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B1.2.1 Reading
Read about capacitors, inductors and a.c. circuits in, e.g., Univ of Southamptons University Physics vol
1, pp 282290, 324328, 372379 and 387390 (from R. Wolfson, Essential University Physics vol 2,
pp 384392; 426430, 474481 and 489492). You may also like to read about Gausss, Ampres
and Faradays laws (University Physics vol 1, pp 249250, 349355, 362--366; R. Wolfson, Essential
University Physics vol 2, pp 351352, 451457, 464468).
B1.2.2 Capacitors
Although most capacitors that you will meet will be sealed to form a rigid device, at heart all capacitors
are formed of pairs of metal plates that are separated by vacuum or by a dielectric medium that may be
air, oil or a solid such as polyester, polystyrene or a ceramic. The construction is most obvious in tuning
capacitors, such as those shown in Figure 1 below, whereby one plate or set of plates rotates relative to
another so as to vary the overlapping area. Fixed-value devices may retain this planar geometry, or be
rolled into cylinders for compactness and rigidity.
Figure 1 Air-spaced variable capacitors (left, centre) and a dielectric-spaced trimming capacitor (right).
[Images: www.g3npf.co.uk; www.electronics-tutorials.ws]
If one plate (or set of plates) is charged with respect to the other, an electric field will exist between
them, and therefore a potential difference will occur. The capacitance is defined as the constant of
proportionality relating the potential difference V to the charge Q stored, assuming a linear relationship,
=
(1)
Our circuit analysis determines the voltages and currents, however, so we must refer to the rate of
change of the charge, or the integral of the current,
=
=
d
d
d = V
(2)
(3)
We may use either equation (2) or (3) in our circuit analysis, where for resistors we used Ohms law.
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B1.2.3 Inductors
A friend whos in liquor production
Owns a still of astounding construction.
The alcohol boils
Through old magnet coils;
She says that its proof by induction.
The construction of inductors, unlike capacitors, is usually quite clearly apparent: they are formed by
winding conducting wire around a cylinder or ring to form a coil of toroid that efficiently confines the
magnetic field that is created when a current flows along the wire. Some typical examples are shown in
Figure 2 below.
Figure 2 Inductors: toroidal (left), linear (centre), high inductance/low current and low inductance/high current (right).
[Images: MPS Industries; Ali Express, Windell Oskay]
When the current through an inductor changes, the resulting change in magnetic field causes a voltage
to be induced in the coil. The inductance is defined as the constant of proportionality relating the
induced voltage V to the rate of change of the current I,
=
or, equivalently,
d
d
d
(4)
(5)
We may use either equation (4) or equation (5), as convenient, where in our circuit analysis for resistors
we used Ohms law.
Note that the induced voltage acts in the direction that allows it to oppose the change of current. If, for
example, we connect an inductor through a resistor to a battery, then the initial increase in current will
produce a voltage that reduces the voltage across the resistor, and hence the current through it. As
shown in Figure 3 below, the voltages across resistors, capacitors and inductors are in the same
direction if the current, integrated current and rate of change of current are also all in the same
direction.
Figure 3 Relationships between currents I and voltages V for resistors, capacitors and inductors.
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out
(6)
(7)
d
(In principle, we might also have an expression for Vin in terms of the battery emf but, as we need also to
take into account the switch, we shall for the time being leave things in terms of Vin itself.) We then
apply Kirchhoffs laws, assuming that negligible current flows out of the output terminal, giving
out
R
C
in
(8)
(9)
(10)
We therefore have five equations in 9 unknowns (Vin, VR, Vout, IR, IC, I, R, C, t), where we hope to derive
an expression for Vout as a function of Vin, R, C and t. Combining equations (6) to (10) to eliminate VR, IR,
IC and I, we obtain
d
out
in
(11)
out
This first-order differential equation fully describes the general behaviour of the circuit; to obtain a
specific solution, we must first know the specific way in which the input voltage Vin varies with time.
For the situation illustrated, we may assume the input voltage to be either 0 V or the battery emf E, and
that it will be steady while the switch remains in a given position. During such periods, we may therefore
treat Vin as a constant. To solve equation (11) most neatly, we note that under such conditions,
d
d
d
out
in
out
(12)
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exp
(13)
"
(14)
and hence
out
in
in $ exp
out
"
(15)
If, for example, we move the switch from B to A at time t = 0, when the output voltage Vout = Vout(0), the
output voltage at subsequent times while the switch remains in the same position will be
#
out
out
E$ exp
"
(16)
The effect of any transient caused by moving the switch hence dies away with a time constant of
= RC, and the output voltage eventually reaches a steady state value equal to the input voltage. Note
that we may find the charge Q(t) on the capacitor at any time by applying equation (1) to give
out
(17)
If the switch is later moved back to position B, the output voltage afterwards will be given by applying
equation (15) again with new values of Vin, t0 and Vout(t0). Figure 5 below shows a typical result.
Figure 5 Output voltage (solid line) from the RC circuit of Figure 4 when the input voltage (dashed line) corresponds to connecting the
input to the battery between t = 0 and t = 1 s. The capacitor is here taken to be initially uncharged, and the time constant here is 1 s.
in
(18)
For a linear differential equation such as equation (11), it turns out that the solution will then always be
of the form
cos *
out
(19)
where V0 and depend upon the details of the circuit and remain to be found. Substituting equations
(18) and (19) into equation (11), we hence obtain
*
B1.4
sin *
' cos
cos *
+ $
(20)
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This may be solved by using the double-angle formula cos , - cos , cos - + sin , sin -, but it is
tidier first to make the substitution * / * + +. After application of the double-angle formula,
equation (20) then becomes
*
sin * =
cos * 2
(21)
We now collect together the cosine terms and, separately, the sine terms, giving
3*
'
sin + 4 sin *
= 3
'
cos + 4 cos *
(22)
This may only be solved for all values of t if the amplitudes of the sine and cosine terms are both zero,
i.e.,
'
'
sin + = *
(23)
cos + =
(24)
Taking the ratio of these equations gives the phase shift of the output waveform relative to the input
tan + = *
(25)
while summing their squares gives the output waveforms relative amplitude
!
'
" =
3*6 +
64
(26)
Combining these results into equation (19) gives the overall output waveform
out
71 + *
cos#* tan8' *
(27)
At low frequencies * 1
, the output voltage follows the input; at high frequencies, however,
the relative output amplitude falls by a factor of *
, and lags the input waveform by a quarter of a
cycle.
phase /deg
The theoretical relative amplitude and phase are shown in Figure 6 below, for a circuit with
RC = 0.001/(2). Note that at a frequency of 1 kHz, when RC = 1, the output lags behind the input
waveform by 45 and is half the amplitude of the input (-6 dB).
V0/V1
frequency /Hz
frequency /Hz
Figure 6 Bode (pron. Bodey) plot of the amplitude and phase of the output for the RC circuit of Figure 4, measured relative to the input,
for RC = 0.001/(2).
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B1.7
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