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Approach Answer: General Studies Mains Mock Test 6 619 (2015)

All the questions are compulsory and carry 12.5 marks each. NOT MORE THAN 200 WORDS.
1.

Business groups in colonial India were guided by a pragmatic approach to issues and this explained
why they maintained a policy of equidistance from both the government and the Congress. Discuss.

Approach:

The answer should begin by explaining the statement and then discuss the reasons responsible for
such a policy of the business groups.
Give examples which demonstrate the pragmatic approach of business groups to various issues.
Conclude suitably.

Answer:

The dependence of the business groups on the colonial government dictated that they adopt a
pragmatic approach of combining pressure and compromise. Many of them were dependent on
government orders for their products while all of them were dependent on it for favourable
industrial and trade policies
At the same time, they recognised the inherent conflict that existed between their interests and the
interests of a colonial government, guided by the interests of British capital. They realised that a
government of Indians would serve them better in the long run but the prevailing circumstances
recommended a pragmatic issue-based approach
Business groups preferred the mode of constitutional agitation and pressure group politics. They
wanted a nationalist movement led by right-wing moderates rather than left-wing radicals and tradeunionists
Many sections of merchants and entrepreneurs leaned towards Gandhi because of his emphasis on
non-violence - which they saw as a defence against political radicalism - and his trusteeship theory which legitimised wealth
The pragmatism of business groups was evident from their general aversion to various mass
movements organised by the Congress but their engagement with it on various issues concerning
them
For instance, business groups maintained their distance from the Non-cooperation movement (NCM)
in 1920-21 but they readily co-operated with the Swarajists in the legislature after the dissolution of
the NCM. Similarly, industrialists did not whole-heartedly support the Civil Disobedience Movement
(CDM) but they cooperated with Congress in the framing of Gandhis 11 point ultimatum to Lord
Irwin, which included three specific capitalist demands
The Bombay Manifesto of 1936, signed by 21 Bombay businessmen, openly criticised Nehrus
socialist ideals but later under changed circumstances, many of the same businessmen formulated
the Bombay Plan, which endorsed Nehrus socialism
However, in conclusion it should be said that business groups were not a homogenous group. There
were numerous differences between them. Some of them, especially the smaller traders, were
fervent Congress supporters while many of the bigger industrialists were staunch loyalists, but on the
whole, business groups in India tried to maintain an equilibrium with both sides.

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2.

The Maratha state could not become an alternative to Mughal Empire because of its own structure.
Examine.

Approach:

The answer should compare the structural weaknesses of the Marathas with the comparative
strengths of the Mughal empire and try to bring out the main reasons why it could not emerge as a
substitute to the Mughals as the dominant power in India.

Answer:

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The difference between moderates and extremists was one of degree rather than of kind. In light of
the above statement discuss the goals and methods of moderates and extremists during the
Independence movement.

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The Marathas benefited immensely from the splintering of the Mughal Empire. They had the
potential to fill the political vacuum created by the disintegration of the Mughal empire but the
structural weaknesses of their empire prevented them from doing so and they were eventually
surpassed by the English as the leading power in India.
Unlike the Mughals centralised administrative system, the Maratha state was a loose confederacy
with powers shared among many chiefs (sardars) who were nominally united under the authority of
a Peshwa.
There was a high degree of internecine conflict and a lack of national loyalty among the Maratha
chiefs. Such kind of rivalries also existed between Mughal nobles but the strong authority of the
Mughal Emperor kept such conflicts in check at least until the death of Aurangzeb, the last great
Mughal emperor.
As long as there existed a strong central authority and the need for mutual cooperation against a
common enemy (the Mughals), the Maratha chiefs remained united in a loose union but they
resisted the central authority if it tried to control them too strictly. On the other hand, all the Mughal
nobles owed their allegiance to the Emperor and their loyalty to the Emperor was quite strong. Even
when Mughal power disintegrated in the 18th century, the semi-autonomous successor provinces
continued to formally declare their allegiance to the Emperor.
In other aspects also, the Marathas failed to innovate. Their system of saranjams was quite similar to
the Jagirdari system of Mughals.
The Marathas were also more interested in extracting taxes (chauth and sardesmukhi) from areas
outside of Maharashtra than in developing their economies or giving them sound administration. The
Mughal state over the course of 200 years had developed a well-functioning land revenue system
and ensured law and order in the areas they governed. The Marathas did not do so and hence could
not evoke the kind of loyalty that the Mughals commanded among the inhabitants of these regions.
Thus, the Marathas failed to develop a modern state with a modern economy, a sound administrative
system and a disciplined and efficient central army which could resist the onslaught of the modern
British power.

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Approach:

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The answer should analyse the major points of difference and highlight the ideological divide.
Simultaneously, there is a need to identify the dimensions, which were shared alike by both moderates
and extremists. In other words, there is a need to link the methods and techniques. The second half of
the answer should bring in the common grounds they shared in the larger aim of anti-colonial struggle.
Answer:
The difference between the Moderates and Extremists can be understood in terms of the ideological
divide in terms of the objectives within the organization of Congress. While it may appear that the

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extremists represented a radical counterpart to moderates but as far as goals were concerned they were
substantially not very different from moderates.
Moderates adopted constitutional methods of agitation and indulged in meetings, speeches, resolutions
and petition. Further, they firmly believed that, means or methods should be as good as ends or goals.
But the extremists, on the other hand, came to develop much more militant and politically intense
method and techniques. Economic aspects of their struggle included boycott of foreign goods and
promotion of swadeshi goods. The non-economic aspects included boycott of government schools and
colleges, courts, services etc. and promotion of National education.
Both Gokhale and Tilak, respectively, advocated Self-government and Swaraj as the goal of Congress.
The differences were related to the methodologies for achieving the goals. Like the moderates Tilak also
believed that under the British rule industries have been ruined and wealth drained out of country and
Indians reduced to the lowest level of poverty.
Extremists did not want Indians to take arms rather that they should develop their power of self-denial in
such a way so as not to assist the foreign power to rule over them (to run their own courts, to stop
paying taxes). A degree further was the philosophical radicalism of Aurobindo who blamed the corrupt
western influences and directed the swadeshi sentiments not merely against the foreign goods but
against foreign habits, dress, manners and education and sought to seek refuge in their own superior
civilisation.

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Swadeshi Movement: Both moderates and extremists participated in swadeshi movement but there
were real differences between the views on swadeshi. While Extremists wanted to extend swadeshi and
boycott movement from Bengal to the rest of the country but the moderates wanted to confine boycott
movement to Bengal and to limit it only to foreign goods. For extremists it had a double implication of
economic message as well as spiritual and religious rituals of self-punishment i.e. moral training in selfhelp determination sacrifice and a weapon of political agitation. For moderates it was limited to
economic industrial regeneration.

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Despite the differences, both moderates and extremists shared some common grounds. For example,
both believed and practiced a peaceful and bloodless struggle. In other words, neither of them
advocated use of violence. However, the only difference between them in this regard was that
moderates would not condone violence in any form, including revolutionary activity but extremist had
sympathy for revolutionaries. Further both followed the policy of pressure-compromise-pressure
strategy to get their demand fulfilled.

A new style of architecture, entirely different in character from Muslim architecture in other countries,
gradually evolved, incorporating the best of both Hindu and Muslim styles. Discuss the above
statement in the context of Indo-Islamic style of architecture.

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It can hence be said that moderates were the brain of the congress and the nation and extremists were
the heart; the former were the law and the latter impulse. The unified actions of the two were
absolutely necessary for the proper functioning of the organisation and the growth of national
movement. The difference between moderates and extremist was very relative rather than absolute in
nature and scope.

Approach:
The answer is required to identify the main features and characteristics of Indo-Islamic Architecture. The
emphasis must be on the evolution of the stylistic differentiation of architecture of Indo-Islamic
monuments across the empires and how it was a unique harmonious blend of both Hindu and Muslim
styles. To structure it further, it can be sub divided into earlier Islamic rule and Mughal Period apart from
provincial styles. Provide reference to few important monuments also.

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Answer:
The development of Muslim Style of Architecture of this period can be called the Indo-Islamic
Architecture or the Indian Architecture influenced by Islamic Art.
Characteristics of Indo-Islamic architecture

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The main elements in the Islamic architecture is the arcuate style of constructions- introduction of
arches and beams while the traditional Indian building style is trabeate- using pillars and beams and
lintels.
Among the architectural features introduced by them mention may be made of arches, domes, tall
towers(minars) and minarets, squinch arch, half domed double portals, kiosks (chhatris).
They also introduced gilding and painting in varied colours and designs. Muslim decorative elements
are usually of the nature of embroidery. Apart from this they also introduced decorative brackets
and balconies.
One of the major aspect of distinction was the emphasis on decoration. While Hindus as part of their
religious faith decorated sculptures and paintings, Islam forbidden to replicate living forms on any
surface, developed their religious art and architecture consisting of the arts of arabesque,
geometrical patterns and calligraphy on plaster and stone.
The Muslims, like the Romans, were also responsible for making extensive use of concrete and lime
mortar as an important factor of construction and incidentally used lime as plaster and a base for
decoration.
Muslim added the inlay decoration and use of coloured marble, painted plaster and brilliantly glazed
tiles. A variety of stones were used such as quartzite, sandstone. In some cases, the Polychrome tiles
were used to finish the walls.
From the seventeenth century onward, bricks were also used for construction and these imparted
greater flexibility to the structures. In this phase there was more reliance on local materials.

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In spite of the Saracenic, Arabic, Persian and Turkish influences, Indo-Islamic structures were heavily
influenced by prevailing sensibilities of Indian architectural and decorative forms.

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1. Influence of Hindu style: It must be emphasized that the development of the Indo-Islamic
architecture was greatly facilitated by the knowledge and skill possessed by the Indian craftsmen,
who had mastered the art of stonework for centuries and used their experience while constructing
Islamic monuments in India. The Muslims borrowed the design of kalash on the top of the Hindu
temple by placing a dome on the top of their buildings. Infact kiosks (chhatris) is a borrowing from
Rajput school of architecture.
2. Provincial Style: Amongst provincial styles, the architecture of Bengal and Jaunpur is regarded as
distinct, while the style of Gujarat was marked with borrowed elements from regional temple
traditions such as toranas, lintels in mihrabs, carvings of bell and chain motifs, and carved panels
depicting trees, for tombs, mosques and dargahs.3. Under the Mughal, Akbar was keenly interested in art and architecture and his architecture is
regarded as blend of the Hindu and Islamic modes of construction ornamentation. This reached its
culmination during the reign of Shah Jahan which is called the Golden Age of Indo-Islamic
architecture. The Mughals are also credited to have introduced the double dome system of dome
architecture and the pietra-dura style of inlay decorations.
4. Tomb Architecture: To the general tomb architecture, the Mughals added a new dimension by
introducing gardens all around the tomb. The Mughal tombs are generally placed at the centre of a
huge garden complex, the latter being sub-divided into square compartments, the style is known as
char-bagh. The most famous example of tomb in India is the Taj Mahal.

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5.

Discuss the influence of East India Companies (British, French, Dutch and Portuguese) on the
architecture of the Indian subcontinent from mid-17th century onwards.

Approach:
The answer should mention the shift in architectural forms towards port cities and fortified colonies
due to arrival of East India Companies. Then highlight the prominent characteristics of each in brief.
Further, the answer should trace the three schools, which marked the influence and contribution of the
colonial architecture and support these with examples.
Answer:
The European impact on Indian architecture affected a synthesis of indigenous styles and instituted the
typical colonial style of architecture. Transition from traders to establishing their settlements at various
places paved way towards building European styles houses besides the factories and gradually strong
fortress and imposing churches.
Under the Portuguese, the initial structures were utilitarian warehouses and walled trading post giving
way to fortified towns along the coastline. This paved way for impressive churches in the style of Iberian
architecture. This is evident in all the major churches of Goa. (St. Cathedral)

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While the Danish influence is evident in Nagapattinam, Tranquebar and Serampore, Dutch cemetery is a
combination of Indian and European styled graves with domed tombs. French gave a distinct urban
design to its settlement in Pondicherry by applying the Cartesian grid plans (perpendicular streets) and
classical architectural patterns. Churches at Pondicherry have a distinct French influence.

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British left a lasting impact on Indian architecture, as the successors to the Mughal and used architecture
as the symbol of power. They followed various architectural styles Gothic, Imperial, Christian, English
Renaissance and Victorian. Churches, built in great styles was mainly an inspiration from leading
churches in England. However new material like concrete, glass, cast iron was used. The passing of
power from the EIC to the British crown, rise of Indian Nationalism and the introduction of railwaysdesign and construction, were the watershed in the British colonial Indian architectural history. However,
in true sense, there was nothing called Indo-British because Victorian styles did not have a vitality of its
own. They attempted to imitate oriental style while trying to construct public buildings (big brickwork
buildings with iron support and domed roofs).

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Under this, three broad architectural styles emerged as a result of western influence from seventeenth
century onwards:

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Neo-classical: Construction of geometrical structures fronted with lofty pillars, arches. Derived from
Greco - Roman Architecture. It was considered particularly appropriate for the British Empire in India.
They imagined that a style that embodied the grandeur of imperial Rome could now be made to express
the glory of Imperial India. The Mediterranean origins of this architecture were also thought to be
suitable for tropical weather. Prominent examples include Town Hall and Elphinstone circle in Bombay.

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Neo-Gothic: This was characterized by high pitched roofs, pointed arches ,detailed decoration and had its
roots in buildings especially churches, built in Northern Europe during medieval period. This style was
adapted for buildings in Bombay (Gothic city of India)-Victoria terminus is an outstanding example of
Victorian Gothic Revival architecture in India.
Indo-Saracenic style: This represented hybrid architectural style combined diverse architectural
elements of Hindu and Mughal with gothic cusped arches, domes, spires, minarets and stained glass. It
was developed towards the beginning of 20th century and the inspiration for this style was medieval
buildings in India with their domes, chattris, jalis and arches. By integrating Indian (even the provincial
style) and European styles in public architecture, the British wanted to prove that they were legitimate
rulers of India. The prominent ones include - Gateway of India, Chepauk palace in Madras (1st Indo-

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Saracenic), Victoria memorial hall. In addition, the architecture of New Delhi (Rome of India) by Lutyens
and Baker is considered as one of the most significant contribution of British rule.

6.

The Ghadar Movement not only underestimated the armed and organizational might of the British,
but the ideological foundations of their rule as well. It has been argued that they fought in vain.
Critically evaluate.

Approach:

Briefly introduce the Ghadar movement.

Write how they underestimated the British rule w.r.t. its armed and organized might and the
ideological foundations, and the resultant failure of Ghadar movement.
Then write about the positive outcomes of the Ghadar movement.
Conclude suitably.

Answer:
The Ghadar movement was attempt by the revolutionary leaders of Ghadar party to launch a violent
attack on British India. Outbreak of First World War and the Komagata Maru incident served as the
catalyst for the launch of Ghadar movement. February 21, 1915 was fixed as the date for armed revolt
across multiple locations in India.

The major weakness was that they completely under-estimated the extent and amount of
preparation at every level- organizational, ideological, financial etc. which was necessary before
any armed revolt.
They under-estimated the strength of the British in India, both their armed and organizational
might.
The Indian political leadership and the commercial and land-owing classes gave unquestioning
support to the British for their war efforts.
They made no secret of their plans during the voyage and British intelligence agents, who had
infiltrated their ranks, gave detailed reports to the government, which was fully aware of their
plans earlier than their arrival.
British took some preventative measures in time, such as keeping the regiments on the move,
transferring them from one cantonment to another even from one province to another, so as
to prevent contact between the soldiers and the revolutionaries.

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However, the movement failed to a great extent due to gross underestimation of the armed and
organizational might of the British and the ideological foundations of their rule.

The Ghadarites certainly had a share in the freedom struggle when it came to deepening the
national consciousness, testing new strategies and methods of struggle, creating the tradition of
resistance, ideas of democracy and egalitarianism.
Through its papers it carried the nationalist critique of colonialism in a simple and powerful form.
The huge propaganda motivated an entire generation.
The Ghadarites also created the secular consciousness among the Punjabis.
The movement also had a democratic and egalitarian content. It was clearly stated that the
objective of Ghadar was the establishment of independent republic of India.
They also had a non-chauvinist international outlook. Most of the articles had reference to Irish
and Russian revolutionaries.

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Despite these, it is inappropriate to conclude that the Ghadrites fought in vain.

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7.

Though the Khilafat movement petered out but the religious emotions which it had articulated
continued to persist long after its demise. Discuss.

Approach:

Provide a brief overview of the life-cycle of the Khilafat movement

Discuss the socio-political consequences and aftermath of the movement
Give a balanced analysis of the movement

Answer:

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The Ashokan period marked the real beginning of stone architecture in India. Elucidate.

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The Khilafat movement was a political campaign launched by Indian Muslims to protect the Caliph,
the spiritual head of the Islamic world, in the wake of the defeat of Turkey by the Allied Powers
The movement was led by the Ali brothers and Maulana Azad. They joined forces with Gandhis Noncooperation movement (NCM), promising non-violence in return for his support of the Khilafat
movement. Gandhi saw in the Khilafat movement a golden opportunity to unite Indian Hindus and
Muslims and present a joint front to the colonial government
However, the abolition of the Caliphate in 1924 led to the irrelevance of the Khilafat movement,
which had already been undermined by Gandhis unilateral withdrawal of the NCM
Despite its strong anti-imperialist tone, the movement was in essence a pan-Islamic, fundamentalist
movement which had nothing to do with the question of Indian freedom. It failed to raise the
religious political consciousness of Indian Muslims to the higher level of secular political
consciousness
The religious fervour generated by the Khilafat movement saw the outbreak of Moplah riots in
Malabar and riots also ensued in other parts of the country. There was also a rise in militant Hindu
radicalism in response to the movement. The worsening communal situation and rising violence
were instrumental in Gandhis decision to withdraw the NCM in 1922
The Khilafat movement was criticised for mixing religion with politics. The deployment of the Ulema
led to the radicalisation of the movement and the sidelining of moderate leaders of the movement
who supported Gandhis creed of non-violence. The Khilafat leaders were also criticised for accepting
non-violence more as a matter of convenience to take advantage of Gandhis charismatic appeal than
as an article of faith
The Khilafat movement set a precedent for future mobilisation of the Muslim masses by invoking
religious symbols and imagery which was subsequently replicated during the Pakistan movement.
Many advocates of Pakistan see the movement as a major step towards establishing a separate
Muslim state
Hence, although the Khilafat movement began as a movement to unify Hindus and Muslims, it ended
up radicalising the politico-religious environment of the country

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Approach:

Answer:

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Discuss in brief the lack of stone architecture before Ashoka. Further, explain the development of stone
architecture during the Ashokan period citing relevant examples. One should discuss the usage of
stones, rock sculptures, Stupas and caves.

Before Ashoka the tradition largely consisted of working in wood and clay. India has the brick ruins of
Mohenjo-Daro. Buildings of Vedic and Buddhist era were of wood. Before Ashoka wooden pillars
were regularly erected, ones that served as an IndraKhila or stake symbolically separating the
heavens and earth.

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The Mughal paintings represent an assimilation of Indian, Persian and European elements. Elucidate.

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It was only Ashoka who started making extensive use of stone for sculptures and great monuments.
He caused the erection of monolithic pillars of sandstone, 30 to 40 feet high, crowned by animal
figures like the bull, lion and elephant, and had them inscribed with the Buddhist concepts of
morality, humanity and piety, which he wished his people to follow. Famous Ashokan pillars are from
Lauriya Nandangarh in Bihar, Sanchi and Sarnath. The most remarkable of them all is the highly
polished monolithic lion-capital found at Sarnath.
In India, many edicts of Ashoka engraved on a mass of rock can be found.Dhauli hills in Orissa have
major Edicts of Ashoka.Mount Girnar in Gujarat also has Ashoka's Edict.
At Dhauli, in Orissa, there is a masterly representation of an elephant depicted as if emerging from a
rock which has been so cut that it resembles the front part of an elephant including the head and
trunk etc.
Ashoka built many stupas the most famous being Sanchi stupa. They were built with stones. The
Dhamekh Stupa and the Dharmaraji ka stupa at Sarnath are also believed to have been built by
Ashoka.
Rock-cut caves are another form of stone architecture. The Barabar Caves, the oldest surviving rockcut caves in India has Ashokan inscriptions. This includes the famous Sudama cave.Asoka and his
grandson Dasratha made rock-cut caves for the ascetics of the Ajivika sect in the 3rd century B.C. The
marvelous tradition of hundreds of rock-cut caves in India was initiated at Barabar.
Thus, Ashoka laid the foundation of stone architecture which was further developed by his
successors and other dynasties of India.

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The answer must trace the development in painting under Mughals with emphasis on prominent
changes in terms of characteristics and influence of the varied elements. Trace the changes from early
Mughal rulers and Persian influence to the phase of Indian elements during Akbar to gradual emergence
of European influence in a brief, structured manner largely in terms of style and techniques.

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The sixteenth century, especially the second half, marks a watershed in the development of the art of
painting in India. Later, in the eighteenth century, the patronage to paintings shifted from the Mughal
court to regional kingdoms such as Rajasthan and Punjab.

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There are several important features of the Mughal School, which seem to have originated in the
paintings done during Humayuns period. An important painting from Humayuns period is titled Princes
of the House of Timur, which is executed on cloth and is suggested to be related to Mongol tradition.

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It was due to the deep interest, which Akbar took in promotion of painting, that led to emergence of a
distinct Mughal School of painting. In his reign, artists belonged to different class composition, but
majority among them were Hindus. Interestingly, several low caste people, primarily due to their artistic
skill, were also raised to the status of royal artist. The case of Daswant may be especially cited.

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Notably in these paintings, there is evident a gradual evolution in the style and technique, as the early
phase was clearly influenced by Persian tradition which included:

Symmetrical compositions
Restricted movement of figures
Fineness of the lines of drawings
Flat depiction of architectural columns.

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Later, the paintings assumed wide-ranging character composed mainly of the Persian and Indian
traditions with touches of European influence.

Naturalism and rhythm

Clothing objects of daily use assuming Indian forms
Picture space having subsidiary scenes set in background
Extraordinary action and violent movements.

Painting under Akbars period distinguished itself as a tradition from Persian painting as well as from
Indian styles by presence of historical subject matter. The two most commonly used themes are daily
events of the court and portraits of leading personalities.
During the period of Jahangir and Shahjahan, Mughal painting reached its zenith. Jahangirs preference
was of paintings of hunting scenes, birds and flowers. He also continued the tradition of portraiture. His
paintings seem to make more prominent a formalist style i.e. making the work realistic. The paintings of
this period have broad margins, which are decorated with the depiction of flora and faces of human
figures.
Under ShahJahan, the colour of the paintings became more decorative and gold was more frequently
used for decoration. In addition, paintings depicting portraits of female members and superimposition of
animals was also found.

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Aurangzeb ignored art in his regime but painting did not stop altogether. There exist few pictures of the
emperor himself during his campaigns. Paintings are more formal. By this time, many of the painters had
begun migrating to provincial courts.

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In its later phases, especially during 17th century, the Mughal painting was influenced by the
European art.
A large number of European paintings were either copied or adapted or even reinterpreted,
sometimes by Mughal Painters.
At the same time many original prints from Europe were collected and preserved in the reign of
Jahangir, and Dara Shikoh.
One important feature of European impact that becomes noticeable in some Mughal Painting is
the attempt to make them three-dimensional.
Another influence was the effect of light and shade mostly utilized in fight scenes.

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Sarnath, is perhaps one of the most celebrated pilgrimage sites in India. In this context, analyse the
historical and cultural significance of Sarnath in the tradition of India.

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European Impact on Mughal Painting:

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Approach:

Answer:

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The answer can be sub-divided into historical significance (mainly developments during Kushana period
followed by Gupta period) and cultural significance- both religious and architectural. The structure of the
answer must be reflective of the reasons as to why Sarnath rose to prominence.

Sarnath is one of the most important pilgrimage centers of India. Excavations carried out by ASI on large
scale from time to time has revealed a number of monasteries, stupas, temples, inscriptions, sculptures
and other antiquities ranging in date from 3rd century B.C. to 12th century A.D.

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HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE:
1. The site rose to prominence from the time of Mauryan Period, which witnessed massive progress of
art forms combined with the religious aestheticism to symbolize Ashokas majestic rule and also his
devotion to Buddha. Ashoka in 3rd century BC erected a column in Sarnath which was later adopted
as the national emblem of India known as Lion Capital of Sarnath..
2. During Kushana Period in North India, when Mathura was the centre of the new renaissance in
Buddhism, Sarnath also flourished and new monuments were raised. During the reign of Kanishka, a
colossal image of Bodhisattva was imported from Mathura and is placed in archaeological museum
of Sarnath.
3. During the Gupta period, Sarnath became a main centre of structural and artistic activities. Several
structures including Mulgandhakuti Vihara (the place where Buddha spent his first rainy season), the
chief shrine of Buddha were erected. It was during this period that Sarnath developed as a great
school of art introducing some new features and spiritual aspect in sculptures.
CULTURAL AND ARCHITECTURAL SIGNIFICANCE:

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1. In ancient Buddhist literature, Sarnath is mentioned as Rishipatna and is also called Mrigadava. It is
one of the most important pilgrimage site as it is the place where foundation of a new order
Buddhist Sangha came into existence after Buddha preached his first sermon after attaining
enlightenment. The event is known as Dharma Chakra Pravartana (the Wheel of Law in motion).
The inscriptions of early medieval period found from Sarnath referred to this place as Dharma
Chkara or Sadhma Chakra Pravartan Vihar.
2. Jains: Sarnath is considered sacred to the Jains because the place is considered as the site of
asceticism/austerities and birth of Shreyamshanath, the 11th Jain Tirthankara.
3. Sarnath School of Art: The abundance of exquisitely carved sculptural art, which was given a new
dimension by the Gupta artists and thus, became a main centre of Gupta art and gave rise to the
Sarnath School of Art, which is known for its elegance, simplicity of forms and sublimity. The images
of Buddha and standing figure of abundantly ornamented Tara is one of the best specimens of Gupta
sculptural art of Sarnath School. Prominent architectural remains includes, presence of tallest
Buddha statue, Column erected in Sarnath, Dhamekhstupa and Chaukhandistupa.

The foreign policy of the colonial government in India was directed towards protecting the larger
British Imperialist interests. Analyse.

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Owing to this remarkable and varied significance recently the World Bank has taken the initiative to
fund upgradation of Sarnath.

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Give a holistic introduction of the British policies, illustrate how its foreign policy was geared towards
protecting its own interests. You may cite a number of examples to further your arguments.

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Until 1947, the policy of the British Raj was Of the British, by the British, for the British. The aim of the
foreign policy back then was to serve in the best interests of Britain rather than India. The British
government showed a single-minded purpose of defending the borders of India from any invasion that
could have taken place.
The Colonial government in India adopted a foreign policy to promote, extend and defend British
Imperialism in Asia and Africa. Such was evident when the resources and Indian army was used to wage
number of wars in Afganistan, Burma, and Tibet for British Imperialistic interests.

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From 1878 onwards, the Government of India undertook a number of large scale military expeditions
outside Indias frontiers and its armed forces were used in some of the wars waged by the British
Government in Asia and Africa. These wars were a major source of the rapid and massive increase in
Indias military expenditure
To begin with Hastings adopted the Policy of Ring Fence which aimed at creating buffer zones between
the states at war and the company frontiers. The company also waged wars with Afghans, Burma and
Nepal. It was around 1900 that British started feeling uncomfortable about their international position. It
was at this time that the government of Indias foreign policy with neighboring countries acquired a new
nutrient. The grand policy of the British focused mainly on three things:
1. Ensuring full security of the Indian empire
2. Protecting its trade routes
3. To favor Britain in Trade and Commerce related mattersw.r.t India
An example would be its policy toward Russia, where the British saw Russia as a threat to its Indian
empire. The three Anglo-Afghan war were precisely with an intent to create a buffer region which could
as a check on Russian ambitions. Further along its northern border, its intent to capture Tibet was similar,
as it would be disastrous to let Russia take a commanding position in Lhasa.

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The Treaty of Bassein proved to be a watershed event in the history of British supremacy in India.
Explain.

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Though Britain took every precaution for the defense of Indian empire and furthering its imperialistic
ambitions, their policies led to the development of a nationalistic foreign policy, which later provided a
base for Independent Indias foreign policy.

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Briefly mentioning the circumstances of signing the treaty and its nature i.e. subsidiary alliance, dwell
upon its major provisions by linking them as to how it aided the Britishers to establish their supremacy in
India in due course of time. Compare the position of Britishers in pre and post era of signing of the treaty.
Then conclude the answer by mentioning how it required more than a treaty to conquer whole of India.

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For the Britishers it was the most crucial step in the series of signing Subsidiary Alliance as ,prior to
1802, the Company had signed the Subsidiary Alliance with Bengal,Awadh and Hyderabad states but
Marathas ( Peshwa, Scindias, Holkars) were still a power to reckon with in Western and Central
India as well as they proved to be more powerful than the other States.
Also, the signing of Treaty of Bassein was an imperative condition for the Britishers in order to
emerge as a supreme power , ruling whole of India without the interference of French power.

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The Treaty of Bassein was essentially a Subsidiary Alliance signed between the Britishers and Peshwa,
BajiRao II. The system of Subsidiary Alliance was used by Wellesley to bring Indian States within the
ambit of British political power as it disarmed & threw British protectorate over Indian States in the form
of Resident being permanently stationed there.

The Treaty provided a strategic, psycholological, economical and political gain to the company due to
the following reasons:a. British troops at the expense of Peshwa were stationed at Poona, gave greater strategic
importance to the Britishers as the Company now could interfere in the Maratha affairs directly
& its Rulers .

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b. Under the provisions of treaty, Peshwas foreign policy was in the hands of the Company ,
which made Poona party to each & every war with which Britishers were involved, aiding in
consolidating their supremacy over India by providing in return a large army & men to fight any
war for the Britishers.
c. Also, non-British Europeans were expelled and were not allowed employment under Peshwathis had political implications for the Britishers as it made them the sole arbitrator in Maratha
affairs.
d. Peshwa also agreed to cede in perpetuity to the Company Territories like some in Gujarat
including Surat, territories yeilding an income of 26 lakhs etc which was used for financing the
campaigns of Britishers in India.
Thus, after signing of the Treaty of Bassein by the Peshwa, the options for other Maratha chiefs were
curtailed, which later led to 2nd Anglo- Maratha war and paved way for British supremacy in the
whole West and Central India.
In the long run, Peshwa too realised the mistakes of the Subsidiary Treaty and revolted in 1817 but
faced defeat at the hands of the Britishers and was pensioned off.

However, even though, by entering into the Treaty with the Peshwa, head of Maratha confederacy, gave
prestige to the Britishers. But to draw practical advantage from the treaty, the English had to fight wars
against the Marathas, which required more than a treaty to defeat the trained armies of Scindhia and
Holkar.

The Swadeshi Movement of 1905 not only laid the foundation of Gandhian techniques of protest but
also used other innovative methods. Elaborate.

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Simply enumerate the techniques used during the Swadeshi movement and highlight how they formed
the basis of Gandhian mode of struggle. Further, the students should list the other new methods
espoused during this movement.

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The Swadeshi Movement, which had its genesis in the anti-partition movement of Bengal, saw a shift
from the old moderate methods of prayer and petition to that of passive resistance and noncooperation. While laying a foundation of Gandhian techniques like boycott of foreign goods, emphasis
on self-reliance or atma-shakti, swadeshi education and swadeshi enterprise, it also developed other
innovative methods including:
Using traditional melas, festivals and congregations to spread political message to the masses. This
technique was largely used by Tilak who used the Shivaji and the Ganapati festival to propagate the
cause of the Swadeshi movement. Further it was for the first time that people participated in huge
number, which was further seen in mass movements lead by Mahatma Gandhi.
Creation of volunteer corps or samitis which created mass mobilization by reaching out to interior
villages. They used magic lantern lectures and swadeshi songs and also gave physical and moral
training to their members. They were used not only for spreading political awareness but also
performing social work
Organizing of public meetings and processions at district, taluqa and village levels as well as cities
and towns
Using traditional folk theatre or jatras to spread the message of Swadeshi to vast sections of people.
Further, people tied rakhis on each others hand as a symbol of unity of the two halves of Bengal.
From conservative moderation to political extremism, from terrorism to incipient socialism, from
petitioning and public speeches to passive resistance and boycott, all these major political trends had
their origin in the Swadeshi Movement. Though the movement was not able to successfully put into
practice the techniques it evolved, the later national movement drew heavily from them.

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14.

"Pali and Prakrit literature played an important role in ancient India". Explain.

Approach:
The answer must be structured to highlight the important contribution of the emergence of Pali and
Prakrit in Ancient Indian history with respect to Buddhist and Jain ideology and how the literature
emerged as a crucial source of understanding not only the respective religious philosophy but also the
socio-economic and political condition of the time. Reference can also be made to how it challenged the
hegemony of Sanskrit, which was mainly the language of learned and upper class section of society.
Answer:
Pali and Prakrit rose to prominence when these were adopted by Buddhist and Jain Sect in ancient India
as their sacred language. Both the languages rose to prominence as a challenge to the hegemony of
Sanskrit, which was considered as the language of learned orthodox Brahmins as well as court language
of ruling class. So they represented the voice of lower sections of society.
Pali literature: Pali was a literary language, which developed out of a mixture of dialects particularly
those spoken in the Magadh area of Eastern India. The Pali non-canonical literature was largely
composed during Indo-Greek and Kushana period.

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Jatakas: They throw invaluable light on the social and economic conditions ranging from the sixth
century BC to the second century BC. They also make incidental reference to political events in the
age of the Buddha.
Therigatha describes womens experience of renunciation and is important because it is one of the
few surviving ancient Indian text composed by or attributed to women..
The Pali or Srilankan chronicles Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa contains a historical and mythical
account of Buddhas life and is a very important source to study the spread of Buddhism outside
India.

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Prkrit literature: Prakrit literature offers information regarding histories and dotrines of Jainism,
doctrines of rival schools, life stories of the saints and the life of monks and nuns in the Sangha. The text
can also be used for information on other aspects of the cultural history of their times.

Elaborate on the role of Kamala Devi Chattopadhyay, a socialist, feminist and a critical sympathiser of
the Indian national movement.

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The Jain texts were written in Prakrit and were finally compiled in the sixth century AD in Valabhi in
Gujarat. The important works are known as Angas, Upangas, Prakirnas, ChhedabSutras and Malasutras.
Jainism helped in the growth of a rich literature comprising poetry, philosophy and grammar. The vast
Jaina didactic story (katha) literature in Prakrtit, Sanskrit and Apabrahmsha offers insight on everyday life
of their time. The Jain texts refer repeatedly to trade and traders. These works contain many passages,
which help us to reconstruct the political history of eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.

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The answer should contain/discuss Dr. Kamala Devis contribution as a freedom fighter and how she
started at the early age and her contributions in art and social reforms.
Answer:
Kamala Devi joined Bedford College, received a diploma in Sociology, and her life spanned from
becoming actively involved with the All-India Womens Conference (AIWC). She became involved in
Gandhis Salt Satyagraha in 1930 and was arrested for entering the Bombay Stock Exchange to sell
packets of salt.

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Sevadal Leader: She joined Sevadal a Ghadhian organization set up to promote upliftment. Soon she was
placed in charge of the womens section of Dal where she got involved in recreating , training and
organizing girls and women of all ages across India, to become voluntary workers, called as Sevikas.
Freedom Fighter: Kamala devi became a prominent leader during India's freedom struggle
organizing satyagrahas, mobilizing volunteers and fighting deeply rooted social evils. Kamala devi
became an active organizer of the women and youth wing of the Indian National Congress. She was
instrumental in the emergence of the changing face of the Indian woman during the twentieth
century.Along with freedom in 1947 the nation of India inherited so many problems of the partition. She
travelled all over the world publicizing India's cause.
The doyenne of arts and crafts: Kamala devi worked relentlessly to heal the wounds of refugees by
establishing co-operative societies and self-employment schemes. She went on to rejuvenate the
traditional Indian home industries like weaving, and handicrafts. As chief of the Board of Handicrafts, she
started the pension system for the craftsmen. She continued to be great patron of Indian art and theatre.
She is considered single handedly responsible for the great revival of Indian handicrafts and handloom, in
the post-independence ear, and is considered her greatest legacy to modern India.

The Mathura school was primarily a centre of indigenous art, though it later came under the
influence of the Gandhara art. Comment.

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Kamala devi was an Indian social reformer, freedom fighter and most remembered for her contribution
to Indian independence movement, for being the driving force behind the renaissance of Indian
handicrafts, handlooms and theatre in post-independence India, and for upliftment of the socioeconomic standard of Indian women by pioneering the cooperative movement in India.

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The main theme of the question is to highlight the indigenous origin of Mathura art and it should be
substantiated with some historical evidences for the same. Briefly outline the features which distinguish
Mathura with Gandhara art, mainly to reflect its indigenous origin. Then conclude the answer by
mentioning how Gandhara Art influenced the Mathura Art in the later stages by focusing on Kushana &
Gupta period.

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Mathura School of art is purely an indigenous style, which developed during Post Maurya period
(mainly during Shunga & Kushana period) and reached its peak during the Guptas (AD 325 to 600).
The Sculptures of Mathura are noted for its assimilative and indigenous character and is given credit
for creating the earliest Indian representations of the Buddha, was a result of the religious zeal of
Brahminism, Jainism and Buddhism .
In its early phase contemporaneous with Sanchi and Bharhut school, Mathura produced Yaksha and
Yakshis and only the symbolic representation of Buddha . But, with the advent of Mahayana
Buddhism, it produced the first sculptures of Buddha and Bodhisattavas.
Mathura school of art, depicted the Indian art having abstract spiritual concepts which had to be
translated into physical shape, unlike the Western art which sought to make an aesthetically
beautiful form by portraying human figures which were models of physical perfection and athletic
vigour.
More stress is given to the inner beauty and facial emotions rather than bodily gesture or realistic
representation.
The Buddhist figure, having the presence of the two attendants by the side of Buddha who hold
Chanwars is a feature of the Mathura school which had later inspired the images of Indian Deities.

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A life size standing figure of Sakyamuni at Sarnath wearing Indian dhoti is a typical example of
the Mathura school of art reflecting the indigenous character.The halo around the head of Buddha
was profusely decorated unlike the Gandhara Art form.
Also, since the development of Mathura Art took place indigenously, wherein it used locally
available Spotted Red Sandstone& Buddha images were modelled on the lines of earlier Yaksha
images .
In contrast, the Gandhara Art had Hellenistic features, assimilating various traits of Acamenian,
Parthian and Bactrian traditions into the local tradition based on Greco-Roman norms encapsulating
foreign techniques and an alien spirit , using Blue-grey Mica schist / Grey Sandstone.
In later stage, esp. when Mathura came under the Kushan rule, it came under the influence of
Gandhara School, the general trend was away from a naturalistic conception and towards a more
idealized, abstract image. E.g. cross-legged naked figure of a Tirthankara in meditation, graceful and
provocative Yakshi and Kushana Royal statues.
Also, with the increased demand of Gandhar Buddha, some Mathura sculptures too incorporated
many Hellenistic elements, such as the general idealistic realism, and key design elements such as
the curly hair, and folded garment.

Thus, Mathura & Gandhara Art cross-fertilized in due course of time, and the bulky Mathura Buddha
gradually gave way to the slender elegance of the Gandharan image. The result of this synthesis refined
and purified the Buddha image that appeared in the Gupta period, which later became the model for
Southeast Asian Buddha images.

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The Gupta period is termed as the Golden age of Indian art and culture. What developments took place
during this period in the field of literature, art and architecture?

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The key term of the question is Guptas. The answer should be based on this particular period and the
focus should be on LITERATURE, ART AND ARCHITECTURE that took shape during this period and at the
end one should be able to justify why it is known as Golden age with specific examples and reasons
associated with it.

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The Gupta Empire reached its zenith under Chandragupta IIs rule and this is considered the golden age
of India. His reign was marked by both religious tolerance and great cultural achievements. Gupta period,
so is known as the Classical age of Ancient India.

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The Sanskrit language became prominent during the Gupta period. Nagari script had evolved from
the Brahmi script.
Poetry and drama flourished at the court of Chandragupta II or Vikramaditya, at his new capital of
Ujjain who kept the Nine Gems, at his court.
His court included Kalidasa, one of the greatest authors of Sanskrit poetry and drama. His plays are
some of the most famous works of Indian literature, and continue to have an influence on
playwrights to this day.
Chandragupta II sponsored work on medicine especially Sushruta Samhita also dates to this period.
Aryabhatta made great contributions to mathematics, astronomy and developed the concept of zero,
and accurately described the earth as a sphere and figured out that it rotates on its axis and may
have realized that it rotates around the sun.

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LITERATURE

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ARCHITECTURE

Both the Nagara and Dravidian styles of art evolved during this period. But most of the architecture
of this period had been lost due to foreign invasions like that of Huns
The temple at Deogarh and the sculptures in the temple at Garhwas near Allahabad is considered
important. The body of the temple is covered with beautiful sculpture with many figures.
The rock-cut architecture of the Buddhists consisted of two conventional types, the chaitya and the
vihara. The most notable groups are found at Ajanta, Ellora, Aurangabad and Bagh.
The Gupta temple-architecture was also erected in brick. Among the brick temples, the most famous
one is the temple at Bhitargaon.
Of the stupas, which were many, Mirpur Khas and the Dhamekh stupa at Sarnath is important and
belonged to this period
The Hindu gods, in the sculpture of this period, were mainly incarnations of Vishnu, those of
nrashimha and varaha.

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"The introduction of printing press in India was an event of revolutionary significance in the life of
Indian people." In this context discuss the contribution of press in the Indian national movement.

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The beautiful statue of standing Buddha at Mathura reveals a little Greek style and there was no
influence of Gandhara style of art.
Buddhist art especially the Ajanta Caves, decorated with images of the life of Buddha provides a vivid
example of Gupta-era Indian painting. The paintings at Sigiriya in Sri Lanka were highly influenced by
the Ajantha style.
The wealth of jewellery, high-quality textiles, embroidery, tie and dye work, brocade and muslin
worn by women of this period is seen in the flying Apsaras murals in the Ajanta.

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Mention important Newspapers during the Indian National Movement and explain how they made an
impact during the Indian National Movement.

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NOTE: There are many regional and National newspapers that played an important role in the Indian
National Movement. These can be mentioned, but how the Paper/Magazine/Journal brought a change in
the minds of the people should be discussed in detail.

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The Press was a powerful factor in building and developing Indian nationalism and nationalist
movement encompassing social, cultural, political and economic spheres.
It was a weapon, in the hands of the nationalist groups, to popularize political programmes, policies,
and methods of struggle, and to form organizations.
Press made possible exchange of views among different social groups
The Press also played an important role in the growth of provincial literatures and cultures
It also helped to organize propaganda against such inhuman institutions as untouchability.

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There is not a single province in India, which did not produce a journal or newspaper to uphold the cause
of the freedom struggle. The following can be cited as the contribution of the Press during the Indian
National Movement:

The history of Indian nationalism proves that the freedom of the Press in India suffered a proportional
curtailment.

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During 1st War of Indian Independence

At the time of the first war of independence, any number of papers was in operation in the country. In
1857 itself that Payam-e-Azadi started publication in Hindi and Urdu, calling upon the people to fight
against the British. The paper was soon confiscated and anyone found with a copy of the paper was
prosecuted for sedition
Notable Role of Papers
Patriot established in 1853, by Grish Chandra Ghosh, it became popular under Harish Chandra
Mukherjee. In 1861 a play, "Neel Darpan" was published and launched a movement against the British,
urging the people to stop cultivating the Indigo crop for the white traders. This resulted in the formation
of a Neel Commission.
Amrita Bazar Patrika which was being published from Jessore, was critical of the government, with the
result that its proprietors faced trial and conviction
Tilak's Kesari became one of the leading media to propagate the message of freedom movement. It also
made the anti-partition movement of Bengal a national issue. In 1908, Tilak opposed the Sedition
ordinance.
Press and the First Session of Congress

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The first ever resolution at this Session was proposed by the editor of The Hindu, G. Subramanya Iyer. In
this resolution, it was demanded that the government should appoint a committee to enquire into the
functioning of Indian administration.

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During his stay in South Africa, Gandhiji had brought outIndian Opinion and after settling in India, he
started the publication of Young India; Subash Chandra Bose and C.R. Das were not journalists but they
acquired the papers like Forward and Advance which later attained national status.

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Revolutionary Movement and the Press

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Indian Dancing has changed little with the centuries, and till date the art form is practiced according to
the rules of the Bharata Natyasastra. Discuss.

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When the Ghadar party was organised in Amenca, Lala Hardayal started publication of the journal
'Ghadar'. Within one year, millions of copies of this journal were published. After Yugantar, it
was Vandematram that played a significant role in the freedom struggle.

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The Answers should discuss how the dance form grew in past few centuries and the main focus term is
Bharatas Natyasastra. One should discuss about the term and why it is said that they have not changed
much. The Answer should mainly discuss the various RULES followed till date in natya sastra.

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Bharatas Natya sastra is an ancient Indian treatise on the performing arts encompassing theatre,
dance and music. It educates the spectator in observing correct behaviour while watching a
performance. It deals with the theory of Rasa.
Dancing {nrtya) is closely connected with acting (natya), both are forms of the same word, the latter
being a Prakritism, and both are aspects of a single art, abhinaya.
The abhinaya or rasa is the portrayal of the eight emotions like love, courage, loathing, anger, mirth,
terror, pity and surprise.

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The emergence of new social classes during British India was a direct consequence of the
establishment of new socio-economic and political system'. Discuss.

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The drama employed chiefly word and gesture, the dance chiefly music and gesture. In India the
drama, developed from ritual miming, song and dance. Indian dancing is not a thing of legs and arms
alone, but of the whole body.
Every movement of the little finger or the eyebrow is significant, and must be fully controlled. The
poses and gestures are classified in detail, even as early as the Bharata Natya sastra, which mentions
thirteen postures of the head, thirty-six of the eyes, nine of the neck, thirty-seven of the hand, and
ten of die body.
Later texts classify many more poses and gestures, every one of which depicts a specific emotion or
object. With so many possible combinations the dancer can tell a whole story, easily comprehensible
to the observer who knows the convention.
The most striking feature of the Indian dance is undoubtedly the hand-gesture (mudra). By a
beautiful and complicated code, the hand alone is capable of portraying not only a wide range of
emotions, but gods, animals, men, natural scenery, actions and so on.
Some hundreds of mudras are classified in later textbooks, and they are used not only in the dance,
but, as we have seen, in religious worship and iconography.
The highly developed dance style demanded years of training, and was probably always chiefly
performed by professionals, though there are references in literature to princes and their ladies
dancing their palaces.
Dancing has changed little with the century and the best modem Indian dancers, such as Uday
Shankar and Gopal, still dance according to the rules of the Bharata Natyasastra.

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The answer requires a larger analysis of the changes that led to the emergence of the various social
classes. The answer must discuss specific socio-cultural and economic causes, which played a crucial role
in its rise and link it with the over-all impact of colonial rule.

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British administrative, economic innovations gave rise to a new urban middle class with varied
background but a common foreground of knowledge, ideas and values. In course of 19th century, new
middle class started emerging particularly in three presidency towns, which came to have not only
economic and administrative significance but also socio-cultural significance. In course, even interior
areas saw gradual emergence of rural based middle class in form of moneylenders, merchants and
Zamindars.

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Following reasons can be attributed to the rise of this new middle class:

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Role of British rule: In the following stage of colonialism, British felt the need to develop new class of
Indian, who could not only facilitate administration by becoming clerks and interpreter, but who would
also become strong supporter and allies of British. The exposure of small class of Indians to western
education, ideas and culture was hoped to convince them of superiority of western way of life. Behind
this loyalism of landlord and educated Indians, there was also a growing awareness of their state of
subordination. Hence it was this very middle class that got politically enlightened from later 19th
century.
Socio-political causes: British rule brought the entire geographical area of the country under a single
administration and unified the country by introducing a uniform system of law and government.

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Till 1813 British followed policy of noninterference in the religious social and cultural life of India.
Gradually, this was reversed by acts like abolition of sati, a legislation prohibiting infanticide,
widow remarriage acts etc.
The spread of modern education introduced in India after 1813, by the government and
missionaries also played an important role in creating a culture of public sphere.
The attempt to westernize selected group of Indian was also meant to create more conducive
atmosphere for spread of Christianity by official missionaries. This also explains the motive
behind introducing western education through English medium.
Modern ideas spread through many channels, political parties, the press, pamphlets and the
public platform. The new intellectual and political stirrings among the people led to movements
for social change.
British rule exposed Indian masses to doctrine of humanism and reason, modern science,
western thought and culture, ideas like democracy, sovereignty of the people, helped Indians not
only to take a critical look at their own society, economy and government but also to understand
the true nature of British imperialism in India.

Economic causes:

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Rise of this middle class also lay in the fact that British rule became the major cause of Indias
economic backwardness. The colonial rule aimed to create an ever-expanding market for British
manufactured goods.
Owing to the British rule 19th century witnessed large scale economic and political discontent.
The theory of economic drain proposed by nationalist leaders exposed the exploitative
tendencies of the British rule.
Modern industries, transport, urbanization, social exclusiveness and erosion of caste rigidities.
Development of communication system such as railways, telegraph was another crucial factor.
Total disruption of old land and rural relationships upset the caste balance in the countryside.
The penetration of capitalism made social status, dependent mainly on economic prosperity.

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In this way gradually these social class became aware of racial discrimination, lack of sufficient
opportunity and economic drain caused by colonial exploitation. This led to growth of a new
consciousness among the educated section and middle class. It was this middle class consciousness,
which laid the foundation of modern approach and attitude in Indian society.

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