Chapter 1

An overview

tatistics, in general, means the collection and analysis of data, which are usually
numeric. The results of this analysis are then used to answer questions about the
situation to which the data pertain.

Distinction between numerical results of statistical analysis and interpretation of the results (by the researcher):
methods used in the interpretation of results are not statistical operations.
They are extra-statistical
e.g., 2 groups of boys and girls are given same standardized test wherein
girls attain, on the average, higher marks than boy. This is a statistical
conclusion. However, to provide reason for this result would be beyond
the perimeters within which the study is conducted.

It is important to be able to separate statistical conclusions from researcher-inferred

conclusions. The latter do not justifiably follow from the former. Sadly, the latter are
ones mostly remembered and cited.

Also important is to distinguish between two general branches of stat itself: descriptive
and inferential.
Descriptive statistics are used when the purpose of the research is to describe the data
that have been (or will be) collected.
e.g., proportion of girls in each basic physics class in the eng'g college.
Statistical operation to be performed is simply to count number of girls
and divide by number of students per class. simply describe data collected
Suppose, want to determine the proportion of girls in all the universities and colleges in
metro manila. highly unlikely that researcher will ever be able to (or will ever want
to) collect all the relevant data on all eng'g students from whom researcher has to draw
conclusion.
researcher will probably limit data collection and use inferential statistics to
generalize to a larger group the conclusions obtained from a smaller
group.

Chapter 1 : An overview

Inferential statistics is used when the purpose of the research is not to describe the data
that have been collected but to generalize or make inferences from it.
Smaller group on which data is collected, is called a sample
Larger group to whom conclusions are generalized to is called population
Inferential stat works on the premise that what holds true for the sample also holds true
for the population at large.
2 factors to be considered for infer stat to work:
1. method of sample selection
2. size of the sample
Only when data are collected on all individuals from whom conclusions have to made,
can the conclusion be drawn with 100% certainty.
If this is not done, then the level of certainty is sacrificed.
Thus, one of the major goals of inferential stat is to asses the degree of certainty of inference when such inferences are drawn from sample data.

VARIABLES AND CONSTANTS

Characteristics of persons or objects that vary from person to person or object to object
are called variables.
Otherwise, called constants.
Whether a characteristic is designated as a variable or a constant depends on the study
in question.
Examples:
a. Identify some of the variables and constants in a study of the math ability of second
year boys and girls in Metro Manila.
Constants : year level, place (location)
Variables : math ability, sex
b. Identify some of the variables and constants in a study of the math ability of secondary
school boys in Metro Manila.
Constants :, sex, place (location)
Variables : year level, math ability

Since constants do not vary in the population uninteresting!

Variables main focus of studies

Chapter 1 : An overview

MEASUREMENT OF VARIABLES
As a general rule, measurement involves the observation of characteristics of persons or
objects and the assignment of numbers to these characteristics for the purpose of comparison.

Nominal Level
The simplest form of observation is to perceive two objects as similar or dissimilar
e.g., short, not short
heavy, not heavy
college student, non-college student
Those objects that are perceived to be in the same class are assigned to the same
class,
And within any one class, subclasses may be defined.
e.g., male college student, female college student : subclasses within the general
class, college student
Comparison between classes or subclasses cannot be made.
i.e., one class may be different from another in a particular sense
but it is neither better nor worse
also, assignment of numbers for each class or subclass is arbitrary
meaning, for example: 1(male) is not greater than 2(female)

Ordinal Level
ordered comparison, ranking (increasing/decreasing number)
: Different numbers are assigned to different amounts of the property under observation
: The higher the number assigned to the person or object, the less (or more) of the property the person or object is observed to have
e.g., teaching ability, scale of 10 (highest) with 1 (lowest)
not true that equal numerical differences correspond to equal increments in the property
being measured (e.g., rating 10 and rating 8 is not same as rating 6 and rating 4)

Chapter 1 : An overview

Interval Level
the numbers (in the ordinal level) can be assigned in such a way that equal
numerical differences corresponds to equal increments in the property
e.g., chronological scale (a year is the time for earth to complete one revolution
around sun) :
time difference between 1997 and 1999 is same as time diff between 2000
and 2002
 hence, can make meaningful statements about the amount of difference between
points along the scale (100-50BC and 350-400AD, etc)

Ratio Level
"0" on the number scale should correspond to none of the trait being observed
(nil)
e.g., measuring height, assign value "0" on the number scale to "not any" height and assign other numbers in the scale as in the interval scale
such that if a height is 6ft, it is twice the height of a 3footer person

Choosing a scale of measurement

Why is it important to categorize the scales of measurement as nominal, ordinal, interval or ratio?
the scale of measurement dictates which numerical operations, when applied
to the numbers of the scale,
can be expected to yield results that are meaningful in
terms of the underlying trait
being measured.

Scales of measurement exhibit natural hierarchy: (each

level exhibits all the properties of those below it)
1. ratio
2. interval
3. ordinal
4. nominal
Any characteristic that can be measured on one scale can also be measured on any scale
falling below it.

Chapter 1 : An overview

e.g., height
perfect ruler, can determine relative heights of people
no measuring instrument, small, medium tall can be used

Measurements should be done in the highest level possible. Most accurate. No information lost.

Discrete and Continuous Variables/ Quantitative and Categorical Variables

variables (numeric) takes on integral values, otherwise, continuous. But due to limitations of measuring instruments,
continuous variables are often
expressed as integers (e.g., linear dimensions, IQ, weights,
etc)

 no clear cut rule on determining whether variables are

discrete or continuous.

Example: Identify the level of measurement (nominal, ordinal, interval, ratio) most likely
to be used to measure the following variables:
a. ice cream flavors
b. time needed by each of the five runners to finish a one-mile race as measured by the
runners order of finish
c. scores on a 99-item test as measure of the number of correct answers given, assuming that 1 point is given for each correct answer and 1 point is given gratuitously to
all examinees
d. the number of people employed by various universities in the Philippines as a measure of the number of people employed (that is, as a measure of itself)

Consider the case study below. Do you agree with the findings stated
in the last sentence of the last paragraph?

Chapter 1 : An overview

Case study
The following study was undertaken in an effort to determine the
attitudes of mothers toward caring for their own children when the
children were hospitalized in a pediatric ward.
Twenty mothers were asked to volunteer to take care of their children while the children were hospitalized for minor surgery in a pediatric ward. The activities that the mothers were required to perform
included taking blood pressure and temperature readings, administering oral medicine, and providing for the general comfort of the children. Daily meetings between mothers and the nurses in charge were
held to clear up any problems that the mothers might be encountering. At the beginning and at the end of the hospital stay, the 20
mothers were asked to answer a 15-item questionnaire to determine
how positive or negative the mother's attitudes toward the experience
were. The 15 items in the questionnaire covered attitudes toward
performing such tasks as taking temperature, administering oral
medicines, preparing means and snacks, reading stories to the children and staying overnight with the child. Possible responses to each
item on the questionnaire ranged from 1 to 5. A response of 1 indicated a highly negative attitude toward performing the specified task,
a response of 3 indicated indifference or neutrality toward performing the specified task, and a response of 5 indicated a highly positive
attitude toward performing the specified task. Each mother's overall
attitude was obtained by summing her responses to all 15 items. A
mother's overall attitude may be as low as 15, indicating an overall
highly negative attitude (a response of 1 on each of the 15 items), or
as high as 75, indicating a highly positive attitude (a response of 5 on
each of the 15 items).
As expected, each mother's overall attitude rating increased, or became more positive, from beginning of stay to end of stay. In fact, 5

Chapter 1 : An overview

of the 20 mothers had overall attitude ratings that were twice as

high at the end of the stay as at the beginning, indicating that their
attitudes were twice as positive. Thus, it appears that mothers who
participated in this program came out of it with positive attitudes
toward helping with the care of their hospitalized children.