Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
3. Radiation
Department of Mechanical Engineering
National University of Singapore
AY2015/16 Semester 1
Fundamental Concepts of
Radiation
Fundamental Concepts
Radiation Intensity
Blackbody Radiation
Emission from Real Surfaces
Absorption
Reflection and Transmission by Real Surfaces
Kirchoffs Law
The Gray Surface
Introduction
Conduction and Convection:
require a medium to
transport energy.
Radiation: no carrier or
medium is required.
All matter emits thermal
radiation (e.m.) due to its
finite temperature, T > 0 K.
Introduction
Emission
due to oscillations and transitions of the many
electrons that comprise matter, which are, in turn,
sustained by the thermal energy of the matter.
corresponds to heat transfer from the matter and
hence to a reduction in thermal energy stored by
the matter.
Absorption
radiation may also be intercepted and absorbed by
matter.
results in heat transfer to the matter and hence an
increase in thermal energy stored by the matter.
ME3122 Heat Transfer
Introduction
Emission from an
opaque solid or liquid is
a surface phenomenon.
For an opaque solid or
liquid, emission
originates from atoms
and molecules within
1m of the surface.
Introduction
The dual nature (wave-particle duality) of radiation:
In some cases, the physical manifestations of
radiation may be explained by viewing it as particles
(aka photons or quanta).
In other cases, radiation behaves as an
electromagnetic wave.
In all cases, radiation is characterized by a
wavelength and frequency which are related through
the speed at which radiation propagates in the
medium of interest:
c=
where : frequency; : wavelength
For propagation in a vacuum, c = co = 2.998108 m/s
ME3122 Heat Transfer
Electromagnetic Spectrum
Solid Angle
Solid angle is used to quantify the amount of radiation
emitted from a surface, and propagating in a particular
direction (, ).
2D (planar)
3D
Solid angle subtended at the
center of a hypothetical sphere by
a part of its surface (dAn is normal
to the viewing direction).
ME3122 Heat Transfer
Solid Angle
- zenith angle from pole
(latitude)
- azimuthal angle
(longitude)
dAn r 2 sin d d
d
dAn
sin d d
2
r
hemi
sin d d 2 sr
ME3122 Heat Transfer
10
Radiation Intensity
Spectral radiation intensity: the rate of radiation
energy emission at a given wavelength
in the ( ) direction
per unit area of the emitting surface normal to this
direction
per unit solid angle about this direction
over d spanning
has unit of W/(m2.sr. m)
dq
I ,e , ,
dA1 cos d d
11
Emissive Power
"
I ,e sin cos d d
12
Emissive Power
E E ( ) d
0
13
Diffuse Emitter
I ,e
I ,e sin cos d d
sin cos d d
sin cos d d =
14
Diffuse Emitter
E E ( ) d
0
E I ,e d
0
Ie
where I e is the total intensity of emitted
radiation, i.e. I e I ,e d
0
15
/2
I ,i cos sin d d
G G ( )d
0
16
17
Radiosity
Radiosity is a measure of all radiation leaving a surface,
both emitted (e) and reflected (r).
Spectral radiosity (W/m2m) is the rate at which radiation
of wavelength leaves a unit area of the surface, per unit
wavelength d about
J ( )
/2
I ,e r cos sin d d
J J ( ) d
0
18
Radiosity
For diffuse reflector and emitter
J ( ) I , e r ( )
J I er
19
Introduction to Blackbody
A Blackbody is one which:
absorbs all incident radiation
emits the max. possible energy for a given and T
is a diffuse emitter, i.e. radiation is independent of
direction (but still a function of , T)
20
Introduction to Blackbody
It is approximated by
an Isothermal Cavity
(Hohlraum).
a) After multiple reflections,
virtually all radiation
entering the cavity is
absorbed, i.e. perfect absorber.
b) Emission from the aperture is the maximum possible emission
achievable for the temperature associated with the cavity and is
diffuse.
c) The cumulative effect of radiation emission from and reflection off
the cavity wall is to provide diffuse irradiation corresponding to
emission from a blackbody for any surface in the cavity, i.e.
perfect emitter.
ME3122 Heat Transfer
21
22
23
Stefan-Boltzmann Law
Treating radiation as propagation by means of discrete
quanta of energy, the total energy emitted by a blackbody
over all wavelengths is:
Eb Eb, d
0
Eb T 4 Stefan-Boltzmann Law
where 5.67 108 W/m 2 K 4
(Stefan-Boltzmann constant)
Eb is the amount of radiation emitted in
all directions and over all wavelengths.
24
Stefan-Boltzmann Law
Because blackbody emission is diffuse,
the total intensity associated with
blackbody radiation is
Eb
Ib
25
Band Emission
The fraction of the total emission from a blackbody that is
in a certain wavelength range (band) is denoted F0 or
F12
F 1 2 F0 2 F0 1
where
F0
E ,b d
E ,b d
E ,b d
f T
26
Band Emission
27
, ( , , , T )
I , e ( , , , T )
I ,b ( , T )
28
( , T )
E ( , T )
E ,b ( , T )
Eb (T )
, T E ,b , T d
Eb T
ME3122 Heat Transfer
29
Radiation balance
G = G,ref + G,abs + G,tr
30
31
Absorptivity
Spectral, directional absorptivity is the fraction of spectral
intensity incident in the direction , that is absorbed by
the surface
, ( , , )
I ,i ,abs ( , , )
I ,i ( , , )
( )G ( )d
G ( )d
ME3122 Heat Transfer
32
Reflectivity
Spectral, directional reflectivity is the fraction of spectral
intensity incident in the direction and that is reflected
by the surface
, ( , , )
I ,i ,ref ( , , )
I ,i ( , , )
( )
G ,ref ( )
G ( )
Gref
G
( )G ( )d
G ( )d
33
Reflectivity
2 types of reflections
Diffuse: reflected beam is distributed uniformly in all
direction
Specular: angle of incident beam = angle of reflection
Diffuse
Specular
ME3122 Heat Transfer
34
Transmissivity
Spectral, hemispherical transmissivity
G ,tr ( )
( )
G ( )
Total, hemispherical transmissivity
Gtr
G
For opaque bodies, 0
35
Radiation Balance
For semi-transparent material
1
If the properties are averaged over the entire spectrum
1
For opaque medium
1
1
36
Kirchhoffs Law
, , always applicable ( , and , are inherent surface properties)
irradiation is diffuse
or
surface is diffuse
37
Gray Surface
Defined as which and are independent of over the
spectral regions of irradiation and emission
f
f
Note that emissivity independent of does not imply
emissive power is independent of
E Eb
38
Example 1
Consider a large isothermal enclosure that is maintained
at a uniform temperature of 2000 K. Calculate the
emissive power of the radiation that emerges from a small
aperture on the enclosure surface. What is the wavelength
1 below which 10% of the emission is concentrated?
What is the wavelength 2 above which 10% of the
emission is concentrated? Determine the maximum
emissive power and the wavelength at which this emission
occurs. If a small object is placed within the enclosure,
what is the irradiation incident on the object?
39
Example 1 contd
1T 2200 m K
2200
1
1.1 m
2000
F2 1 F02 0.1
F02 0.9
From Table 5 (handbook)
2T 9382 m K
9382
2
4.69 m
2000
ME3122 Heat Transfer
40
Example 1 contd
3. From Wien's Displacement Law
maxT 2898 m K
For T 2000 K, max 1.45 m
Maximum emissive power
C1
E ,b ( , T ) 5
max
exp(C2 / T ) 1
3.743 108
1.45
41
Example 2
A diffuse surface at a temperature of 1600 K has the spectral,
hemispherical emissivity shown below:
1.
2.
3.
42
Example 2 contd
1. T
, T E ,b , T d
Eb T
1 E ,b d
Eb T
2 E ,b d
Eb T
1 F02 m 2 F25 m
43
Example 2 contd
2. E Eb T 4 0.558 5.67 108 16004 207 kW/m 2
3. If was a constant, independent of , max could be
obtained from Wien's Displacement Law,
2898
1.81 m
1600
E max , T max E ,b max , T
max
max I ,b max , T
Table 5 (handbook)
I ,b max , T 5
max
T
5
T
44
Example 2 contd
However, because varies with , it is not immediately
obvious where peak emission occurs. Since 0.4
from 0 to 2 m, the foregoing result provides
the max spectral emissive power for the region 2
m. As 0.8 for 2 m, need to check E at
2 m
I ,b 2 m,1600 K 5
E 2 m, 1600 K 2 m
T
5
T
45
Example 2 contd
46
Example 3
A flat plate solar collector with no cover plate has a
selective absorber surface emittance of 0.1 and a solar
absorptance of 0.95. At a given time of the day, the
absorber surface temperature is Ts = 120C when the
solar irradiation is 750 W/m2, the effective sky
temperature is 10C and the ambient air temperature is
30C. Assume that the convective heat transfer
coefficient for the calm day condition can be estimated
from the following equation is:
h = 0.22 (Ts -T)1/3 W/m2.K
Calculate the useful heat removal rate from the collector
for these conditions. What is the efficiency of the collector
for these conditions?
ME3122 Heat Transfer
47
Example 3 contd
C.V.
48
Example 3 contd
Assumptions:
Steady-state conditions
Bottom of collector well insulated
Absorber surface is diffuse
sky 0.1
since sky radiation is concentrated in approximately the same
spectral region as that of the surface emission.
ME3122 Heat Transfer
49
Example 3 contd
13
43
E Ts4
E
qu s Gs sky Gsky qconv
43
Gs
750
50
Radiation Exchange
Between Surfaces
View/Shape Factor
Radiation Exchange Between Blackbody
Radiation Exchange Between Gray Surfaces
Radiation Shield
Introduction
Enclosure consists of two or more surfaces that envelop a
region of space (typically gas-filled) and between which
there is radiation transfer. Virtual, as well as real, surfaces
may be introduced to form an enclosure.
A non-participating medium within the enclosure neither
emits, absorbs, nor scatters radiation and hence has no
effect on radiation exchange between the surfaces. This is
true for vacuum and a good approximation for many
gases.
52
Introduction
Each surface of the enclosure is assumed to be
isothermal, opaque, diffuse and gray, and to be
characterized by uniform radiosity and irradiation.
Radiation exchange between surfaces depends strongly
on:
surface geometry
orientation
radiative properties of the surface
temperature of the surface
53
View/Shape Factors
View/Shape factor, Fij, is the fraction of the radiation
leaving surface i that is intercepted by surface j.
qi j
Fij
Ai J i
It is derived using differential area elements, and then
integrated over the full areas in question.
54
View/Shape Factors
cos i dAi d ji
Ii
Substituting d ji
dqi j I i
cos j dAj
cos i cos j
R
R2
dAi dAj
55
View/Shape Factors
If surface i emits and reflects diffusely, i.e. J i I e r
cos i cos j
dqi j J i
dAi dAj
Aj
cos i cos j
Ai
Aj
dAi dAj
radiation arriving at Aj
cos i cos j
Ai
radiation leaving Ai
qi j
J i Ai
dAi dAj
56
View/Shape Factors
The derivation of shape factor is valid for surfaces that
are diffuse emitters/reflectors
have uniform radiosity
57
View/Shape Factors
58
View/Shape Factors
59
View/Shape Factors
60
Aj
1
Fji
Aj
cos i cos j
Ai
Ai
dAi dAj
cos i cos j
Aj
dAj dAi
Aj
cos i cos j
Ai
dAi dAj
Ai
cos i cos j
Aj
dAj dAi
Ai Fij Aj Fji
ME3122 Heat Transfer
61
F
j 1
ij
Plane/convex surface:
Fii 0(plane/convex surface cannot see itself)
62
63
F12 F13
Also, F21 F31
ME3122 Heat Transfer
64
Example 4
Determine the view factors associated with an enclosure formed by
two concentric spheres.
F11 F12 1
Since F11 0 (convex surface),
F12 1
F21 F22 1
Using A1F12 A2 F21
A1
A1 r1
F21 F12
A2 r2
A2
r1
F22 1 F21 1
r2
ME3122 Heat Transfer
65
66
since A F
ij
Aj F ji
Ai Fij (Ti 4 T j4 )
Net radiation transfer from surface i due to exchange
with all (N) surfaces of an enclosure :
N
qi Ai Fij (Ti 4 T j4 )
j 1
67
Example 5
A furnace cavity, which is in the form of a cylinder of 75-mm
diameter and 150-mm length, is open at one end to large
surroundings that are at 27C. The sides and bottom may be
approximated as blackbodies, are heated electrically, are well
insulated, and are maintained at temperatures of 1350C and
1650C respectively. How much power is required to maintain
the furnace conditions?
68
Example 5 contd
Solution:
Assumptions:
1. Interior surfaces behave like blackbodies
2. Negligible heat transfer by convection
3. Outer surface of the furnace is adiabatic
Power required heat losses from the furnace
Heat loss is due to radiation (other losses have been
neglected) from the hypothetical surface A3 . The
surroundings are large; the heat transfer from the
furnace to the surroundings may be approximated by
treating the surface A3 to be at T3 Tsur .
ME3122 Heat Transfer
69
Example 5 contd
Heat balance, q q13 q23
since F22 0
70
Example 5 contd
F12
A2
F21
A1
4 0.075
0.075 0.15
0.94
0.118
From symmetry rule, F13 F12
1639 205
1844 W
71
72
emission
reflection
But 1 1
J Eb 1 G
J Eb
G
1
Net energy leaving surface
q A J G
Substitute for G
A
q
Eb J
1
ME3122 Heat Transfer
73
74
J1 J 2
1 A1F12
1
where
: space resistance
A1F12
This space resistance only involves geometry.
ME3122 Heat Transfer
75
76
A1 T14 T24
Eb1 Eb 2
1 1
1 2 1 1 1 1 2 A1
1
1 A1 A1 F12 2 A2
1
2 A2
F12
77
Special Cases
78
Special Cases
79
j 1
j 1
qi qij Ai Fij ( J i J j )
N
Ji J j
Ebi J i
(1 i ) / i Ai j 1 ( Ai Fij ) 1
80
Radiation Shield
Highly reflective (low = ) surfaces placed between two
other surfaces can be used to greatly reduce heat
exchange between the two surfaces.
Consider use of a single shield in a two-surface enclosure,
such as that associated with large parallel plates:
81
Radiation Shield
Radiation network:
(T14 T24 )
q12
1 3,1 1 3,2
1 1
1
1
1 2
82
Radiation Shield
For large parallel plates, A1 A2 A3 A
A (T14 T24 )
q12
1 1
1
1
1
1
2
31
32
1
Additional resistance
introduced by shield
Special case: 1 2 31 32
1 A (T14 T24 ) 1
q12 no shield
q12
1 1
2
2
1
q12 no shield
n 1
83
Example 6
A cryogenic fluid flows through a long tube of diameter
D1 = 20 mm, the outer surface of which is diffuse-gray
with 1 = 0.02 and T1 = 77 K. This tube is concentric with
a larger tube of diameter D2 = 50 mm, the inner surface
being diffuse-gray with 2 = 0.05 and T2 = 300 K. The
space between the surfaces is evacuated.
1. Calculate the heat gain by cryogenic fluid per unit
length of the tube.
2. If a thin radiation shield of diameter D = 35 mm and
emittance, 3 = 0.02 (both sides) is inserted midway
between the inner and outer surfaces, calculate the
change in percent of heat gain per unit length of the
tube.
ME3122 Heat Transfer
84
Example 6 contd
85
Example 6 contd
1. Heat gained by cryogenic fluid
qwo
D1 L T14 T24
1 2 D1
1
2 D2
1
L
1 1 2 D1
1
2 D2
1
1 0.05 0.02
0.02
0.05 0.05
0.498 W/m
ME3122 Heat Transfer
86
Example 6 contd
2. When a radiation shield is placed in between the two
concentric tubes, heat gained by cryogenic fluid given by
(T14 T24 )
qw
1 3,1 1 3,2
1 1
1
1
1 2
T14 T24
1 3
1
1
1 2
1 1
3
3
D3 L F32 2 D2 L
1 1
1 3 D1 1 D1 1 2 D1
1
D
F13
D
F
D
32
3
2
2
3 3
ME3122 Heat Transfer
87
Example 6 contd
Heat gain per unit length of the tube
q
qw w
L 1 1
qw
D1 T14 T24
1 3 D1 1 D1 1 2 D1
1
2
F13
D
F
D
32
3
2
2
3 3
5.67 108 0.02 77 4 3004
1 0.02 1
1 0.02 0.02 1 0.02 1 0.05 0.02
2
0.035
0.05
0.05
0.02
1
0.02
0.035
1
0.252 W/m
Percentage reduction in heat gain
qw
0.498 0.252
qwo
100
100 49%!
qwo
0.498
88