, Sven Manguard, DASHBotAV, Whoop whoop pull up, Cgt, LarryReuben, Mercury miner, Grapple X,
ClueBot NG, Kingowen12, Lanthanum-138, Parcly Taxel, Petey Parrot, Morgan Riley, Reify-tech, Helpful Pixie Bot, JohnSRoberts99,
Bibcode Bot, Kwells1989, Oliver.weber, Bstbll, Brand1234, Nathanpm, AvocatoBot, Badon, Luizpuodzius, AwamerT, IraChestereld,
FiveColourMap, Palaxzorodice, Trevayne08, Soerfm, TomeHale, Kc0gnu, 220 of Borg, Emperor Zhark, BattyBot, Jimw338, Kehkou,
JYBot, Dexbot, Zingophalitis, Catch2424, Lugia2453, Vish4urwish, Little green rosetta, Lucas0425, Djg289, Corinne, ElliottBelardo,
Hermespeed, Jwoodward48wiki, Smortypi, Pamelaness, BJM138, David Reay, Kind Tennis Fan, Thennicke, DudeWithAFeud, Monkbot,
BrainPower3, Rasfa1familly, Orduin, Wynstol, Aaabbb11, KasparBot, Reubencpiplupyay and Anonymous: 1540
Daltons law Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dalton{}s_law?oldid=681363895 Contributors: Heron, Sdfg~enwiki, Dgrant, Andres,
PuzzletChung, Jleedev, Bensaccount, Andris, Karol Langner, Klemen Kocjancic, Vsmith, ESkog, Rramphal, Longhair, Duk, Viriditas,
Jag123, Haham hanuka, GatesPlusPlus, Alansohn, AtonX, Shoey, Wsloand, Duplode, Fbv65edel, Hurricane Angel, Mpatel, Palica, Seandop, The wub, Matt Deres, Das Nerd, Margosbot~enwiki, Salsb, Tomj, Tsiaojian lee, Lunch, SmackBot, KocjoBot~enwiki, Gilliam,
Shalom Yechiel, Cabin Tom, Shrew, Deditos, Mbeychok, 16@r, Siebrand, Joelholdsworth, Rieman 82, Thijs!bot, Escarbot, AntiVandalBot, Seaphoto, JAnDbot, Gavia immer, Beaumont, Wasell, Indon, Aporwitz, R'n'B, NewEnglandYankee, Lights, VolkovBot, Philip Trueman, TXiKiBoT, A4bot, Lamro, Gobberpooper, AlleborgoBot, SieBot, Oxymoron83, Steven Crossin, A.C. Norman, Mild Bill Hiccup,
242
Bk810, Excirial, Alexbot, P1415926535, Sebschub, , Lab-oratory, Big Ed Wiki, Addbot, Gousmc09, Prefontaine1293,
Lightbot, Zorrobot, Nallimbot, Daniele Pugliesi, Csigabi, Mchlkauman, DSisyphBot, Anna Frodesiak, Mnmngb, Seanvan92, GT5162,
Trilobyte fossil, Pbsouthwood, Alph Bot, Skamecrazy123, DASHBot, Findangel, ChuispastonBot, ClueBot NG, Widr, WNYY98, Rs2360,
Coltenkasbohm696969, BattyBot, DasChem, November49, MaxD550, Lolooyutt and Anonymous: 86
Nitrous oxide Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrous_oxide?oldid=682417896 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Kpjas, Marj Tiefert, Tarquin, Malcolm Farmer, Rmhermen, SimonP, Rcingham, Heron, Arno, KF, Edward, Tim Starling, Wapcaplet, Ixfd64, Ahoerstemeier,
Angela, Darkwind, Julesd, Ugen64, Jll, Lupinoid, Ciphergoth, Tristanb, Evercat, Schneelocke, Ralf Schmelter, JidGom, Charles Matthews,
Stone, Kylegordon, Stismail, Andrewman327, WhisperToMe, Furrykef, SEWilco, Shizhao, Scott Sanchez, Mtcv, Pakaran, Pollinator,
Riddley, Aenar, Gentgeen, EdwinHJ, Robbot, Dale Arnett, Kristof vt, Securiger, Mirv, Sverdrup, Henrygb, SchmuckyTheCat, Intangir,
Hadal, Xanzzibar, Alan Liefting, Matt Gies, Giftlite, Smjg, DocWatson42, Nmg20, Adam Sampson, Wolfkeeper, Inkling, Netoholic, Obli,
Karn, Peruvianllama, Everyking, Dratman, Curps, Alon~enwiki, Duncharris, Jorge Stol, Rchandra, Eequor, Christofurio, Wronkiew,
Keith Edkins, Antandrus, Onco p53, Josquius, Ddhix 2002, Khaydarian, DragonySixtyseven, Tjwood, Bumm13, Husnock, Commodore
Sloat, Dougalc, Iantresman, Jcw69, Ukexpat, Dcandeto, Talkstosocks, Mike Rosoft, Wareldian, Eyrian, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough,
Avriette, Guanabot, NeuronExMachina, Hydrox, Cacycle, Shudog, Vsmith, Florian Blaschke, Antaeus Feldspar, Alistair1978, DcoetzeeBot~enwiki, Lachatdelarue, ESkog, Mashford, Theodoranian, Jensbn, El C, Evand, Kyz, Shanes, Alga, Dennis Brown, WhiteTimberwolf,
Jpgordon, Alxndr, Bobo192, Arcadian, Giraedata, La goutte de pluie, Sam Korn, Fugg, Alansohn, Omgee, Anthony Appleyard, Halsteadk, Interiot, Keenan Pepper, Ransak, Benjah-bmm27, Thoric, Zippanova, Mac Davis, Gaurav1146, Theodore Kloba, Muugokszhiion,
Wdfarmer, Haaaa, Snowolf, Wtmitchell, Vedantm, Rafti Institute, Tony Sidaway, Dirac1933, Cfrjlr, Gene Nygaard, Redvers, LukeSurl,
Johntex, HenryLi, Kazvorpal, Ceyockey, Dennis Bratland, BerserkerBen, Kenyon, Ianking, Eugenem, Bobrayner, Richard Arthur Norton
(1958- ), Woohookitty, Mindmatrix, TomTheHand, Acone, WadeSimMiser, Fred4321, Aderkach, Phlebas, GSlicer, Mandarax, Ashmoo,
Graham87, El Mariachi, V8rik, David Levy, DePiep, Bleaked, Chenxlee, Viswaprabha, DrHow, Sj, Drbogdan, Rjwilmsi, Nightscream,
Jake Wartenberg, Kinu, Jivecat, Seraphimblade, Heah, Miserlou, Kazrak, Jehochman, DoubleBlue, MarnetteD, Matt Deres, Titoxd, FlaBot,
Neiltc13, Nihiltres, RexNL, TeaDrinker, TVR Enthusiast, ApolloBoy, Physchim62, Mongreilf, Chobot, DVdm, Bgwhite, WriterHound,
Peterl, Gwernol, YurikBot, Wavelength, Jimp, Kiscica, RussBot, Sarranduin, Bergsten, Hellbus, Hydrargyrum, Stephenb, Gaius Cornelius,
Shaddack, Lavenderbunny, Member, Bovineone, Gustavb, , Wiki alf, Janke, ZacBowling, Boinger, Zombieliving, Thiseye, Lexicon, Adamrush, Adam Rock, Raven4x4x, Voidxor, Aaron Schulz, Mkill, Todfox, Polpo, Bilz0r, DRosenbach, JustAddPeter,
Tetracube, Bighawk2002, Jkhoury, TheAdmiral, NHSavage, Bushing, Ladypine, Jmackaerospace, Jgiure, Jolb, Nlitement, Owain.davies,
Sugar Bear, Alureiter, Allens, Kungfuadam, Egonspengler, DVD R W, Luk, SmackBot, Alan Pascoe, Stretch 135, Hu Gadarn, Kilo-Lima,
KVDP, Eskimbot, ASarnat, Mdd4696, Edgar181, Antifumo, Xaosux, Sir Spike, Mthed, Armeria, Chris the speller, Bluebot, Stevenwagner, 32X, Fuzzform, Hibernian, Ctbolt, Baronnet, Hows That, Frantik~enwiki, Hgrosser, Wyckyd Sceptre, Can't sleep, clown will eat
me, Frankzeg, Kcordina, Phaedriel, Jmlk17, Flyguy649, Smooth O, Nakon, Valenciano, Hurricane Floyd, Smokefoot, Polonium, EdGl,
The PIPE, Jklin, Zzorse, Acdx, D1lux~enwiki, Risssa, R. Wol, Zeneky, Andrei Stroe, TiCPU, The undertow, SashatoBot, Srikeit, John,
Flip619, Aussie Alchemist, Brmwk, Kiyae, Park3r, KostasG, Evenios, CredoFromStart, Fig wright, IronGargoyle, Jeran, JHunterJ, Slakr,
Beetstra, LuYiSi, Avs5221, Kyoko, Bendzh, Waggers, Funnybunny, Caiaa, Robert Hiller, Foolishben, Shreshtha-sharma, OnBeyondZebrax, Iridescent, Iepeulas, Fitzwilliam, Shoeofdeath, Aeons, Dartelaar, Thricecube, Tawkerbot2, Yashgaroth, TreyGreene, Tomunited,
Winston Spencer, Fvasconcellos, JForget, Gatortpk, CmdrObot, TheHerbalGerbil, Daavan42, Nczempin, Drinibot, Shizane, Lurlock, Ashton Brood, Oden, Bill Sayre, Cydebot, Rieman 82, Gogo Dodo, Islander, Absentis, 63x927is58401, Diuoroethene, Benjiboi, Gproud,
BDS2006, Tawkerbot4, Lightguy79, Christian75, DumbBOT, FastLizard4, Karuna8, Omicronpersei8, PamD, Rbanzai, Kohlgill, Epbr123,
LeggoMyEgo, N5iln, Headbomb, Marek69, Davidlawrence, Turkeyphant, KrakatoaKatie, AntiVandalBot, RobotG, Mr Bungle, Majorly,
Kaasje, Widefox, SummerPhD, Shirt58, Prolog, Lamontacranston, Smartse, Darklilac, Astavats, Dougher, Eubene, Ingolfson, JAnDbot, Husond, MER-C, IanOsgood, Cloaked Dagger, LittleOldMe, Freedomlinux, Karlhahn, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, Jackmass, Fusionmix, Websterwebfoot, JamesBWatson, Rtcoles, TARBOT, Aka042, WhatamIdoing, Causesobad, TheLetterM, KarmaToBurn23, Styrofoam1994, Beagel, JMyrleFuller, Thibbs, El Santiago, Edward321, Nykiang, Patstuart, Calltech, Scottalter, Kjr200414, Restepc, Jemijohn,
MartinBot, Mmoneypenny, Tobor0, Chromega, NReitzel, Roastytoast, TechnoFaye, Tension22, ColorOfSuering, R'n'B, Not2Day1024,
AlexiusHoratius, Cheezmeister, Leyo, Slash, J.delanoy, Groovygeeks, Trusilver, EinsteinEdits, AstroHurricane001, Bogey97, BillWSmithJr, Psycho Kirby, Ichibani, Eliz81, JayAbbott, AtholM, Carolfrog, Trumpet marietta 45750, Matt18224, Madeincanada91, Merrick101, AntiSpamBot, LittleHow, Belovedfreak, Nwbeeson, SJP, Cobi, TonyWest, Alnokta, Student7, MissFab, The Right Honourable,
Juliancolton, Equazcion, Smitjo, Natl1, Huyter, MartinBotIII, TheNewPhobia, Idioma-bot, Gouveia2, Funandtrvl, Vanish48484, X!, Malik
Shabazz, UnicornTapestry, Atm153, Dr. Robert Galloway, Gene Hobbs, Berimbau1, Vlmastra, Philip Trueman, Fran Rogers, Yugsdrawkcabeht, BillyNair, Moogwrench, Anonymous Dissident, Qxz, H3xx, Piperh, Werq, Axiosaurus, DragonLord, LeaveSleaves, Raymondwinn,
BotKung, Fastplanet, Whip Cream Wholesale, Andy Dingley, Warp102567, Dirkbb, Su37amelia, Falcon8765, Freeet, Njuce, Zuchinni one,
Scrawlspacer, Worms42, LetTheSunshineIn, Doc James, AlleborgoBot, Krautukie, Petergans, Unquenchablere, Arundelo, D. Recorder,
Ma bakken, Pmarshal, Abonater22, Paul196, SieBot, Gtrumble, PlanetStar, Dropkick1332, Saltywood, Da Joe, Caltas, Gazz104, Integracer, Dumbretard, The way, the truth, and the light, NOSMAN72, Flyer22, Billy12345st, Oda Mari, Wombatcat, Bsherr, Oxymoron83,
Soulspeed, Apastron, AniChai, WacoJacko, Onopearls, Misterpal, Mygerardromance, Wahrmund, Pinkadelica, Escape Orbit, Chem-awb,
Ryancormack, Mrfebruary, Dlrohrer2003, Tanvir Ahmmed, ClueBot, Andrew Nutter, Mod.torrentrealm, The Thing That Should Not
Be, Jagun, ImperfectlyInformed, Uncle Milty, LizardJr8, Thegeneralguy, Luke4545, Snaxalotl, Tisdalepardi, Playa0238, Klenod, ImNotRichImStillLyin, Thunderhippo, Sun Creator, NuclearWarfare, Iohannes Animosus, Wprlh, Dratuldixit5, Frozen4322, Nyyankeegurl02, Joeawfjdls453, Aitias, AudhumlaX, Callinus, Erodium, Grammargnome, DumZiBoT, Pi.C.Noizecehx, Vanished 45kd09la13,
TZGreat, TravisAF, Kbdankbot, Kembangraps, Fyit, Addbot, Deadgood86, Obuibo Mbstpo, C6541, Some jerk on the Internet, DOI bot,
Threeoctaves, Tsunanet, Captinhippie, Landon1980, Higgig1, Magus732, Ronhjones, CanadianLinuxUser, Leszek Jaczuk, Fluernutter, CarsracBot, Asddsajkl, LAAFan, SamatBot, Jasper Deng, 5 albert square, Numbo3-bot, Tide rolls, Anxietycello, OlEnglish, Vasi,
Xenonx, ScAvenger, Gail, Zorrobot, Xxxx00, Jarble, Arbitrarily0, Legobot, CrimsonSage, Yobot, Worldbruce, Fraggle81, CheMoBot,
Donfbreed, Gamerkid1994, Fenrir-of-the-Shadows, Crispmuncher, Guy1890, Anypodetos, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, Actionarms, The
Vector Kid, South Bay, AnomieBOT, Casforty, Lumade, IRP, Sumivec, AdjustShift, Vindemiatrix, Materialscientist, Frazzer570, Citation
bot, ChristianH, LilHelpa, Cheeaa, MauritsBot, Xqbot, Gigemag76, Meewam, Ponticalibus, Nasnema, Slasher360, Fancy steve, Grim23,
Ms548, Richard.decal, Pickles8, Jezhotwells, HAL11000, Sabrebd, Psychonaught, MerlLinkBot, Shadowjams, ASOTMKX, JJKoshinsky,
Fabrivelas, GliderMaven, Rnno, Custoo, FrescoBot, Nkroachment, Thewolf776, Riventree, Saehrimnir, D'ohBot, Idyllic press, Louperibot, AllianceConsumerEducation, Jonny.dyer, Citation bot 1, Nirmos, Rapsar, Pinethicket, I dream of horses, Dbrinky, CarsonsDad, AP
Editor, Hamtechperson, A8UDI, GreenZeb, Serols, Buttercup5323, Tim1357, DC, Trappist the monk, JimBrownish, Jordgette, Mec8686,
ACEConsumerEd2009, InternatACE, Lotje, Javierito92, Vrenator, David Hedlund, Jakestew, Vanished user aoiowaiuyr894isdik43, Robbin' Knowledge, Jynto, GMiller1965, Lopifalko, Aircorn, WildBot, Slon02, Giorgiogp2, EmausBot, Orphan Wiki, Helium4, Immunize,
Ruisi12345, Dewritech, Danish Expert, TsujiBan, Slightsmile, K6ka, Jsjsjs1111, Jaydiem, RaymondSutanto, Matthewcgirling, Haidir Ilmi
243
Shaleh, J1812, Walks on Water, EWikist, AManWithNoPlan, Quae legit, Wayne Slam, Rcsprinter123, Coasterlover1994, L Kensington,
Yoyoyoyoyoyoyoyoyoyoyoyoyoy, ShinRa.Electic.Power.Company, GrayFullbuster, Whoop whoop pull up, Louisajb, Mikhail Ryazanov,
ClueBot NG, MelbourneStar, Rfsteele, Lalo1179, Helpful Pixie Bot, Glbrosnan, Curb Chain, Bibcode Bot, BG19bot, Cheywoodward2,
Wolfgang3750, Moradmandali, Mohamed CJ, Snaevar-bot, Isleofbelle, Mark Arsten, Exercisephys, Marshall gj, Sharpstorm7, Fuse809,
Something tuplety, Chrisgedwards, Tchaliburton, Kdg4410, Njaohnt, Cyberbot II, LHcheM, EuroCarGT, Gather10, Dexbot, JZNIOSH,
Krithik R Naik, Pedo Phobia, Clr324, Jamez1502, DudeWithAFeud, DsPONCHO Boy, Phil McKraken, Meteor sandwich yum, FrB.TG,
Reynolds567, Melanie.garate, AH999, Monkbot, Morningdove28, AshtonHM, Reynoldsa567, Medgirl131, Usmansajjad0000, Okslocks,
Laptoprahul, Dfdemt, Varshini kumavath, Txnoextraction, Chimmihc, Hewhoshouldnotbenamed, Arun2462, Maciejew9, KasparBot, Asdfoui, Eric Pode lives and Anonymous: 1132
Nitrogen dioxide Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrogen_dioxide?oldid=678318492 Contributors: Bryan Derksen, Tarquin,
Lorenzarius, Michael Hardy, Ahoerstemeier, Glenn, Tristanb, JidGom, Malbi, Gingekerr, Mwoolf, Pakaran, Denelson83, Bkalafut, Catbar, Curps, Foobar, Falcon Kirtaran, Keith Edkins, Sysin, Beland, Gunnar Larsson, PDH, Edsanville, R6144, Smalljim, La goutte de pluie,
Larry V, Alansohn, Wrinkles, Benjah-bmm27, Walkerma, BRW, Magicjigpipe, Woodstone, Gene Nygaard, Adrian.benko, BerserkerBen,
Benbest, SDC, V8rik, Kbdank71, DePiep, Melesse, StephanieM, Physchim62, Chobot, Rewster, Lukeonia1, Jimp, Metalloid, Asgeirr,
Hellbus, Gaius Cornelius, Shaddack, Eleassar, Tetracube, Silverchemist, Afrotrance, Katieh5584, Groyolo, SmackBot, Edgar181, T-Bone,
Bluebot, SynergyBlades, Nbarth, Shalom Yechiel, Run' writer, Ambix, Smokefoot, Nishkid64, Sambot, Bizzako, John, Aussie Alchemist,
Joeylawn, Beetstra, Ryulong, Odedee, Joseph Solis in Australia, Igoldste, Thricecube, Dlohcierekim, John Riemann Soong, Dr Zak, Rieman 82, Shirulashem, FastLizard4, Calvero JP, Mentisto, AntiVandalBot, Widefox, Greenhorn1, Amberroom, Magioladitis, Karlhahn,
VoABot II, Causesobad, Dirac66, Vaultdoor, SuluSulu, MartinBot, Glrx, Leyo, Alnokta, AntoniusJ~enwiki, MartinBotIII, Idioma-bot,
Lexyboy, Aid85, Kumorifox, Maxim, Tyler Matthews, Gimlifangirl, Nagy, Petergans, SieBot, ToePeu.bot, Vodnokon4e, Robert.morton,
A. Carty, Prestonmag, Mojoworker, Chem-awb, ImageRemovalBot, ClueBot, Avenged Eightfold, LizardJr8, Ottawahitech, Pointillist, Skihatboatbike, Rubn Mar, William Mostmans, Thingg, Plasmic Physics, DSoup, SilvonenBot, Man, Zirguezi, Addbot, DOI bot, Wickey-nl,
Woelen, SmartBagel, OlEnglish, Loupeter, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Franssoua~enwiki, CheMoBot, Nallimbot, AnomieBOT, Materialscientist,
ArthurBot, Xqbot,
, Eframgoldberg, FrescoBot, Riventree, Saehrimnir, Citation bot 1, Nirmos, Squid661, RedBot, RonaldKunenborg, Ginahoy, Tim1357, Trappist the monk, Dinamik-bot, Swindlefun, Jynto, Giorgiogp2, EmausBot, Surlydu50, Chemista, RenamedUser01302013, Mmeijeri, Dcirovic, ReySquared, RaymondSutanto, Chemicalinterest, J1812, Kweckzilber, Tolly4bolly, DASHBotAV,
Whoop whoop pull up, ClueBot NG, CocuBot, KrDa, Helpful Pixie Bot, JohnSRoberts99, KD888, BG19bot, Davey1000, AvocatoBot,
Mark Arsten, Euphoria42, Midgetimpinger, Mmharihar, Nitrobutane, Hughthepoo, LegacyOfValor, Testem, Psjk2106, BrightStarSky,
Dexbot, Brees Block, Leafcountry, Ekips39, BlackDragon2712, Eyesnore, 1YlGC6dsynvm, RiskNerd, Fishstickz1234, Monkbot, Wikicology, Wneary92, Emily Temple-Wood (NIOSH), KasparBot, Poopybuttjsbsbs, Ithoka and Anonymous: 154
Thomas Thomson (chemist) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Thomson_(chemist)?oldid=660410285 Contributors:
Charles Matthews, Rbraunwa, Cutler, Vsmith, Jheald, Etacar11, Rjwilmsi, RussBot, Gaius Cornelius, Mais oui!, Qero, Melchoir, Sbharris, G716, DMacks, Ohconfucius, John, Longshot14, Red 81, Astrochemist, Gonzo fan2007, Weloganite, Waacstats, OingoBoingo2,
David Lauder, Zidonuke, StAnselm, Kernel Saunters, WRK, ClueBot, Tomas e, Skihatboatbike, PixelBot, Addbot, Lightbot, Zorrobot,
Luckas-bot, AnomieBOT, Obersachsebot, GrouchoBot, Hamamelis, Archaeodontosaurus, DigbyDalton, Plucas58, PBS-AWB, H3llBot,
ClueBot NG, Martin of Sheeld, ChrisGualtieri, VIAFbot, Curvecake, Ginsuloft, OccultZone, KasparBot and Anonymous: 18
Chemical reaction Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_reaction?oldid=678624902 Contributors: Marj Tiefert, Mav, Bryan
Derksen, Tarquin, Andre Engels, Toby Bartels, Rlee0001, Ewen, Dwmyers, Michael Hardy, Shellreef, Gabbe, Ixfd64, Pcb21, Ahoerstemeier, Schneelocke, Ec5618, Aion, 4lex, Phil Boswell, Gentgeen, Robbot, Cdang, Academic Challenger, Hadal, Wikibot, HaeB, Carnildo,
Tobias Bergemann, Centrx, Giftlite, Tom harrison, Iridium77, Everyking, Bensaccount, Guanaco, Foobar, James Crippen, Antandrus,
OverlordQ, Jossi, Rdsmith4, Tail, Sam Hocevar, Neutrality, Backdoor~enwiki, Alperen, Grstain, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Guanabot, Cacycle, Vsmith, HeikoEvermann, Suchire, Dave souza, Ivan Bajlo, Paul August, ESkog, CanisRufus, MBisanz, El C, Triona,
~K, Bobo192, Whosyourjudas, Apsmif101, Cmdrjameson, Elipongo, Tomgally, La goutte de pluie, Jojit fb, Kjkolb, GChriss, MPerel,
Kierano, Benbread, Danski14, Alansohn, Keenan Pepper, Iothiania, Riana, AzaToth, Walkerma, Malo, Snowolf, Wtmitchell, Shoey,
Vuo, Etherwings, Gene Nygaard, LukeSurl, Duplode, TigerShark, Camw, Kristaga, Wayward, Palica, A3r0, Mandarax, Tjbk tjb, Magister Mathematicae, V8rik, Galwhaa, MJSkia1, Ikh, Salix alba, Ekspiulo, Makaristos, S Schater, Bhadani, Yamamoto Ichiro, FlaBot,
Nihiltres, RexNL, Gurch, Ayla, Takometer, Valermos, Physchim62, King of Hearts, Chobot, Hall Monitor, YurikBot, Angus Lepper,
RobotE, Jimp, Mukkakukaku, Aznph8playa, GLaDOS, Wavesmikey, Lar, Sbalaji1984, Stephenb, Rsrikanth05, NawlinWiki, Jaxl, Exir
Kamalabadi, Excession, Bobbo, Wonglokking, RUL3R, Amcfreely, ICanAlwaysChangeThisLater, Tony1, Syrthiss, Everyguy, Deville,
Warfreak, , Ybbor, Junglecat, Jonathan.s.kt, GrinBot~enwiki, Airconswitch, ChemGardener, Itub, Crystallina, SmackBot, Tarret,
KnowledgeOfSelf, David Shear, Blue520, Bomac, Jrockley, Delldot, Jab843, Edgar181, HeartofaDog, Srnec, Commander Keane bot,
Yamaguchi , Hmains, Skizzik, Andy M. Wang, Hugo-cs, Chris the speller, TimBentley, RDBrown, Bduke, Dreg743, Miquonranger03,
SchftyThree, Complexica, DHN-bot~enwiki, Sbharris, Colonies Chris, Hallenrm, Darth Panda, Brinerustle, Audriusa, Can't sleep, clown
will eat me, PoiZaN, Vulcanstar6, EvelinaB, Rrburke, SundarBot, Stevenmitchell, Richard001, RandomP, Weregerbil, DMacks, DDima,
Sadi Carnot, Clicketyclack, Ugur Basak Bot~enwiki, Ceoil, Cumbrowski, SashatoBot, Nishkid64, Mouse Nightshirt, Zahid Abdassabur,
Kuru, John, Matthiasobermann, Gobonobo, Evenios, Mbeychok, DaRealFoo17, Goodnightmush, Minglex, IronGargoyle, Slakr, Beetstra,
Martinp23, Mr Stephen, Funnybunny, Michael12345~enwiki, EEPROM Eagle, MTSbot~enwiki, Caiaa, Levineps, Simon12, Iridescent,
Joseph Solis in Australia, Walton One, Sam Li, Civil Engineer III, Courcelles, Tawkerbot2, Dlohcierekim, Fvasconcellos, Top o My Class,
JForget, Tanthalas39, Ale jrb, Benwildeboer, Moreschi, Neelix, Ispy1981, MrFish, Myasuda, Badseed, Sopoforic, Abeg92, A876, Mike
Christie, Rieman 82, Gogo Dodo, Anonymi, Tawkerbot4, Shirulashem, Christian75, Malleus Fatuorum, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Daa89563,
Marek69, John254, NorwegianBlue, Tellyaddict, Macaddict10, Escarbot, Mentisto, AntiVandalBot, Luna Santin, Seaphoto, Opelio, QuiteUnusual, Smartse, Farosdaughter, Myanw, Res2216restar, JAnDbot, Leuko, CosineKitty, Hut 8.5, MSBOT, .anacondabot, Acroterion,
Bongwarrior, VoABot II, Ronstew, Usien6, Lacort, Brusegadi, Allstarecho, User A1, PoliticalJunkie, Chris G, DerHexer, Phalphalak,
Calltech, Gjd001, MartinBot, Mythealias, BetBot~enwiki, ChemNerd, Mschel, Leyo, Mausy5043, Slash, J.delanoy, C Ronald, Bogey97,
Joshua777, Eduemoni, Uncle Dick, Kemiv, Thermbal, Eliz81, Katalaveno, LordAnubisBOT, Danewlosed, Gurchzilla, AntiSpamBot,
NewEnglandYankee, SJP, LeighvsOptimvsMaximvs, Mufka, MetsFan76, Widawski, Bob, Jamesontai, WarFox, Mihas-bot, Squids and
Chips, Idioma-bot, Lights, Nikthestunned, VolkovBot, Morenooso, Je G., Nburden, AlnoktaBOT, TheOtherJesse, Barneca, Philip Trueman, TXiKiBoT, Zidonuke, Technopat, Arnon Chan, Qxz, Someguy1221, Anna Lincoln, Sjr 14, KyleRGiggs, Jackfork, Cremepu222,
BotKung, Ilyushka88, Maxim, Shanata, Finngall, Wikiachanger, Teh romaoer, Carinemily, Enviroboy, Brianga, Fischer.sebastian, Logan, LuigiManiac, NHRHS2010, SieBot, Sonicology, Ttony21, Tresiden, BotMultichill, Meldor, Winchelsea, Dawn Bard, Yintan, Arda Xi,
Keilana, Nicolaidisd, Tiptoety, Oda Mari, Yourmomsface, Bananastalktome, Oxymoron83, Techman224, Hobartimus, Samiel cadmium,
C'est moi, StaticGull, Amanafu, Ainlina, MBK004, ClueBot, The Thing That Should Not Be, Helenabella, Rodhullandemu, RWardy,
244
Cory volcom, Boing! said Zebedee, CounterVandalismBot, Piledhigheranddeeper, Jusdafax, Erebus Morgaine, Flyingbox, Eeekster, NuclearWarfare, Arjayay, Promethean, DeltaQuad, BOTarate, Thingg, Aitias, Wuzur, Versus22, PCHS-NJROTC, Burner0718, SoxBot III,
Templarion, Darkicebot, Jmanigold, Connorcrazy15, XLinkBot, BodhisattvaBot, Jovianeye, Rror, Little Mountain 5, Avoided, Skarebo,
ErkinBatu, Badgernet, Noctibus, Kaiwhakahaere, Klundarr, Addbot, Willking1979, Some jerk on the Internet, Captain-tucker, Friginator,
Fieldday-sunday, Laurinavicius, Ethanpet113, Kman543210, CanadianLinuxUser, Ka Faraq Gatri, Morning277, Chamal N, EconoPhysicist, Jgmikulay, Bassbonerocks, West.andrew.g, Numbo3-bot, Tide rolls, David0811, Artichoke-Boy, Luckas-bot, Yobot, 2D, Cm001, II
MusLiM HyBRiD II, The Earwig, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, Daniele Pugliesi, Jenny.tsukino, 9258fahskh917fas, Piano non troppo, Simon the Likable, Kingpin13, Slyomszem, Materialscientist, Mike13409, The High Fin Sperm Whale, Citation bot, ROFLimeditinghistory,
Tasha Cadd, GB fan, LilHelpa, Marshallsumter, Gsmgm, Vulcan Hephaestus, Brane.Blokar, Obersachsebot, Xqbot, Cureden, Canman512,
4twenty42o, What!?Why?Who?, Davidcallowhill, Mein2d, The Evil IP address, Maddie!, GrouchoBot, Gulgothal, Isym444, Earlypsychosis, RibotBOT, SassoBot, Amaury, Mgtrevisan, GhalyBot, Lilac Purple, Phirefor1, Shadowjams, Kjrogers23, YusrSehl, Prari, FrescoBot, Tangent747, Josewu, Helloguy123, HJ Mitchell, HamburgerRadio, Citation bot 1, Amplitude101, Nirmos, Redrose64, Pinethicket,
I dream of horses, Meddlingwithre, A8UDI, V.narsikar, Hariehkr, Phearson, , Footwarrior, Nale, Dac04, Jauhienij, TobeBot, Michelle
Garratt, Rudy16, Reaper Eternal, Everyone Dies In the End, Specs112, Diannaa, Adi4094, Wikipidea123, JenVan, Tbhotch, Reach Out
to the Truth, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, TjBot, Bhawani Gautam, Vishwarun.kannan, Jiggajason, CanadianPenguin, Orphan Wiki, Immunize, Lolmastar, Heracles31, Racerx11, Koolabhinavr, Gr8bambam, Tommy2010, Mwkeller17, JSquish, HiW-Bot, ZroBot, Splibubay,
Wackywace, EWikist, SporkBot, SubZero..Vighu.., Donner60, Pun, R7000, Theislikerice, Jcaraballo, E2w killer, L'ecrivant, Staticd,
28bot, ClueBot NG, Louisakes, Ernie2506, Blazinpimp69, Fauzan, Amorgan103, Delusion23, Amberbrown842, Imbored32, Widr, NuclearEnergy, MandaMeow, Helpful Pixie Bot, Jamboy23, Magicfrisbeekid, Bibcode Bot, Lowercase sigmabot, BG19bot, Ienjoyanapple,
TetraEleven, Hashem sfarim, Kndimov, PhnomPencil, Wiki13, Mark Arsten, Supra256, Jerin.wiki.jacob, Crh23, Writ Keeper, NotWith,
C.Rose.Kennedy.2, WeeJay10, Klilidiplomus, Shaun, Anbu121, NGC 2736, Testem, ChrisGualtieri, Albertshilling28, Belfurd, Balajigeneralknowledge, Sliikas, Cmrufo, Dexbot, Dunno47, Webclient101, Lugia2453, Frosty, SFK2, Paikrishnan, AntiguanAcademic, Evolution
and evolvability, Ugog Nizdast, Zenibus, Brogan 117, Yka.yash, Y-S.Ko, Behshd, Tu A.Tordes, WRENOWEN12, Massumori, KasparBot
and Anonymous: 1053
Law of multiple proportions Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_multiple_proportions?oldid=678193298 Contributors: Tobias Hoevekamp, Bryan Derksen, Youssefsan, GrahamN, Shimmin, Darkwind, Charles Matthews, Saltine, Graeme Bartlett, Icairns, Gscshoyru, Venu62, Clement Cherlin, Bobo192, Ralphmerridew, Nk, Sam Korn, Alansohn, Walkerma, Mysdaao, Bucephalus, Rorschach,
Woohookitty, Isnow, Graham87, Tim!, Nneonneo, Margosbot~enwiki, YurikBot, Borgx, Jimp, Pip2andahalf, Gustavb, Silverhill,
Josh3580, Anclation~enwiki, Zachariasd, Itub, Frankie, SmackBot, Hydrogen Iodide, Nil Einne, Edgar181, Miquonranger03, VarGasten, Valenciano, DMacks, Peterlewis, IronGargoyle, JHunterJ, Mr Stephen, CzarB, Skapur, Walton One, Betaeleven, Cooljeanius, Novous,
Robrestivo, Tirik, Dac2chari, Dillion98, Akshayrangasai, Mojo Hand, Jgreenberg, Wildthing61476, Dr. Friendly, AntiVandalBot, Spencer,
RedCoat10, VoABot II, JNW, Dirac66, Schmloof, CliC, R'n'B, Artaxiad, Heyitspeter, The enemies of god, Wikieditor06, X!, Thedjatclubrock, Jacroe, Philip Trueman, Axiosaurus, LeaveSleaves, Vinhtantran, SieBot, WereSpielChequers, Oxymoron83, Hobartimus, EPadmirateur, ClueBot, The Thing That Should Not Be, S Levchenkov, CounterVandalismBot, Excirial, Ruraj, Estirabot, Lartoven, Awiedman,
Versus22, SoxBot III, Felix Folio Secundus, Addbot, Some jerk on the Internet, Otisjimmy1, CanadianLinuxUser, Bahamut Star, Jan
eissfeldt, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Berkay0652, QueenCake, AnomieBOT, 1exec1, Bsimmons666, Piano non troppo, Flewis, Materialscientist, Carlsotr, NurseryRhyme, Elvim, Nickkid5, , Andys Sister, Taweetham, RedBot, WriteRight1stTime, SpaceFlight89,
Fumitol, Vrenator, Xnn, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Slon02, EmausBot, Orphan Wiki, Courcelles is travelling, Wikipelli, AvicAWB, Asleth,
Samuel Valdez Bicard, ChuispastonBot, ClueBot NG, Popsiclelvr, Widr, Mark Arsten, Supernerd11, NotWith, Uopchem25001, BattyBot,
Sciencegeek10188, Mrt3366, Mediran, ReyRey541, Tentinator and Anonymous: 248
Relative atomic mass Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relative_atomic_mass?oldid=681158885 Contributors: Patrick, Jedidan747,
Discospinster, Vsmith, Giraedata, Linnea, DePiep, Physchim62, Kkmurray, Gilliam, Rmosler2100, Chris the speller, Sbharris, Rrburke,
Kanags, Nick Y., RolfSander, Nemo bis, Ktr101, Dthomsen8, Addbot, Leszek Jaczuk, Quercus solaris, AnakngAraw, AnomieBOT, Cannolis, Double sharp, Klbrain, Rmashhadi, ClueBot NG, Frietjes, Bibcode Bot, Aplikasi-Bot, J.meija, YiFeiBot, Jackmcbarn, JESHMEER
MAHARAJH, Jonnyjack7, KasparBot and Anonymous: 18
Arsenic Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arsenic?oldid=682416526 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Kpjas, Lee Daniel Crocker, CYD,
Vicki Rosenzweig, Mav, Bryan Derksen, Malcolm Farmer, Ed Poor, Andre Engels, Josh Grosse, Fredbauder, Rmhermen, PierreAbbat, William Avery, Ktsquare, David spector, Heron, Camembert, Isis~enwiki, Edward, RTC, Tim Starling, Erik Zachte, Cyde, Delirium,
Arpingstone, Minesweeper, Ams80, Ahoerstemeier, Mgimpel~enwiki, , Marteau, Poor Yorick, Andres, Rob Hooft, Schneelocke, Ideyal, Emperorbma, Stone, David Latapie, Grendelkhan, Thue, Pstudier, Donarreiskoer, Robbot, Sander123, Cdang, KeithH,
PBS, Romanm, Naddy, Securiger, Hippietrail, Bkell, Wikibot, Carnildo, Alan Liefting, Giftlite, Christopher Parham, Marnanel, BenFrantzDale, Tom harrison, Zigger, Everyking, Micru, Guanaco, Redux, Darrien, Delta G, Turmeric3, Yath, Jackcsk, Antandrus, Beland, PDH, Jossi, Icairns, Vogon77, Gscshoyru, Aramgutang, Joyous!, Dcandeto, Adashiel, Trevor MacInnis, Thorwald, DanielCD, Jkl,
Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Guanabot, Cacycle, Inkypaws, Vsmith, Kooo, Guanabot2, Crestville, Mani1, Bender235, ESkog, PP
Jewel, Sunborn, Silentlight, Evice, *drew, El C, Ascorbic, Joanjoc~enwiki, Kwamikagami, Remember, RoyBoy, Nickj, Femto, Sole Soul,
Bobo192, Viriditas, Cmdrjameson, Brim, Reuben, Arcadian, DaveGorman, Jjron, Jumbuck, Alansohn, Sl, Riana, Axl, Lightdarkness,
Bantman, Wtmitchell, Velella, Yuckfoo, Staeiou, RainbowOfLight, Sciurin, LFaraone, Pfahlstrom, Skatebiker, Sleigh, YixilTesiphon,
Kazvorpal, Ceyockey, Marcelo1229, Stemonitis, C3o, Gmaxwell, Alvis, Jerey O. Gustafson, OwenX, 25or6to4, StradivariusTV, Benbest,
CiTrusD, Terence, Sengkang, Kralizec!, Wayward, Graham87, TaivoLinguist, Magister Mathematicae, Erifneerg, DePiep, Bikeable, Sj,
Drbogdan, Saperaud~enwiki, Rjwilmsi, Zbxgscqf, Panoptical, Nneonneo, Bedrupsbaneman, StephanieM, Gumba gumba~enwiki, Vuong
Ngan Ha, Titoxd, Andrew Rodland, FlaBot, PatVanHove, Nihiltres, Ttsalo, RexNL, Wctaiwan, Gurch, Stevenfruitsmaak, Physchim62,
Chobot, Jaraalbe, Bgwhite, Tone, Link2joon, Bubbachuck, YurikBot, RobotE, Brandmeister (old), RussBot, Tjss, Bhny, Limulus, Epolk,
Hellbus, Stephenb, Gaius Cornelius, Yyy, Shaddack, Requiems, Shanel, NawlinWiki, Wiki alf, Johann Wolfgang, Trovatore, Bossrat,
Robert McClenon, Pyrotec, Anetode, Raven4x4x, Number 57, David Pierce, Zwobot, Syrthiss, Wknight94, Tetracube, 21655, 2over0,
Lt-wiki-bot, Closedmouth, Reyk, Livitup, Chriswaterguy, ArielGold, Curpsbot-unicodify, Katieh5584, TLSuda, RG2, GrinBot~enwiki,
DVD R W, Tom Morris, Victor falk, The Minister of War, Luk, SmackBot, MattieTK, Australian Matt, Urania3, Harish2k1vet, InverseHypercube, Hydrogen Iodide, KocjoBot~enwiki, Jagged 85, Elwood j blues, BiT, Edgar181, Alex earlier account, Zephyris, Yamaguchi , Gilliam, Brianski, Skizzik, Anwar saadat, Master Jay, Kurykh, Keegan, Thumperward, Amsibert, MalafayaBot, Roscelese, Deli
nk, Jermantowicz, Sbharris, Rizzardi, Zsinj, JRPG, Onorem, TheKMan, Addshore, Krich, Cybercobra, Nibuod, Dreadstar, MrMunky,
Mini-Geek, Smokefoot, Drphilharmonic, PStatic, Zzorse, Triforce of Power, Ck lostsword, Kukini, StN, Nick88, SashatoBot, Lambiam,
Vildricianus, Archimerged, Kuru, John, Euchiasmus, Aussie Alchemist, Jan.Smolik, Gobonobo, Angrynight, Edwy, Mr. Lefty, Stwalkerster, Booksworm, Beetstra, SQGibbon, Mr Stephen, Bendzh, Belizefan, Roregan, Jose77, Squirepants101, Dl2000, Hu12, BranStark,
245
Dead3y3, Iridescent, MFago, Iepeulas, Masoninman, Wfructose, Az1568, Courcelles, Audiosmurf, Thricecube, Frank Lofaro Jr., Tawkerbot2, Cryptic C62, Poolkris, MightyWarrior, Duderusia, JForget, Stifynsemons, Scohoust, Avanu, JohnCD, SJFriedl, Benwildeboer, Dgw,
N2e, Egmonster, Shizane, Phdrus, Borislav.dopudja, Funnyfarmofdoom, Jac16888, Nick Y., HokieRNB, Rieman 82, Gogo Dodo,
JFreeman, Chasingsol, Tkynerd, Christian75, Sixstix1, Roberta F., Gcsuchemistry, JohnInDC, DJBullsh, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Nitchell,
Pstanton, Novaprospekt, Ucanlookitup, Mojo Hand, Oliver202, Headbomb, Marek69, Screen317, Jonny-mt, CharlotteWebb, Natalie Erin,
Northumbrian, Escarbot, AntiVandalBot, Mr Bungle, Opelio, Doc Tropics, Smartse, Sehsuan, Melis610, Zedla, Ioeth, JAnDbot, Deective, MER-C, Plantsurfer, Igodard, pple, Hut 8.5, .anacondabot, Acroterion, Gsayles, Magioladitis, WolfmanSF, Drbillellis, Karlhahn,
Bongwarrior, VoABot II, JNW, Amorelli, Roches, Twsx, Eliotsmith, Bubba hotep, Jimjamjak, Johnbibby, BatteryIncluded, Adacus12,
Freddyd945, Philg88, Zoofroot, Floria L, Mschier, Gjd001, MartinBot, ChemNerd, Djr5353, Bdefore, Mschel, Leyo, Fconaway, Smokizzy, Wiki Raja, Tizzybag, Watch37264, J.delanoy, Pharaoh of the Wizards, Trusilver, Bogey97, Ginsengbomb, Bdodo1992, Sapphirine,
Warut, Belovedfreak, NewEnglandYankee, Cadwaladr, Ajobin, Mufka, Cmichael, Juliancolton, WJBscribe, Jamesontai, Jimokay, Vanished
user 39948282, Ja 62, JavierMC, Dr. Dunglison, SoCalSuperEagle, Squids and Chips, Logicman1966, Wikieditor06, ACSE, Aerogami,
28bytes, VolkovBot, Nburden, Marcelo.84, SexyBern, Philip Trueman, JuneGloom07, TXiKiBoT, Jordan042, Geht, Rei-bot, Crohnie,
Ask123, Qxz, Hburg, Axiosaurus, Don4of4, Dlae, Oajsn, Pishogue, Mazarin07, Wolfrock, Synthebot, Falcon8765, Topdeck, Burntsauce,
Insanity Incarnate, Kehrbykid, LuigiManiac, Scottywong, EmxBot, CMBJ, Kbrose, SieBot, PlanetStar, Tiddly Tom, Gerakibot, Garrettett, Dawn Bard, Caltas, J7890bigman, Keilana, Ripfester, Tiptoety, Mimihitam, Oxymoron83, Faradayplank, Jason ost, Steven Crossin,
Tombomp, Bigheadedboy, Hak-k-ngn, StaticGull, Hamiltondaniel, Atokoy, Joshschr, Nergaal, Grassre, Explicit, WikipedianMarlith,
Martarius, Elassint, ClueBot, Ideal gas equation, The Thing That Should Not Be, Abhinav, Arakunem, Drmies, J8079s, Boing! said
Zebedee, Brentf777, Niceguyedc, Neverquick, Pras, Acolorpink1, Seanwal111111, DragonBot, Tisdalepardi, Excirial, Anonymous101,
Alexbot, Jusdafax, Awesome91, Alibb, TheSuperBrain2, Muhandes, Jotterbot, Ngebendi, Wikimedes, Ottawa4ever, Austiwang, Pedometer+1, Wancheseblondie, Floul1, Plasmic Physics, Versus22, Tombadog, SoxBot III, DumZiBoT, BarretB, Gelzo, SilvonenBot, Jpe77,
NellieBly, Noctibus, WikiDao, HexaChord, Felix Folio Secundus, Cxz111, Some jerk on the Internet, Donhoraldo, Guoguo12, Tcncv,
CHADMEISTER, Onions and liver, Boomur, Fieldday-sunday, CanadianLinuxUser, Chinaexports, CarsracBot, Mai-tai-guy, Glane23,
Favonian, 123123john, Doniago, Rummmy, LemmeyBOT, LinkFA-Bot, 5 albert square, Tassedethe, Numbo3-bot, Tide rolls, Lightbot,
Krano, Jarble, Arbitrarily0, Matt.T, Ben Ben, Luckas-bot, Yobot, 2D, Cm001, Yiplop stick stop, Ojay123, Freikorp, Amble, Kichigoro12,
KamikazeBot, AnakngAraw, IW.HG, Tempodivalse, Oneslowlx, AnomieBOT, Shootbamboo, Killiondude, Piano non troppo, Cnmetaltrade, Theseeker4, Inspector08, Fallatio, Greatestqueen, Pacic66, Materialscientist, Cpaton, Manette, ImperatorExercitus, Rtyq2, Citation
bot, Bobpierre, James500, ArthurBot, Quebec99, LilHelpa, Xqbot, TinucherianBot II, Sionus, , Grim23, Sir-Restriction, Srich32977,
Munozdj, O2riorob, Steloukos, Abce2, Jannikkappel, Shirik, RibotBOT, Chris.urs-o, Doulos Christos, Shadowjams, Astatine-210, Themerejoy, Alguienboga, BoomerAB, FrescoBot, LucienBOT, MuVo100, Cyrusuryc, StaticVision, Fun3tubs, Mthrandir, Eldin raigmore,
Magepure892, Polyxeros, Smallverm, Koalaman520, Citation bot 1, ZooPro, Pinethicket, HRoestBot, Rgfjdsf, Abductive, SNeuf, Jonesey95, Tom.Reding, A8UDI, Anonymous26, Mcrosenstein, Xeworlebi, H1bhaska, December21st2012Freak, MalcolmX86, Jauhienij,
Utility Monster, Double sharp, Inbamkumar86, TobeBot, Trappist the monk, DixonDBot, Dark Lord of the Sith, Mlinan, 08prl, Vanished user aoiowaiuyr894isdik43, Weedwhacker128, Bryandn321, Drjohntoconnorpe, Reach Out to the Truth, RobertMfromLI, Environmentsver, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, RjwilmsiBot, Manny 7, Devon.pottle, TjBot, MMS2013, Twonernator, Sdouma, CalicoCatLover, NDKilla,
Gdhdhhs, DASHBot, EmausBot, Orphan Wiki, WikitanvirBot, Richard.danylyuk, Mencha833, Tommy2010, Hops Splurt, ColetteHoch,
Kolkata culture, Daonguyen95, F, Serinoah, StringTheory11, Cjw22, Whyipee, The Nut, Chemicalinterest, H3llBot, Wingman4l7, EricWesBrown, ATSDR, L Kensington, Perseus, Son of Zeus, Donner60, Inka 888, Xiaoyu of Yuxi, ChuispastonBot, Leiem, ClamDip, Peter
Karlsen, Mclause, Abw87, DASHBotAV, Donna914, Eaw9184, Petrb, ClueBot NG, Ibreiwish93, Tehehhehehhe, CocuBot, Satellizer, Billibongofong, Rainbowwrasse, OscarKinross, Rolen2ws, Smm201`0, Qwertymasterfull101, VanishedUser sdu8asdasd, Delusion23, Breakoneout, GlassLadyBug, Kreatureuk, Helpful Pixie Bot, Petan-Bot, Ianbon, Bibcode Bot, Doorknob747, BG19bot, Krenair, MusikAnimal,
Frze, Cusop Dingle, Buleemem3, Snow Blizzard, Ellafb, TomeHale, Glacialfox, Speshalist1, Justincheng12345-bot, Ottocow5, DarafshBot,
Mahmud Halimi Wardag, Cyberbot II, The Illusive Man, ChrisGualtieri, Arsenic123, Plutonium 1234, Chromium9112, Siuenti, Dexbot,
Ipepe1996, Gsmanu007, Mogism, Lugia2453, SFK2, T42N24T, Jnargus, Telfordbuck, Reatlas, Rfassbind, Epicgenius, Eyesnore, Jacob
S-589, Biotechparadise, CensoredScribe, TJWilson92, Kingofaces43, The Herald, Spacemiuccio, Ramendoctor, Anrnusna, Stamptrader,
Noteswork, Sit on your arsenic, YaekFoster, Luigiatl, Cole lyon, Happy Attack Dog, Melanus123, Trackteur, Galaxyofgraham, Jacob7640,
Nerd in Texas, RationalBlasphemist, Tymon.r, Adharsh Raghavan, Iwilsonp, FloraManLi, Emily Temple-Wood (NIOSH), Scienceman98,
Pot head porta john, 026vinny, KasparBot, Andreagaion, ElegantPillow76 and Anonymous: 985
James Prescott Joule Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Prescott_Joule?oldid=673687877 Contributors: XJaM, Heron,
Youandme, Fxmastermind, Hephaestos, Rbrwr, Tim Starling, David Martland, Bcrowell, Sannse, Minesweeper, Looxix~enwiki, Ahoerstemeier, Glenn, Poor Yorick, Kaihsu, Ineuw, HolIgor, Charles Matthews, Timwi, Reddi, Carbuncle, Mrdice, Robbot, Greudin, Smallweed, Hadal, Wereon, Cutler, David Gerard, Giftlite, Marnanel, Harp, Wolfkeeper, No Guru, Curps, Duncharris, Yekrats, Chowbok,
Antandrus, Icairns, Tail, John Bracegirdle, Adashiel, ELApro, D6, EugeneZelenko, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Alistair1978, Bender235, Brian0918, Kwamikagami, RoyBoy, West London Dweller, Jpgordon, Nich148 9, Nk, Ranveig, Alansohn, Sherurcij, Ben davison, Mailer diablo, Snowolf, Gene Nygaard, Richard Weil, Boothy443, Jerey O. Gustafson, Bjones, Richard Barlow, Camw, PoccilScript, Carcharoth, Prashanthns, Rapty, Palica, Emerson7, Island, Nanite, Imperialles, Rjwilmsi, Angusmclellan, Vary, DrTorstenHenning, FlaBot, Wars, YurikBot, Wavelength, Zaidpjd~enwiki, RobotE, Alma Pater, Jimp, Phantomsteve, Byron Vickers, Zaroblue05,
Gaius Cornelius, CambridgeBayWeather, Wimt, Grafen, Rick lightburn, AdiJapan, L337dexter, Bota47, Rayc, FF2010, Ordinary Person,
Anclation~enwiki, Willtron, T. Anthony, Allens, Tom Morris, SmackBot, Radak, InverseHypercube, Thunderboltz, Delldot, Eskimbot,
Kjaergaard, Canthusus, BiT, Edgar181, Gilliam, Fetofs, Wheatleya, Mattythewhite, Fredvanner, Colonies Chris, Rsm99833, SundarBot,
WWJD~enwiki, Weregerbil, Xagent86, Ligulembot, Sadi Carnot, Ohconfucius, Lambiam, Gennaro Prota, ArglebargleIV, Ser Amantio di
Nicolao, Cegrocks, CenozoicEra, JorisvS, Peterlewis, Majorclanger, Mr Stephen, Waggers, Mets501, ChazYork, JMK, Audiosmurf, Qnzcutie, Tawkerbot2, Lahiru k, Mellery, Tanthalas39, Durabrite, ShelfSkewed, Harrigan, MrFish, Nilfanion, Badseed, Cydebot, Reywas92,
Astrochemist, Nick Wilson, Gogo Dodo, Michael Fourman, Malleus Fatuorum, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Gralo, A3RO, Towerman, CharlotteWebb, Dawnseeker2000, Escarbot, Mentisto, AntiVandalBot, RobotG, Jj137, Tjmayerinsf, Storkk, Deective, Instinct, Sanchom,
Arturo 7, Andonic, Greensburger, Nex88, Magioladitis, VoABot II, Waacstats, Spellmaster, Glaukon, MartinBot, Anaxial, Hweimer,
Tgeairn, J.delanoy, Nev1, Darth Mike, Century0, Smeira, LordAnubisBOT, WHeimbigner, MKoltnow, Halo killingspree, Cometstyles,
Scewing, Squids and Chips, Idioma-bot, Deor, VolkovBot, AlnoktaBOT, Philip Trueman, TXiKiBoT, Alan Rockefeller, Technopat, Bobfos, GcSwRhIc, Dr.Paolo, IPSOS, Qxz, Cloudswrest, Seraphim, Doug1943, LeaveSleaves, Cantiorix, Falcon8765, Spinningspark, BOTijo,
Brianga, Logan, Born2x, SieBot, Weeliljimmy, Jauerback, Caltas, Cwkmail, Yintan, PolarBot, DirectEdge, Prestonmag, Kropotkine 113,
Hobartimus, BenoniBot~enwiki, StaticGull, Jza84, Denisarona, Chrissypan, Loren.wilton, Martarius, ClueBot, Timeineurope, Snigbrook,
The Thing That Should Not Be, QueenAdelaide, Jan1nad, Parkjunwung, Mild Bill Hiccup, Richerman, P. S. Burton, TheSmuel, Alexbot,
Estirabot, Lartoven, Razorame, Fallingditch, Gordon Masterton, Thingg, NERIC-Security, 0kdal, BarretB, XLinkBot, Rror, Mifter, Can-
246
dyland251, HexaChord, Hookey13, Addbot, DOI bot, Tcncv, Ironholds, Zarcadia, Fluernutter, Chamal N, Kisbesbot, Numbo3-bot,
Lightbot, Serge Lachinov, Luckas-bot, Yobot, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, Tempodivalse, Macquaire, IRP, KRLS, Dinesh smita, Ulric1313, Materialscientist, Citation bot, LilHelpa, Xqbot, TomB123, Addihockey10, 4twenty42o, Battang, Jmundo, RibotBOT, Nedim
Ardoa, Manchester-united-matt, Blaueziege, A. di M., Dougofborg, Chjoaygame, JohnMacNab, MGA73bot, Louperibot, Citation bot 1,
I dream of horses, Swipe pk3r, 74mtondreau, LittleWink, A8UDI, Meaghan, ActivExpression, Vrenator, Philosepher101ja, Canuckian89,
Reach Out to the Truth, Emzy113, Internetchick, RjwilmsiBot, EmausBot, WikitanvirBot, RA0808, Jmz231, Ibt, Daonguyen95, S0ch1,
Ebrambot, Bamyers99, Tolly4bolly, ChuispastonBot, Spicemix, Petrb, ClueBot NG, Jack Greenmaven, Dark Boo Tornado 22, Widr,
, Oddbodz, Sameblack, Calabe1992, Bibcode Bot, BG19bot, Kai Ojima, Mmovchin, Benesky74, JYBot, APerson, LezFraniak,
VIAFbot, Nerlost, Do better, Ntvert, Camey61, Ianwhite1662, Prokaryotes, JerryArm42, Stormmeteo, Happy Attack Dog, Trackteur,
Jonarnold1985, Asdklf;, NilubonT, Mattster3517, KasparBot, ProprioMe OW, Miolertz and Anonymous: 459
Atomic mass unit Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_mass_unit?oldid=681067301 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Mav, Bryan
Derksen, Tarquin, Andre Engels, Peterlin~enwiki, Heron, Patrick, Palnatoke, Lexor, Wapcaplet, Habj, Andres, Samw, The Anomebot, Jeepien, Xyb, Indefatigable, Gentgeen, Robbot, Arkuat, Ojigiri~enwiki, Wikibot, Enochlau, Giftlite, DocWatson42, Fudoreaper,
TimeLord mbw, Bobblewik, Wmahan, OldakQuill, Superborsuk, Aulis Eskola, Rdsmith4, Icairns, Karl-Henner, Mike Rosoft, Guanabot,
Cacycle, Vsmith, DcoetzeeBot~enwiki, Bender235, Brian0918, Joanjoc~enwiki, Hurricane111, Mike Schwartz, Dungodung, Nsaa, Nik42,
Arthena, Orelstrigo, Sobolewski, Wtmitchell, Dirac1933, Gene Nygaard, MIT Trekkie, LOL, MONGO, Julo, Petwil, Graham87, Rsg,
Jobnikon, Zeroparallax, Rjwilmsi, Syndicate, Alban, Boccobrock, FlaBot, Gringo300, ChongDae, BitterMan, Physchim62, Chobot, The
Rambling Man, YurikBot, Borgx, Jimp, DanMS, Eleassar, NawlinWiki, NickBush24, Dhollm, Mgwalker, E2mb0t~enwiki, Kkmurray,
Fram, Sbyrnes321,
robot, ChemGardener, Itub, BonsaiViking, Brammers, H2eddsf3, Ayjaysee, Slashme, Hydrogen Iodide, Bomac, Jab843, Gilliam, Hmains, Ppntori, Bluebot, MalafayaBot, Nbarth, Epastore, Sbharris, Hgrosser, Rogermw, Bsodmike, Neo139,
DinosaursLoveExistence, Hammer1980, PhiJ, SashatoBot, Doug Bell, Heimstern, Loadmaster, Xiaphias, Tuspm, BranStark, Wwallacee, Frank Lofaro Jr., CmdrObot, Kehrli, MaxEnt, Nick Y., Zginder, Christian75, Thijs!bot, Headbomb, Greg L, AntiVandalBot,
Seaphoto, QuiteUnusual, DarkAudit, Gkhan, JAnDbot, Mwarren us, Daisystanton, Allstarecho, User A1, Ashishbhatnagar72, NikNaks,
J.delanoy, Melamed katz, P.wormer, Nwbeeson, Kraftlos, Potatoswatter, Fylwind, Elisevil, VolkovBot, CWii, Thedjatclubrock, G3N3515,
Haade, Agha Nader, Hqb, LeaveSleaves, Psyche825, Miwanya, Spinningspark, Temporaluser, Cessilie Binnings, Quantpole, JDHeinzmann, SieBot, Dawn Bard, Dzexon, Likebox, Hxhbot, Antonio Lopez, Jaccos, ClueBot, Ronkenator, Jakarr, Gsparky, Sublime5891,
Tvrtko26~enwiki, Versus22, Porchcorpter, DumZiBoT, Mark Chung, Rror, Dthomsen8, SkyLined, Hess88, Algebran, Addbot, Mortense,
EdgeNavidad, Non-dropframe, Vchorozopoulos, CanadianLinuxUser, Caturdayz, CarsracBot, Lightbot, Luckas Blade, Luckas-bot, Yobot,
Amirobot, KamikazeBot, AnomieBOT, Paulthomas2, DemocraticLuntz, Rubinbot, Keithbob, AdjustShift, Materialscientist, Eumolpo,
Xqbot, Plumpurple, Lmitchell6, Dalton1980, Br77rino, Omnipaedista, A. di M., FrescoBot, Dger, Realistix, DivineAlpha, ClickRick,
Pinethicket, I dream of horses, Claudiodib, Martinvl, Alltat, Skulldyvan, Lotje, 2en, Ph, Inferior Olive, Anczarnecki, DARTH SIDIOUS
2, EmausBot, Super48paul, Racerx11, Midnightvulture, Hhhippo, JSquish, Quondum, Flowright138, Donner60, TYelliot, Petrb, ClueBot
NG, SpikeTorontoRCP, Rarity, Helpful Pixie Bot, ChrisfromStroud, Bibcode Bot, Mark Arsten, Rm1271, Hehehe12, Acratta, BattyBot,
YFdyh-bot, Garamond Lethe, Mogism, Clawer67, 93, LuigiSonic57, Reatlas, Namige, SCoyWP, Marchino61, Coreyemotela, Monkbot,
Chaser1234567890, Secretkeeper12, Chiranjeev1234, Sarr Cat, Buzzzzzzz and Anonymous: 250
Wilhelm Ostwald Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_Ostwald?oldid=679785215 Contributors: Magnus Manske, General
Wesc, Mav, Rjstott, XJaM, Edward, Stan Shebs, Cyan, Andres, BRG, Reddi, Stone, Maximus Rex, Rj, Andris, Yekrats, Clossius, Tristanreid, Piotrus, Karl-Henner, Ukexpat, Klemen Kocjancic, D6, Freakofnurture, Rich Farmbrough, Bender235, S.K., Eric Forste, Edwinstearns, Causa sui, Harald Hansen, Nk, Poli, Pion, Dirac1933, Japanese Searobin, Woohookitty, Robert K S, Plrk, Emerson7, V8rik,
Jclemens, Rjwilmsi, Koavf, MZMcBride, Olessi, KaiMartin, FlaBot, Canaduh, Physchim62, Valentinian, Bgwhite, YurikBot, Borgx,
Hede2000, BOT-Superzerocool, Staelde, Curpsbot-unicodify, SmackBot, HeartofaDog, Sholto Maud, Chlewbot, Mion, Sadi Carnot,
John, JdH, Scorpion0422, Trialsanderrors, BBuchbinder, Axt, Joey80, Cydebot, Astrochemist, MWaller, Thijs!bot, Headbomb, ProfL,
Brichcja, CharlotteWebb, RobotG, Danny lost, Wahabijaz, Gcm, Epeeeche, Matthew Fennell, RebelRobot, Magioladitis, VoABot II,
Chemical Engineer, GattoVerde, Dirac66, A.J.1.5.2., Ugajin, Warrickball, CommonsDelinker, Dionysiaca, Treppur, SuperGirl, Tikiwont,
Derlay, Aboutmovies, AlnoktaBOT, TXiKiBoT, Knorrepoes~enwiki, CoolKid1993, Resurgent insurgent, SieBot, thelwold, Monegasque,
Rue7wiki, ClueBot, All Hallows Wraith, Tomas e, Masterpiece2000, DragonBot, Alexbot, Shinkolobwe, LAWinans, Pirags, Addbot,
DOI bot, Chmrjg, Zorrobot, PieterJanR, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Alfonso Mrquez, Nallimbot, AmeliorationBot, Pchem, Citation bot, Xqbot,
GrouchoBot, Omnipaedista, Thehelpfulbot, Green Cardamom, FrescoBot, Meissen, D'ohBot, Citation bot 1, AstaBOTh15, Trappist the
monk, Oracleofottawa, LilyKitty, Zencohen59, EmausBot, Moswento, Suslindisambiguator, JeanneMish, Rmashhadi, Ulbd digi, Helpful
Pixie Bot, BG19bot, Ninmacer20, Dexbot, VIAFbot, Yakikaki, J.meija, , Tillmanrichter, Asdfganistan, Monkbot, Jummals,
Filedelinkerbot, InfoDataMonger, VexorAbVikipdia, KasparBot and Anonymous: 57
Carbon-12 Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon-12?oldid=679833375 Contributors: Patrick, Eric119, Julesd, Glueball, Rainer
Wasserfuhr~enwiki, Stone, Giftlite, Graeme Bartlett, Herbee, Mike40033, Karol Langner, Icairns, Trevor MacInnis, Pavel Vozenilek, El
C, Remuel, La goutte de pluie, Polarscribe, Keenan Pepper, Gene Nygaard, LukeSurl, Kbdank71, Rjwilmsi, Bubba73, Chobot, YurikBot, Jimp, Crazytales, Nick, ChemGardener, Jclerman, Vancho, Moshe Constantine Hassan Al-Silverburg, George Church, Daniel bg,
Smith609, Joseph Solis in Australia, Lottamiata, Dragix, Majora4, Rwammang, Thijs!bot, Al Lemos, Headbomb, Eleuther, Karlhahn,
Nikpapag, Mschel, Gombang, TXiKiBoT, Someguy1221, Imasleepviking, Df747jet, SieBot, Flyer22, Maxtitan, El bot de la dieta, Addbot,
Chzz, Stylus881, , Luckas-bot, Yobot, Amirobot, Jnivekk, Robinson21, Robertson21, AnomieBOT, Rubinbot, Gtz, Kingpin13, Materialscientist, Citation bot, Dalton1980, Br77rino, Mnmngb, Erik9bot, Citation bot 1, Lotje, 777sms, Soumen K Patra, WikitanvirBot, Leech44, Fakirbakir, Wayne Slam, ClamDip, ClueBot NG, This lousy T-shirt, Bibcode Bot, WNYY98, APerson, AlexisZam,
Robevans123, Microandrews991, User000name and Anonymous: 62
Isotopes of carbon Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isotopes_of_carbon?oldid=680067919 Contributors: Rursus, Karol Langner,
Discospinster, Vsmith, Femto, Mr. Ibrahim, Danski14, Bantman, Velella, Shoey, EdDavies, Rjwilmsi, Strait, Gurch, YurikBot, Hellbus,
Anomalocaris, Leptictidium, Reyk, Wsiegmund, SmackBot, Jclerman, Rmosler2100, Rick7425, Nakon, SajmonDK, CmdrObot, Orbitalforam, Headbomb, JAnDbot, Dirac66, Nwbeeson, STBotD, Lipelliot, SieBot, VVVBot, Chayo28~enwiki, Abmcdonald, Felixaldonso,
Nergaal, ClueBot, Puppy8800, Alexbot, Naksatro, Addbot, Moosehadley, Krano, Ilfordco, VectorField, AnomieBOT, Sz-iwbot, Hg6996,
LilHelpa, XZeroBot, GrouchoBot, Nicolas Perrault III, Pepper, Htm19, Mikespedia, 777sms, XinaNicole, ZroBot, SBaker43, Justinho24,
28bot, Whoop whoop pull up, ClueBot NG, Gertjaap56, Lanthanum-138, Latifahphysics, Oddbodz, Helpful Pixie Bot, Bibcode Bot, Glevum, 3.14159265358pi, BattyBot, J.meija, Monkbot, DSCrowned, User000name, BU Rob13 and Anonymous: 60
Isotopes of boron Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isotopes_of_boron?oldid=680067778 Contributors: Bryan Derksen, Femto,
Rjwilmsi, Strait, Hellbus, Anomalocaris, Reyk, Wsiegmund, Hydrogen Iodide, TheArcher, Hgrosser, Vina-iwbot~enwiki, Balloonman,
Headbomb, Smartse, JAnDbot, J.delanoy, Ginsengbomb, Rod57, Gerakibot, Alexbot, MystBot, Addbot, Cuaxdon, Kartano, Sz-iwbot,
247
Materialscientist, XZeroBot, RibotBOT, Erik9bot, Mikespedia, Double sharp, 777sms, John of Reading, XinaNicole, ZroBot, ClueBot
NG, Helpful Pixie Bot, 3.14159265358pi, TwoTwoHello, Jacob S-589, J.meija, BU Rob13 and Anonymous: 21
Isotopes of nitrogen Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isotopes_of_nitrogen?oldid=679927455 Contributors: Bryan Derksen, Rei,
Donarreiskoer, Jason Quinn, Jossi, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Vsmith, RJHall, Femto, Ardric47, Rjwilmsi, Chobot, Anomalocaris,
Wsiegmund, SmackBot, Chris the speller, Vina-iwbot~enwiki, IronGargoyle, Ale jrb, Robertinventor, Headbomb, JAnDbot, Plantsurfer,
Dricherby, Gerakibot, Flyer22, Nergaal, Alexbot, Akane700, Rhododendrites, Addbot, Jncraton, Jasper Deng, Yobot, AnomieBOT, Xqbot,
XZeroBot, RibotBOT, Szaszicska, Mikespedia, Pertechnetat, Double sharp, 777sms, EmausBot, XinaNicole, ZroBot, Hnjang810, Whoop
whoop pull up, ClueBot NG, Lanthanum-138, Latifahphysics, Helpful Pixie Bot, Bibcode Bot, BG19bot, 3.14159265358pi, Ankababel,
Spabble, J.meija, Anrnusna, Russel39, BU Rob13 and Anonymous: 39
Decay chain Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decay_chain?oldid=661632632 Contributors: Stevertigo, Patrick, Ken Arromdee, Alan
Peakall, Andrewa, Nikai, Samw, Cherkash, BRG, Smack, Fibonacci, Ancheta Wis, DocWatson42, Herbee, Icairns, Mike Rosoft, Mormegil,
Vsmith, R6144, Joanjoc~enwiki, R. S. Shaw, Camitommy, Kjkolb, ACW, Eric Kvaalen, Plumbago, Axl, Denniss, Hu, Miss Madeline,
Rjwilmsi, EnDumEn, Carrionluggage, Planetneutral, Jvandoor, JWB, Johantheghost, Bota47, Reyk, MacsBug, Pgk, Chris the speller, Bluebot, Persian Poet Gal, Sbharris, Hgrosser, V1adis1av, Rrburke, JNIBERT, Je in CA, Kuru, LOL898863846, JRSpriggs, CRGreathouse,
HPaul, Cuhlik, Give Peace A Chance, Christian75, Edoroth, Thijs!bot, Headbomb, Hcobb, SkoreKeep, D.Wardle, Bencherlite, Magioladitis, VoABot II, Johnmarks9, DoorsAjar, Michelet, UnitedStatesian, Dufo, SieBot, I Like Cheeseburgers, Droog Andrey, Flyer22, Tittutur, Moletrouser, Tai Chi Tech, DragonBot, LarryMorseDCOhio, Blessed scientist, Addbot, Roentgenium111, LaaknorBot, Tide rolls,
, Espeon, SwisterTwister, Jim1138, LilHelpa, JWBE, Locobot, Santr, Biem, FrescoBot, Darkwast, Minivip, Merlion444, Double
sharp, TobeBot, Speciman00, Deternamor, Codehydro, XinaNicole, ZroBot, F, Aaa1, Edgar.bonet, ClueBot NG, Deano8216, Widr,
BatesIsBack, Bibcode Bot, Pratyya Ghosh, Frosty, Epicgenius, Gwc100, Ginsuloft, Trackteur, Tatalino, Fimatic, Billymazelikesturtles,
DrKitts and Anonymous: 65
Carbon-13 Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon-13?oldid=681195926 Contributors: GCarty, Mike40033, Karol Langner,
Adamsan, Vsmith, Pilatus, CDN99, AtomicDragon, Cmdrjameson, Jag123, La goutte de pluie, Ardric47, Keenan Pepper, Gene Nygaard,
LukeSurl, Theloniouszen, Before My Ken, GraemeLeggett, V8rik, Kbdank71, DePiep, Strait, Vegaswikian, Physchim62, Hellbus, Gaius
Cornelius, Leattome, Icelight, ZorkFox, Jclerman, Kjaergaard, Sadads, Lake conrad, John, Mgiganteus1, Smith609, Bendzh, Geologyguy,
Rieman 82, JAnDbot, Nikpapag, VolkovBot, Mercy, Amboo85, Go-in, Cryptophile, AlleborgoBot, OsamaBinLogin, Nergaal, Sergei
Gutnikov, Peachypoh, Manco Capac, El bot de la dieta, Dziewa, Phnglui mglwnafh, DumZiBoT, Addbot, Delemon, Carlito72,
, Yobot, AnomieBOT, Rubinbot, JackieBot, Kays666, Locobot, Asfarer, Erik9bot, Ionutzmovie, FoxBot, Rowanc1, ZroBot,
Jaycee55, ClueBot NG, Kasirbot, Gorthian, Littleliontom, FallingGravity, BethNaught, Teddyktchan and Anonymous: 46
Ampere Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ampere?oldid=664224559 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Carey Evans, Ed Poor, Amillar,
Danny, XJaM, Christian List, Ben-Zin~enwiki, Heron, Isis~enwiki, Youandme, Tim Starling, David4286, Minesweeper, Ellywa,
, Julesd, Nikai, Rob Hooft, BRG, Ehn, Reddi, Random832, The Anomebot, Zoicon5, Furrykef, Omegatron, Indefatigable,
David.Monniaux, RickBeton, Robbot, Tonsofpcs, Sverdrup, Wikibot, Adam78, Wjbeaty, Giftlite, Wolfkeeper, Perl, Brockert, Wilberth,
Bobblewik, Zenior~enwiki, Antandrus, Beland, Vina, JimWae, Maximaximax, Icairns, Clarknova, Nickptar, Urhixidur, Goobergunch,
Grunt, Freakofnurture, Discospinster, Vsmith, ArnoldReinhold, Adam850, Bender235, CanisRufus, Femto, Army1987, Fir0002, Wood
Thrush, Rbj, Dungodung, Dalle, Haham hanuka, Jumbuck, Orzetto, Sl, Yossiea~enwiki, SidP, Wtshymanski, DV8 2XL, Gene Nygaard,
Alai, Redvers, StradivariusTV, Armando, Lifung, Paradon, SDC, Xiong Chiamiov, Palica, DePiep, NebY, Edison, SeanMack, Bubba73,
Brighterorange, Bitbucket, FlaBot, Nihiltres, Itinerant1, Enon, Chobot, The Rambling Man, YurikBot, Wavelength, Huw Powell, Stunetii,
Gaius Cornelius, Yyy, Rsrikanth05, Rhythm, Nick, AdiJapan, Dbrs, Lt-wiki-bot, Mike Dillon, Dspradau, Tolle, Benandorsqueaks,
Sbyrnes321, Crystallina, SmackBot, Hydrogen Iodide, RobotJcb, Rothron~enwiki, Hmains, Skizzik, Afa86, Chris the speller, Bob the ducq,
Zinneke, DHN-bot~enwiki, Dual Freq, Darth Panda, Gracenotes, Hgrosser, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Alexander Hermes, Alphathon,
DeFacto, Fuhghettaboutit, Dan Sarandon, Sporock, Dmcg026, Drphilharmonic, Henning Makholm, Daniel.Cardenas, Ohconfucius, SashatoBot, John, Bjankuloski06en~enwiki, NongBot~enwiki, CyrilB, Dicklyon, Freecat, Slobot, Tawkerbot2, Dlohcierekim, George100, Cacahueten, CmdrObot, Ale jrb, Nczempin, Mudd1, R9tgokunks, Safalra, VashiDonsk, Meno25, Zginder, Pascal.Tesson, Quibik, Biblbroks,
Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Headbomb, Electron9, Gerry Ashton, Knightelf, SvenAERTS, AlefZet, Escarbot, Navdar, Mentisto, AntiVandalBot,
The Obento Musubi, QuiteUnusual, Edokter, RedCoat10, Swamilive, Andonic, Hut 8.5, Magioladitis, VoABot II, Nyq, Ngavrilos, Yaronra,
KConWiki, Ashishbhatnagar72, Wikinger, Uriel8, Leyo, J.delanoy, Hans Dunkelberg, DD2K, Cpiral, DesertMoh, Pdcook, Specter01010,
Idioma-bot, Saryakhran, VolkovBot, LokiClock, TXiKiBoT, Vipinhari, JhsBot, Broadbot, Andy Dingley, Yk Yk Yk, Go-in, Monty845,
Symane, EmxBot, SieBot, Caltas, Toddst1, Baderimre, Oxymoron83, Byrialbot, Harry~enwiki, OKBot, ClueBot, Jan1nad, Ewawer, Mild
Bill Hiccup, Auntof6, DragonBot, Djr32, Excirial, Canis Lupus, Alexbot, Eeekster, Danmichaelo, Brews ohare, PhySusie, DeltaQuad,
SoxBot III, XLinkBot, Referos, Bondrake, MystBot, Angelobear, Mortense, CharlesChandler, Ashanda, Danyulm, Cst17, Numbo3-bot,
, Ehrenkater, VASANTH S.N., Tide rolls, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Ptbotgourou, Amirobot, Eric-Wester, AnomieBOT, Shootbamboo, Pierreballinger, Floquenbeam, Gtz, Isounits, Bluerasberry, Citation bot, Xqbot, TinucherianBot II, Capricorn42, DSisyphBot, Makeswell, GrouchoBot, Pandamonia, Zappy09, Shadowjams, A. di M., RGForbes, AdmiralAELOVE, Jc3s5h, HamburgerRadio,
Pinethicket, HRoestBot, Rameshngbot, Martinvl, FoxBot, SchreyP, Zvn, 777sms, Suusion of Yellow, PleaseStand, Mean as custard,
TjBot, DASHBot, EmausBot, John of Reading, Dksteelers96, Slightsmile, Tommy2010, K6ka, Blaze2010, JSquish, F, Dondervogel 2,
Icanhazcheezburger, Quondum, Heroiclakitu, ChuispastonBot, NTox, DASHBotAV, ClueBot NG, Sandeepkkothari, Matthiaspaul, MelbourneStar, Widr, Jaypaw09, NuclearEnergy, Helpful Pixie Bot, Vagobot, AvocatoBot, Sunray49, Mrt3366, ChrisGualtieri, JYBot, Lugia2453, Reatlas, Milijar, Tentinator, Canhamandegg, Wamiq, Martin VII, JoeHF, Sam Sailor, AidanHockey5, Coreyemotela, Katete7,
Trackteur, Acagastya, Mario Casteln Castro, Ellenwongfuelcell and Anonymous: 310
Candela Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Candela?oldid=674641158 Contributors: Tobias Hoevekamp, Marj Tiefert, Ed Poor, Andre
Engels, XJaM, SimonP, Ben-Zin~enwiki, Heron, MimirZero, Stevenj, Angela, Hashar, Reddi, Indefatigable, Lumos3, Phil Boswell, Robbot,
Altenmann, Merovingian, Modeha, Ruakh, Snags, Fudoreaper, BenFrantzDale, Sunny256, Dominik~enwiki, Bobblewik, L353a1, Maximaximax, Icairns, Urhixidur, Grunt, Eep, Quirk, Vsmith, Pgabolde, Mani1, Bender235, *drew, Kwamikagami, RoyBoy, Femto, .:Ajvol:.,
Dungodung, MPerel, Haham hanuka, Jumbuck, Walter Grlitz, Jeltz, Velella, Wtshymanski, Stephan Leeds, Kerry7374, Dodiad, Sheepy,
Mandarax, Anarchivist, Rjwilmsi, DuKot, Richiesmit, Hottentot, Srleer, Chobot, YurikBot, Jimp, RL0919, Zwobot, GrinBot~enwiki,
Mishad7, Gilliam, Bluebot, Chendy, Voyajer, Cybercobra, Jna runn, Bjankuloski06en~enwiki, Dicklyon, Stijak, MTSbot~enwiki,
Harold f, JForget, Banedon, IntrigueBlue, Bvbacon, Zginder, Chasingsol, The snare, Briantw, Thijs!bot, Headbomb, Electron9, Escarbot, Siber79, Deective, Ed!, Ashishbhatnagar72, MartinBot, Jim.henderson, GoatGuy, STBotD, VolkovBot, SieBot, Paolo.dL, OKBot,
Svick, Bibincjoy, Wikicat, Srjsignal, DragonBot, Mtidei, Brews ohare, Referos, SilvonenBot, NjardarBot, 5 albert square, ScottAllenRauch, Teles, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Ptbotgourou, Amirobot, Andrew Pullen, AnomieBOT, 1exec1, Gtz, ArthurBot, Obersachsebot, Xqbot, Lionblue, Tishtosh20, St.nerol, Br77rino, HighFlyingFish, ClickRick, I dream of horses, Toolnut, Thisismyusernamedon'tuseit,
248
777sms, Tommy2010, TuHan-Bot, JSquish, ZroBot, Cobaltcigs, Quondum, Mikhail Ryazanov, ClueBot NG, Matthiaspaul, MelbourneStar, Oimabe, Komexx, HelioSeven, BattyBot, ChrisGualtieri, JYBot, Superluigi1karter, Lugia2453, Mcio90, OccultZone, Coreyemotela,
Monkbot and Anonymous: 82
Mole (unit) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mole_(unit)?oldid=680298843 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Marj Tiefert, Mav, Bryan
Derksen, Tarquin, Ed Poor, Grouse, Andre Engels, XJaM, Enchanter, William Avery, Ben-Zin~enwiki, DrBob, Heron, Patrick, Michael
Hardy, Kku, Eric119, Julesd, Glenn, Whkoh, Greenrd, Shizhao, Anupamsr, Joy, Donarreiskoer, Robbot, Swestrup, Gandalf61, Ojigiri~enwiki, Blainster, Mervyn, Hadal, Neckro, Dina, Centrx, Giftlite, Trujaman, Herbee, Smurx, Ezhiki, Jorge Stol, SWAdair, Bobblewik, Antandrus, Saucepan, Mukerjee, Vina, Tomandlu, Gauss, Szajd, Icairns, Urhixidur, Tsemii, CoyneT, Mschlindwein, Trevor MacInnis, Grunt, Freakofnurture, Monkeyman, Discospinster, KittySaturn, Vsmith, ArnoldReinhold, Notinasnaid, Arthur Holland, Dbachmann,
DcoetzeeBot~enwiki, Bender235, Mateo SA, Moulding, Jonathanischoice, Danny B-), Neko-chan, El C, Edward Z. Yang, RoyBoy, Triona,
Femto, Bobo192, Smalljim, LeonardoGregianin, Rbj, Dungodung, Drw25, Slicky, Llywelyn, Sam Korn, Canadacow, Conny, Jumbuck,
Zachlipton, Alansohn, Miranche, Hand15, Jonathan Rabbitt, Idont Havaname, Bart133, Wtshymanski, Excelblue, Bsadowski1, Gene Nygaard, LukeSurl, Killing Vector, Mathmo, Prophile, Ruud Koot, Duncan.france, Miss Madeline, Prashanthns, MarcoTolo, Palica, Mandarax, Graham87, Deltabeignet, V8rik, DePiep, Viswaprabha, Ketiltrout, Rjwilmsi, Angusmclellan, Kinu, Collard, The wub, Zambani,
Yamamoto Ichiro, FlaBot, Gurch, Srleer, Gonhidi, Physchim62, Jittat~enwiki, Chobot, YurikBot, Hairy Dude, Jimp, Pip2andahalf,
RussBot, Max 2000, Stephenb, Gaius Cornelius, Salsb, Zako234, NawlinWiki, Jonathan Webley, NickBush24, Dugosz, Semperf, Ospalh,
Bota47, Tachyon01, Membender, Stefan Udrea, Tetracube, Theda, Dspradau, Livitup, El T, Frnknstn, Allens, Junglecat, Paul Erik, Itub,
SmackBot, Jokl, MattieTK, Slashme, Jeppesn, Martin.Budden, Hydrogen Iodide, Unyoyega, Od Mishehu, Bomac, SunsetFlare, Jab843,
Mdd4696, Zephyris, Mslimix, Pldms, Gilliam, Hmains, Chaojoker, Ckerr, Thumperward, SeanWillard, EdgeOfEpsilon, Darth Panda,
DRahier, OrphanBot, Schentler, KevM, Darthgriz98, Addshore, RedHillian, DinosaursLoveExistence, B jonas, Dreadstar, LoveEncounterFlow, Drphilharmonic, DMacks, Filpaul, Thistheman, SashatoBot, Lambiam, Esrever, Sir Nicholas de Mimsy-Porpington, Mbeychok,
Ben Jos, IronGargoyle, Erlenmeyer~enwiki, 16@r, CasperEACClemence, Slakr, Courcelles, Sabik, Chovain, Tawkerbot2, Tpruane, JForget, Vaughan Pratt, JackZhou, Jsd, McVities, WeggeBot, NE Ent, Tim1988, Keithh, JohnMark, Nick Y., Reywas92, Mato, Astrochemist,
Kaldosh, Meno25, Gogo Dodo, Zginder, Zamtheuniman, Islander, OngoingCivilUnrest, Fij, Shirulashem, Christian75, DumbBOT, Telex,
SpK, El'Cypher, Aldis90, Cold Phront, Epbr123, Luminifer, Mbell, Yurell, Mojo Hand, Headbomb, John254, Ubuntu2, Greg L, Escarbot,
AntiVandalBot, Luna Santin, DarkAudit, Jj137, Danny lost, Alex Frei, JAnDbot, Husond, BlindEagle, Stellmach, MSBOT, Magioladitis, Jo
grainger, Hroulf, VoABot II, Bobby D. DS., ByroDaMan, Kaiserkarl13, Sodabottle, Cgingold, Chemical Engineer, Causesobad, Sultanofsurreal, Murraay, ArmadilloFromHell, DerHexer, Wdake, Khalid Mahmood, Ashishbhatnagar72, Simoniester, Corhuva, Altoidamadeus,
Rapigan, Anaxial, Skunklover, Nono64, Leyo, MacAuslan, AlphaEta, J.delanoy, BillWSmithJr, Hans Dunkelberg, Uncle Dick, SimpsonDG, Bragr, Josh1772, Barts1a, Dolamite02, P.wormer, McSly, Philipgorilla, SJP, Hanacy, KylieTastic, Cometstyles, Llrc, WinterSpw, Pdcook, Squids and Chips, Idioma-bot, Funandtrvl, Busha5a5a5, VolkovBot, OhSqueezy, Vlmastra, Philip Trueman, TXiKiBoT,
Oshwah, Exprice, Anonymous Dissident, Pandacomics, Someguy1221, Piperh, Anna Lincoln, Martin451, Don4of4, Wordsmith, Cremepu222, Bearian, Scottiedog15, Dkgdkg, Madhero88, Synthebot, Enviroboy, TrippingTroubadour, Insanity Incarnate, Brianga, Nagy,
Thunderbird2, The Realms of Gold, EmxBot, Kbrose, SieBot, WereSpielChequers, Psbsub, ABERBOY, Josh the Nerd, Treluckey, Smsarmad, Scanrod, Radon210, Oxymoron83, Faradayplank, Yougotdied, BenoniBot~enwiki, OKBot, Johnanth, Adamtester, Hamiltondaniel,
Nn123645, Soyseorsnibbles, Bert bertington, Escape Orbit, Zhengjp, Elassint, ClueBot, Andrew Nutter, The Thing That Should Not
Be, Sarbruis, SuperHamster, CounterVandalismBot, Thegeneralguy, PhGustaf, Whoosis, HMfan1, Livy15, Carson18, Carson19, Afroman092, Ungawa555tookie2, Gooder69, Lartoven, Brews ohare, Pdch, Neucleon, NuclearWarfare, Cenarium, Lunchscale, J4mm4, Razorame, BOTarate, Yoman82, SoxBot III, DumZiBoT, Referos, Feinoha, Facts707, Subversive.sound, CalumH93, Addbot, Jlaidman,
Narayansg, Willking1979, SunDragon34, Philip Hermarij, Blethering Scot, Ronhjones, Mojomama, Fieldday-sunday, CanadianLinuxUser,
Glane23, Jaknelaps, Jasper Deng, Ehrenkater, Tide rolls, Lightbot, Skinner4251, Suzumebachisecret, Legobot, Ladadadada, Luckas-bot,
Yobot, Ptbotgourou, Fraggle81, Babban12, Crispmuncher, Becky Sayles, Csmallw, Niteman555, AnomieBOT, Angry bee, Gtz, Kerfufer, Jim1138, Piano non troppo, Abshirdheere, Slothropslothop, Materialscientist, The High Fin Sperm Whale, Citation bot, Omstrumpf,
Practicingrationalist, Xqbot, SouthH, 4twenty42o, Akhilkri, Eddy 1000, Scebert, Gumruch, Cactusthorn, GrouchoBot, Riotrocket8676,
Misha Vargas, Wolfboy567, Ankitbhatt, Mobiusone7, A.amitkumar, Thehelpfulbot, Wikipe-tan, Noloop, Alaphent, Saehrimnir, Roverandom66, Dger, Citation bot 1, Pinethicket, Martinvl, Necrobius, Jschnur, MastiBot, Leongielen, Trappist the monk, ,
Clarkcj12, 777sms, CobraBot, Reaper Eternal, Smarty02, Tstormcandy, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Mean as custard, RjwilmsiBot, TjBot,
Evmichel, Smd75jr, Muchie11791, EmausBot, Manifolded, Jerseyvol, Immunize, Michael Eriksson, Optiguy54, Bernard Teo, Racerx11,
Yarrghman, Sumsum2010, Jake, Slightsmile, Wikipelli, AsceticRose, JSquish, Daonguyen95, F, Quondum, Joshlepaknpsa, Wayne Slam,
Tolly4bolly, Rcsprinter123, Flowright138, Coasterlover1994, Donner60, Godspiral, Theislikerice, RockMagnetist, Peter Karlsen,
97, AlpacaPrince, GrayFullbuster, DASHBotAV, Ebehn, Ypark5, Nicho322, ClueBot NG, Matthiaspaul, , Lord Roem, Ysjzysn, Frietjes, Muon, WikiPuppies, Westybrook, Levigrin, Theopolisme, Strike Eagle, Bibcode Bot, BG19bot, Teach267, MusikAnimal, Frze,
GKFX, Piguy101, Mark Arsten, Mad man 1291, Stodipo, Fylbecatulous, Kingsocarso, Samwalton9, BattyBot, Michaelcevallos, Justtrolling,
Bahar Munir Khalil, Davidwhite18, JYBot, Dexbot, Caroline1981, Jeremy334, Isarra (HG), Frosty, Reatlas, Bradbury451, Eyesnore, JesseBaker09, J.meija, Gilesosborne, Blackbombchu, Ugog Nizdast, Sam Sailor, Coreyemotela, Pristinepoet, Nikigoyal, De Riban5, Monkbot,
Tristan d24, Dragontiger98, Trackteur, Asianrice, Crystallizedcarbon, Benrusholme, ThatOneBurritoGuyDude10293, Leredditpleb, Gabe
braton, JellydPuppy, Capacitor12, Quackriot and Anonymous: 760
Coulomb Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coulomb?oldid=680257927 Contributors: Bryan Derksen, Gritchka, Heron, Michael
Hardy, Kaczor~enwiki, Ellywa, TUF-KAT, Glenn, Nikai, Marc Tobias Wenzel~enwiki, Dysprosia, The Anomebot, E23~enwiki, Omegatron, Indefatigable, Carbuncle, Donarreiskoer, Robbot, Hankwang, Jakohn, Rorro, Anthony, Diberri, Guy Peters, Wjbeaty, Giftlite,
Perl, Brockert, Bobblewik, Icairns, Karl-Henner, Lauri Alanko, Urhixidur, Discospinster, Jpk, ArnoldReinhold, Almeida~enwiki, Shanes,
Bobo192, Dungodung, Nk, Haham hanuka, Orzetto, Alansohn, Wtshymanski, Gene Nygaard, Tocksin, Kzollman, Drostie, Username314,
Palica, NebY, Ketiltrout, S Schater, FlaBot, Alfred Centauri, Aescher, Enon, Goudzovski, Kri, Chobot, RedGreenInBlue, YurikBot,
Jimp, Postglock, Welsh, Ms2ger, Light current, Kriscotta, JDspeeder1, GrinBot~enwiki, Sbyrnes321, SmackBot, Slashme, Eskimbot, Betacommand, Bluebot, EdgeOfEpsilon, DHN-bot~enwiki, ZakTek, Fjmustak, Acepectif, Drphilharmonic, Daniel.Cardenas, SashatoBot,
Lambiam, Yoreeder, Mgiganteus1, Bjankuloski06en~enwiki, Tiki God, JHunterJ, Owlbuster, Rock4arolla, MTSbot~enwiki, Shoeofdeath,
Tawkerbot2, MyUsername, Hilmarz, Pnchdrnk, Myasuda, MaxEnt, VashiDonsk, Meno25, Christian75, Thijs!bot, Alkari, Headbomb,
John254, Leon7, Mistymayem, Escarbot, AntiVandalBot, Zone156, Gaius Maius, MER-C, Magioladitis, TARBOT, Dravick, BiggestFish,
Patstuart, Qe2eqe, MartinBot, STBot, Arjun01, J.delanoy, Trusilver, KohanX, Marc Esnouf, VolkovBot, Je G., WarddrBOT, Philip
Trueman, TXiKiBoT, Sibemaster, Lcacula, Adittes, Parasmani6, Brianga, SieBot, Icarus.burned, God Emperor, Flyer22, Byrialbot, Hatster301, ClueBot, PaulLowrance, Mild Bill Hiccup, Brews ohare, Aitias, Kruusamgi, Brainman365, TimothyRias, InternetMeme, Arthur
chos, Rror, Dthomsen8, Addbot, Some jerk on the Internet, Betterusername, AkhtaBot, NjardarBot, Ehrenkater, Tide rolls, Lightbot,
Frehley, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Voxpolaris16, SwisterTwister, AnomieBOT, Gtz, LlywelynII, Giants27, Xqbot, , Nedim
249
Ardoa, Leonardo Da Vinci, Xenmorpha, Jc3s5h, Saiarcot895, Aldy, Pinethicket, Latinoheat611, HRoestBot, RedBot, MastiBot, TobeBot,
Xltb, Standardfact, Dinamik-bot, 777sms, TjBot, Ripchip Bot, DASHBot, EmausBot, Kpuersh, Feanor0, ZroBot, Quondum, Joshlepaknpsa, ChuispastonBot, ClueBot NG, Matthiaspaul, Calabe1992, Gauravjuvekar, BG19bot, Dan653, Dexbot, Webclient101, Reatlas,
Breyan-Le-Yo, Wuserxx, Mdh249, Coreyemotela, Wiz851, Mario Casteln Castro, Chris J Morton, M dummitt, Skinloo, CyberWarfare
and Anonymous: 200
Henry (unit) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_(unit)?oldid=675667686 Contributors: Bryan Derksen, Waveguy, Heron, Nikai,
Bemoeial, Zoicon5, Itai, Nnh, Donarreiskoer, Romanm, Jondel, Saforrest, Brockert, Bobblewik, Ary29, Icairns, Urhixidur, Imroy, ArnoldReinhold, Arthur Holland, Liberatus, Dungodung, Haham hanuka, Orzetto, Irdepesca572, Wtshymanski, RJFJR, Gene Nygaard, Angr,
Mpatel, Seraphimblade, FlaBot, Margosbot~enwiki, Carbonferum, Chobot, Roboto de Ajvol, Wavelength, Stephenb, DeadEyeArrow,
Orioane, Neomagus00, SmackBot, CapitalSasha, Bluebot, DHN-bot~enwiki, Darth Panda, Decltype, SashatoBot, Archimerged, Bjankuloski06en~enwiki, Ben Moore, Phoenixrod, Tawkerbot2, Funnyfarmofdoom, Meno25, PamD, Thijs!bot, Headbomb, Escarbot, AntiVandalBot, JAnDbot, Ashishbhatnagar72, Steevven1, Sigmundg, Andrew.kintz, Leyo, Dhaluza, Mlewis000, Idioma-bot, VolkovBot, DoorsAjar, TXiKiBoT, Muymalestado, Synthebot, Blood sliver, Kbrose, SieBot, E8, The Thing That Should Not Be, Wikijens, PixelBot, Phlar,
Tulcod, Rswarbrick, JonathanH13, Reexorozy, Addbot, Adamc.cameron, LaaknorBot, Numbo3-bot, Ehrenkater, Lightbot, Legobot,
Luckas-bot, Yobot, Amirobot, Dispersion~enwiki, Archon 2488, Floquenbeam, Gtz, Galoubet, Kingpin13, Xqbot, GrouchoBot, Nedim
Ardoa, FrescoBot, Moloch09, Sneller2, 777sms, Autumnalmonk, EmausBot, Ntmkdnna, Aeonx, DASHBotAV, Richardrichardpuddingandpie, ClueBot NG, Carousel7, Makecat-bot, Wikicodeman, Coreyemotela, Djnickers and Anonymous: 85
Ohm Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ohm?oldid=680221517 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Bryan Derksen, Jeronimo, XJaM, Fredbauder, William Avery, Peterlin~enwiki, Ben-Zin~enwiki, David spector, Heron, Tim Starling, Liftarn, CatherineMunro, Glenn, Andres,
Samw, Zoicon5, Radiojon, Omegatron, Anupamsr, Geraki, Indefatigable, Carbuncle, Robbot, Jre, Bkell, Dave Bass, Giftlite, Pmaguire,
Brockert, Bobblewik, Vadmium, Gazibara, LiDaobing, OverlordQ, Icairns, Urhixidur, Grunt, Mike Rosoft, Mormegil, Freakofnurture,
Vsmith, ArnoldReinhold, Smyth, SocratesJedi, S.K., Plugwash, El C, Femto, Bobo192, Fir0002, Smalljim, Dungodung, Larry V, Haham hanuka, SPUI, Zachlipton, Orzetto, Jeltz, Orelstrigo, Shinjiman, Wtmitchell, Velella, Dalillama, Wtshymanski, Cburnett, Stephan
Leeds, Evil Monkey, Gene Nygaard, Nightstallion, Camw, Pol098, PeregrineAY, RxS, DePiep, Zoz, Rjwilmsi, Vegaswikian, FlaBot,
Pojo, Srleer, Zotel, Chobot, YurikBot, Wavelength, Jimp, RussBot, Hydrargyrum, Stephenb, Finbarr Saunders, Keka, Johndarrington,
Raven4x4x, Mikeblas, Zwobot, Orioane, Ninly, Tropylium, Allens, Anthony717, Hiddekel, SmackBot, Melchoir, Ufundo, Unyoyega,
Edgar181, Gilliam, Bluebot, Rajeevmass~enwiki, DHN-bot~enwiki, Colonies Chris, ZakTek, Hgrosser, Salmar, Avb, Nakon, Occultations, Vina-iwbot~enwiki, Kukini, DJIndica, Soap, Minna Sora no Shita, NongBot~enwiki, Melody Concerto, Owlbuster, Nmagod,
Pieguy48, ShakingSpirit, Iridescent, Ale jrb, Scohoust, JohnCD, NickW557, WeggeBot, Steel, Meno25, Gogo Dodo, Peter439, DumbBOT, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Wikid77, Headbomb, Nslsmith, Mikeeg555, Escarbot, Mentisto, AntiVandalBot, WinBot, Luna Santin, Auyon,
Gdo01, Storkk, Myanw, JAnDbot, MER-C, CosineKitty, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, Ronstew, BrianGV, Animum, DerHexer, Hdt83, MartinBot, Axlq, Mickytz13, Skunklover, Kateshortforbob, Leyo, Pekaje, J.delanoy, Metrax, ChancerBR, Rod57, Johnhardcastl, ThinkBlue,
Laichh, TottyBot, Squids and Chips, Mlewis000, Idioma-bot, Funandtrvl, VolkovBot, TreasuryTag, AlnoktaBOT, Station1, Babble123,
Ipso2, Philip Trueman, Billysugger, TXiKiBoT, Oshwah, Bluebear07, Corvus cornix, Wcormode, WinTakeAll, Mspritch, Falcon8765,
Spinningspark, Symane, Struway, NHRHS2010, Kbrose, SieBot, YonaBot, E8, Anirbaninwikiland, Phe-bot, Toddst1, Radon210, Chinasword87, Poindexter Propellerhead, Crisis, XU-engineer, Spartan-James, Denisarona, Mavin 101, Sfan00 IMG, ClueBot, Binksternet, GorillaWarfare, Wutsje, PixelBot, Brews ohare, Legacypac, Aitias, Versus22, Borgg, Apparition11, XLinkBot, Dark04templar,
Avoided, HarlandQPitt, Addbot, Mortense, Frodo0019, K1o1g12, VkandKayle, AndersBot, Roux, Numbo3-bot, Dezzy123, Tide rolls,
Luckas-bot, Yobot, Kookeyey, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, AnomieBOT, Gtz, Materialscientist, ArthurBot, Clark89, RealityApologist, LilHelpa, Xqbot, Sionus, Addihockey10, Heddmj, XZeroBot, Gbchaosmaster, Pandamonia, Nedim Ardoa, Vaxquis, Elemesh,
Depictionimage, Jonathansuh, Pinethicket, Yahia.barie, TobeBot, Zvn, 777sms, Rpbfghf, EmausBot, Dewritech, Wikipelli, JSquish, Icanhazcheezburger, Donner60, ClueBot NG, This lousy T-shirt, DieSwartzPunkt, Widr, Daigonstar, BG19bot, Vagobot, Bibliocaser, ChrisGualtieri, Theohmisalie, Chris.ebay, Lugia2453, Wikicodeman, Reatlas, Nerlost, Glaisher, Mohammadkavosh, YiFeiBot, Coreyemotela,
SkateTier, Armin111222, Rkrajhan, Suganyamohan, Adarshjchandran, Gutzio and Anonymous: 289
Radian Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radian?oldid=680444576 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Bryan Derksen, Taw, Xaonon, PierreAbbat, DrBob, Heron, B4hand, Topory, Edward, Bdesham, Infrogmation, Michael Hardy, Wshun, Eliasen, Ixfd64, Gbleem, Eric119,
Ellywa, Emperor, , Glenn, Scott, Andres, Smack, Artoo~enwiki, Charles Matthews, Dysprosia, Doradus, Wik, Furrykef, Indefatigable, Pakcw, Robbot, Netizen, Romanm, Sverdrup, Paul G, Mattaschen, Giftlite, Msm, Bradeos Graphon, Chinasaur, Ryguillian,
Jackol, Bobblewik, Decoy, Haggis, LucasVB, Noe, Icairns, Karl-Henner, Nickptar, Urhixidur, Abdull, ELApro, Grstain, Guanabot, Paul
August, Zaslav, Pmetzger, AdamAtlas, Dungodung, Alphonsus, Sligocki, KingTT, Gene Nygaard, Woohookitty, Miaow Miaow, TheNightFly,
, Reddwarf2956, Jannetta, Graham87, BD2412, Moulinette, Kbdank71, Fel64, Kazrak, R.e.b., Ixphin, FlaBot, Jellomania,
Mathbot, RexNL, Acyso, Chobot, YurikBot, Wavelength, Hairy Dude, Jimp, Wolfmankurd, JabberWok, KSmrq, Grafen, Dbrs, Orioane,
GraemeL, Nekura, SmackBot, Kilo-Lima, Renesis, Schmiteye, Happywae, Bluebot, Timneu22, SchftyThree, Octahedron80, Hgrosser,
RuudVisser, Tamfang, BIL, Demoeconomist, Kingdon, Mwtoews, John Reid, Michael J, 16@r, Xiaphias, Macellarius, Mets501, Nialsh,
JMK, Laurens-af, PGSable, Zakian49, Jokes Free4Me, SHANTIRAO, Fnlayson, A876, Oosoom, Ivan du2001, Rieman 82, Meno25,
Zginder, Corpx, Peter439, Nein~enwiki, Jrich5nc4, Omicronpersei8, Sagaciousuk, Headbomb, Davidhorman, Dark dude, Intermeddle,
Stannered, Quintote, Danger, JAnDbot, Sangwinc, Je560, Mwarren us, Hut 8.5, Penubag, VoABot II, Combat, Hue White, Applegrew,
Flexdream, Jay Litman, J.delanoy, Ninjafrog123, Da Rammo, Lietk12, Treisijs, Endorf, Wkpdia rox, Johan1298~enwiki, Anonymous
Dissident, Beallthere, Captaincommunism, Inductiveload, Yk Yk Yk, Francis Flinch, Symane, Hcagri, Ernest lk lam, SieBot, Cwkmail,
JerrySteal, JSpung, Lourakis, OKBot, Dave Barnett, Adamtester, Kortaggio, Muhends, ClueBot, AirdishStraus, Thegeneralguy, Bercant,
NuclearWarfare, Razorame, Kakofonous, Jellysh dave, Daemonax, SoxBot III, Darkicebot, Anturiaethwr, RP459, Subversive.sound,
Addbot, NjardarBot, Download, CarsracBot, Z. Patterson, Numbo3-bot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Worm That Turned, , Armchair info
guy, Bility, Archon 2488, Piano non troppo, Um, Citation bot, Xqbot, Txebixev, Amarjodh, J4lambert, Isheden, GrouchoBot, Jhbdel, Lolraped1111, Nedim Ardoa, Entropeter, Showgun45, Radrian, RedBot, 777sms, Tbhotch, H.ehsaan, EmausBot, Jorgy343, Heracles31, Wham Bam Rock II, Quondum, Thepinkoydson, Tystnaden, AManWithNoPlan, Electedpraiser, Zekeman95, Tahabi, Matthiaspaul, Reify-tech, Helpful Pixie Bot, Bibcode Bot, Umar farooq miana, Brad7777, BattyBot, EmilioDada, Coreyemotela, Niki Goss,
Joseph2302, The Quixotic Potato and Anonymous: 147
Steradian Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steradian?oldid=663738844 Contributors: Bryan Derksen, PierreAbbat, DrBob, Heron,
B4hand, Suisui, AugPi, Rob Hooft, Smack, Doradus, Indefatigable, Robbot, Bkell, Unfree, Giftlite, BenFrantzDale, Bobblewik,
Kawasaki~enwiki, Wmahan, Vadmium, Decoy, LucasVB, Aulis Eskola, Icairns, Karl-Henner, Urhixidur, TheObtuseAngleOfDoom, Rich
Farmbrough, Dancxjo, Paul August, Pmetzger, Mbini, Dungodung, Haham hanuka, Burn, Cburnett, Gene Nygaard, Postrach, Palica, Lasunncty, Kbdank71, FlaBot, Margosbot~enwiki, Srleer, Glenn L, Chobot, YurikBot, Wavelength, Hairy Dude, Jimp, JabberWok, Oni
250
Lukos, Injinera, Arichnad, Voidxor, E2mb0t~enwiki, Ms2ger, Orioane, Argo Navis, Blanu, Cmglee, SmackBot, Rgrizza, Amatulic, Bluebot, MalafayaBot, Octahedron80, DJIndica, Bjankuloski06en~enwiki, Xiaphias, RokasT~enwiki, Amakuru, Eltimbo, Kupirijo, Meno25,
RazerM, Briantw, Thijs!bot, Headbomb, KJBurns, Rico402, JAnDbot, Magioladitis, The Anonymous One, RJASE1, VolkovBot, TXiKiBoT, Y, Fltnsplr, AlleborgoBot, SieBot, Artrenadys, Thegeneralguy, WikHead, Subversive.sound, Addbot, Fgnievinski, AkhtaBot, CanadianLinuxUser, Numbo3-bot, Ehrenkater, Zorrobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Amirobot, JackieBot, Materialscientist, Citation bot, Ywaz, Nedim
Ardoa, Erik9bot, FrescoBot, TobeBot, 777sms, Funnygoogle, EmausBot, John of Reading, Learner1111, AManWithNoPlan, ClueBot
NG, Kdavies4, GKFX, Ajv39, Andyhowlett, Coreyemotela, Michikohundred and Anonymous: 62
Volt Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volt?oldid=682292672 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Carey Evans, Bryan Derksen, Manning
Bartlett, Andre Engels, JeLuF, SimonP, Peterlin~enwiki, Heron, Tim Starling, Kaczor~enwiki, Ixfd64, Looxix~enwiki, Mac, Stevenj,
Muriel Gottrop~enwiki, Julesd, Vargenau, Reddi, Random832, Mendor, Zoicon5, Omegatron, AnonMoos, Jeq, UtherSRG, Modeha, Profoss, Fuelbottle, Giftlite, Mikez, AstroNox, Fudoreaper, Average Earthman, Brockert, Jaan513, Bobblewik, Beland, Vina, Fuper, Kevin
B12, Icairns, Tail, Urhixidur, Adashiel, Trevor MacInnis, Canterbury Tail, Mormegil, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, ArnoldReinhold,
MisterSheik, *drew, Evand, Femto, Duesentrieb, Army1987, Fir0002, Dungodung, La goutte de pluie, Haham hanuka, Orzetto, Spangineer, Melaen, BanyanTree, BRW, Wtshymanski, DV8 2XL, Gene Nygaard, Zntrip, Davidkazuhiro, GregorB, Geekrocket, Vossanova,
Graham87, Deltabeignet, Chun-hian, FreplySpang, SeanMack, Yamamoto Ichiro, Windchaser, Fresheneesz, Srleer, Jittat~enwiki, King
of Hearts, Chobot, ChrisChiasson, DVdm, Banaticus, YurikBot, Wavelength, Lexi Marie, Groogle, Rada, Stephenb, Purodha, NawlinWiki, Grafen, Jaxl, Danyoung, Orioane, 21655, JoanneB, Willtron, Leeannedy, JDspeeder1, SmackBot, InverseHypercube, Melchoir,
Od Mishehu, The Photon, Gilliam, Fluri, No-Bullet, DHN-bot~enwiki, SundarBot, Hoof Hearted, Lcarscad, Drphilharmonic, Igorkrupitsky, Gandalf44, FrozenMan, Kipala, LuCkY, Nagle, CyrilB, 16@r, Owlbuster, Prof sparks, Peter Horn, MTSbot~enwiki, Courcelles,
Frank Lofaro Jr., Tawkerbot2, Orangutan, KyraVixen, Wingman358, Meno25, Zginder, Lugnuts, Biblbroks, NorthernThunder, Thijs!bot,
Headbomb, Gerry Ashton, P.E.Yersin, Escarbot, AntiVandalBot, TrevorLSciAct, NSH001, JAnDbot, CosineKitty, Edwardspec TalkBot,
Easchi, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, DaleatVolt, Wschanz, TARBOT, Leks81, Animum, Schumi555, Edrainkona, Tangee5, R'n'B, Leyo,
Artaxiad, Mange01, EscapingLife, Wikimelon, Geomanjo, Gzkn, Rod57, Ctskudub, Sukkoth Qulmos, Atropos235, VolkovBot, Philip
Trueman, TXiKiBoT, BuickCenturyDriver, The Original Wildbear, Hqb, Anonymous Dissident, Anna Lincoln, Arcyqwerty, Josepy, MPdesign, Spinningspark, RanDawg, Rob1n, SieBot, Whiskey in the Jar, Viskonsas, Msadaghd, LeadSongDog, Flyer22, CutOTies, JSpung,
Barryferguson6, Techman224, Manway, Hamiltondaniel, ShajiA, Llywelyn2000, ClueBot, The Thing That Should Not Be, Wutsje, TheSmuel, Sv1xv, Alexbot, Simonmckenzie, Anon lynx, Erebus Morgaine, VoltRecruiter, Lartoven, Brews ohare, Boydmadsen, Versus22,
Johnuniq, Hossam-Aboulfotouh, BarretB, XLinkBot, Mathmitch7, Dfoxvog, Addbot, Mortense, Aboctok, Scientus, MrOllie, Numbo3bot, Ehrenkater, Lightbot, HerculeBot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, II MusLiM HyBRiD II, Bbrownp, Jim1138, Ipatrol, Gc9580, Mcpancakes,
Materialscientist, Citation bot, Maxis ftw, GB fan, Xqbot, Ajpieri, Plufs190, 1centti, Loveless, Almabot, Bhtpbank, GrouchoBot, SquigNob, Cwarloe, Bahahs, Amaury, Nedim Ardoa, GhalyBot, Shadowjams, Hockey33, SD5, Who then was a gentleman?, RGForbes,
FLconcorde, Chipudnik, Tobby72, Jc3s5h, Pinethicket, Jonesey95, RedBot, White Shadows, Orenburg1, Mjs1991, SchreyP, NortyNort,
777sms, Tbhotch, Gregregregre, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, RanaChakra, DASHBot, EmausBot, WikitanvirBot, Immunize, Zerohourrct, GoingBatty, Dksteelers96, Kastan101, Hhhippo, JSquish, Jampaligor, Frigotoni, L Kensington, Zueignung, Lawstubes, Damirgrati, Orange
Suede Sofa, Jornjacobi, ClueBot NG, Reg porter, O.Koslowski, Widr, Catinthehat1, Oddbodz, Bibcode Bot, MusikAnimal, AvocatoBot,
Ibrahem2016, Davtravgallagher, Zedshort, Hamish59, 220 of Borg, Klilidiplomus, Shyncat, Eli4ph, Jamesx12345, Reatlas, Musitronix,
AmaryllisGardener, Wamiq, Coreyemotela, Gatto Electric, Oiyarbepsy, Jamawford, Alefbeis, Nanotemires, EE483597, Abhishek padhy,
Gilopon, Ankit00923, Muteropsel and Anonymous: 302
Watt Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watt?oldid=681819767 Contributors: Bryan Derksen, Ed Poor, Andre Engels, Youssefsan,
Walter, William Avery, SimonP, Peterlin~enwiki, Heron, Ubiquity, Patrick, Ixfd64, Dcljr, Cyde, Egil, Looxix~enwiki, Ahoerstemeier,
Mac, Andrewa, , Julesd, Glenn, Cherkash, Vargenau, Hashar, Mulad, Reddi, Omegatron, J D, Indefatigable, Carlossuarez46,
Denelson83, PuzzletChung, Robbot, Hankwang, Seglea, Babbage, Merovingian, Larsivi, Giftlite, Fudoreaper, Lupin, HangingCurve,
No Guru, Perl, Rchandra, Brockert, Bobblewik, Alexf, Antandrus, Beland, Joizashmo, BrandonR, Jokestress, Icairns, Marc Mongenet,
Urhixidur, Qui1che, Brianhe, Cacycle, Vsmith, ArnoldReinhold, Ignignot, Sharkford, MBisanz, Edwinstearns, Kwamikagami, RoyBoy,
Bobo192, O18, JDB1983, Dungodung, Nk, Haham hanuka, Orzetto, Alansohn, Koverholt, Stovetopcookies, Sl, Stevestrange, Aliencam, Lee S. Svoboda, Wtmitchell, Velella, Wtshymanski, Cburnett, Stephan Leeds, LFaraone, Skatebiker, Sleigh, Gene Nygaard, BadSeed, Sproul, Kenyon, Oleg Alexandrov, Angr, Firsfron, Woohookitty, JarlaxleArtemis, Masterjamie, Barrylb, Commander Keane, Grika,
Striver, Torqueing, GregorB, Eras-mus, Marudubshinki, Chun-hian, DePiep, Astronaut, Quiddity, Vegaswikian, SeanMack, DirkvdM, Weihao.chiu~enwiki, Vilcxjo, Fosnez, Travis.Thurston, Srleer, Chobot, Bdelisle, The Rambling Man, YurikBot, Wavelength, JWB, Jimp,
Charles Gaudette, StuOfInterest, RussBot, Bhny, Frankh~enwiki, Groogle, Thoreaulylazy, Stephenb, Manop, Yyy, Tungsten, Purodha,
NawlinWiki, Dysmorodrepanis~enwiki, Anomo, Int 80h, Ashwinr, Fwc, Vatassery, Voidxor, E2mb0t~enwiki, Tony1, Joshlk, Dbrs,
Bota47, Fenrith, Johndrinkwater, Alecmconroy, Orioane, Johndburger, DrHok, Petri Krohn, Willtron, JLaTondre, Katieh5584, EdX20,
Luk, A bit iy, SmackBot, Saravask, Brian Patrie, Stux, KnowledgeOfSelf, Rayrob, IstvanWolf, Apple2, Gilliam, Skizzik, Hibernian,
Zven, Darth Panda, Foxjwill, AussieLegend, Frap, Ioscius, Britmax, KerathFreeman, Aldaron, Cybercobra, MichaelBillington, Hgilbert,
Doodle77, Daniel.Cardenas, John Bentley, Mostlyharmless, Vina-iwbot~enwiki, Kukini, Qmwne235, SashatoBot, Sophia, FrozenMan,
Loodog, Anand Karia, Xiaphias, Waggers, Higlophico, Amitch, Beefyt, Lee Carre, BranStark, Lakers, Joseph Solis in Australia, UncleDouggie, Twas Now, Blehfu, Courcelles, Andymushu, The Letter J, George100, Asm79, AndrewHowse, Besieged, VashiDonsk, Meno25,
Gogo Dodo, Palmiped, Ddanna13, Bobcousins, Chris Henniker, Dperrone, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, LRG, Drewbyh, Qwyrxian, Tobz1000,
Gralo, PierceG, Headbomb, Marek69, Lethargy, Gerry Ashton, Rahzel, Escarbot, Thadius856, Gioto, Luna Santin, Widefox, Seaphoto,
SummerPhD, Quintote, Mdotley, Darrenhusted, Deective, Kelvinsays, DuncanHill, Mc hamster, BCube, Seddon, Sophie means wisdom,
Ccrrccrr, Acroterion, Canjth, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, AuburnPilot, Anbaric, Swpb, Jatkins, Albertobob, Cpl Syx, Edurant, Nikpapag,
Ravichandar84, R'n'B, Brothejr, Dinkytown, Shinigami Josh, Briancromack, Rgoodermote, Retsudo, Digid, Daryoush, It Is Me Here,
Ilikerps, Richard j uk, NewEnglandYankee, Bucinka, Ferahgo the Assassin, Chairmclee, Novatek, DH85868993, Gparsons70, Izno, Rexparry sydney, Pandaeater123, CardinalDan, Vranak, VolkovBot, CWii, Katydidit, Lidingo, Philip Trueman, TXiKiBoT, Spacerat3004,
Joaoholiveira, Aymatth2, Jason C.K., Fnder, Rjgodoy, Andy Dingley, Altermike, Falcon8765, ShadowEdge, Alaniaris, Tofana~enwiki,
WatermelonPotion, Thunderbird2, Pdfpdf, Kbrose, Entoaggie09, Porsche21x, SieBot, Tiddly Tom, Hertz1888, Viskonsas, Caltas, GeiwTeol, The very model of a minor general, Peter7723, Bentogoa, Alexfusco5, The Evil Spartan, Pit-trout, Nopetro, Oxymoron83, BenoniBot~enwiki, OKBot, Wuhwuzdat, Jfromcanada, Hamiltondaniel, Daggbum, Francvs, ObfuscatePenguin, Loren.wilton, Martarius, ClueBot, The Thing That Should Not Be, Rjd0060, Nnemo, CasualObserver'48, DavidDHaynes, Auntof6, Excirial, Alexbot, Kjnorth, Jotterbot, Andymill233, Fredthebuilder, Aitias, Dremos, Vigilius, XLinkBot, Fujimuji, Alexius08, Maurice r adema, Zodon, Thatguyint,
Jackmeggan, Addbot, Fyrael, Betterusername, Ronhjones, Firefox10, LaaknorBot, Notdonknotts, Patton123, Bryanater, Numbo3-bot,
Delphi234, Tide rolls, Lightbot, Krano, WikiDreamer Bot, RJa0, Notadormattandapig, Frehley, Margin1522, Snaily, Luckas-bot, Yobot,
Alexandersam, Ptbotgourou, Fraggle81, Space Mountain Mike, QueenCake, KamikazeBot, Srdju001, Ygtai, AnomieBOT, Gtz, The
251
Parting Glass, Captain Quirk, Piano non troppo, Materialscientist, Devastatindesmond, Frankenpuppy, ArthurBot, Xqbot, Capricorn42,
Gigemag76, Miracleworker5263, SteamSpeed, Almabot, GrouchoBot, EndlessBob, Prunesqualer, RibotBOT, SassoBot, Nedim Ardoa,
Pink Distortion, GhalyBot, A. di M., FrescoBot, Jc3s5h, Michael93555, SSEbacheba, Jonathansuh, Endofskull, DivineAlpha, Pinethicket,
I dream of horses, Metricmike, LittleWink, Martinvl, Hoo man, Thuglife9, Warnerdang, NedKelly95, Max Duchess, ActivExpression,
FoxBot, TobeBot, SchreyP, ItsZippy, Waynersampson69, 777sms, GuyHammer, Guerillero, Mean as custard, EmausBot, WikitanvirBot,
Gfoley4, AmericanLeMans, George H. Harvey, GoingBatty, Turtles Galore, Slightsmile, Winner 42, 13shadowking, Bosemac, Solomonfromnland, Overtheriver565, Ravi.agrawal83, Eagl0215, Polyscient, Dondervogel 2, Chance146, Tolly4bolly, Jsayre64, ChuispastonBot,
RockMagnetist, Emoe0, Paver12, Cheesemonster1911, Petrb, ClueBot NG, Foxlincroft, HisamiKuroneko, Matthiaspaul, Ocean Tiger,
Jasonleewall, Chamboman, Cntras, Clampower, Tasha7777, Widr, Michael8Harrison, HMSSolent, KLBot2, WNYY98, Qweasdfrg, AntiBellum, FudgePacker11, Fcndshvbjidsjfkewb, MusikAnimal, AvocatoBot, Metricopolus, Kendall-K1, GKFX, Colnorron, Antlers35, Loriendrew, Shaun, Justincheng12345-bot, Jns4eva, Khazar2, Archie123456789, Ashiataka, Rick Wilson CA, Graphium, SupermanK, Rfassbind, Bhavasagar, Melonkelon, Agnar2000, EvergreenFir, Donterrio, Everet John, Bubills7701, Spyglasses, PierreFG5, Bluejay101984,
Genandrar, Wyn.junior, Celine5H, Steve4646, Wowytigeer, FML007, Tommycus, Richard Yin, Mario Casteln Castro, RandyLanoue78,
Jamawford, Mynameisboratebola, Mahboigenius, Jathielen and Anonymous: 675
Weber (unit) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weber_(unit)?oldid=672111902 Contributors: Bryan Derksen, Heron, Michael Hardy,
Smack, Timwi, Robbot, Hankwang, RedWolf, Wolfkeeper, Leonard G., Eequor, Bobblewik, Vadmium, Piotrus, Maximaximax, Icairns,
Urhixidur, Tsemii, Euric, Kwamikagami, Laurascudder, Marco Polo, Shenme, Dungodung, Berry Chan, Haham hanuka, Jumbuck,
Orzetto, Mac Davis, Gene Nygaard, Jim O'Donnell, Aeronautics, Tabletop, Cornince, Elenes, Lzz, Chobot, Antilived, YurikBot, Jimp,
Hede2000, Cinik, Orioane, LeonardoRob0t, JDspeeder1, Chris the speller, DHN-bot~enwiki, SashatoBot, Archimerged, FrozenMan,
Bjankuloski06en~enwiki, MikeMalak, Meno25, Zginder, Thijs!bot, Headbomb, Escarbot, Deective, The Berzerk Dragon, Jaakobou,
Leyo, Idioma-bot, VolkovBot, TXiKiBoT, Hqb, Donatus, SieBot, Svick, Addbot, Lightbot, DrFO.Tn.Bot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Amirobot,
AnomieBOT, Xqbot, St.nerol, Prechtl, GrouchoBot, RibotBOT, Kensaii, Nedim Ardoa, FrescoBot, Pinethicket, Matthieu.berthome, RedBot, TobeBot, 777sms, Hhhippo, BAICAN XXX, ChuispastonBot, Rderdwien, Nerlost, Wamiq, Coreyemotela, Monkbot, Acagastya and
Anonymous: 39
Astronomical unit Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomical_unit?oldid=681183439 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Kpjas, Brion
VIBBER, Mav, Bryan Derksen, Zundark, The Anome, Tarquin, AstroNomer~enwiki, Andre Engels, Eob, XJaM, Christian List, PierreAbbat, Maury Markowitz, Olivier, Frecklefoot, Edward, Infrogmation, Boud, FrankH, DIG~enwiki, Ixfd64, Cyde, Miknight, Card~enwiki,
Arwel Parry, Docu, William M. Connolley, Glenn, Jschwa1, Andres, Hectorthebat, Pizza Puzzle, Tom Peters, Timwi, Wikiborg, Random832, Saltine, Indefatigable, Denelson83, Robbot, RedWolf, Moncrief, Henrygb, Wikibot, Guy Peters, Xanzzibar, Wile E. Heresiarch,
Enochlau, Matt Gies, Giftlite, Graeme Bartlett, DocWatson42, Bnn, Xerxes314, Gus Polly, Curps, Markus Kuhn, Joe Kress, Brockert,
Python eggs, Bobblewik, Gadum, Knutux, Karol Langner, Mzajac, Satori, Icairns, Urhixidur, , Qef, Thorwald, Danh, EugeneZelenko,
Rich Farmbrough, SocratesJedi, Night Gyr, Huntster, Shanes, Bobo192, Mordemur, I9Q79oL78KiL0QTFHgyc, Nk, Ardric47, Obradovic
Goran, Pharos, Mpulier, Yalbik, Jumbuck, Alansohn, Eric Kvaalen, Zippanova, Sligocki, Hu, Wtmitchell, Rhialto, Gene Nygaard, HenryLi, WilliamKF, Nuno Tavares, Jerey O. Gustafson, DonPMitchell, Camw, Kristaga, Eleassar777, Pi@k~enwiki, Yury Tarasievich,
Prashanthns, Dysepsion, Mandarax, Graham87, Deadcorpse, Chun-hian, NebY, Ketiltrout, Rjwilmsi, Nightscream, Hopfotch, Sdornan,
Ryk, LjL, Dracontes, Heptor, FlaBot, Naraht, Nivix, Quuxplusone, Carrionluggage, Tardis, Glenn L, Physchim62, Smithbrenon, Chobot,
Visor, DVdm, Korg, GreyWyvern, YurikBot, Spacepotato, NTBot~enwiki, Jimp, Kafziel, RussBot, Gaius Cornelius, Rsrikanth05, Wimt,
Wiki alf, Dhollm, BOT-Superzerocool, Johndburger, Reyk, Scoutersig, Ilmari Karonen, Mejor Los Indios, Sbyrnes321, DVD R W, SmackBot, Baodo, Unschool, Ashill, Jagged 85, Alsandro, Gilliam, Hmains, Saros136, Bluebot, Hibernian, Bazonka, Ctbolt, DHN-bot~enwiki,
Kabri, Bil1, Modest Genius, Jrohrs, VMS Mosaic, Fullstop, Cordless Larry, Shadow1, Mirlen, EdGl, Ohconfucius, SashatoBot, Skiasaurus, JH-man, JorisvS, Diverman, Bjankuloski06en~enwiki, Mr. Vernon, Alatius, Rock4arolla, Xiaphias, Invisifan, Novangelis, Nickipee, JMK, Michaelbusch, Joseph Solis in Australia, Metre01, Muro, Amakuru, Benplowman, Courcelles, Tawkerbot2, Nerfer, Kurtan~enwiki, Vaughan Pratt, CBM, Vyznev Xnebara, ShelfSkewed, MathewDill, WeggeBot, Skybon, Myasuda, Icek~enwiki, Cydebot,
Abeg92, Kanags, MC10, Zginder, Hispalois, IComputerSaysNo, SteveMcCluskey, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Memty Bot, Headbomb, Greg L,
Fogeltje, Mentisto, QuiteUnusual, AstroLynx, Yay unto the Chicken, JAnDbot, Nicholas Escalona, Coolhandscot, Magioladitis, AuburnPilot, Shijualex, Ashishbhatnagar72, Welshleprechaun, Kheider, Hdt83, MartinBot, Mermaid from the Baltic Sea, RP88, Ahmedzaman,
Bus stop, PrestonH, Tgeairn, J.delanoy, Kimse, Martinor, Maurice Carbonaro, SU Linguist, Tdadamemd, McSly, Crashkidd34, Michaelban,
Cmichael, Tambora1815, Useight, Chinneeb, VolkovBot, RingtailedFox, Katydidit, Al.locke, TXiKiBoT, Oshwah, Rendanator, Red Act,
Hotaruseaspell, Nxavar, HarryAla, Someguy1221, Hmaier, Raymondwinn, Seb az86556, RiverStyx23, Fasouzafreitas, MacTire, Yk Yk
Yk, Synthebot, Preymond, Sylent, Thanatos666, Dufo, Sue Rangell, AlleborgoBot, Logan, EmxBot, SieBot, PlanetStar, Rfts, BotMultichill,
Caltas, God Emperor, Shaman ltu, Permacultura, BenoniBot~enwiki, OKBot, Adamtester, Cosmo0, Athenean, Twinsday, ClueBot, Rumping, The Thing That Should Not Be, General Epitaph, Vacio, Nnemo, SuperHamster, Richerman, DragonBot, Deselliers, Excirial, Brews
ohare, SchreiberBike, Thingg, Rainbow87, Versus22, Mikey0194, Johnuniq, SoxBot III, Tdslk, DumZiBoT, InternetMeme, XLinkBot,
Pichpich, Tarlneustaedter, Rror, GameLegend, Joctee, Sbrocket, DavidWorkman, Ronhjones, Fieldday-sunday, Theantiwbc, SpillingBot,
NjardarBot, Download, Glane23, Ehrenkater, Tide rolls, Lightbot, OlEnglish, Matj Grabovsk, John.St, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot,
4th-otaku, AnomieBOT, Archon 2488, JackieBot, Simon the Likable, Strengtieche, Citation bot, Xqbot, GrouchoBot, Ataleh, Amaury,
Charvest, A. di M., Fotaun, Stephen Dobson, Paine Ellsworth, Jc3s5h, Sanpitch, Mariochk, Runlevel0, Citation bot 1, Pinethicket, I dream
of horses, Martinvl, Tom.Reding, Calmer Waters, RedBot, MastiBot, Kibi78704, Pristino, December21st2012Freak, Vkil, FoxBot, TobeBot, Dinamik-bot, Mikey0892, Weedwhacker128, Suusion of Yellow, Sideways713, Loganchadde, Bassline1970, Whywhenwhohow,
EmausBot, John of Reading, WikitanvirBot, Immunize, Lessbread, Leoclaw12342, Syncategoremata, RenamedUser01302013, Moswento,
Wikipelli, K6ka, Sepguilherme, Wikitoov, Dondervogel 2, Quondum, AManWithNoPlan, Wikiwanito, L1A1 FAL, Iam on andromeda,
Donner60, Tim Zukas, Albert Nestar, Zutroy1, ClueBot NG, Falconpride, Helpful Pixie Bot, Bunnyz98, Titodutta, Gob Lofa, Bibcode Bot,
BG19bot, Cool3636, Roberticus, UniversalGlot, 42GeoCPU, MusikAnimal, Glevum, Tommy Gun45, Lieutenant of Melkor, BattyBot,
Pratyya Ghosh, ChrisGualtieri, Garamond Lethe, Theossa, GingerAle737, Burzuchius, Rfassbind, Howicus, Giggity66, DavidLeighEllis,
Awaniko, Oliver Barratt, Evensteven, MorneSpies, Rocket Eddy, Exoplanetaryscience, Coreyemotela, Anrnusna, Stamptrader, AshleyJames, ThatRusskiiGuy, Rajeshranjan.nift, Clubclubclub, MURODURUS, Quivico, Halconnit, Lolapinkaric and Anonymous: 340
Inductor Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inductor?oldid=678800553 Contributors: Eclecticology, Christopher Mahan, BenZin~enwiki, Heron, Mintguy, Youandme, Hephaestos, Patrick, RTC, Michael Hardy, Chan siuman, SebastianHelm, Dgrant,
Looxix~enwiki, Glenn, Bogdangiusca, Nikai, Jiang, Smack, Lommer, CAkira, Bemoeial, RickK, Reddi, Zoicon5, Omegatron, UninvitedCompany, Rogper~enwiki, Robbot, Romanm, Cyrius, Giftlite, Wolfkeeper, Dratman, Ssd, Starsong, Yekrats, Bobblewik, Chowbok,
Utcursch, LucasVB, Gzuckier, GeoGreg, Nickptar, Mike Rosoft, Mormegil, Rich Farmbrough, Pjacobi, ArnoldReinhold, Harriv, MisterSheik, Bdieseldor, Chairboy, Army1987, Meggar, Bert Hickman, Nk, Congruence, Haham hanuka, Hooperbloob, Lornova~enwiki, Jumbuck, Atlant, Keenan Pepper, Benjah-bmm27, Wtshymanski, Apolkhanov, DV8 2XL, Gene Nygaard, Aempirei, Aidanlister, BillC, Pol098,
252
Rtdrury, Cbdorsett, CharlesC, Frankie1969, Eirikr, BD2412, Snaekid, Rjwilmsi, Joel D. Reid, FlaBot, Neonil~enwiki, Loggie, Alfred Centauri, Pewahl, Fresheneesz, Lmatt, Srleer, Antikon, Krishnavedala, Berrinam, YurikBot, Stephenb, Gaius Cornelius, Shaddack,
Rsrikanth05, NawlinWiki, Grafen, Gerben49~enwiki, Lexicon, TDogg310, Mkill, DeadEyeArrow, Bota47, Unforgiven24, Searchme,
Light current, KNfLrPnKNsT, Arthur Rubin, Nemu, Mike1024, Junglecat, SmackBot, Steve carlson, Thorseth, Eskimbot, Bernard
Franois, Gilliam, Ohnoitsjamie, Lindosland, Lovecz, Bluebot, Thumperward, Oli Filth, Papa November, Adpete, DHN-bot~enwiki,
Cfallin, Hgrosser, SundarBot, Zhinker, ServAce85, M jurrens, Kbwikipedia, DMacks, Petedarnell, TenPoundHammer, Ohconfucius,
SashatoBot, Akendall, Hefo~enwiki, FrozenMan, Copeland.James.H, Gobonobo, CyrilB, Dicklyon, Waggers, Dalstadt, Hu12, Paul Foxworthy, G-W, Chetvorno, Nczempin, Velle~enwiki, MarsRover, MaxEnt, Christian75, Ebrahim, Acronymsical, J. W. Love, Escarbot,
WikiWebbie, Guy Macon, Seaphoto, Lovibond, Salgueiro~enwiki, Myanw, JAnDbot, CosineKitty, Arch dude, Andonic, Elspec, Drhlajos,
VoABot II, Mondebleu, Hmo, Rivertorch, ShiftyDave, Cpl Syx, Vssun, Khalid Mahmood, InvertRect, Highsand, Hdt83, Glrx, Pharaoh of
the Wizards, Kar.ma, AntiSpamBot, Wikigi, Tt801, Funandtrvl, Maxzimet, Worp8d, Amaraiel, Philip Trueman, TXiKiBoT, The Original Wildbear, Vipinhari, Ulfbastel, Sankalpdravid, JayC, Dendodge, RandomXYZb, Synthebot, RaseaC, Spinningspark, AlleborgoBot,
SieBot, TYLER, Yintan, Flyer22, A. Carty, ScAvenger lv, Baseball Bugs, Lightmouse, OKBot, Maelgwnbot, Mhims, Maralia, Ascidian,
Dlrohrer2003, ClueBot, PipepBot, Wolfch, GreenSpigot, Mild Bill Hiccup, Night Goblin, Niceguyedc, Harland1, Arunsingh16, DragonBot,
No such user, Alexbot, PixelBot, Arjayay, Alertjean, AbJ32, Aitias, Superherogirl7, Berean Hunter, Elcap, Little Mountain 5, LizGere, Addbot, Manuel Trujillo Berges, Breakeydown, Ronhjones, Download, Austin RS, Tide rolls, Grandfatherclok, Lightbot, Teles, Gail, Yobot,
THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, Nallimbot, AnomieBOT, KDS4444, Gtz, Galoubet, Zangar, Kingpin13, Materialscientist, Oooh.oooh,
SvartMan, Citation bot, ArthurBot, Jlg4104, Aditya Cholan, Xqbot, Armstrong1113149, Srich32977, Munozdj, Pirateer, GrouchoBot,
Pandamonia, Even stevenson, RibotBOT, Nedim Ardoa, Immibis, GliderMaven, Rickcwalker, Prari, MetaNest, Steve Quinn, BenzolBot,
Citation bot 1, LukeB 11, Pinethicket, FearXtheXfro, Boulaur, HazardX21, Fumitol, Jauhienij, Yunshui, Meisongbei, Theo10011, Defrector, Penterwast, Mean as custard, EmausBot, John of Reading, WikitanvirBot, Wiebelfrotzer, Katherine, Enviromet, Your Lord and Master,
K6ka, Lindseyrose, Wagino 20100516, BabyBatter, ClueBot NG, Gareth Grith-Jones, Matthiaspaul, Iwsh, O.Koslowski, Widr,
, Karthik262399, Jeraphine Gryphon, AvocatoBot, Amp71, Robert the Devil, Sparkie82, Cky2250, BattyBot, Cyprien 1997, Dexbot,
Webclient101, Vahid alpha, Prateekgoyl, , Xdever, BhavdipGadhiya, SJ Defender, Dainte, Alkalite, Cameronroytaylor, Monkbot, BatManFascination, JaunJimenez, Hy1201750, Lando123456789, Mario Casteln Castro, Gkmurto, Cali0086, SageGreenRider, Nc4sb8,
KasparBot and Anonymous: 438
41.12.2
Images
File:13-07-23-kienbaum-unterdruckkammer-33.jpg
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/eb/
13-07-23-kienbaum-unterdruckkammer-33.jpg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Ralf Roletschek
File:2pi-unrolled.gif Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/67/2pi-unrolled.gif License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Pi-unrolled-720.gif Original artist: Pi-unrolled: John Reid
File:3Com_OfficeConnect_ADSL_Wireless_11g_Firewall_Router_2012-10-28-0869.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/
wikipedia/commons/c/ca/3Com_OfficeConnect_ADSL_Wireless_11g_Firewall_Router_2012-10-28-0869.jpg License: CC0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Slick
File:A591_road,_Lake_District_-_June_2009_Edit_1.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b6/A591_
road%2C_Lake_District_-_June_2009_Edit_1.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Dili
File:AOs-1s-2pz.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/86/AOs-1s-2pz.png License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:A_New_System_of_Chemical_Philosophy_fp.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/97/A_New_
System_of_Chemical_Philosophy_fp.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: En.wiki Original artist: haade
File:A_chemist_gives_a_demonstration_involving_arsenic_Wellcome_V0011761.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/
wikipedia/commons/5/5a/A_chemist_gives_a_demonstration_involving_arsenic_Wellcome_V0011761.jpg License:
CC BY 2.0
Contributors: http://wellcomeimages.org/indexplus/image/V0011761.html Original artist: ?
File:Activation_energy.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/Activation_energy.svg License:
righted free use Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
Copy-
File:Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bf/Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.

jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Frank Vincentz
File:Alessandro_Volta.jpeg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/52/Alessandro_Volta.jpeg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.anthroposophie.net/bibliothek/nawi/physik/volta/bib_volta.htm Original artist: ?
File:Amalgam.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/37/Amalgam.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
own photo, orginially uploaded as w:de:Bild:Amalgam.jpg Original artist: Ulrich Birkho
File:Ambox_contradict.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2e/Ambox_contradict.svg License: Public domain Contributors: self-made using Image:Emblem-contradict.svg Original artist: penubag, Rugby471
File:Ambox_important.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work, based o of Image:Ambox scales.svg Original artist: Dsmurat (talk contribs)
File:Ampere-def-en.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f7/Ampere-def-en.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: This vector image was created with Inkscape. Original artist: Danmichaelo
File:Amperemeter_hg.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3d/Amperemeter_hg.jpg License: CC BY 3.0
Contributors: own work, Schulhistorische Sammlung Bremerhaven Original artist: Hannes Grobe (<a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/
wiki/User_talk:Hgrobe' title='User talk:Hgrobe'>talk</a>)
File:An_Experiment_on_a_Bird_in_an_Air_Pump_by_Joseph_Wright_of_Derby,_1768.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.
org/wikipedia/commons/2/22/An_Experiment_on_a_Bird_in_an_Air_Pump_by_Joseph_Wright_of_Derby%2C_1768.jpg
License:
Public domain Contributors: National Gallery, London Original artist: Joseph Wright of Derby
253
File:Annotated_Scafel_Pike_Panorama.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/52/Annotated_Scafel_Pike_

Panorama.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by User:Pjahr using
CommonsHelper.
Original artist: Anon user (talk). Original uploader was Anon user at en.wikipedia
File:Antoine_lavoisier_color.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6c/Antoine_lavoisier_color.jpg License:
Public domain Contributors: Courtesy of Chemical Achievers Original artist: Louis Jean Desire Delaistre, after Boilly
File:Aplikimi_i_feriteve.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/27/Aplikimi_i_feriteve.png License: CC BYSA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: FIEK-Kompjuterike
File:Apollo_Command_Service_Module_in_vacuum_chamber.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/df/
Apollo_Command_Service_Module_in_vacuum_chamber.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.archive.org/details/
S68-34803 Original artist: NASA
File:Arsenic_alchemical_symbol.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fb/Arsenic_alchemical_symbol.svg
License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Bryan Derksen
File:ArsenobetainePIC.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a3/ArsenobetainePIC.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: The original uploader was V8rik at English Wikipedia
File:Asterisks_one.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/49/Asterisks_one.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: DePiep
File:Asterisks_one_(right).svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1c/Asterisks_one_%28right%29.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: DePiep
File:Asterisks_two.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3f/Asterisks_two.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: DePiep
File:AtmosphCirc2.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cd/AtmosphCirc2.png License: CC-BY-SA-3.0
Contributors: Own work Original artist: DWindrim
File:Atmosphere_gas_proportions.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7a/Atmosphere_gas_proportions.
svg License: Public domain Contributors: Vectorized version of w:Image:Atmosphere gas proportions.gif (originally by Brockert). I SVG'd
it a) to make it more international (chemical symbols) b) to make it (hopefully) clearer when rendered as a thumbnail and c) to make it
easier to modify. Original artist: Mysid
File:Atmosphere_model.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/de/Atmosphere_model.png License: CC-BYSA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Atmospheric_Temperature_Trend.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/c/ce/Atmospheric_Temperature_
Trend.jpg License: PD Contributors:
NASA Ocial website, [1]. Original artist:
NASA image created by Jesse Allen, using data provided courtesy of Remote Sensing Systems. Caption information courtesy Carl Mears,
Remote Sensing Systems, and Paul Newman and Joel Susskind NASA Goddard Space Flight Center.
File:Atmospheric_Water_Vapor_Mean.2005.030.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a0/Atmospheric_
Water_Vapor_Mean.2005.030.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://modis-atmos.gsfc.nasa.gov/IMAGES/MOD08D3H/
_BROWSE_FIXEDSCALE/2005.030/Atmospheric_Water_Vapor_Mean.2005.030.jpg Original artist: NASA MODIS personnel
File:Atmospheric_electromagnetic_opacity.svg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/34/Atmospheric_
electromagnetic_opacity.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Vectorized by User:Mysid in Inkscape, original NASA image from
File:Atmospheric electromagnetic transmittance or opacity.jpg. Original artist: NASA (original); SVG by Mysid.
File:Atomic_number_Atomic_weight.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fb/Atomic_number_Atomic_
weight.jpg License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Lhunter2099
File:Aura_OMI_Nitrogen_dioxide_troposphere_column.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b3/Aura_
OMI_Nitrogen_dioxide_troposphere_column.png License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Giorgiogp2
File:Azobenzene_isomerization_de.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/22/Azobenzene_isomerization_
de.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Yikrazuul
File:Baeyer-Villiger-Oxidation-V1.svg
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3c/
Baeyer-Villiger-Oxidation-V1.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Faynara
File:Baro_0.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bf/Baro_0.png License: Public domain Contributors:
Image:Baro_1.png, modied, uploaded by User:Saperaud who in turn uploaded into Commons an image loaded in fr.wiki by Jean-Jacques
MILAN Original artist: Ruben Castelnuovo (Ub)
File:Barometer_mercury_column_hg.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b9/Barometer_mercury_
column_hg.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Hannes Grobe 19:02, 3 September 2006 (UTC)
File:BateriaR14.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/02/BateriaR14.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:BlankMap-World6_steradian.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/49/BlankMap-World6_steradian.
svg License: Public domain Contributors: This le was derived from BlankMap-World6.svg: <a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:
BlankMap-World6.svg' class='image'><img alt='BlankMap-World6.svg' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/
0/03/BlankMap-World6.svg/50px-BlankMap-World6.svg.png' width='50' height='26' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/thumb/0/03/BlankMap-World6.svg/75px-BlankMap-World6.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/
thumb/0/03/BlankMap-World6.svg/100px-BlankMap-World6.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='863' data-le-height='443' /></a>
Original artist: BlankMap-World6.svg: Canuckguy (talk) and many others (see File history)
File:Bohr_atom_animation_2.gif Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/17/Bohr_atom_animation_2.gif License:
CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Kurzon
254
File:Boron_chart.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/90/Boron_chart.png License: CC-BY-3.0 Contributors:

Own work
Original artist:
Jacob_S-589 (talk) (Uploads)
File:Buckminsterfullerene-perspective-3D-balls.png
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0f/
Buckminsterfullerene-perspective-3D-balls.png License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Benjah-bmm27
File:Carson_Fall_Mt_Kinabalu.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/57/Carson_Fall_Mt_Kinabalu.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Sze Sze SOO
File:Charles_and_Gay-Lussac{}s_Law_animated.gif Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e4/Charles_and_
Gay-Lussac%27s_Law_animated.gif License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/K-12/airplane/aglussac.html
Original artist: NASAs Glenn Research Center
File:Chemical_precipitation_diagram.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/78/Chemical_precipitation_
diagram.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Vectorized by ZooFari; raster by ZabMilenko
File:Chemical_reactions.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dc/Chemical_reactions.svg License: CC BYSA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Aushulz
File:Choke_electronic_component_Epcos_2x47mH_600mA_common_mode.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/4/43/Choke_electronic_component_Epcos_2x47mH_600mA_common_mode.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Photographed by Mike1024 Original artist: Mike1024
File:Circle_radians.gif Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4e/Circle_radians.gif License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Lucas V. Barbosa
File:Claife_Station.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/30/Claife_Station.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Coefficient_dilatation_lineique_aciers.svg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b2/Coefficient_
dilatation_lineique_aciers.svg License: CC0 Contributors: Own work, data from OTUA Original artist: Cdang
File:Coefficient_dilatation_volumique_isobare_PP_semicristallin_Tait.svg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/6/6e/Coefficient_dilatation_volumique_isobare_PP_semicristallin_Tait.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work
Original artist: Cdang
File:Combustion_reaction_of_methane.jpg Source:
of_methane.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7c/Combustion_reaction_
Methane-3D-space-lling.svg Original artist:

Jynto
File:Common-salt.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/Common-salt.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Edal Anton Lefterov
File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Original
artist: ?
File:Comparison_US_standard_atmosphere_1962.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9d/Comparison_
US_standard_atmosphere_1962.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Cmglee
File:Coniston_Water_from_Holme_Fell.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cd/Coniston_Water_from_
Holme_Fell.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Cope_Rearrangement_Scheme.png Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/15/Cope_Rearrangement_
Scheme.png License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:CoregonusVandesius.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f2/CoregonusVandesius.jpg License: Public
domain Contributors: Guide to the galleries of reptiles and shes of the British Museum Original artist: W H Flower
File:Crookes_tube_two_views.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bf/Crookes_tube_two_views.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 at Contributors: File:Crookes tube-not in use-lateral view-standing cross prPNr07.jpg and File:Crookes tube-in
use-lateral view-standing cross prPNr11.jpg Original artist: D-Kuru
File:Crystal_energy.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/14/Crystal_energy.svg License: LGPL Contributors: Own work conversion of Image:Crystal_128_energy.png Original artist: Dhateld
File:Cut_through_turbomolecular_pump.jpg
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Cut_through_
turbomolecular_pump.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Liquidat
File:Dalton{}s_law_of_partial_pressures.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8e/Dalton%27s_law_of_
partial_pressures.png License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Max Dodge
File:Dalton_John_Chantrey_bust.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Dalton_John_Chantrey_bust.
jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Frontispiece of Memoirs of the Life and Scientic Researches of John Dalton by William Charles
Henry Original artist: William Charles Henry (author)
File:Dalton_John_profile.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/37/Dalton_John_profile.jpg License: Public
domain Contributors: Frontispiece of John Dalton (book) Original artist: John Price Millington (author), James Stephenson, artist, 1828 1886
File:Daltons_symbols.gif Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/39/Daltons_symbols.gif License: Public domain
Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Decay_Chain(4n+1,_Neptunium_Series).svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/35/Decay_Chain%
284n%2B1%2C_Neptunium_Series%29.svg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: (2003). "The NUBASE Ealuation of Nuclear and Decay Properties". Nuclear Physics A 729: 3128. DOI:10.1016/j.nuclphysa.2003.11.001. Original artist: BatesIsBack
255
File:Decay_Chain_Thorium.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/25/Decay_Chain_Thorium.svg License:

CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Decay_Chain_of_Thorium.svg Original artist: http://commons.
wikimedia.org/wiki/User:BatesIsBack
File:Decay_Chain_of_Actinium.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/93/Decay_Chain_of_Actinium.svg
License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Edgar Bonet
File:Decay_chain(4n+2,_Uranium_series).svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Decay_chain%284n%
2B2%2C_Uranium_series%29.svg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: File:Decay chain(4n+2, Uranium series).PNG Original artist: User:
Tosaka
File:Degree-Radian_Conversion.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9a/Degree-Radian_Conversion.svg
License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Inductiveload
File:Dehnungsfuge.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Dehnungsfuge.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0
File:Derwent_Water,_Keswick_-_June_2009.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/eb/Derwent_Water%
2C_Keswick_-_June_2009.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Dili
File:Diels_Alder_Mechanismus.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6a/Diels_Alder_Mechanismus.svg
License: Public domain Contributors: Own work (Original text: Roland1952) Original artist: Roland1952 at German Wikipedia
File:Diels_Alder_Orbitale.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2b/Diels_Alder_Orbitale.svg License: CC
BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Roland1952 Original artist: Roland Mattern
File:Drikkeglas_med_brud-1.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/eb/Drikkeglas_med_brud-1.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Arc1977
File:Drosselspule_im_Umspannwerk_Bisamberg.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8a/Drosselspule_
im_Umspannwerk_Bisamberg.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Mario Sedlak (<a href='//commons.
wikimedia.org/wiki/User_talk:Mario_Sedlak' title='User talk:Mario Sedlak'>talk</a>)
File:E1-mechanism.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/76/E1-mechanism.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: Own work Original artist: Matthias M.
File:E1cb-mechanism.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/34/E1cb-mechanism.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Matthias M.
File:E2-mechanism.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/61/E2-mechanism.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: Own work Original artist: Matthias M.
File:Earth{}s_atmosphere.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8c/Earth%27s_atmosphere.svg License:
CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Kelvinsong
File:Earth_Eclipses_Sun-ap12-s80-37406.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cd/Earth_Eclipses_
Sun-ap12-s80-37406.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/gallery/images/apollo/apollo12/html/
s80-37406.html Original artist: Apollo 12 crew
File:Electronic_component_inductors.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a1/Electronic_component_
inductors.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Photograph Original artist: me
File:Electronic_multi_meter.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/Electronic_multi_meter.jpg License:
GFDL 1.2 Contributors: Own work Original artist:
r0002 | agstaotos.com.au
File:Electrophilic_aromatic_substitution.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e1/Electrophilic_aromatic_
substitution.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Yikrazuul
File:Endeavour_silhouette_STS-130.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6b/Endeavour_silhouette_
STS-130.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/gallery/images/shuttle/sts-130/html/iss022e062672.html
http://www.nasa.gov/multimedia/imagegallery/image_feature_1592.html Original artist: NASA/Crew of Expedition 22
File:Ethanol-3D-balls.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b0/Ethanol-3D-balls.png License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Fell_pony.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/25/Fell_pony.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors:
originally posted to Flickr as fell pony Original artist: Paul
File:Ferrite_bead_no_shell.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/58/Ferrite_bead_no_shell.jpg License: CC
BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Taken by User:Omegatron using a Canon Powershot SD110 Original artist: Omegatron
File:Ferrite_slug_tuned_inductor_with_pot_core.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/08/Ferrite_slug_
tuned_inductor_with_pot_core.JPG License: CC0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Chetvorno
File:Ferrocene-from-xtal-3D-balls.png
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7a/
Ferrocene-from-xtal-3D-balls.png License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Ben Mills
File:Flag_of_North_West_England.svg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a8/Flag_of_North_West_
England.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons by SreeBot. Original artist: Lexicon at
en.wikipedia
File:Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg License: Cc-bysa-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Forestry_on_Harter_Fell.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b8/Forestry_on_Harter_Fell.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
256
File:GHS-pictogram-acid.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a1/GHS-pictogram-acid.svg License: Public

domain Contributors: EPS le acid.eps from UNECE web site converted with ImageMagick convert and with potrace, edited in inkscape
Original artist: Unknown
File:GHS-pictogram-bottle.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6a/GHS-pictogram-bottle.svg License:
Public domain Contributors: EPS le bottle.eps from UNECE web site converted with ImageMagick convert and with potrace, edited
in inkscape Original artist: Unknown
File:GHS-pictogram-rondflam.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e5/GHS-pictogram-rondflam.svg License: Public domain Contributors: EPS le rondam.eps from UNECE web site converted with ImageMagick convert and with potrace,
edited and ame redrawn in inkscape Original artist: Unknown
File:GHS-pictogram-silhouette.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/GHS-pictogram-silhouette.svg License: Public domain Contributors: EPS le silhouete.eps from UNECE web site converted with ImageMagick convert and with potrace,
edited in inkscape Original artist: Unknown
File:GHS-pictogram-skull.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/58/GHS-pictogram-skull.svg License: Public domain Contributors: EPS le skull.eps from UNECE web site converted with ImageMagick convert and with potrace, edited in inkscape
Original artist: Unknown
File:Geiger-Marsden_experiment_expectation_and_result.svg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f9/
Geiger-Marsden_experiment_expectation_and_result.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Kurzon
File:Glenridding,_Cumbria,_England_-_June_2009.jpg
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/55/
Glenridding%2C_Cumbria%2C_England_-_June_2009.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Dili
File:Gluehlampe_01_KMJ.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3a/Gluehlampe_01_KMJ.jpg License: CCBY-SA-3.0 Contributors: de.wikipedia, original upload 26 Jun 2004 by de:Benutzer:KMJ Original artist: KMJ
File:H-Add-El.Mechanismus.PNG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/34/H-Add-El.Mechanismus.PNG License: Public domain Contributors: selbst erstellt mit ChemDraw 8.0 Original artist: Eschenmoser
File:HBr-Addition.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a5/HBr-Addition.png License: Public domain Contributors: selbst erstellt mit ChemDraw 8.0 Original artist: Eschenmoser
File:Hand_pump.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/af/Hand_pump.png License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Haweswater_from_Harter_Fell_3.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/30/Haweswater_from_
Harter_Fell_3.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Hazard_O.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ad/Hazard_O.svg License: Public domain Contributors:
? Original artist: ?
File:Hazard_TT.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/86/Hazard_TT.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Helium_atom_QM.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/23/Helium_atom_QM.svg License: CC-BYSA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Yzmo
File:Helmet_logo_for_Underwater_Diving_portal.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5e/Helmet_logo_
for_Underwater_Diving_portal.png License: Public domain Contributors: This le was derived from Kask-nurka.jpg: <a
href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Kask-nurka.jpg' class='image'><img alt='Kask-nurka.jpg' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/
wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Kask-nurka.jpg/50px-Kask-nurka.jpg' width='50' height='70' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/
wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Kask-nurka.jpg/75px-Kask-nurka.jpg 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/
0/0a/Kask-nurka.jpg/100px-Kask-nurka.jpg 2x' data-le-width='981' data-le-height='1371' /></a>
Original artist: Kask-nurka.jpg: User:Julo
File:Herdwick_sheep_crop.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/6/6b/Herdwick_sheep_crop.jpg License: Cc-by-sa3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Hf_spoler_og_transformatorer.jpg
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e4/Hf_spoler_og_
transformatorer.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Transferred from da.wikipedia Original artist: Original uploader was
Glenn at da.wikipedia
File:ISS003-ESC-6152.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/de/ISS003-ESC-6152.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/IOTD/view.php?id=1920 - NASA image number ISS003E6152 Original artist: NASA
astronaut aboard the International Space Station
File:IUPAC_Periodic_Table_of_the_Elements_2011.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/61/IUPAC_
Periodic_Table_of_the_Elements_2011.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://media.iupac.org/reports/periodic_table/IUPAC_
Periodic_Table-21Jan11.pdf Original artist: IUPAC
File:Induced_fit_diagram.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/Induced_fit_diagram.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Provided by TimVickers Original artist: Created by TimVickers, vectorized by Fvasconcellos
File:Inductor.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5e/Inductor.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ?
Original artist: ?
File:Inductor.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4b/Inductor.svg License: Public domain Contributors:
Made in Inkscape 0.43 from scratch Original artist: Jjbeard
File:InductorSignalFilter1.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/2/2f/InductorSignalFilter1.png License: CC-BY-3.0
File:InductorSignalFilter2.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d7/InductorSignalFilter2.png License: CC-BY-3.0
257
File:Inductors_in_parallel.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e8/Inductors_in_parallel.svg License: CC

BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: This SVG electrical schematic was created with the Electrical Symbols Library. Original artist: Omegatron
File:Inductors_in_series.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/ff/Inductors_in_series.svg License: CC BYSA 3.0 Contributors: This SVG electrical schematic was created with the Electrical Symbols Library. Original artist: Omegatron
File:Isotopes_and_half-life.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/80/Isotopes_and_half-life.svg License:
Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: BenRG
File:JJ_Thomson_Cathode_Ray_2_explained.svg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a3/JJ_Thomson_
Cathode_Ray_2_explained.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Kurzon
File:JJ_Thomson_Crookes_Tube_Replica.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7d/JJ_Thomson_
Crookes_Tube_Replica.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Kurzon
File:James_Joule_statue_Manchester_City_Hall_20051020.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f9/
James_Joule_statue_Manchester_City_Hall_20051020.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: No machine readable source provided.
Own work assumed (based on copyright claims). Original artist: No machine readable author provided. Kaihsu assumed (based on
copyright claims).
File:James_Prescott_Joule_gravestone.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/95/James_Prescott_Joule_
gravestone.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: digital camera Original artist: Glaukon
File:John_Dalton_Signature_c1827.svg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2c/John_Dalton_Signature_
c1827.svg License: Public domain Contributors: John Rylands University Library, Manchester Original artist: John Dalton
Created in vector format by Scewing
File:John_Dalton_by_Charles_Turner.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d4/John_Dalton_by_Charles_

Turner.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This image is available from the United States Library of Congress's Prints and Photographs
division under the digital ID cph.3b12511.
This tag does not indicate the copyright status of the attached work. A normal copyright tag is still required. See Commons:Licensing for more information.
Original artist: Charles Turner

File:John_Dalton_by_Thomas_Phillips,_1835.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/00/John_Dalton_by_
Thomas_Phillips%2C_1835.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: National Portrait Gallery, London Original artist: Thomas Phillips
File:John_Dalton_statue_Manchester_City_Hall_20051020.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9e/
John_Dalton_statue_Manchester_City_Hall_20051020.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: No machine readable source provided.
Own work assumed (based on copyright claims). Original artist: No machine readable author provided. Kaihsu assumed (based on
copyright claims).
File:Joule{}s_Apparatus_(Harper{}s_Scan).png Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c3/Joule%27s_
Apparatus_%28Harper%27s_Scan%29.png License: Public domain Contributors: Harpers New Monthly Magazine, No. 231, August,
1869. Original artist: Unknown
File:Joule{}s_heat_apparatus.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/29/Joule%27s_heat_apparatus.JPG
License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Joule_James_Jeens_engraving.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/41/Joule_James_Jeens_
engraving.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Nature, volume 26, facing page 616 (October, 1882) Original artist: C. H. Jeens
File:Joule_James_sitting.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0f/Joule_James_sitting.jpg License: Public
domain Contributors: The Life & Experiences of Sir Henry Eneld Roscoe (Macmillan: London and New York), p. 120 Original artist:
Henry Roscoe
File:Jupiter_3rd_spot.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b8/Jupiter_3rd_spot.jpg License: Public domain
Contributors: New Red Spot Appears on Jupiter. Original artist: University of California, Berkeley
File:Keswick_Panorama_-_Oct_2009.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ab/Keswick_Panorama_-_
Oct_2009.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Dili
File:Kolbenluftpumpe_hg.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bf/Kolbenluftpumpe_hg.jpg License: CC
BY 3.0 Contributors: own work, Schulhistorische Sammlung Bremerhaven Original artist: Hannes Grobe (<a href='//commons.wikimedia.
org/wiki/User_talk:Hgrobe' title='User talk:Hgrobe'>talk</a>)
File:Kreuzwickelspule.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/69/Kreuzwickelspule.png License: Public domain Contributors: http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datei:Kreuzwickelspule.png Original artist: de:User:PeterFrankfurt
File:L-Pumpe2.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b3/L-Pumpe2.png License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Lake_District_Map.PNG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1d/Lake_District_Map.PNG License: CCBY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Lake_District_near_Torver.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3f/Lake_District_near_Torver.jpg
License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Law_of_combining_volumes.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4b/Law_of_combining_volumes.
svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: DennisM
File:Leeds_and_Northrup_one_ohm_standard_resistance.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ef/
Leeds_and_Northrup_one_ohm_standard_resistance.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.hawkinsonline.org/ Original
artist: original uploader was
File:Linear_visible_spectrum.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d9/Linear_visible_spectrum.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Gringer
File:Linia_dilato.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dc/Linia_dilato.png License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Walber
258
File:Luminosity.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a0/Luminosity.png License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia; transfer was stated to be made by User:Ashishbhatnagar72. Original artist: Original uploader was
Dicklyon at en.wikipedia
File:Major_greenhouse_gas_trends.png Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bb/Major_greenhouse_gas_
trends.png License: Public domain Contributors: NOAA (http://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/aggi/) Original artist: US Govt
File:Maximum_thermometer_close_up_2.JPG
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d0/Maximum_
thermometer_close_up_2.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:McLeod_gauge_01.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e7/McLeod_gauge_01.jpg License: CC BY
2.5 Contributors:
McLeod_gauge.jpg Original artist: McLeod_gauge.jpg: Ytrottier
File:Mercury-27128.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/74/Mercury-27128.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: http://www.mindat.org/photo-27128.html Original artist: Rob Lavinsky / iRocks.com
File:Mercury_Switch_without_housing.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/53/Mercury_Switch_
without_housing.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Medvedev
File:Mercury_discharge_tube.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/95/Mercury_discharge_tube.jpg License: FAL Contributors: Own work Original artist: Alchemist-hp (<a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User_talk:Alchemist-hp'
title='User talk:Alchemist-hp'>talk</a>) (www.pse-mendelejew.de)
File:Mercury_in_Ice_Core_Upper_Fremont_Glacier.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/12/Mercury_
in_Ice_Core_Upper_Fremont_Glacier.svg License: Public domain Contributors: http://toxics.usgs.gov/pubs/FS-051-02/pdf/fs-051-02.
pdf Original artist: U.S. Geological Survey
File:Mercury_output2.PNG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/81/Mercury_output2.PNG License: Public
domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Anwar saadat
File:Mercury_symbol.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2e/Mercury_symbol.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: Own work Original artist: Lexicon
File:Mineraly.sk_-_realgar.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a1/Mineraly.sk_-_realgar.jpg License: CC
BY 2.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:MontreGousset001.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/45/MontreGousset001.jpg License: CC-BYSA-3.0 Contributors: Self-published work by ZA Original artist: Isabelle Grosjean ZA
File:Moon_Limb_&_Troposphere.JPG
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7f/Moon_Limb_%26_
Troposphere.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: The Gateway To Astronaut Photography Of Earth Original artist: ISS Expedition
28 crew
File:N2O_Medical_Tanks.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ce/N2O_Medical_Tanks.jpg License: Attribution Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia Original artist: Photographer: William Rafti of the William Rafti Institute Original
uploader was Rafti Institute at en.wikipedia
File:N2O_cracker.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a3/N2O_cracker.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: GreenZeb
File:N2O_whippets.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/60/N2O_whippets.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: Own work Original artist: GreenZeb
File:NISTvoltChip.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/16/NISTvoltChip.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:NO2-N2O4.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8b/NO2-N2O4.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: en:Image:N02-N2O4.jpg Original artist: en:User:Greenhorn1
File:National_Parks_in_England_and_Wales.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e5/National_Parks_
in_England_and_Wales.png License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: wikipedia:en Original artist: Keith Edkins
File:Native_arsenic.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8b/Native_arsenic.jpg License: Public domain
Contributors: Own work Original artist: Aram Dulyan (User:Aramgutang)
File:Ndslivechart.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b0/Ndslivechart.png License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Minivip
File:Nitrogen-dioxide-2D-dimensions-vector.svg
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6e/
Nitrogen-dioxide-2D-dimensions-vector.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Zirguezi
File:Nitrogen-dioxide-3D-vdW.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1a/Nitrogen-dioxide-3D-vdW.png
License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Benjah-bmm27
File:Nitrogen_dioxide_at_different_temperatures.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/60/Nitrogen_
dioxide_at_different_temperatures.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Eframgoldberg
File:Nitrous-oxide-2D-VB.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d4/Nitrous-oxide-2D-VB.svg License:
Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: WhiteTimberwolf, Ben Mills (PNG version)
File:Nitrous-oxide-3D-balls.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/93/Nitrous-oxide-3D-balls.png License:
Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Ben Mills
File:Nitrous-oxide-3D-vdW.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1a/Nitrous-oxide-3D-vdW.png License:
Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Ben Mills
File:Nitrous-oxide-dimensions-3D-balls.png
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1a/
Nitrous-oxide-dimensions-3D-balls.png License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Ben Mills
259
File:Nitrous_oxide_production.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/60/Nitrous_oxide_production.png License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: KVDP
File:Nobel_Prize.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/e/ed/Nobel_Prize.png License: ? Contributors:
Derivative of File:NobelPrize.JPG Original artist:
Photograph: JonathunderMedal: Erik Lindberg (1873-1966)
File:Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg License:
LGPL Contributors: http://ftp.gnome.org/pub/GNOME/sources/gnome-themes-extras/0.9/gnome-themes-extras-0.9.0.tar.gz Original
artist: David Vignoni / ICON KING
File:Office-book.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a8/Office-book.svg License: Public domain Contributors: This and myself. Original artist: Chris Down/Tango project
File:Ostwald_vant_Hoff.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/35/Ostwald_vant_Hoff.jpg License: Public
domain Contributors: Eminent Chemists of our Time Original artist: Benjamin Harrow
File:Paterno-Buchi_reaction.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/Paterno-Buchi_reaction.svg License:
Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Su-no-G
File:People_icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/37/People_icon.svg License: CC0 Contributors: OpenClipart Original artist: OpenClipart
File:Portal-puzzle.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ?
Original artist: ?
File:Pot_catalytique_vue_de_la_structure.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b2/Pot_catalytique_vue_
de_la_structure.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: The RedBurn
File:Pound-coin-floating-in-mercury.jpg
Source:
Pound-coin-floating-in-mercury.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Moved from English Wikipedia, I (Alby (talk)) created this work entirely by myself. Original artist: Alby (talk)
File:Pressure_exerted_by_collisions.svg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/94/Pressure_exerted_by_
collisions.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work, see http://www.becarlson.com/ Original artist: Becarlson
File:Pressure_force_area.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/ff/Pressure_force_area.svg License: CC BYSA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Klaus-Dieter Keller
File:Question_book-new.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/99/Question_book-new.svg License: Cc-by-sa-3.0
Contributors:
Created from scratch in Adobe Illustrator. Based on Image:Question book.png created by User:Equazcion Original artist:
Tkgd2007
File:Radian-common.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5a/Radian-common.svg License: CC-BY-SA3.0 Contributors: en:Image:Radian-common.png Original artist: Traced by User:Stannered
File:Radioactive_decay_chains_diagram.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/62/Radioactive_decay_
chains_diagram.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Johantheghost
File:Rail_buckle.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b8/Rail_buckle.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: The original uploader was Trainwatcher at English Wikipedia
File:Red_squirrels_warning_signs,_Lake_District.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3c/Red_
squirrels_warning_signs%2C_Lake_District.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: A useful factoid - red squirrels are slow drivers
Original artist: Edward Simpson from London, England
File:Redox_reaction.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ee/Redox_reaction.png License: Public domain
Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: Bensaccount at English Wikipedia
File:Resistor_shaped_Inductors.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/f1/Resistor_shaped_Inductors.png License:
CC-BY-3.0 Contributors:
photo
Original artist:
Vahid alpha
File:Rhombohedral.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/03/Rhombohedral.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0
Contributors: Image:Rhombohedral.png Original artist: Created by Daniel Mayer, traced by User:Stannered
File:Rollspule.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2c/Rollspule.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors:
Own work Original artist: HBD20
File:Roxarsone.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/20/Roxarsone.png License: Public domain Contributors:
File:SI_base_units.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/38/SI_base_units.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:SI_base_unit.svg Original artist: en:user:Dono
File:SN1_reaction_mechanism.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bb/SN1_reaction_mechanism.png License: Public domain Contributors: Selfmade with ChemDraw. Original artist: Calvero.
File:SN2-Walden-before-and-after-horizontal-3D-balls.png Source:
SN2-Walden-before-and-after-horizontal-3D-balls.png License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Ben Mills
File:SN2_reaction_mechanism.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/39/SN2_reaction_mechanism.png License: Public domain Contributors: Selfmade with ChemDraw. Original artist: Calvero.
260
File:STEAMER_ON_ULLSWATER.jpg
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e3/STEAMER_ON_
ULLSWATER.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Sauerstoffgehalt-1000mj2.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f3/Sauerstoffgehalt-1000mj2.png License: Public domain Contributors:
Sauerstogehalt-1000mj.svg Original artist: Sauerstogehalt-1000mj.svg: LordToran
File:SbAs_lattice.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ec/SbAs_lattice.png License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Materialscientist
File:Scafell_massif.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f4/Scafell_massif.jpg License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Doug Sim
File:Simple_distillation_apparatus.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9c/Simple_distillation_apparatus.
svg License: Public domain Contributors: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/distillation Original artist: Original PNG by User:Quantockgoblin,
SVG adaptation by User:Slashme
File:Speaker_Icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Spider_coil.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a9/Spider_coil.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Spider coil(kit of w:ja:
) Original artist: ?
File:SpongeDiver.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/81/SpongeDiver.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Bryan Shrode
File:Stellarparallax_parsec1.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7d/Stellarparallax_parsec1.svg License:
Public domain Contributors: This image is an altered version of :Image:Stellarparallax2.svg, which is an SVG version of :Image:
Stellarparallax2.png. Stellarparallax2.svg was released into the public domain by its creator, Booyabazooka. Original artist: Srain at English
Wikipedia
File:Steradian.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/98/Steradian.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors:
File:Steradian_cone_and_cap.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/20/Steradian_cone_and_cap.svg License: Public domain Contributors: This vector image was created with Inkscape. Original artist: Inductiveload
File:Structure_of_the_magnetosphere-en.svg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/50/Structure_of_the_
magnetosphere-en.svg License: Public domain Contributors: http://science.nasa.gov/newhome/headlines/guntersville98/images/mag_
sketch_633.jpg Original artist: Original bitmap from NASA. SVG rendering by Aaron Kaase.
File:Stylised_Lithium_Atom.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e1/Stylised_Lithium_Atom.svg License:
CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: based o of Image:Stylised Lithium Atom.png by Halfdan. Original artist: SVG by Indolences. Recoloring
and ironing out some glitches done by Rainer Klute.
File:Sunset_from_the_ISS.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/13/Sunset_from_the_ISS.JPG License:
Public domain Contributors: NASA Earth Observatory Original artist: ISS Expedition 23 crew
File:Symbol_book_class2.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/89/Symbol_book_class2.svg License: CC
BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: Mad by Lokal_Prol by combining: Original artist: Lokal_Prol
File:Symbol_list_class.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Temperature_Pressure_law.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/84/Temperature_Pressure_law.svg
License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Evan Mason
File:Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a4/Text_document_
with_red_question_mark.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Created by bdesham with Inkscape; based upon Text-x-generic.svg
from the Tango project. Original artist: Benjamin D. Esham (bdesham)
File:The_Arsenic_Labyrinth_at_Botallack_Mine_-_geograph.org.uk_-_490315.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/
wikipedia/commons/6/68/The_Arsenic_Labyrinth_at_Botallack_Mine_-_geograph.org.uk_-_490315.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0
Contributors: From geograph.org.uk Original artist: Tony Atkin
File:The_Tongue_Valley_(looking_from_Dollywaggon_Pike),_near_Troutbeck,_Cumbria,_at_the_Lake_District_National_
Park,_United_Kingdom,_Europe_(November_2008).jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7a/The_
Tongue_Valley_%28looking_from_Dollywaggon_Pike%29%2C_near_Troutbeck%2C_Cumbria%2C_at_the_Lake_District_National_
Park%2C_United_Kingdom%2C_Europe_%28November_2008%29.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: From geograph.org.uk
Original artist: Michael Graham
File:ThermiteReaction.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5b/ThermiteReaction.jpg License: CC BY-SA
3.0 Contributors: Own work - also at Flickr Original artist: User:Nikthestunned (Wikipedia)
File:Thirleme_069.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1c/Thirleme_069.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: StaraBlazkova
File:Thomas_Thomson.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c2/Thomas_Thomson.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.electricscotland.com/history/men/thomson_thomas1.htm Original artist: ?
File:Top_of_Atmosphere.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/be/Top_of_Atmosphere.jpg License: Public
domain Contributors: http://eol.jsc.nasa.gov/scripts/sseop/photo.pl?mission=ISS013&roll=E&frame=54329 Original artist: NASA Earth
Observatory
File:Transmitter_tank_coil.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b0/Transmitter_tank_coil.jpg License:
Public domain Contributors: Downloaded July 22,2013 from <a data-x-rel='nofollow' class='external text' href='http://books.google.
com/books?id=KpZEAAAAIAAJ,,&,,pg=PA269,,&,,dq=%22double+helix+oscillation+transformer'>The
Principles Underlying Radio Communication, National Bureau of Standards radio pamphlet no. 40, US Signal Corps. December 10, 1918,
US Government Printing Oce p. 372, g. 197</a> on Google Books Original artist: Unknown
261
File:Transmitter_tank_inductor.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ac/Transmitter_tank_inductor.jpg

License: Public domain Contributors: Retrieved March 12, 2014 from <a data-x-rel='nofollow' class='external text' href='http://www.
americanradiohistory.com/Archive-Radio-News/30s/Radio-News-1938-05-R.pdf'>Radio News magazine, Zi-Davis Publishing Co.,
Chicago, Vol. 20, No. 11, May 1938, p. 31</a> American Radio History website Original artist: Unknown
File:Transparent.gif Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ce/Transparent.gif License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Edokter
File:Trimethylarsine-2D.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b0/Trimethylarsine-2D.png License: Public
domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Benjah-bmm27
File:Two_ferrite_beads.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ed/Two_ferrite_beads.jpg License: CC BY 2.0
Contributors: http://flickr.com/photos/oskay/437342545/ Original artist: http://flickr.com/photos/oskay/
File:Vacuum_fluctuations_revealed_through_spontaneous_parametric_down-conversion.ogv Source: https://upload.wikimedia.
org/wikipedia/commons/6/64/Vacuum_fluctuations_revealed_through_spontaneous_parametric_down-conversion.ogv License: CC BYSA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Denysbondar
File:Variometer.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9f/Variometer.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Downloaded April 30, 2013 from <a data-x-rel='nofollow' class='external text' href='http://books.google.com/books?id=
1YtRAAAAMAAJ,,&,,pg=PA189#v=onepage,,&,,q,,&,,f=false'>Elmer Eustace Bucher
(1920) The Wireless Experimenters Manual, Wireless Press, Inc., New York, p. 189, g. 150a</a> on Google Books Original artist:
Unknown
File:Velp-thermitewelding-1.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/82/Velp-thermitewelding-1.jpg License:
Public domain Contributors: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Velp-thermitewelding-1.jpg Original artist: Skatebiker
File:Venustransit_2004-06-08_07-44.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/30/Venustransit_2004-06-08_
07-44.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Vorschaltdrossel_Kvg.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f2/Vorschaltdrossel_Kvg.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from de.wikipedia to Commons by Wdwd using CommonsHelper. Original artist: Ulfbastel at German
Wikipedia
File:Walden-inversion-3D-balls.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bb/Walden-inversion-3D-balls.png
License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Ben Mills
File:Wasdale_screes.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f0/Wasdale_screes.jpg License: CC BY-SA 4.0
Contributors: Own work Original artist: Dougsim
File:Watching_the_Earth_Breathe.ogv Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/03/Watching_the_Earth_Breathe.
ogv License: Public domain Contributors: Goddard Multimedia Original artist: NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center
File:Water_vapor_pressure_graph.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/25/Water_vapor_pressure_graph.
jpg License: CC BY 2.5 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Watervapor_cup.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/37/Watervapor_cup.jpg License: CC-BY-SA3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Westmorland_cairn_Great_Gable.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/35/Westmorland_cairn_
Great_Gable.jpg License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Doug Sim
File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg License:
CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors:
Wiki_letter_w.svg Original artist: Wiki_letter_w.svg: Jarkko Piiroinen
File:Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.
svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Bastique, User:Ramac et al.
File:Wikiquote-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg License: Public domain
File:Wikisource-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: Rei-artur Original artist: Nicholas Moreau
File:Wiktionary-logo-en.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f8/Wiktionary-logo-en.svg License: Public
domain Contributors: Vector version of Image:Wiktionary-logo-en.png. Original artist: Vectorized by Fvasconcellos (talk contribs),
based on original logo tossed together by Brion Vibber
File:Wilhelm_Ostwald.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d7/Wilhelm_Ostwald.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:William_Smith_geological_map_of_Cumberland.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e3/William_
Smith_geological_map_of_Cumberland.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Scan by User:Geoz, 2005. Some image editing by Jo
Original artist: drwan by en:William Smith, scan by User:Geoz, 2005. Some image editing by Jo, 2008
File:World_Arsenic_Production_2006.svg
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/be/World_Arsenic_
Production_2006.svg License: Public domain Contributors: BlankMap-World6,_compact.svg Original artist: Schtone
File:X_mark.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a2/X_mark.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own
work Original artist: User:Gmaxwell
File:Yes_check.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/fb/Yes_check.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:_Lake_District_National_Park_UK_location_map.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ae/Lake_
District_National_Park_UK_location_map.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Oce of National Statistics Geography Original
artist: Nilfanion, created using Ordnance Survey data
41.12.3
Content license
Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0

Kimia Info

Hochgeladen von

Dokumentinformationen

Originaltitel

Copyright

Verfügbare Formate

Dieses Dokument teilen

Dokument teilen oder einbetten

Freigabeoptionen

Stufen Sie dieses Dokument als nützlich ein?

Sind diese Inhalte unangemessen?

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

Kimia Info

Hochgeladen von

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

chemistry 1

Measuring mountains in the Lake District . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Disability and death . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.12 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Discovery of subatomic particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Discovery of the nucleus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

First steps toward a quantum physical model of the atom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Discovery of nuclear particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Lake District National Park . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Agriculture and forestry

Literature and art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.10 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.12 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.13 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Classical Field Theories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Proposed extension to the National Park . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Relative versus absolute measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Measurements relative to 1 atm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Pumping and ambient air pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Eects on humans and animals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.10 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.12 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Structure of the atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Pressure and thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Temperature and speed of sound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Density and mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Evolution of Earths atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Images from space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

5.10 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Factors inuencing the rate of evaporation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Contraction eects (negative thermal expansion) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Factors aecting thermal expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Coecient of thermal expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

General volumetric thermal expansion coecient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Isobaric expansion in gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Expansion in mixtures and alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Apparent and absolute expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Examples and applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Thermal expansion coecients for various materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

7.10 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

7.12 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Explosion or deagration pressures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Surface pressure and surface tension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Pressure of an ideal gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Direction of liquid pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

8.2.10 Kinematic pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Law of combining volumes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10.2 Relation to absolute zero . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10.3 Relation to kinetic theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10.6 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

11.1.1 Physical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

11.1.2 Chemical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

11.2 Etymology and history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

11.4.1 Compounds of mercury(I) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

11.4.2 Compounds of mercury(II) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

11.4.3 Higher oxidation states . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

11.4.4 Organomercury compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

11.5.3 Laboratory uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

11.5.4 Niche uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

11.5.5 Historic uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

11.6 Toxicity and safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .