Indian Standard - Code of Practice For Earthing

10/2/2015
IndianStandard:CODEOFPRACTICEFOREARTHING
PREAMBLE(NOTPARTOFTHESTANDARD)
Inordertopromotepubliceducationandpublicsafety,equaljusticeforall,abetterinformedcitizenry,theruleof
law,worldtradeandworldpeace,thislegaldocumentisherebymadeavailableonanoncommercialbasis,asitistheright
ofallhumanstoknowandspeakthelawsthatgovernthem.
ENDOFPREAMBLE(NOTPARTOFTHESTANDARD)
(Reaffirmed2006)
IS:30431987
(Reaffirmed2006)
IndianStandard
CODEOFPRACTICEFOREARTHING
(FirstRevision)
FourthReprintJUNE2007
(IncludingAmendmentNo.1)
UDC621.316.99:006.76
Copyright1988
BUREAUOFINDIANSTANDARDS
MANAKBHAVAN,9BAHADURSHAHZAFARMARG
NEWDELHI110002
PriceRs650.00
September1988
IndianStandard
5
4
3
2
1
iii
(FirstRevision)
ElectricalInstallationsSectionalCommittee,ETDC20
Chairman
SHRIM.L.DONGRE
M3Satyam,88SionCircle,Bombay400022
Members
SHRIP.ANANTHARAMAN
Representing
EngineerinChiefsBranch,ArmyHeadquarters(Ministryof
Defence),NewDelhi
SHRIS.K.SHANGARI(Alternate)
SHRIP.D.BAGADE
TataConsultingEngineers,Bombay
SHRIR.K.KAUL(Alternate)
SHRIV.S.BHATIA
SiemensIndiaLtd,Bombay
SHRIM.M.SHETHNA(Alternate)
SHRIK.V.CHAUBAL
FederationofElectricityUndertakingofIndia,Bombay
SHRIK.S.JOSHI(Alternate)
SHRIR.R.CHOUDHURI
Larsen&Toubro(ConstructionGroup),Madras
SHRIN.BALASUBRAMANIAN(Alternate)
CHIEFELECTRICALENGINEER
RailwayBoard(MinistryofRailways),NewDelhi
DEPUTYDIRECTORSTANDARDS(ELEC)DI,RDSO(Alternate)
CHIEFELECTRICALINSPECTORTOGOVERNMENTOFTAMIL
ChiefElectricalInspectortoGovernmentofTamilNadu,
NADU
Madras
ELECTRICALINSPECTOR(TECHNICAL)TOGOVERNMENTorTAMILNADU(Alternate)
https://law.resource.org/pub/in/bis/S05/is.3043.1987.html
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CHIEFENGINEER(ELEC)1SUPERINTENDENTSURVEYORor
CentralPublicWorksDepartment,NewDelhi
WORKS(ELEC)I(Alternate)
SHRIDEVENDERNATH
Larsen&ToubroLtd,Bombay
SHRIT.P.R.SARMA(Alternate)
SHRIK.W.DHARMADHIKARI
JyotiLtd,Vadodara
DRV.N.MALLER(Alternate)
SHRIG.L.DUA
RuralElectrificationCorporationLtd,NewDelhi
SHRIS.K.SETHI(Alternate)
SHRIR.C.KHANNA
DelhiElectricSupplyUndertaking,NewDelhi
SHRIP.S.SAWHNEY(Alternate)
MEMBER(HYDROELECTRIC)
CentralElectricityAuthority,NewDelhi
DIRECTOR(HED)I(Alternate)
ERS.PANEERSELVAM
TamilNaduElectricityBoard,Madras
SHRIV.JANARDHANAN(Alternate)
SHRIK.P.R.PILLAI
FactEngineeringandDesignOrganization,Udhyogamandal
SHRIC.R.R.MENON(Alternate)
SHRIV.RADHAKRISHNAN
BharatHeavyElectricalsLtd,Hyderabad
SHRIH.S.RAO
CromptonGreavesLtd,Bombay
PROFG.RAVEENDRANNAIR
ChiefElectricalInspectortotheGovernmentofKerala,
Trivandrum
SHRIS.R.SARDA
MaharashtraStateElectricityBoard,Bombay
SHRIR.SATHIYABAL
TariffAdvisoryCommittee(GeneralInsurance),Bombay
SHRIK.K.MONDAL(Alternate)
SHRIH.K.SITARAM
CalcuttaElectricSupplyCorporationLtd,Calcutta
SHRIS.K.PALIT(Alternate)
SHRIP.SRINIVASAPOTI
KarnatakaElectricityBoard,Bangalore
SHRIJOSEPHPHILOMENY(Alternate)
SHRID.S.TAWARE
ElectricalEngineertoGovernmentofMaharashtra,Bombay
SHRIS.J.HARIDAS(Alternate)
SHRIG.N.THADANI
EngineersIndiaLtd,NewDelhi
SHRIS.K.GHOSH(Alternate)
SHRIG.S.THAKUR
ChiefElectricalInspector,GovernmentofMadhyaPradesh,
Bhopal
SHRIV.T.WARANG
BombayElectricSupplyandTransportUndertaking,
Bombay
SHRIR.P.PATEL(Alternate)
SHRIS.P.SACHDEV,Director(Electech)
DirectorGeneral,BIS(ExofficioMember)
Secretary
SHRIK.GANESH
DeputyDirector(Electech),BIS
Copyright1988
ThispublicationisprotectedundertheIndianCopyrightAct(XIV1957)andproductioninwholeorinpartbyanymeant
exceptwithwrittenpermissionofthepublishershallbedeemedtobeaninfringmentofcopyrightunderthesaidAct.
PanelfortheRevisionofIS:3043,ETDC20:P38
1
Convener
Representing
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SHRIN.BALASUBRAMANIAN
Larsen&Toubro(ConstructionGroup),Madras
Members
PROFG.RAVEENDRAMNAIR
ChiefElectricalInspectortotheGovernmentofKerala,Trivandrum
SHRIV.SATHYANATHAN
TamilNaduElectricityBoard,Madras
SHRIG.S.THAKUR
ChiefElectricalInspector,GovernmentofMadhyaPradesh,Bhopal
SHRIR.SATHIYABAL
TariffAdvisoryCommittee,Madras
SHRIK.P.R.PILLAI
FactEngineeringandDesignOrganization,Udyogamandal
CONTENTS
Page
0. FOREWORD
1. SCOPE
6
SECTION1GENERALGUIDELINES
2. TERMINOLOGY
3. EXCHANGEOFINFORMATION
4. STATUTORYPROVISIONSFOREARTHING
5. FACTORSINFLUENCINGTHECHOICEOFEARTHEDANDUNEARTHEDSYSTEMS
10
6. SYSTEMEARTHING
11
7. EQUIPMENTEARTHING
15
SECTION2CONNECTIONSTOEARTH
8. RESISTANCETOEARTH
16
9. EARTHELECTRODE
19
10. CURRENTDENSITYATTHESURFACEOFANEARTHELECTRODE
27
11. VOLTAGEGRADIENTAROUNDEARTHELECTRODES
27
12. CONNECTIONSTOEARTHELECTRODESEARTHINGANDPROTECTIVECONDUCTORS
27
13. EARTHINGARRANGEMENTFORPROTECTIVEPURPOSES
32
14. EARTHINGARRANGEMENTFORFUNCTIONALPURPOSES
32
15. EARTHINGARRANGEMENTSFORCOMBINEDPROTECTIVEANDFUNCTIONALPURPOSES
32
16. EQUIPOTENTIALBONDINGCONDUCTORS
33
17. TYPICALSCHEMATICOFEARTHINGANDPROTECTIVECONDUCTORS
33
SECTION3EARTHFAULTPROTECTIONONCONSUMERSPREMISES
18. EARTHFAULTPROTECTIONININSTALLATIONS
34
19. SELECTIONOFDEVICESFORAUTOMATICDISCONNECTIONOFSUPPLY
39
SECTION4POWERSTATIONS,SUBSTATIONSANDOVERHEADLINES
20. EARTHINGINPOWERSTATIONSANDSUBSTATIONS
43
21. EARTHINGASSOCIATEDWITHOVERHEADPOWER.LINES
52
SECTION5INDUSTRIALPREMISES
22. GUIDELINESFOREARTHINGININDUSTRIALPREMISES
53
SECTION6STANDBYANDOTHERPRIVATEGENERATINGPLANTS
23. EARTHINGINSTANDBYANDOTHERPRIVATEGENERATINGPLANTS(INCLUDINGPORTABLEANDMOBILE
3
56
GENERATORS)
SECTION7MEDICALESTABLISHMENT
24. PROTECTIVEMEASURESTHROUGHEARTHINGINMEDICALESTABLISHMENT
64
25. SUPPLYCHARACTERISTICSANDPARAMETERS
65
SECTION8STATICANDLIGHTNINGPROTECTIONEARTHING
(Underconsideration.Clauses26and27reservedforSection8)
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SECTION9MISCELLANEOUSINSTALLATIONSANDCONSIDERATIONS
28. EARTHINGINPOTENTIALLYHAZARDOUSAREAS
69
29. TELECOMMUNICATIONCIRCUITSANDAPPARATUS
70
30. BUILDINGSITES
71
31. MINESANDQUARRIES
71
32. STREETLIGHTINGANDOTHERELECTRICALLYSUPPLIESSTREETFURNITURS
73
33. EARTHINGOFCONDUCTORSFORSAFEWORKING
74
34. MAINTENANCEOFEARTHELECTRODES
76
SECTION10MEASUREMENTSANDCALCULATIONS
35. CALCULATIONOFEARTHFAULTCURRENTS
76
36. MEASUREMENTOFEARTHRESISTIVITY
77
37. MEASUREMENTOFEARTHELECTRODERESISTANCE
79
38. MEASUREMENTOFEARTHLOOPIMPEDANCE
80
SECTION11DATAPROCESSINGINSTALLATIONS
39. EARTHINGREQUIREMENTSFORINSTALLATIONSOFDATAPROCESSINGEQUIPMENT
80
40. EXAMPLEOFUSEOFTRANSFORMERS
83
IndianStandard
(FirstRevision)
0.FOREWORD
0.1
ThisIndianStandard(FirstRevision)wasadoptedbytheBureauofIndianStandardson6August1987,afterthe
draftfinalizedbytheElectricalInstallationsSectionalCommittee,hadbeenapprovedbytheElectrotechnicalDivision
Council.
0.2
TheIndianElectricityRules,togetherwiththesupplementaryregulationsoftheStateElectricityDepartmentsand
ElectricityUndertakings,governtheelectricalinstallationworkingeneratingstations,substations,industriallocations,
buildings,etc,inthecountry.Toensuresafetyoflifeandapparatusagainstearthfaults,itwasfeltnecessarytopreparea
codeofpracticeforearthing.Thiscodeofpracticeisintendedtoserveasaconsolidatedguidetoallthosewhoare
concernedwiththedesign,installation,inspectionandmaintenanceofelectricalsystemsandapparatus.
0.3
Thesubjectofearthingcoverstheproblemsrelatingtoconductionofelectricitythroughearth.Thetermsearthand
earthinghavebeenusedinthiscodeirrespectiveofreliancebeingplacedontheearthitselfasalowimpedancereturnpath
ofthefaultcurrent.Asamatteroftact,theearthnowrarelyservesasapartofthereturncircuitbutisbeingusedmainly
forfixingthevoltageofsystemneutrals.Theearthconnectionimprovesservicecontinuityandavoidsdamageto
equipmentanddangertohumanlife.
0.4
Theobjectofanearthingsystemistoprovideasnearlyaspossibleasurfaceunderandaroundastationwhichshall
beatauniformpotentialandasnearlyzeroorabsoluteearthpotentialaspossible.Thepurposeofthisistoensurethat,in
general,allpartsofapparatusotherthanliveparts,shallbeatearthpotential,aswellastoensurethatoperatorsand
attendantsshallbeatearthpotentialatalltimes.Alsobyprovidingsuchanearthsurfaceofuniformpotentialunderand
surroundingthestation,therecanexistnodifferenceofpotentialinashortdistancebigenoughtoshockorinjurean
attendantwhenshortcircuitsorotherabnormaloccurrencestakeplace.Therecommendationsinthiscodearemadein
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orderthattheseobjectsmaybecarriedout.
0.5
Earthingassociatedwithcurrentcarryingconductorisnormallyessentialtothesecurityofthesystemandis
generallyknownassystemearthing,whileearthingofnoncurrentcarryingmetalworkandconductorisessentialtothe
safetyofhumanlife,animalsandproperty,andisgenerallyknownasequipmentearthing.
0.6
Sincethepublicationofthisstandardin1966,considerableexperiencehasbeengainedthroughtheimplementation
ofitsvariousstipulations.Moreover,severalnewconceptshavebeenintroducedtheworldover,ontheunderstandingof
functionalandprotectiveearthingwithaviewtotakeintoaccountavarietyofcomplexproblemsencounteredinactual
practice.Inthecontextofincreaseduseofelectricpowerandtheassociatedneedforsafetyinthedesignofinstallations,it
hadbecomenecessarytoprepareanoverallrevisionoftheearlierversionoftheCode.
0.7
InthisCode,thetermsearthingandgroundingareusedsynonymously.However,thisCodeintroducesseveral
newterms(see2.15,2.17,2.28,etc)anddistinguishesearthingconductorfromprotectiveconductor.
0.8
ThisCodeincludescomprehensiveguidelinesonchoosingthepropersizeofthevariouscomponentsoftheearthing
system,particularlyearthingandprotectiveconductorsaswellasearthelectrodes.Guidanceincludedondeterminationof
relevantkfactordependingon(seeSec2)materialpropertiesandboundaryconditions,andtheassociatedminimum
crosssectionalareawouldassistinamorescientificdesignoftheearthingsystemundervariouscircumstances.
0.9
Forthefirsttime,theCodealsoincludescomprehensiveguidelinesonearthfaultprotectioninconsumerspremises
tocommensuratewiththeprovisionsofIERules1956.Itincludesspecificguidelinesonearthingsystemdesigntoachieve
thedesireddegreeofshockhazardprotectionfromearthleakages.TherulesgiveninSection3oftheCodeshouldberead
inconjunctionwithcorrespondingregulationsgiveninthewiringcode(seeIS:732).
0.9.1
Protectionagainstshock,bothinnormalservice(directcontact)andincaseoffault(indirectcontact)canbe
achievedbyseveral
5
measures.Detailsofsuchprotectivemeasuresandguidanceontheirchoiceisthesubjectmatterofdebateinthe
processofrevisionofIS:732*.Earthfault/leakageprotectionsoughttobeachievedthroughequipotentialbondingand
automaticdisconnectionofsupplyisenvisagedtopreventatouchvoltagefrompersistingforsuchadurationthatwouldbe
harmfultohumanbeings.GuidanceonachievingthisprotectioniscoveredinSec3oftheCode.
0.9.2
WhiledetailedguidelinesarecoveredinspecificportionsoftheCode,thefollowingshallbenoted:
a. Forsolidlygroundedsystems,itshallbesufficienttocheckwhetherthe,characteristicsofprotectivedevicefor
automaticdisconnection,earthingarrangementsandrelevantimpedancesofthecircuitsareproperlycoordinatedto
ensurethatvoltagesappearingbetweensimultaneouslyaccessible,exposedandextraneous,conductivepartsare
withinthemagnitudesthatwouldnotcausedanger
b. Forsystemswheretheearthingisdeemedtobeadequate,itshallbecheckedwhetherthemainovercurrent
protectivedeviceiscapableofmeetingtherequirementsinthewiringcodeand
c. Wherethemainovercurrentprotectivedevicedidnotfulfiltherequirementsorwheretheearthingisconsidered
inadequate,thenaseparateresidualcurrentdevicewouldbenecessarytobeinstalled,theearthfaultloopimpedance
andthetrippingcharacteristicssochosenthattheycomplywithsafetouchvoltagelimits.
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0.10
TherevisionoftheCodeaimsatconsolidatinginonevolumealltheessentialguidelinesneededforpreparingagood
earthingdesigninanelectricalinstallation.Therevisionalsoattemptstobemoreelaboratethantheearlierversion,
especiallyinareasofspecificinterestkeepinginviewtheneedandwideexperiencegainedtheworldover.
*Codeofpracticeforelectricalwiringinstallation.
0.11
ForconvenienceofidentifyingareasofinterestbyanyspecificusersoftheCode,theinformationcontainedinthis
standardisdividedintodifferentSectionsasfollows:
Section1
Generalguidelines
Section2
Connectionstoearth
Section3
Earthfaultprotectioninconsumerspremises
Section4
Powerstations,substationsandoverheadlines
Section5
Industrialpremises
Section6
Standbyandotherprivategeneratingplant
Section7
Medicalestablishments
Section8
Staticandlightningprotectiongrounding
Section9
Miscellaneousinstallationsandconsiderations
Section10
Measurementsandcalculationsand
Section11
Dataprocessinginstallations.
0.12
InthepreparationoftheCode,assistancehasbeentakenfromthefollowing:
IECPub364(andParts)Electricalinstallationsinbuildings.InternationalElectrotechnicalCommission.
BSDocument84/21243Draftstandardcodeofpracticeonearthing(revisionofCP1013:1965).BritishStandards
Institution.
ANSI/IEEEStd1421982IEEERecommendedpracticeforgroundingofindustrialandcommercialpowersystems.
AmericanNationalStandardsInstitute(USA).
0.13
Forthepurposeofdecidingwhetheraparticularrequirementofthisstandardiscompliedwith,thefinalvalue,
observedorcalculated,expressingtheresultofatestoranalysisshallberoundedoffinaccordancewithIS:21960*.The
numberofsignificantplacesretainedintheroundedoffvalueshouldbethesameasthatofthespecifiedvalueinthis
standard.
*Rulesforroundingoffnumericalvalues(revised).
1.SCOPE
1.1
Thiscodeofpracticegivesguidanceonthemethodsthatmaybeadoptedtoearthanelectricalsystemforthe
purposeoflimitingthepotential(withrespecttothegeneralmassoftheearth)ofcurrentcarryingconductorsforming
partofthesystem,thatis,systemearthingandnoncurrentcarryingmetalworkassociationwithequipment,apparatus
andapplianceconnectedtothesystem(thatis,equipmentearthing).
1.2
ThisCodeappliesonlytolandbasedinstallationsanditdoesnotapplytoships,aircraftsoroffshoreinstallations.
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SECTION1GENERALGUIDELINES
2.TERMINOLOGY
2.0
Forthepurposeofthisstandard,thefollowingdefinitionsshallapply.
2.1
ArcSuppressionCoil(PetersonCoil)Anearthingreactorsodesignedthatitsreactanceissuchthatthe
reactivecurrenttoearthunderfaultconditionsbalancesthecapacitancecurrenttoearthflowingfromthelinessothatthe
earthcurrentatthefaultislimitedtopracticallyzero.
2.2
BondingConductorAprotectiveconductorprovidingequipotentialbonding.
2.3
ClassIEquipmentEquipmentinwhichprotectionagainstelectricshockdoesnotrelyonbasicinsulationonly,
butwhichincludesmeansfortheconnectionofexposedconductivepartstoaprotectiveconductorinthefixedwiringof
theinstallation.
NOTEForinformationonclassificationofequipmentwithregardtomeansprovidedforprotection
againstelectricshock(seeIS:94091980*).
2.4
ClassIIEquipmentEquipmentinwhichprotectionagainstelectricshockdoesnotrelyonbasicinsulationonly,
butinwhichadditionalsafetyprecautionssuchassupplementaryinsulationareprovided,therebeingnoprovisionforthe
connectionofexposedmetalworkoftheequipmenttoaprotectiveconductor,andnorelianceuponprecautionstobe
takeninthefixedwiringoftheinstallation.
2.5
DeadThetermusedtodescribeadeviceorcircuittoindicatethatavoltageisnotapplied.
2.6
DoubleInsulationInsulationcomprisingbothbasicandsupplementaryinsulation.
2.7
EarthTheconductivemassoftheearth,whoseelectricpotentialatanypointisconventionallytakenaszero.
2.8
EarthElectrodeAconductororgroupofconductorsinintimatecontactwithandprovidinganelectrical
connectiontoearth.
2.9
EarthElectrodeResistanceTheresistanceofanearthelectrodetoearth,
2.10
EarthFaultLoopImpedanceTheimpedanceoftheearthfaultcurrentloop(phasetoearthloop)startingand
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endingatthepointofearthfault.
2.11
EarthLeakageCurrentAcurrentwhichflowstoearthortoextraneousconductivepartsinacircuitwhichis
electricallysound.
NOTEThiscurrentmayhaveacapacitivecomponentincludingthatresultingfromthedeliberateuse
ofcapacitors.
2.12
EarthedConcentricWiringAwiringsysteminwhichoneormoreinsulatedconductorsarecompletely
surroundedthroughouttheirlengthbyaconductor,forexample,asheathwhichactsasaPENconductor.
2.13
EarthingConductorAprotectiveconductorconnectingthemainearthingterminal(see2.2)(orthe
equipotentialbondingconductorofaninstallationwhenthereisnoearthbus)toanearthelectrodeortoothermeansof
earthing.
2.14
ElectricallyIndependentEarthElectrodesEarthelectrodeslocatedatsuchadistancefromoneanother
thatthemaximumcurrentlikelytoflowthroughoneofthemdoesnotsignificantlyaffectthepotentialoftheother(s).
2.15
EquipotentialBondingElectricalconnectionputtingvariousexposedconductivepartsandextraneous
conductivepartsatasubstantiallyequalpotential.
NOTEInabuildinginstallation,equipotentialbondingconductorsshallinterconnectthefollowing
conductiveparts:
a. Protectiveconductor
b. Earthcontinuityconductorand
c. Risersofairconditioningsystemsandheatingsystems(ifany).
2.16
ExposedConductivePartAconductivepartofequipmentwhichcanbetouchedandwhichisnotalivepart
butwhichmaybecomeliveunderfaultconditions.
2.17
ExtraneousCondctivePartAconductivepartliabletotransmitapotentialincludingearthpotentialandnot
formingpartoftheelectricalinstallation.
2.18
FinalCircuitAcircuitconnecteddirectlytocurrentusingequipmentortoasocketoutletorsocketoutletsor
otheroutletpointsfortheconnectionofsuchequipment.
2.19
FunctionalEarthingConnectiontoearthnecessaryforproperfunctioningofelectricalequipment(see29.1).
2.20
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LivePartAconductororconductivepartintendedtobeenergizedinnormaluseincludinganeutralconductor
but,byconvention,notaPENconductor.
2.21
MainEarthingTerminalTheterminalorbar(whichistheequipotentialbondingconductor)providedforthe
connectionofprotectiveconductorsandtheconductorsoffunctionalearthing,ifany,tothemeansofearthing.
2.22
NeutralConductorAconductorconnectedtotheneutralpointofasystemandcapableofcontributingtothe
transmissionofelectricalenergy.
*Classificationofelectricalandelectronicequipmentwithregardtoprotectionagainstelectricshock.
7
2.23
PENConductorAconductorcombiningthefunctionsofbothprotectiveconductorandneutralconductor.
2.24
PortableEquipmentEquipmentwhichismovedwhileinoperationorwhichcaneasilybemovedfromone
placetoanotherwhileconnectedtothesupply.
2.25
PotentialGradient(AtaPoint)Thepotentialdifferenceperunitlengthmeasuredinthedirectioninwhichit
ismaximum.
NOTEIWhenanelectricforceisduetopotentialdifference,itisequaltothepotentialgradient.
NOTE2Potentialgradientisexpressedinvoltsperunitlength.
2.26
ProtectiveConductorAconductorusedasameasureofprotectionagainstelectricshockandintendedfor
connectinganyofthefollowingparts:
a. Exposedconductiveparts,
b. Extraneousconductiveparts,
c. Mainearthingterminal,and
d. Earthedpointofthesourceoranartificialneutral.
2.27
ReinforcedInsulationSingleinsulationappliedtoliveparts,whichprovidesadegreeofprotectionagainst
electricshockequivalenttodoubleinsulationundertheconditionsspecifiedintherelevantstandard.
NOTEThetermsingleinsulationdoesnotimplythattheinsulationhastobeonehomogeneous
piece.Itmaycompriseseverallayersthatcannotbetestedsinglyassupplementaryorbasicinsulation.
2.28
ResidualCurrentDeviceAmechanicalswitchingdeviceorassociationofdevicesintendedtocausetheopening
ofthecontactswhentheresidualcurrentattainsagivenvalueunderspecifiedconditions.
2.29
ResidualOperatingCurrentResidualcurrentwhichcausestheresidualcurrentdevicetooperateunder
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specifiedconditions.
2.30
ResistanceArea(ForanEarthElectrodeonly)Thesurfaceareaofground(aroundanearthelectrode)on
whichasignificantvoltagegradientmayexist.
2.31
SafetyExtraLowVoltageSeeIS:94091980*.
2.32
SimultaneouslyAccessiblePartsConductorsorconductivepartswhichcanbetouchedsimultaneouslybya
personor,whereapplicable,bylivestock.
NOTE1Simultaneouslyaccessiblepartsmaybe:
a. liveparts,
b. exposedconductiveparts,
c. extraneousconductiveparts,
d. protectiveconductors,and
e. earthelectrodes.
NOTE2Thistermappliesforlivestockinlocationsspecificallyintendedfortheseanimals.
*Classificationofelectricalandelectronicequipmentwithregardtoprotectionagainstelectricalshock.
2.33
SupplementaryInsulationIndependentinsulationappliedinadditiontobasicinsulation,inordertoprovide
protectionagainstelectricshockintheeventofafailureofbasicinsulation.
2.34
SwitchgearAnassemblyofmainandauxiliaryswitchingapparatusforoperation,regulation,protectionorother
controlofelectricalinstallations.
NOTEAmorecomprehensivedefinitionofthetermSwitchgearcanbehadfromIS:1885(Part
17)1979*.
2.35
Voltage,NominalVoltagebywhichaninstallation(orpartofaninstallation)isdesignated.
2.36
TouchVoltageThepotentialdifferencebetweenagroundedmetallicstructureandapointontheearthssurface
separatedbyadistanceequaltothenormalmaximumhorizontalreach,approximatelyonemetre(seeFig.1).
2.37
StepVoltageThepotentialdifferencebetweentwopointsontheearthssurface,separatedbydistanceofone
pace,thatwillbeassumedtobeonemetreinthedirectionofmaximumpotentialgradient(seeFig.1).
2.38
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EquipotentialLineorContourThelocusofpointshavingthesamepotentialatagiventime.
2.39
MutualResistanceofGroundingElectrodesEqualtothevoltagechangeinoneofthemproducedbya
changeofoneampereofdirectcurrentintheotherandisexpressedinohms.
2.40
EarthGridAsystemofgroundingelectrodesconsistingofinterconnectedconnectorsburiedintheearthto
provideacommongroundforelectricaldevicesandmetallicstructures.
NOTEThetermearthgriddoesnotincludeearthmat.
2.41
EarthMatAgroundingsystemformedbyagridofhorizontallyburiedconductorsandwhichservestodissipate
theearthfaultcurrenttoearthandalsoasanequipotentialbondingconductorsystem.
3.EXCHANGEOFINFORMATION
3.1
Whentheearthingofaconsumersinstallationisbeingplanned,priorconsultationshalltakeplacebetweenthe
consultantorcontractorandthesupplyauthority.Wherenecessary,consultationswiththePosts&TelegraphsDepartment
shallalsobecarriedoutinordertoavoidanyinterferencewiththetelecommunicationsystem.
*Electrotechnicalvocabulary:Part17Switchgearandcontrolgear(firstrevision).
8
FIG.1STEPANDTOUCHVOLTAGES
4.STATUTORYPROVISIONSFOREARTHING
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4.1
EartingshallgenerallybecarriedoutinaccordancewiththerequirementsofIndianElectricityRules1956,as
amendedfromtimetotimeandtherelevantregulationsoftheElectricitySupplyAuthorityconcerned.
4.2
Allmediumvoltageequipmentshallbeearthedbytwoseparateanddistinctconnectionswithearth.Inthecaseof
highandextrahighvoltages,theneutralpointsshallbeearthedbynotlessthantwoseparateanddistinctconnections
withearth,eachhavingitsownelectrodeatthegeneratingstationorsubstationandmaybeearthedatanyotherpoint
providednointerferenceiscausedbysuchearthing.Ifnecessary,theneutralmaybeearthedthroughasuitable
impedance.
4.2.1
Incaseswheredirectearthingmayproveharmfulratherthanprovidesafety(forexample,highfrequencyandmains
frequencycorelessinductionfurnaces),relaxationmaybeobtainedfromthecompetentauthority.
4.3
Earthelectrodesshallbeprovidedatgeneratingstations,substationsandconsumerpremisesinaccordancewiththe
requirementsofthisCode.
4.4
Asfaraspossible,allearthconnectionsshallbevisibleforinspection.
4.5
Allconnectionsshallbecarefullymadeiftheyarepoorlymadeorinadequateforthepurposeforwhichtheyare
intended,lossoflifeorseriouspersonalinjurymayresult.
4.6
Eachearthsystemshallbesodevisedthatthetestingofindividualearthelectrodeispossible.Itisrecommended
thatthevalueofanyearthsystemresistanceshallbesuchastoconformwiththedegreeofshock,protectiondesired.
4.7
Itisrecommendedthatadrawingshowingthemainearthconnectionandearthelectrodesbepreparedforeach
installation.
4.8
Noadditiontothecurrentcarryingsystem,eithertemporaryorpermanent,shallbemadewhichwillincreasethe
maximumavailableearth
9
faultcurrentoritsdurationuntilithasbeenascertainedthattheexistingarrangementofearthelectrodes,earthbus
bar,etc,arecapableofcarryingthenewvalueofearthfaultcurrentwhichmaybeobtainedbythisaddition.
4.9
Nocutout,linkorswitchotherthanalinkedswitcharrangedtooperatesimultaneouslyontheearthedorearthed
neutralconductorandtheliveconductors,shallbeinsertedonanysupplysystem.This,however,doesnotincludethecase
ofaswitchforuseincontrollingageneratororatransformeroralinkfortestpurposes.
4.10
Allmaterials,fittings,etc,usedinearthingshallconformtoIndianStandardspecifications,wherevertheseexist.
5.FACTORSINFLUENCINGTHECHOICEOFEARTHEDORUNEARTHEDSYSTEM
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5.FACTORSINFLUENCINGTHECHOICEOFEARTHEDORUNEARTHEDSYSTEM
5.1ServiceContinuity
5.1.1
Anumberofindustrialplantsystemshavebeenoperatedunearthedatoneormorevoltagelevels.Thisisbasically
guidedbythethoughtofgaininganadditionaldegreeofservicecontinuityvaryinginitsimportancedependingonthetype
ofplant.Earthedsystemsareinmostcasesdesignedsothatcircuitprotectivedeviceswillremovethefaultycircuitfrom
thesystemregardlessofthetypeoffault.However,experiencehasshownthatinanumberofsystems,greaterservice
continuitymaybeobtainedwithearthedneutralthanwithunearthedneutralsystems.
5.2MultipleFaultstoGround
5.2.1
Whileagroundfaultononephaseofanunearthedsystemgenerallydoesnotcauseaserviceinterruption,the
occurrenceofasecondgroundfaultonadifferentphasebeforethefirstfaultiscleared,doesresultinanoutage.The
longeragroundfaultisallowedtoremainonanunearthedsystem,greateristhelikelihoodofasecondoneoccurringin
anotherphaseandrepairsarerequiredtorestoreservice.Withanunearthedsystem,anorganizedmaintenance
programmeisthereforeextremelyimportantsothatfaultsarelocatedandremovedsoonafterdetection.
Experiencehasshownthatmultiplegroundfaultsarerarely,ifever,experiencedonearthedneutralsystems.
5.3ArcingFaultBurndowns
5.3.1
Intypicalcases,anarcingfaultbecomesestablishedbetweentwoormorephaseconductorsinanunearthedsystems
orbetweenphaseandgroundinasolidlyearthedneutralsystem.Thiswouldresultinseveredamageordestructionto
equipment.However,arcingfaultcurrentlevelsmaybesolowthatphaseovercurrentprotectivedevicesdonotoperateto
removethefaultquickly.Suchfaultsarecharacteristicofopenorcoveredfuses,particularlyinswitchgearormetal
enclosedswitchingandmotorcontrolequipment.Itisgenerallyrecognizedthatprotectionundersuchcircumstancesis
possiblebyfastandsensitivedetectionofthearcingfaultcurrentandinterruptionwithin1020cycles.Insolidlyearthed
neutralsystems,thisispossibleasanarcingfaultwouldproduceacurrentinthegroundpath,therebyprovidinganeasy
meansofdetectionandtrippingagainstphasetogroundarcingfaultbreakdowns.
5.4LocationofFaults
5.4.1
Onanunearthedsystem,agroundfaultdoesnotopenthecircuit.Somemeansofdetectingthepresenceofa
groundfaultrequirestobeinstalled.Inearthedsystem,anaccidentalgroundfaultisbothindicatedatleastpartiallylocated
byanautomaticinterruptionoftheaccidentallygroundedcircuitorpieceofequipment.
5.5Safety
5.5.1
Whetherornotasystemisgrounded,protectionofpersonnelandpropertyfromhazardsrequirethorough
groundingofequipmentandstructures.Propergroundingresultsinlesslikelihoodofaccidentstopersonnel.Other
hazardsofshockandfiremayresultfrominadequategroundingofequipmentinunearthedandearthedsystems.However,
relativelyhighfaultcurrentsassociatedwithsolidlyearthedsystemmaypresentahazardtoworkersfromexposuretohot
arcproductsandflyingmoltenmetal.Thisprotectionis,however,reducedbecauseofuseofmetalenclosedequipment.
5.6AbnormalVoltageHazards
5.6.1
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Thepossibleovervoltagesontheunearthedsystemmaycausemorefrequentfailuresofequipmentthanisthe
system,ifearthed.Afaultononephaseofanunearthedorimpedancegroundedsystemplacesasustainedincreased
voltageontheinsulationofungroundedphasesina3phasesystem.Thisvoltageisabout1.73timesthenormalvoltageon
theinsulation.Thisorothersustainedovervoltagesontheunearthedsystemmaynotimmediatelycausefailureof
insulationbutmaytendtoreducethelifeoftheinsulation.Someofthemorecommonsourcesofovervoltagesonapower
systemarethefollowing:
a. Lightning,
b. Switchingsurges,
c. Static,
d. Contactwithahighvoltagesystem,
e. Linetogroundfault,
f. Resonantconditions,and
g. Restrikinggroundfaults.
5.6.2
Surgearrestersarerecommendedforlightningprotection.Groundingundersuchcasesareseparatelydiscussedin
Section8.Neutral
10
groundingisnotlikelytoreducethetotalmagnitudeofovervoltageproducedbylightningorswitchingsurges.It
can,however,distributethevoltagebetweenphasesandreducethepossibilityofexcessivevoltagestressonthephaseto
groundinsulationofaparticularphase.Asystemgroundconnectionevenofrelativelyhighresistancecaneffectively
preventstaticvoltagebuildup(seeSec8).EvenunderconditionsofanHVlinebreakingandfallingonanLVsystem,an
effectivelygroundedLVsystemwillholdthesystemneutralclosetothegroundpotentialthuslimitingtheovervoltage.An
unearthedsystemwillbesubjectedtoresonantovervoltages.Fieldexperienceandtheoreticalstudieshaveshownthe
worldoverthatarcing,restrikingorvibratinggroundfaultsonunearthedsystemscan,undercertainconditions,produce
surgevoltagesashighas6timesthenormalvoltage.Neutralgroundingiseffectiveinreducingtransientbuildupby
reducingtheneutraldisplacementfromgroundpotentialandthedestructivenessofanyhighfrequencyvoltageoscillations
followingeacharcinitiationorrestrike.
5.7Cost
5.7.1
Thecostdifferentialbetweenearthedandunearthedneutralsystemwillvary,dependingonthemethodof
groundingthedegreeofprotectiondesired,andwhetheraneworanexistingsystemistobeearthed.
6.SYSTEMEARTHING
6.0BasicObjectives
6.0.1
Earthingofsystemisdesignedprimarilytopreservethesecurityofthesystembyensuringthatthepotentialoneach
conductorisrestrictedtosuchavalueasisconsistentwiththelevelofinsulationapplied.Fromthepointofviewofsafety,
itisequallyimportantthatearthingshouldensureefficientandfastoperationofprotectivegearinthecaseofearthfaults.
Mosthighvoltagepublicsupplysystemsareearthed.Approvalhasbeengiveninrecentyearstounearthedoverheadline
systemsincertaincountries,butthesehaveonlybeensmall11kVsystemsderivedfrom33kVmains,wherethecapacity
earthcurrentislessthan4Aandcircumstancesaresuchthatthesystemwillnotbeappreciablyextended.
6.0.2
Thelimitationofearthingtoonepointoneachsystemisdesignedtopreventthepassageofcurrentthroughthe
earthundernormalconditions,andthustoavoidtheaccompanyingrisksofelectrolysisandinterferencewith
communicationcircuits.Withasuitabledesignedsystem,properlyoperatedandmaintained,earthingatseveralpointsmay
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bepermitted.Thismethodofearthingbecomeseconomicallyessentialinsystemsat200kVandupwards.
6.0.3
Thesystemearthresistanceshouldbesuchthat,whenanyfaultoccursagainstwhichearthingisdesignedtogive
protection,theprotectivegearwilloperatetomakethefaultymainorplantharmless.Inmostcases,suchoperation
involvesisolationofthefaultymainorplant,forexample,bycircuitbreakersorfuses.
6.0.4
Inthecaseofundergroundsystems,thereisnodifficultywhateverbut,forexample,inthecaseofoverheadline
systemsprotectedbyfusesorcircuitbreakersfittedwithovercurrentprotectiononly,theremaybedifficultyinarranging
thatthevalueofthesystemearthresistanceissuchthataconductorfallingandmakinggoodcontactwiththeground
resultsinoperationoftheprotection.Alowsystemearthresistanceisrequiredeveninthecaseswhereanarcsuppression
coilisinstalled,asitsoperationmaybefrustratedbytoohighanearthelectroderesistance.
6.0.5
Earthingmaynotgiveprotectionagainstfaultsthatarenotessentiallyearthfaults.Forexample,ifaphase
conductoronanoverheadspurlinebreaks,andthepartremotefromthesupplyfallstotheground,itisunlikelythatany
protectivegearrelyingonearthing,otherthancurrentbalanceprotectionatthesubstation,willoperatesincetheearth
faultcurrentcircuitincludestheimpedanceoftheloadthatwouldbehighrelativetotherestofthecircuit.
6.0.6
Forthepurposesofthiscodeofpractice,itisconvenienttoconsiderasystemascomprisingasourceofenergyand
aninstallationtheformerincludingthesupplycablestothelatter.
6.1ClassificationofSystemsBasedonTypesofSystemEarthing
6.1.1
Internationally,ithasbeenagreedtoclassifytheearthingsystemsasTNSystem,TTSystemandITSystem.They
are:
a. TNsystemhasoneormorepointsofthesourceofenergydirectlyearthed,andtheexposedandextraneous
conductivepartsoftheinstallationareconnectedbymeansofprotectiveconductorstotheearthedpoint(s)ofthe
source,thatis,thereisametallicpathforearthfaultcurrentstoflowfromtheinstallationtotheearthedpoint(s)of
thesource.TNsystemsarefurthersubdividedintoTNC,TNSandTNCSsystems.
b. TTsystemhasoneormorepointsofthesourceofenergydirectlyearthedandtheexposedandextraneous
conductivepartsoftheinstallationareconnectedtoalocalearthelectrodeorelectrodesareelectricallyindependent
ofthesourceearth(s).
c. ITsystemhasthesourceeitherunearthedorearthedthroughahighimpedanceandtheexposedconductiveparts
oftheinstallationareconnectedtoelectricallyindependentearthelectrodes.
11
6.1.2
Itisalsorecognizedthat,inpractice,asystemmaybeanadmixtureoftypeforthepurposesofthiscode,earthing
systemsaredesignatedasfollows:
a. TNSSystem(for240Vsinglephasedomestic/commercialsupply)Systemswherethereareseparateneutraland
protectiveconductorsthroughoutthesystem.Asystemwherethemetallicpathbetweentheinstallationandthe
sourceofenergyisthesheathandarmouringofthesupplycable(seeFig.2).
b. IndianTNSSystem(for415Vthreephasedomesticcommercialsupply)Anindependentearthelectrodewithin
theconsumerspremisesisnecessary(SeeFig.3).
c. IndianTNCSystemTheneutralandprotectivefunctonsarecombinedinasinglecouductorthroughoutthe
system(forexampleearthedconcentricwiring(seeFig.4).
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d. TNCSSystemTheneutralandprotectivefunctionsarecombinedinasingleconductorbutonlyinpartofthe
system(seeFig5).
e. TTNSSystem(for6*6/11kVthreephasehulksupply)Theconsumersinstallation,aTNSsystemreceivingpower
atacaptivesubstationthroughadeltaconnectedtransformerprimary(seeFig.6).
f. TTSystemfor415Vthreephaseindustrialsupply)Sameas6.1.1(b)(seeFig7.).
g. ITSystemSameas6.1.1(c)(seeFig.8).
FIG.2TNSSYSTEMSEPARATENEUTRALANDPROTECTIVECONDUCTORSTHROUGHOUTTHESYSTEM,
230VSIMPLEPHASE.DOMESTIC/COMMERCIALSUPPLYFOR3TNS(SeeFIG.3)
FIG.3INDIANTNSSYSTEM
12
FIG.4INDIANTNCSYSTEM(NEUTRALANDPROTECTIVEFUNCTIONSCOMBINEDINASINGLE
CONDUCTORTHROUGHOUTSYSTEM)
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FIG.5TNCSSYSTEM,NEUTRALANDPROTECTIVEFUNCTIONSCOMBINEDINASINGLECONDUCTORINA
PARTOFTHESYSTEM
13
FIG.6TTNSSYSTEM
FIG.7TTSYSTEM
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FIG.8ITSYSTEM
14
6.2MarkingofEarthing/ProtectiveConductor
6.2.1
TheearthingandprotectiveconductorshallbemarkedasgiveninTable1(seealsoIS:113531986*).
TABLE1MARKINGOFCONDUCTORS
DESIGNATIONOFCONDUCTOR
IDENTIFICATIONBY
AlphanumericNotation
Earth
Protectiveconductor
COLOUR
GraphicalSymbol
Nocolourotherthancolourofthebareconductor
PB
Greenandyellow
6.2.2
UseofBiColourCombinationGreenandYellowThebicolourcombination,greenandyellow(green/yellow),
shallbeusedforidentifyingtheprotectiveconductorandfornootherpurpose.Thisistheonlycolourcoderecognizedfor
identifyingtheprotectiveconductor.
Bareconductorsorbusbars,usedasprotectiveconductors,shallbecolouredbyequallybroadgreenandyellow
stripes,each15mmupto100mmwide,closetogether,eitherthroughoutthelengthofeachconductororineach
compartmentorunitorateachaccessibleposition.Ifadhesivetapeisused,onlybicolouredtapeshallbeapplied.
Forinsulatedconductors,thecombinationofthecolours,greenandyellow,shallbesuchthat,onany15mmlength
ofinsulatedconductor,oneofthesecolourscoversatleast30percentandnotmorethan70percentofthesurfaceofthe
conductor,theothercolourcoveringtheremainderofthatsurface.
NOTEWheretheprotectiveconductorcanbeeasilyidentifiedfromitsshape,constructionorposition,
forexample,aconcentricconductor,thencolourcodingthroughoutitslengthisnotnecessarybuttheendsor
accessiblepositionsshouldbeclearlyidentifiedbyasymbolorthebicolourcombination,greenandyellow,
7.EQUIPMENTEARTHING
7.0BasicObjectives
7.0.1
Thebasicobjectivesofequipmentgroundingare:
1. toensurefreedomfromdangerouselectricshockvoltagesexposuretopersonsinthearea
2. toprovidecurrentcarryingcapability,bothinmagnitudeandduration,adequatetoacceptthegroundfaultcurrent
permittedbytheovercurrentprotectivesystemwithoutcreatingatireorexplosivehazardtobuildingorcontents
and
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3. tocontributetobetterperformanceoftheelectricalsystem.
7.0.2
VoltageExposureWhenthereisunintentionalcontactbetweenanenergizedelectricconductorandthemetal
frameorstructurethatenclosesit(orisadjacent,theframeorstructuretendstobecomeenergizedtothesamevoltage
levelasexistsontheenergizedconductor.Toavoidthisappearanceofthisdangerous,exposedshockhazardvoltage,the
equipmentgroundingconductormustpresentalowimpedancepathfromthestrickenframetothezeropotentialground
junction.Theimpedanceshouldalsobesufficientlylowenoughtoacceptthefullmagnitudeofthelinetogroundfault
currentwithoutcreatinganimpedancevoltagedroplargeenoughtobedangerous.
7.0.3
AvoidanceofThermalDistressTheearthingconductormustalsofunctiontoconductthefullgroundfaultcurrent
(bothmagnitudeandduration)withoutexcessivelyraisingthetemperatureoftheearthingconductororcausingthe
expulsionofarcsandsparksthatcouldinitiateafireorexplosion.Thetotalimpedanceofthefaultcircuitincludingthe
groundingconductorshouldalsopermittherequiredcurrentamplitudetocauseoperationoftheprotectivesystem.
7.0.4
PreservationofSystemPerformanceTheearthingconductormustreturnthegroundfaultcurrentonacircuit
withoutintroducingenoughadditionalimpedancetoanextentthatwouldimpairtheoperatingperformanceofthe
overcurrentprotectivedevice,thatis,ahigherthannecessarygroundcircuitimpedancewouldbeacceptableifthereisno
impairmentoftheperformancecharacteristicsoftheprotectivesystem.
7.1ClassificationofEquipmentwithRegardtoProtectionAgainstElectricShock
7.1.1
Table2givestheprincipalcharacteristicsofequipmentaccordingtothisclassificationandindicatestheprecautions
necessaryforsafetyintheeventoffailureofthebasicinsulation.
TABLE2CLASSIFICATIONOFEQUIPMENT
CLASS0
CLASSI
Protectiveearthing
CLASSII
CLASSIII
Principal
Nomeansof
Additionalinsulationandno
Designedforsupplyat
characteristicsof
protectiveearthing meansprovided
meansforprotectiveearting
safetyextralowvoltage
Earthfree
Connectiontothe
Nonenecessary
Connectiontosafetyextra
environment
protectiveearthing
equipment
Precautionsforsafety
lowvoltage
*Guideforuniformsystemofmarkingandidentificationofconductorsandapparatusterminals.
SECTION2CONNECTIONSTOEARTH
15
8.RESISTANCETOEARTH
8.0NatureofEarthingResistance
8.0.1
Theearthingresistanceofanelectrodeismadeupof:
a. resistanceofthe(metal)electrode,
b. contactresistancebetweentheelectrodeandthesoil,and
c. resistanceofthesoilfromtheelectrodesurfaceoutwardinthegeometrysetupfortheflowofcurrentoutwardfrom
theelectrodetoinfiniteearth.
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Thefirsttwofactorsareverysmallfractionsofanohmandcanbeneglectedforallpracticalpurposes.Thefactorof
soilresistivityisdiscussedin8.1.
8.1SoilResistivity
8.1.1
Theresistancetoearthofagivenelectrodedependsupontheelectricalresistivityofthesoilinwhichitisinstalled.
Thisfactoris,therefore,importantindecidingwhichofmanyprotectivesystemstoadopt.
ThetypeofsoillargelydeterminesitsresistivityandexamplesaregiveninTable3.Earthconductivityis,however,
essentiallyelectrolyticinnatureandisaffected,bythemoisturecontentofthesoilandbythechemicalcompositionand
concentrationofsaltsdissolvedinthecontainedwater.Grainsizeanddistribution,andclosenessofpackingarealso
contributoryfactorssincetheycontrolthemannerinwhichthemoistureisheldinthesoil.Manyofthesefactorsvary
locallyandsomeseasonallysothatthetableshouldonlybetakenasageneralguide.
Localvaluesshouldbeverifiedbyactualmeasurement,andthisisespeciallyimportantwherethesoilisstratifiedas,
owingtothedispersionoftheearthcurrent,theeffectiveresistivitydependsnotonlyonthesurfacelayersbutalsoonthe
underlyinggeologicalformation.
Itshouldalsobenotedthatsoiltemperaturehassomeeffect(see8.7),butisonlyimportantnearandbelowfreezing
point,necessitatingtheinstallationofearthelectrodesatdepthstowhichfrostwillnotpenetrate.Itis,therefore,
recommendedthatthefirstmetreofanyearthelectrodeshouldnotberegardedasbeingeffectiveunderfrostconditions.
Whilethefundamentalnatureandpropertiesofasoilinagivenareacannotbechanged,usecanbemadeofpurely
localconditionsinchoosingsuitableelectrodesitesandmethodsofpreparingthesiteselectedtosecuretheoptimum
resistivity.Thesemeasuresmaybesummarizedasin8.2to8.7.
TABLE3EXAMPLESOFSOILRESISTIVITY
TYPEOFSOIL
CLIMATICCONDITION
NormalandHighRainfall(for
Example,Greaterthan500mma
Year)
(1)
Underground
Waters
(Salids)
LowRainfallandDesertCondition(For
Examples,Lessthan250mmaYear)
Probablevalue
Rangeofvalues
encountered
Rangeofvalues
encountered
Rangeof
values
encountered
(2)
m
(3)
m
(4)
m
(5)
m
Alluviumandlighterclays
1to5
Clays(excludingalluvium)
10
5to20
10to100
Marls(forexample,keupermarl)
20
10to30
50to300
Porouslimestone(forexample,chalk)
50
30to100
Poroussandstone(forexample,keuper
100
30to300
300
100to1000
Clayslatesandslateyshales
1000
300to3000
1000upwards
30to100
Granite
1000
Fossileslates,schistsgneissigneousrocks
2000
1000upwards
sandstoneandclayshales)
Quartzites,compactandcrystalline
limestone(forexample,carboniferous
marble,etc)
*Dependsonwaterleveloflocality.
16
8.2
Wherethereisanyoption,asiteshouldbechoseninoneofthefollowingtypesofsoilintheorderofpreference
given:
a. Wetmarshyground(see8.3)
b. Clay,loamysoil,arableland,clayeysoil,clayeysoilorloammixedwithsmallquantitiesofsand
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c. Clayandloammixedwithvaryingproportionsofsand,gravelandstones
d. Dampandwetsand,peat.
Drysand,gravelchalk,limestone,graniteandanyverystonygroundshouldbeavoided,andalsoalllocationswhere
virginrockisveryclosetothesurface.
8.3
Asiteshouldbechosenthatisnotnaturallywelldrained.Awaterloggedsituationisnot,however,essential,unless
thesoilissandorgravel,asingeneralnoadvantageresultsfromanincreaseinmoisturecontentaboveabout15to20
percent.Careshouldbetakentoavoidasitekeptmoistbywaterflowingoverit(forexample,thebedofastream)asthe
beneficialsaltsmaybeentirelyremovedfromthesoilinsuchsituations.
8.4
Wherebuildinghastakenplace,thesiteconditionsmaybealteredbydisturbanceofthelocalstratificationand
naturalgeologicalformationwhentheelectrodeshavetobeinstalledinthisdisturbedarea.
Ifacutandfillexercisehasbeencarriedoutthenthetoplayermaybesimilartothenaturalformationbutincreased
indepth,whetheritisgoodorbadintermsofresistivity.
Ifanimportedfillexercisehasbeencarriedout,theconditionsoftheupperlayersmaybealteredconsiderably.
Inthesecases,deeperdrivingoftheelectrodemaybenecessarytoreachlayersofreasonableresistivityandalsoto
reachstableground,suchthatthevalueoftheelectroderesistanceremainsstableifthetoplayersofthegrounddryout.
8.5
Soiltreatmenttoimproveearthelectrodecontactresistancemaybeappliedinspecialordifficultlocations,but
migrationandleachingofappliedchemicalsoveraperiodoftimereducestheefficiencyofthesystemprogressively,
requiringconstantmonitoringandreplacementoftheadditives.Ecologicalconsiderationsareinherentbeforesuch
treatmentiscommencedandanydeleteriouseffectuponelectrodematerialhastobetakenintoaccount.However,for
sometemporaryelectricalinstallationsinareasofhighgroundresistivity,thismaybethemosteconomicmethodfor
obtainingsatisfactoryearthcontactoverashortperiodofworking.Ifagreaterdegreeofpermanenceisenvisaged,earth
electrodespackagedinmaterialsuchasbentonitearepreferable.
Bentoniteorsimilarmaterialmaybeusedtoadvantageinrockyterrain.Whereholesareboredfortheinsertionof
verticalelectrodesorwherestripelectrodesarelaidradiallyundershallowareasoflowresistivityoverlayingrockstrata,
bentonitepackingwillincreasethecontactefficiencywiththegeneralmassofground.
8.6
EffectofMoistureContentonEarthResistivityMoisturecontentisoneofthecontrollingfactorsinearth
resistivity.Figure9showsthevariationofresistivityofredclaysoilwithpercentageofmoisture.Themoisturecontentis
expressedinpercentbyweightofthedrysoil.Dryearthweighsabout1440kgpercubicmetreandthus10percent
moisturecontentisequivalentto144kgofwaterpercubicmetreofdrysoil.ItwillbeseenfromFig.9thataboveabout20
percentmoisture,theresistivityisverylittleaffected,whilebelow20percenttheresistivityincreasesveryabruptlywiththe
decreaseinmoisturecontent.Adifferenceofafewpercentmoisturewilltherefore,makeaverymarkeddifferenceinthe
effectivenessofearthconnectionifthemoisturecontentfallsbelow20percent.Thenormalmoisturecontentofsoils
rangesfrom10percentindryseasonsto35percentinwetseasons,andanapproximateaveragemaybeperhaps16to18
percent.
8.6.1
CorrosionAllowanceOnanaverage,steelcorrodesaboutsixtimesasfastascopperwhenplacedinsoil.The
extentofcorrosiondependsuponthepropertiesofsoil.Thegenerallyacceptedcorrelationbetweentheelectricalresistivity
ofsoilanditscorrosivityisasindicatedinthetablebelow:
SoilResistivityandCorrosion
RangeofSoilResistivity(ohmmetres)
(ClassofSoil)
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Lessthan25
Severelycorrosive
2550
Moderatelycorrosive
50100
Mildlycorrosive
Above100
Verymildlycorrosive
ThisfollowingmethodscanbeadoptedtosafeguardConductoragainstexcessivecorrosion:
a. Useofcathodicprotection,and
b. Usecurrentconducting,corrosionresistantcoatingonsteel(forexample,zinccoating).
ThezinccoatingonthetubesshallbeinaccordancewithIS4736:1986Hotdipzinccoatingsonmildsteel
tubes(firstrevision)withcoatingthickness150microns,Min.
a. Usesteelconductorwithlargecrosssectionhavingallowanceforcorrosion.
Basedontheresultsofthefieldstudiesonratesofcorrosion,thefollowingallowancesincrosssectionalarea
oftheearthingconductorarerecommendedtotaketheeffectofcorrosionintoaccount.
AllowancesinCrossSectionalAreaoftheEarthingConductortoTaketheEffectofCorrosionintoAccount
TypeofLayingoftheEarthConductor
AllowancestobeConsidered
inSizing
a) Conductorslaidtosoilshavingresistivitygreaterthen100ohmmeters
0(Noallowance)
b) Conductorslaidinsoilshavingresistivityfrom25to100ohmmeters
15percent
c) Conductorlaidinsoilshavingresistivitylowerthan25ohmmetersorwheretreatmentofsoil
30percent
aroundelectrodeiscarriedout
Forthepurposeofdeterminingtheallowancetobemadeforcorrosion,theminimumresistivityofthesoil
encounteredatthelocationofgroundingelectrodestobeconsideredTheresistivitywillbetheminimuminwetweather.
Thus,forverymildlycorrosivesoils,steelconductorsmeetingthestabilityandmechanicalrequirementareadequate.
However,thesteelconductorsinthesoilofothertypesshouldbeatleast6mmthickifitissteelflatandhaveadiameter
ofatleast16mmifitisintheformofsteelrod.
Itshouldberecognized,however,thatmoisturealoneisnotthepredominantfactorinthelowresistivityofsoilsfor
example,earthelectrodesdrivendirectlyinthebedsofriversormountainstreamsmaypresentveryhighresistanceto
earth.Ifthewaterisrelativelypure,itwillbehighresistivityandunlessthesoilcontainssufficientnaturalelementsto
formaconductingelectrolyte,theabundanceofwaterwillnotprovidethesoilwithadequateconductivity.Thevalueof
highmoisturecontentinsoilsisadvantageousinincreasingthesolubilityofexistingnaturalelementsinthesoil,andin
providingforthesolubilityofingredientswhichmaybeartificiallyintroducedtoimprovethesoilconductivity.
8.7
EffectofTemperatureonEarthResistanceThetemperaturecoefficientofresistivityforsoilisnegative,but
isnegligiblefortemperaturesabovefreezingpoint.Atabout20C,theresistivitychangeisabout9percentperdegree
Celsius.Below0Cthewaterinthesoilbeginstofreezeandintroducesatremendousincreaseinthetemperature
coefficient,sothatasthetemperaturebecomeslowertheresistivityrisesenormously.Itis,therefore,recommendedthat
inareaswherethetemperatureisexpectedtobequitelow,theearthelectrodesshouldbeinstalledwellbelowthefrost
line.Wherewinterseasonsaresevere,thismaybeabout2metresbelowthesurface,whereasinmildclimatesthefrost
maypenetrateonlyafewcentimetresorperhapsthegroundmaynotfreezeatall.Earthelectrodeswhicharenotdriven
belowthefirstdepthmayhaveaverygreatvariationinresistancethroughouttheseasonsoftheyear.Evenwhendriven
belowthefrostline,thereissomevariation,becausetheuppersoil,when
17
frozen,presentsadecidedincreaseinsoilresistivityandhastheeffectofshorteningtheactivelengthofelectrodein
contactwithsoilofnormalresistivity.
8.8
ArtificialTreatmentofSoilMultiplerods,eveninlargenumber,maysometimefailtoproduceanadequately
lowresistancetoearth.
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Thisconditionarisesininstallationsinvolvingsoilsofhighresistivity.Thealternativeistoreducetheresistivityof
thesoilimmediatelysurroundingtheearthelectrode.Toreducethesoilresistivity,itisnecessarytodissolveinthe
moisture,normallycontainedinthesoil,somesubstancewhichishighlyconductiveinitswatersolution.Themost
commonlyusedsubstancesaresodiumchloride(NaCl),alsoknownascommonsalt,calciumchloride(CaCl2),sodium
carbonate(Na2CO3),coppersulphate(CUSO4),salt,andsoftcoke,andsaltandcharcoalinsuitableproportions.
8.8.1
Withaverageorhighmoisturecontent,theseagentsformaconductingelectrolytethroughoutawideregion
surroundingtheearthelectrode.Approximately90percentoftheresistancebetweenadrivenrodandearthlieswithina
radiusofabouttwometresfromtherod.Thisshouldbekeptinmindwhenapplyingtheagentsforartificialtreatmentof
soil.Thesimplestapplicationisbyexcavatingashallowbasinaroundthetopoftherod,onemetreindiameterandabout
30cmdeep,andapplyingtheartificialagentinthisbasin.Thebasinshouldsubsequentlybefilledseveraltimeswithwater,
whichshouldbeallowedeachtimetosoakintotheground,thuscarryingtheartificialtreatment,inelectrolyteform,to
considerabledepthsandallowingtheartificialagenttobecomediffusedthroughoutthegreaterpartoftheeffective
cylinderofearthsurroundingthedrivenrod.
FIG.9VARIATIONOFSOILRESISTIVITYWITHMOISTURECONTENT
18
8.8.2
ThereductioninsoilresistivityeffectedbysaltisshownbythecurveinFig.10.Thesaltcontentisexpressedin
percentbyweightofthecontainedmoisture.Itwillbenotedthatthecurveflattensoffatabout5percentsaltcontentand
afurtherincreaseinsaltgivesbutlittledecreaseinthesoilresistivity.Theeffectofsaltwillbedifferentfordifferentkinds
ofsoilandforvariousmoisturecontentsbutthecurvewillconveyanideaofhowthesoilconductivitycanbeimproved.
Decreasingthesoilresistivitycausesacorrespondingdecreaseintheresistanceofadrivenearthelectrode.
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FIG.10VARIATIONOFSOILRESISTIVITYWITHSALT(Nacl)CONTENT,CLAYSOILHAVING3PERCENT
MOISTURE
8.8.3
Inclosetexturesoils,theartificialtreatmentmaybeeffectiveoveraperiodofmanyyears.However,itis
recommendedthatannualorbiannualmeasurementsofearthresistivityshouldbemadetofindoutifadditionaltreatment
isneeded.
8.8.4
Inusingartificialtreatment,thepossiblecorrosiveeffectofthesaltonthedrivenrodsandconnectionsshouldbe
considered.Thepossiblecontaminationofthedomesticwatersupplyshouldalsobeconsidered.
9.EARTHELECTRODES
9.1EffectofShapeonElectrodeResistance
9.1.1
Withallelectrodesotherthanextendedsystems,thegreaterpartofthefallinpotentialoccursinthesoilwithina
fewfeetoftheelectrodesurface,sinceitisherethatthecurrentdensityishighest.Toobtainalowoverallresistancethe
currentdensityshouldbeaslowaspossibleinthemediumadjacenttotheelectrode,whichshouldbesodesignedasto
causethecurrentdensitytodecreaserapidlywithdistancefromtheelectrode.Thisrequirementismetbymakingthe
dimensionsinonedirectionlargecomparedwiththoseintheothertwo,thusapipe,rodorstriphasamuchlower
resistancethanaplateofequalsurfacearea.Theresistanceisnot,however,inverselyproportionaltothesurfaceareaof
theelectrode.
9.2ResistanceofCommonTypesofEarthElectrodes
9.2.1
PlatesTheapproximateresistancetoearthofaplatecanbecalculatedfrom:
where
resistivityofthesoil(assumeduniform)(in.m)and
areaofbothsidesoftheplate(inm2).
Wheretheresistanceofasingleplateishigherthantherequiredvalue,twoormoreplatesmaybeusedinparallel
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andthetotalresistanceisthaninverselyproportionaltothenumberemployed,providedthateachplateisinstalledoutside
theresistanceareaofanyother.Thisnormallyrequiresaseparationofabout10mbutforsizesofplategenerally
employed,aseparationof2missufficienttoensurethatthetotalresistancewillnotexceedthevalueobtainedfromthe
aboveformulabymorethan20percent.Evenatthelatterspacing,itisgenerallymoreeconomicaltousetwoplatesin
parallel,eachofagivensize,thanoneoftwicethatsize.Thesizeemployedis,therefore,normallynotgreaterthan12
12m.
Plateelectrodesshallbeofthesizeatleast60cm60cm.Platesaregenerallyofcastironnotlessthan12mm
thickandpreferablyribbed.Theearthconnectionshouldbejoinedtotheplateatnotlessthantwoseparatepoints.Plate
electrodes,whenmadeofGIorsteel,shallbenotlessthan63mminthickness.PlateelectrodesofCushallbenotless
than315mminthickness.
Suitablemethodsofjointingareataperpindrivenintoareamedholeandrivetedoveroracopperstudscrewedinto
atappedholeandriveted.Suchjointsshouldbeprotectedbyaheavycoatofbitumen.Theconnectionbetweentheearth
plateandthedisconnectinglinkshouldbesetverticallyandthedepthofsettingshouldbesuchastoensurethatthe
surroundingsoilisalwaysdamp.Theminimumcovershouldbe600mmexceptthatwheretheunderlyingstratumissolid,
forexample,chalkorsandstoneandnearthesurface,thetopoftheplateshouldbelevelwiththetopofthesolidstratum.
Sufficientsolidstratumshouldberemovedandreplacedwithfinesoilorothersuitableinfilltoensureaslowaresistance
aspossible.
Theuseofcokebreezeasaninfillisnotrecommendedasitmayresultinrapidcorrosionnotonlyoftheelectrode
itselfbutalsoofcablesheaths,etc,towhichitmaybebonded.
TheresistanceR(in)ofa12m12mplateisgivenapproximatelybytheformula:
19
Forconventionalsizes,theresistanceisapproximatelyinverselyproportionaltothelineardimensions,notthe
surfacearea,thatisa09m09mplatewouldhavearesistanceapproximately25percenthigherthana1212mplate.
Thecurrentloadingcapacityofa12m12mplateisoftheorderof1600Afor2sand1300Afor3s.
Plateelectrodesshallbeburiedsuchthatitstopedgeisatadepthnotlessthan15mfromthesurfaceofthe
ground.However,thedepthatwhichplatesaresetshouldbesuchastoensurethatthesurroundingsoilisalwaysdamp.
Wheretheunderlyingstratumissolid,forexamplechalkorsandstoneandnearthesurface,thetopoftheplateshouldbe
approximatelylevelwiththetopofthesolidstratum.
9.2.2
PipesorRodsTheresistanceofapipeorrodelectrodeisgivenby:
where
l
lengthofrodorpipe(incm),
diameterofrodorpipeincm,and
resistivityofthesoil(in.m)(assumeduniform).
ThecurvesofFig.11arecalculatedfromthisequationforelectrodesof13,25and100mmdiameterrespectivelyina
soilof100.mrespectively.Changeofdiameterhasarelativelyminoreffectandsizeofpipeisgenerallygovernedby
resistancetobendingorsplitting.Itisapparentthattheresistancediminishesrapidlywiththefirstfewfeetofdriving,but
lesssoatdepthsgreaterthan2to3minsoilofuniformresistivity.
Anumberofrodsorpipesmaybeconnectedinparallelandtheresistanceisthenpracticallyproportionaltothe
reciprocalofthenumberemployedsolongaseachissituatedoutsidetheresistanceareaofanyother.Inpractice,thisis
satisfiedbyamutualseparationequaltothedrivendepth.Littleistobegainedbyseparationbeyondtwicethedriven
depth.Asubstantialgainiseffectedevenat2mseparation.
Pipesmaybeofcastironofnotlessthan100mmdiameter,2.5to3mlongand13mmthick.Suchpipescannotbe
drivensatisfactorilyandmay,therefore,bemoreexpensivetoinstallthanplatesforthesameeffectivearea.Alternatively,
mildsteelwaterpipesof38to50mmdiameteraresometimesemployed.Thesecanbedrivenbutarelessdurablethan
copperrods.Alternatively,40mmdiameterGIpipeintreatedearthpitor40mmdiameterMSrodcanbedirectlydriven
invirginsoil.Theearthrodshallbeplacedat1.250mbelowground.
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Drivenrodsgenerallyconsistofroundcopper,steelcoredcopperorgalvanizedsteel(see9.2.8)13,16or19mmin
diameterfrom1220to2440mminlength.
FIG.11EFFECTOFLENGTHOFPIPEELECTRODEONCALCULATEDRESISTANCEFORSOILRESISTIVITY
OF100m(ASSUMEDUNIFORM)
Cruciformandstarshapedsectionsarealsoavailableandaremorerigidwhilebeingdriven,buttheapparent
additionalsurfacedoesnotconferanoticeableadvantageincurrentcarryingcapacityorreductionofresistance.In
circumstanceswhereitisconvenienttodoso,theadditionofradialstripswillbeadvantageous.
Suchrodsmaybecoupledtogethertogivelongerlengths.Exceptinspecialconditions,anumberofrodsinparallel
aretobepreferredtoasinglelongrod.Deeplydrivenrodsare,however,effectivewherethesoilresistivitydecreaseswith
depthorwheresubstrataoflowresistivityoccuratdepthsgreaterthanthosewithrods,foreconomicreasons,are
normallydriven.Insuchcasesthedecreaseofresistancewithdepthofdrivingmaybeveryconsiderableasisshownbythe
measurementsplottedinFig.12foranumberofsitesforcurvesA1andA2,itwasknownfrompreviouslysunkboreholes
thatthesoildowntoadepthbetween6and9mconsistedofballast,sandandgravelbelowwhichoccurredLondonclay.
Therapidreductioninresistance,whentheelectrodespenetratedthelatter,wasverymarked.Themeanresistivityuptoa
depthof8minonecasewas150mat11mthemeanvalueforthewholedepthwas20mmovingtothelow
resistivityoftheclaystratum.SimilarlyforcurveC,thetransitionfromgravelysoiltoclayeyatadepthofabout15mwas
veryeffective.InthecaseofcurveB,however,nosuchmarkedeffectoccurred,althoughtherewasagradual
20
reductioninaverageresistivitywithincreaseindepth,ascanbeseenbycomparisonwiththedottedcurves,which
arecalculatedontheassumptionofuniformresistivity.
FIG.12CALCULATEDANDEXPERIMENTALCURVESOFRESISTANCEOF13mmDIADRIVENELECTRODES
Otherfactorsthataffectadecisionwhethertodrivedeepelectrodesortoemployseveralrodsorpipesinparallelare
thesteepriseintheenergyrequiredtodrivethemwithincreaseindepthandthecostofcouplings.Theformercanbe
offsetbyreducingthediameteroftherods,sincea13mmdiameterrodcanbedriventoconsiderabledepthswithout
deformationorbendingifthetechniqueofusingalargenumberofcomparativelylightblowsisadoptedratherthana
smallernumberofblowswithasledgehammer.Powerdrivenhammerssuitableforthispurposeareavailable.
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Incaseswhereimpenetrablestrataorhighresistivitysoiloccuratrelativelysmalldepths,considerableadvantage
mayresultfromdrivingrodsatanangleofabout30tothehorizontal,thusincreasingthelengthinstalledforagiven
depth.
9.2.3
StriporConductorElectrodesThesehavespecialadvantageswherehighresistivitysoilunderliesshallowsurface
layersoflowresistivity.Theminimumcrosssectionalareaofstripelectrodesshallbeaccordingto12.1.1.Ifround
conductorsareusedasearthelectrodes,theircrosssectionalareashallnotbelessthanthesizesrecommendedforstrip
electrodes.TheresistanceRisgivenby:
where
resistivityofsoil(m)(assumeduniform):
lengthofthestripincmand
width(strip)ortwicethediameter(conductors)incm
Careshouldbetakeninpositioningtheseelectrodes,especiallytoavoiddamagebyagriculturaloperations.
Figure13showsthevariationofcalculatedearthresistanceofstriporconductorelectrodes
21
withlengthforasoilresistivityof100.m.Theeffectofconductorsizeanddepthovertherangenormallyusedis
verysmall.
Ifseveralstripelectrodesarerequiredforconnectioninparallelinordertoreducetheresistance,theymaybe
installedinparallellinesortheymayradiatefromapoint.Intheformercase,theresistanceoftwostripsataseparationof
24mislessthan65percentoftheindividualresistanceofeitherofthem.
FIG.13EFFECTOFLENGTHOFSTRIPORCONDUCTORELECTRODESINCALCULATEDRESISTANCEFOR
SOILRESISTIVITYOF100m(ASSUMEDUNIFORM)
9.2.4
WaterPipesWaterpipesshallnotbeusedasconsumerearthelectrodes.
NOTEInurbandistrictsandotherareaswherepipedwatersupplyisavailabletheuseofwaterpipes
forconsumersearthelectrodeshasbeencommoninthepast.Thoughthiswasgenerallyveryeffectivewhen
consumerspipesandwatermainstowhichtheywereconnectedwereallmetaltometaljoints,theuseof
publicwaterpipesforthispurposehasnotbeenacceptableformanyyearsbecauseoftheuseof
nonconductingmaterialforpipesonnewinstallationsandforreplacementpurposes.Jointingtechniquesnow
beinguseddonotensureelectricalcontinuityofmetallicpipes.
Fornewinstallations,therefore,apublicwaterpipemaynotbeusedasameansofearthing.Metallicpipesystemsof
servicesotherthanwaterservice(forexample,forflammableliquidsorgases,heatingsystems,etc)shallnotbeusedas
earthelectrodesforprotectivepurposes.Bondingofthewaterservicewiththeexposedmetalworkoftheelectrical
installation(ontheconsumerssideofanyinsulatinginsert)andanyotherextraneousmetalworktotheinstallation
earthingterminalis,however,permissibleandindeednecessaryinmostcircumstancessubjecttotheprovisionofearthing
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facilitiesthataresatisfactorybeforethesebondingconnectionsaremade.
Forexistinginstallationsinwhichawaterpipeisusedasasoleearthelectrodeanindependentmeansofearthing
shouldbeprovidedatthefirstpracticableopportunity.
9.2.5
CableSheathsWhereanextensiveundergroundcablesystemisavailable,theleadsheathandarmourformamost
effectiveearthelectrode.Inthemajorityofcases,theresistancetoearthofsuchasystemislessthan1.Afreshly
installedjuteorhessianservedcableisinsulatedfromearth,buttheinsulationresistanceofthejutedeterioratesaccording
tothemoisturecontentandnatureofthesoil.However,cablesheathsarcmorecommonlyusedtoprovideametallicpath
tothefaultcurrentreturningtotheneutral.
9.2.6
StructuralSteelworkTheresistancetoearthofsteelframesorreinforcedconcretebuildingswillvaryconsiderably
accordingtothetypeofsoilanditsmoisturecontent,andthedesignofthestanchionbases.Forthisreason,itisessential
tomeasuretheresistancetoearthofanystructuralsteetworkthatitisemployingandatfrequentintervalsthereafter.
NOTESpecialcareisnecessarywheretheconstructionincludesprestressedconcrete.
9.2.7
ReinforcementofPilesAtpowerstationsandlargesubstations,itisoftenpossibletosecureaneffectiveearth
electrodebymakinguseofthereinforcementinconcretepiles.Theearthstrapshouldbebondedtoaminimumoffour
pilesandallthepilesbetweenthebondsshouldbebondedtogether.Eachsetoffourpilesshouldbeconnectedtothe
[IllegibleTextOmittedonPage22]ofthesubstation.
9.2.8
CathodicallyProtectedStructuresCathodicprotectionisnormallyappliedtoferrousstructuresinorderto
counteractelectrolyticcorrosionatametaltoelectrolyteinterface.
Theelectrolyteisgenerallythegroundinwhichthestructureiseitherwhollyorpartiallyburiedandtheprotection
systemreliesuponmaintainingthemetalworkataslightlymorenegativepotentialthanitwouldexhibitbyhalfcell
measurements,ifnocorrectiveactionhadbeentaken.
Theapplicationofcathodicprotectionvariesaccordingtocircumstancesbetweenbaremetalincontactwithground
andmetalthathasbeen
22
deliberatelycoatedorwrappedagainstcorrosion.Inthelattercase,cathodicprotectionisusedtosupplementthe
coatingandguardagainstlocalizedcorrosionduetocoatingflawsorfaults.Protectivesystemcurrentdrainisproportional
totheareaofbaremetalinearthcontactandifanormalearthingelectrodeisattachedtoacathodicallyprotected
structure,theincreaseddraincurrenttakenbytheelectrodecouldbecompletelyunacceptable.Thisisespeciallytrue
wherethesystemhasbeendesignedtoprotectawellwrappedorcoatedstructure.
Nevertheless,theremaybeanecessitytoconnectearthelectrodestocathodicallyprotectedstructures,especially
wherethecoatingorwrappingtendstoelectricallyinsulatethestructurefromground,forexample:
a. diversionofearthfaultcurrentsfromelectricalapparatusmountedonthestructure
b. diversionofstraycurrenttoground,aproblemoftenmetwherewellcoatedpipelinesaresubstantiallyparalleltothe
routeofahighvoltageoverheadline
c. preventionofelevatedvoltageswherestructuresencroachintohazardous(flammable)areasand
d. Preventionofpowersurgesintotheapparatusprovidingcathodicprotection,orsimilarinvasionofdelicatelow
currentinstrumentationcircuits.
Inadditiontotheguidancegivenin9.3,selectionofmetalsforearthelectrodesanddeterminationoftheirground
contactareaismostimportantwherecathodicallyprotectedstructuresareinvolved.
Thematerialselectedshouldexhibitagalvanicpotentialwithrespecttogroundasnearlyequaltothatexhibitedby
thestructureinitsnaturalorunprotectedcondition.Forferrousstructures,austeniticiron(austeniticcastnickel
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chromiumalloywithspheroidalgraphitepresent)isoftenused.Verticallydrivenrodsofthismaterialarepreferredin
ordertominimizecontactareaandthusreducecathodicprotectiondrain,whilstobtainingoptimumperformancefrom
theelectrode.Coppershouldbeavoided,whereverpossible,notonlyforitsincreaseddrainbutalsoforitsabilityto
becomecathodictotheprotectedstructure.Magnesiumorzincelectrodeshavebeenusedsuccessfully,butareanodicto
theprotectedstructureandthussacrificialinaction.
9.3
SelectionofMetalsforEarthElectrodesAlthoughelectrodematerialdoesnotaffectinitialearthresistance,
careshouldbetakentoselectamaterialthatisresistanttocorrosioninthetypeofsoilinwhichitwillbeused.Testsina
widevarietyofsoilshaveshownthatcopper,whethertinnedornot,isentirelysatisfactory(subjecttotheprecautions
giveninthissubclause),theaveragelossinweightofspecimens150mm25mm3mmburiedfor12yearsinnocase
exceed02percentperyear.Correspondingaveragelossesforunprotectedferrousspecimens(forexample,castiron,
wroughtironormildsteel)usedinthetestswereashighas22percentperyear.Considerableandapparentlypermanent
protectionappearstobegiventomildsteelbygalvanizing,thetestshowinggalvanizedmildsteeltobelittleinferiorto
copperwithanaveragelossnotgreaterthan05percentperyear.Onlyinafewcaseswasthereanyindicationinallthese
teststhatcorrosionwasacceleratingandinthesecasestheindicationswerenotverysignificant.
Thepossibilityondamagetocablesandotherundergroundservicesandstructuralmetalworkinthevicinityof
earthelectrodeduetoelectrolyticactionbetweendissimilarmaterialsshouldnotbeoverlookedwhenthematerialfor
earthelectrodesisselected.Materialscompatiblewithothermetalstructuresinthevicinityshouldbeselectedorother
remedialactiontaken.
Itmaybeessentialtousematerialsoftypesotherthanthosementionedearlierinspecialcircumstances,when
cathodicallyprotectedstructuressuchaspipelinesareencountered.
Amodernhighpressuregaspipeline,wrappedandcathodicallyprotectedmayhaveagalvanicpotentialof05V,
theacceptedmaterialofcopperforanearthelectrodewithagalvanicpotentialof02Vdecreasesthetotalgalvanic
voltageandincreasestheneedforcurrentfromthecorrosionprotectionimpressedcurrentsystem,whentheearth
electrodeisconnectedtothepipeline.
Anearthelectrodewithagalvanicpotentialnearertotheprotectedstructurehastobeusedtoovercometheabove
andbecertainthepipelineisbeingprotected.Suchamaterialistermedanausteniticironandisanausteniticcastnickel
chromiumalloy,withspheroidalgraphitepresent.
Itmaybenecessarytoearththepipelineforoneormoreofthefollowingreasons:
a. Itshouldnotonitsownbeacarrierofanylowvoltagefaultcurrent,
b. Itmayhavelowvoltageequipmentconnectedtoit,forexample,forthepurposeofvalveoperation
c. Itmayhaveinstrumentationconnectedtoitthatrequireittobeearthedforthispurposeandtoprovideasignal
referenceearthaswellasforearthingrequirementrelativetoelectricalequipmentusedinhazardousareasand
23
d. Itmayrequireconnectiontoearthatpointstodischargeunwantedinducedcurrentsandvoltagesfromother
sourcessuchasoverheadlines.
Thesefourpointsleadtoacompromisebetweentheneedtohavealowearthvalueforinstrumentationreference
purposes,whichmayrequirealotofburiedmetal,andareasonableearthvalueforelectricalpurposesagainstthe
corrosionprotectionrequirementtohaveaminimumofburiedbaremetalconnectedtothepipeline,andthusdrawinga
corrosionprotectioncurrentthatmayberequiredbythepipeline.
9.4
TypicalinstallationsofpipeearthelectrodeandplateearthelectrodeareshowninFig.14and15.
9.5
TypicalMethodforJointingofConductorsMethodsofjointingconductorsareshowninFig.16.
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FIG.14TYPICALARRANGEMENTOFPIPEELECTRODE
24
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FIG.15TYPICALARRANGEMENTOFPLATEELECTRODE
25
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FIG16.TYPICALEARTHINGCONNECTIONDETAILS
26
10.CURRENTDENSITYATTHESURFACEOFANEARTHELECTRODE
10.1
Anearthelectrodeshouldbedesignedtohavealoadingcapacityadequateforthesystemofwhichitformsapart,
thatis,itshouldbecapableofdissipatingwithoutfailuretheenergyintheearthpathatthepointatwhichitisinstalled
underanyconditionofoperationonthesystem.Failureisfundamentallyduetoexcessivetemperatureriseatthesurfaceof
theelectrodeandisthusafunctionofcurrentdensityanddurationaswellaselectricalandthermalpropertiesofthesoil.
Ingeneral,soilshaveanegativetemperaturecoefficientofresistancesothatsustainedcurrentloadingresultsinan
initialdecreaseinelectroderesistanceandaconsequentriseintheearthfaultcurrentforagivenappliedvoltage.Assoil
moistureisdrivenawayfromthesoilelectrodeinterface,however,theresistanceincreasesandwillultimatelybecome
infiniteifthetemperatureriseissufficient.
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10.2
Threeconditionsofoperationrequireconsideration,thatis,longdurationloadingaswithnormalsystemoperation
shorttimeoverloadingasunderfaultconditionsindirectlyearthedsystems,andlongtimeoverloadingasunderfault
conditionsinsystemsprotectedbyarcsuppressioncoils.
10.3
Thelittleexperimentalworkwhichhasbeendoneonthissubjectbyexpertsattheinternationallevelhasbeen
confinedtomodeltestswithsphericalelectrodesinclayorloamoflowresistivityandhasledtothefollowingconclusions:
a. Longdurationloadingduetonormalunbalanceofthesystemwillnotcausefailureofearthelectrodesprovidedthat
thecurrentdensityattheelectrodesurfacedoesnotexceed40A/m2.Limitationtovaluesbelowthiswouldgenerally
beimposedbythenecessitytosecurealowresistanceearth.
b. Timetofailureonshorttimeoverloadisinverselyproportionaltothespecificloading,whichisgivenbyi2,whereiis
thecurrentdensityattheelectrodesurface.Forthesoilsinvestigated,themaximumpermissiblecurrentdensity,iis
givenby
where
t
durationoftheearthfault(ins)
resistivityofthesoil(in.m).
Experienceindicatesthatthisformulaisappropriateforplateelectrodes.
11.VOLTAGEGRADIENTAROUNDEARTHELECTRODES
11.1
Underfaultcoditions,theearthelectrodeisraisedtoapotentialwithrespecttothegeneralmassoftheearththat
canbecalculatedfromtheprospectivefaultcurrentandtheearthresistanceoftheelectrode.Thisresultsintheexistence
ofvoltagesinthesoilaroundtheelectrodethatmaybeinjurioustotelephoneandpilotcables,whosecoresare
substantiallyatearthpotentional,owingtothevoltagetowhichthesheathsofsuchcablesareraisedthevoltagegradient
atthesurfaceofthegroundmayalsoconstituteadangertolife,especiallywherecattleareconcerned.Theformerrisk
arisesmainlyinconnectionwithlargeelectrodesystemsasatpowerstationsandsubstations.
11.2
Dangertoanimalsoccursprincipallywithpolemountedsubstationsonlowvoltagesystems.Inruralareas,itisby
nomeansuncommonfortheearthpathresistancetobesuchthatfaultsarenotclearedwithinashortperiodandinsuch
cases,animals,whichfrequentlycongregatenearapole,areliabletoreceiveadangerousshock.Thesametrouble
sometimesoccursatfarmswhereearthelectrodesareprovidedforindividualappliances.Aneffectiveremedyistoearth
theneutralconductoratsomepointonthesysteminaccessibletoanimalsratherthanearthingtheneutralatthe
transformeritself.Alternatively,aneffectivemethodisforpipeorrodelectrodestobeburiedwiththeirtopsbelowthe
surfaceofthesoilandconnectionmadetothembymeansofinsulatedleads.Themaximumvoltagegradientoveraspanof
2madjacenttoa25mmdiameterpipeelectrodeisreducedfrom85percentofthetotalelectrodepotentialwhenthetop
oftheelectrodeisatgroundlevelto20and5percentwhenitisburied03and10mrespectively.
11.3
Earthelectrodes,otherthanthoseusedfortheearthingofthefenceitself,shouldnotbeinstalledinproximitytoa
metalfence,toavoidthepossibilityofthefencebecomingliveandthusdangerousatpointsremotefromthesubstationor
alternativelygivingrisetodangerwithintheresistanceareaoftheelectrodebyintroducingagoodconnectionwiththe
generalmassoftheearth.
12.CONNECTIONSTOEARTHELECTRODESEARTHINGANDPROTECTIVECONDUCTORS
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12.CONNECTIONSTOEARTHELECTRODESEARTHINGANDPROTECTIVECONDUCTORS
12.0General
12.0.1
Thematerialsusedformakingconnectionshavetobecompatiblewiththeearthrodandthecopperearthing
conductorsothatgalvaniccorrosionisminimized.Inallcases,theconnectionshavetobemechanicallystrong.
12.0.2
Forlargeearthinginstallations,suchasatmajorsubstations,itiscommontomakeprovisionforthetestingofearth
electrodes.Thisis
27
achievedbyconnectingagroupofroddrivenelectrodestothemainearthgridthroughaboltedlinkadjacenttothe
electrodesinasunkenconcretebox.Simplerdisconnectingarrangements(ornoneatall)maybeacceptableforsmall
earthinginstallations.
12.1EarthingConductors
12.1.1
Earthingconductorsshallcomplywith12.2.2and,whereburiedinthesoil,theircrosssectionalareashallbein
accordancewithTable4.
TABLE4MINIMUMCROSSSECTIONALAREAOFEARTHINGCONDUCTORS
Protectedagainstcorrosion
MECHANICALLYPROTECTED
Accordingto12.2.2withaminimumof16mm2(Cu)or(Fe)
Notprotectedagainstcorrosion
MECHANICALLYUNPROTECTED
16mm2,(Cu)16mm2(Fe)
25mm2,(Cu)
50mm2(Fe)
12.1.2
Theconnectionofanearthingconductortoanearthelectrodeshallbesoundlymadeandelectricallysatisfactory.
Whereaclampisused,itshallnotdamagetheelectrode(forexample,apipe)ortheearthingconductor.
12.1.3
MainEarthingTerminalsorBarsIneveryinstallation,amainearthingterminalorbarshallbeprovidedandthe
followingconductorsshallbeconnectedtoit:
a. earthingconductors
b. protectiveconductorsand
c. functionalearthingconductors,ifrequired.
Meansshallbeprovidedinanaccessiblepositionfordisconnectingtheearthingconductor.Suchmeansmay
convenientlybecombinedwiththeearthingterminalorbartopermitmeasurementoftheresistanceoftheearthing
arrangementsThisjointshallbedisconnectableonlybymeansofatool,mechanicallystrongandensurethemaintenance
ofelectricalcontinuity.
12.1ProtectiveConductors
12.2.1TypesofProtectiveConductors
12.2.1.1
Protectiveconductorsmaycomprise:
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a. conductorsinmulticorecables
b. insulatedorbareconductorsinacommonenclosurewithliveconductors
c. fixedbareofinsulatedconductors
d. metalcoverings,forexample,thesheaths,screensandarmouringofcertaincables(furtherrequirementsunder
consideration)(seeNote1)
e. metalconduitsorothermetalenclosuresforconductors(furtherrequirementsunderconsideration)(seeNote2)
and
f. certainextraneousconductiveparts.
NOTE1Wherethemetalsheathsofcablesareusedasearthcontinuityconductors,everyjointinsuch
sheathsshallbesomadethatitscurrentcarryingcapacityisnotlessthanthatofthesheathitself.Where
necessary,theyshallbeprotectedagainstcorrosion.Wherenonmetallicjointboxesareused,meansshallbe
providedtomaintainthecontinuitysuchasametalstriphavingaresistancenotgreaterthanthatofthe
sheathofthelargestcableenteringthebox.
NOTE2Metalconduitpipeshouldgenerallynotbeusedasanearthcontinuityconductorbutwhere
used,averyhighstandardofworkmanshipininstallationisessential.Jointsshallbesomadethattheir
currentcarryingcapacityisnotlossthanthatoftheconduititself.Slacknessinjointsmayresultin
deteriorationandevencompletelossofcontinuity.Plainsliporpingripsocketsareinsufficienttoensure
satisfactorycontinuityofjoints.Inthecaseofscrewedconduit,locknutsshouldalsobeused.
12.2.1.2
Themetalliccoveringincludingsheaths(bareorinsulated)ofcertainwiring,inparticularthesheathsofmineral
insulatedcables,andcertainmetallicconduitsandtrunkingforelectricalpurposes(typesunderconsideration)maybeused
asaprotectiveconductorforthecorrespondingcircuits,iftheirelectricalcontinuitycanbeachievedinsuchamanner
ensuringprotectionagainstdeteriorationandtheypermitconnectionofotherprotectiveconductorsatpredeterminedtap
offpoints.Otherconduitsforelectricalpurposesshallnotbeusedasaprotectiveconductor.
12.2.1.3
Extraneousconductivepartsmaybeusedasaprotectiveconductoriftheysatisfythefollowingfourrequirements:
a. theirelectricalcontinuityshallbeassuredeitherbyconstructionorbysuitableconnectionsinsuchawayastobe
protectiveagainstmechanical,chemicalorelectrochemicaldeterioration
b. theirconductanceshallbeatleastequaltothatresultingfromtheapplicationof12.2.2
c. unlesscompensatorymeasuresareprovidedprecautionsshallbetakenagainsttheirremovaland
d. theyhavebeenconsideredforsuchauseand,ifnecessary,suitablyadapted.
Theuseofmetallicwaterpipesispermitted,providedtheconsentofapersonorbodyresponsibleforthewater
systemisobtained.Gaspipesshallnotbeusedasprotectiveconductors.
12.2.1.4
ExtraneousconductivepartsshallnotbeusedasPENconductors.
12.2.2MinimumCrossSectionalArea
12.2.2.0
Thecrosssectionalareaofprotectiveconductorsshalleitherbe:
a. calculatedinaccordancewith12.2.2.1,or
b. selectedinaccordancewith12.2.2.2.
28
Inbothcases,12.2.2.3shallbetakenintoaccount.
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NOTETheinstallationshouldbesopreparedthatequipmentterminalsarecapableofacceptingthese
protectiveconductors.
12.2.2.1
Thecrosssectionalareashallbesocalculatedthatthecurrentdensityvaluedeterminedbythefollowingformulais
notexceeded(applicableonlyfordisconnectiontimesnotexceeding5s).
where
S = crosssectionalarea,insquaremillimetres
I = value(ac,rms)offaultcurrentforafaultofnegligibleimpedance,whichcanflowthroughtheprotectivedevice,inamperes
t = operatingtimeofthedisconnectingdevice,insecondsand
NOTEAccountshouldbetakenofthecurrentlimitingeffectofthecircuitimpedancesandthelimitingcapability(joule
integral)oftheprotectivedevice.
k = factordependentonthematerialoftheprotectiveconductor,theinsulationandotherparts,andtheinitialandfinal
temperatures.Valuesofkforprotectiveconductorsinvarioususeorservicefort=1and3srespectivelyaregiveninTable6Ato
6D.
Thekfactorsforprotectiveconductorsofcopper,steelandaluminiumareshowninFig.17to19.
Ifapplicationoftheformulaproducesnonstandardsizes,conductorsofthenearesthigherstandardcrosssectional
areashallbeused.
NOTE1Itisnecessarythatthecrosssectionalareasocalculatedbecompatiblewiththeconditions
imposedbyfaultloopimpedance.
NOTE2Maximumpermissibletemperaturesforjointsshouldbetakenintoaccount.
NOTE3Valuesformineralinsulatedcablesareunderconsideration.
Methodofderivingthefactork
Thefactorkisdeterminedfromtheformula:
where
Qc
volumetricheatcapacityofconductormaterial(j/Cmm3),
reciprocaloftemperaturecoefficientofresistivityat0Cfortheconductor(C),
20
electricalresistivityofconductormaterialat20C(mm),
initialtemperatureofconductor(C),and
finaltemperatureofconductor(C).
ThesematerialconstantsaregiveninTable5.
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FIG.17kFACTORSFORCOPPERPROTECTIVECONDUCTORS(See12.2.2.1)
29
FIG.18kFACTORSFORSTEELPROTECTIVECONDUCTORS
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FIG.19kFACTORSFORALUMINIUMPROTECTIVECONDUCTORS
TABLE5MATERIALCONSTANTS
MATERIAL
B(C)
20 (mm)
Qc(J/Cmm3 )
Copper
2345
345106
17241106
226
Aluminium
228
25103
28264106
148
Lead
230
145103
214106
42
Steel
202
38103
138106
78
30
TABLE6CURRENTRATINGOFVARIOUSPROTECTIVEEARTHINGMATERIALS
(Clauses12.2.2and19.2)
6ABareConductorwithNoRiskofFireorDangertoAnyOtherTouchingorSurroundingMaterial
BoundaryConditions:InitialTemperature.40CFinaltemperature395Cforcopper325Cforaluminium500Cforsteel
MATERIAL
COPPER
ALUMINIUM
STEEL
1scurrentratinginA/mm2(k)1
205
126
80
118
73
46
6BInsulatedProtectiveConductorsnotIncorporatedinCablesorBareConductorsTouchingOtherInsulated
Cables
BoundaryConditions:InitialTemperature:40C.Finaltemperature:160CforPVC,220Cforbutylrubber250CforXLPE/EPR
MATERIALINSULATION
COPPER
PVC ButylRubber XLPE/EPR PVC
ALUMINIUM
Butyl
STEEL
XLPE/EPR PVC ButylRubber XLPE/EPR
Rubber
1scurrentratinginA/mm2(k)1 136
3scurrentratinginA/mm2
79
160
170
90
106
112
49
58
62
92
98
52
61
65
28
33
36
(k)3
6CProtectiveConductorasaCoreinMulticoreCables
BoundaryConditions:
InitialTemperature
FinalTemperature
PVC
70C
160C
ButylRubber
85C
220C
XLPE/EPR
90C
250C
MATERIALINSULATION
COPPER
PVC ButylRubber
ALUMINIUM
XLPE/EPR PVC
ButylRubber
XLPE/EPR
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1scurrentratinginA/mm2(k)1 115 134

3scurrentratinginA/mm2
66
77
143
76
89
94
83
44
51
54
(k)3
6DProtectiveBareConductorsinHazardousAreasWhereThereisRiskofFirefromPetroleumBoundOilorOther
SurroundingMaterial
BoundaryConditions:InitialTemperature:40CFinalTemperature150C/200C.
MATERIAL
COPPER
ALUMINIUM
STEEL
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86/101
47/56
76/88
50/58
27/32
12.2.2.2
ThecrosssectionalareaoftheprotectiveconductorshallbenotlessthantheappropriatevalueshowninTable7.In
thiscase,checkingofcompliancewith12.2.2.1isusuallynotnecessary.
Iftheapplicationofthistableproducesnonstandardsizes,conductorshavingthenearesthigherstandardcross
sectianalareaaretobeused.
TABLE7CROSSSECTIONOFPROTECTIVECONDUCTOR
31
CROSSSECTIONALAREAOFPHASECONDUCTORSOF
MINIMUMCROSSSECTIONALAREAOFTHECORRESPONDING
THEINSTALLATIONS(mm2)
PROTECTIVECONDUCTORSp(mm2)
S<16
16<S<35
16
5>35
See12.2.2.1
ThevaluesinTable7arevalidonlyiftheprotectiveconductorismadeofthesamemetalasthephaseconductors.If
thisisnotso,thecrosssectionalareaoftheprotectiveconductoristobedeterminedinamannerwhichproducesa
conductanceequivalenttothatwhichresultsfromtheapplicationofTable7(seealso18.3.3).
12.2.2.3
Thecrosssectionalareaofeveryprotectiveconductorwhichdoesnotformpartofthesupplycableorcable
enclosureshallbe,inanycase,notlessthan:
a. 25mm2,ifmechanicalprotectionisprovidedand
b. 4mm2,ifmechanicalprotectionisnotprovided.
12.2.3PreservationofElectricalContinuityofProtectiveConductors
12.2.3.1
Protectiveconductorsshallbesuitablyprotectedagainstmechanicalandchemicaldeteriorationandelectrodynamic
forces.
12.2.3.2
Jointsofprotectiveconductorsshallbeaccessibleforinspectionandtestingexceptincompoundfilledor
encapsulatedjoints.
12.2.3.3
Noswitchingdeviceshallbeinsertedintheprotectiveconductor,butjointswhichcanbedisconnectedfortest
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purposesbyuseofatoolmaybeprovided.
12.2.3.4
Whereelectricalmonitoringofearthcontinuityisused,theoperatingcoilsshallnotbeinsertedinprotective
conductors.
12.2.3.5
Exposedconductivepartsofapparatusshallnotbeusedtoformpartoftheprotectiveconductorforother
equipmentexceptasallowedbythepreconditionsin12.2.1.2.
13.EARTHINGARRANGEMENTSFORPROTECTIVEPURPOSES
NOTEForprotectivemeasuresforvarioussystemsofearthing,seeSection3.
13.1ProtectiveConductorsusedwithOvercurrentProtectiveDevices
13.1.1
Whenovercurrentprotectivedevicesareusedforprotectionagainstelectricshock,theincorporationofthe
protectiveconductorinthesamewiringsystemastheliveconductorsorintheirimmediateproximityisstrongly
recommended.
13.2EarthingandProtectiveConductorsforFaultVoltageOperatedProtectiveDevices
13.2.1
Anauxiliaryearthelectrodeshallbeprovidedelectricallyindependentofallotherearthedmetal,forexample,
constructionalmetalwork,pipers,ormetalsheathedcables.Thisrequirementisconsideredtobefulfillediftheauxiliary
earthelectrodeisinstalledataspecifieddistancefromallotherearthedmetal(valueofdistanceunderconsideration).
13.2.2
Theearthingconductorleadingtotheauxiliaryearthelectrodeshallbeinsulatedtoavoidcontactwiththeprotective
conductororanyofthepartsconnectedtheretoorextraneousconductivepartswhichare,ormaybe,incontactwith
them.
NOTEThisrequirementisnecessarytopreventthevoltagesensitiveelementbeing,inadvertently
bridged.
13.2.3
Theprotectiveconductorshallbeconnectedonlytotheexposedconductivepartsofthoseitemsofelectrical
equipmentwhosesupplywillbeinterruptedintheeventoftheprotectivedeviceoperatingunderfaultconditions.
13.2.4
ExcessiveEarthedleakageCurrentUnderconsideration.
14.EARTHINGARRANGEMENTSFORFUNCTIONALPURPOSES
14.1
GeneralEarthingarrangementsforfunctionalpurposesshallbeprovidedtoensurecorrectoperationofequipment
ortopermitreliableandproperfunctioningofinstallations.
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(Furtherrequirementsunderconsideration).
14.2
LowNoiseSee39.22.
15.EARTHINGARRANGEMENTSFORCOMBINEDPROTECTIVEANDFUNCTIONAL
PURPOSES
15.1
GeneralWhereearthingforcombinedprotectiveandfunctionalpurposesisrequired,therequirementsfor
protectivemeasuresshallprevail.
15.2PENConductors
15.2.1
InTNsystems,forcablesinfixedinstallationshavingacrosssectionalareanotlessthan10mm2forcopperand16
mm2foraluminium,asingleconductormayservebothasprotectiveconductorandneutralconductor,providedthatthe
partoftheinstallationconcernedisnotprotectedbyaresidualcurrentoperateddevice.
However,theminimumcrosssectionalareaofaPENconductormaybe4mm3,providedthatthecableisofa
concentrictypeconformingtoIndianStandardsandthatduplicatecontinuityconnectionsexistatalljointsand
terminationsintherunoftheconcentricconductors.
15.2.2
ThePENconductorshallbeinsulatedforthehighestvoltagetowhichitmaybesubjectedtoavoidstraycurrents.
NOTEThePENconductorneednotbeinsulatedinsideswitchgearandcontrolgearassemblies.
32
15.2.3
Iffromanypointoftheinstallationtheneutralandprotectivefunctionsarcprovidedbyseparateconductors,itis
inadmissibletoconnecttheseconductorstoeachotherfromthatpoint.Atthepointofseparation,separateterminalsor
barsshallbeprovidedfortheprotectiveandneutralconductors.ThePENconductorshallbeconnectedtotheterminalor
bareintendedfortheprotectiveconductor.
16.EQUIPOTENTIALBONDINGCONDUCTORS
16.1MinimumCrossSectionalAreas
16.1.1
EquipotentialBondingConductorsSee12.2.2.1.
16.1.2
BondingofWaterMetersBondingofwatermetersisnotpermitted(see9.2.4).
16.2
NonEarthedEquipotentialBondingUnderconsideration.
17.TYPICALSCHEMATICOFEARTHINGANDPROTECTIVECONDUCTORS
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17.1
AtypicalschematicofearthingandprotectiveconductorsisgiveninFig.20.
FIG.20EARTHINGARRANGEMENTSANDPROTECTIVECONDUCTORS
SECTION3EARTHFAULTPROTECTIONINCONSUMERSPREMISES
33
18.EARTHFAULTPROTECTIONININSTALLATIONS
18.0BasicPhilosophyofEarthFaultProtection
18.0.1
TherulesgiveninthisSectionareapplicabletoinstallationbelow1000Vac.
18.0.2
Amongstotherthings,protectionagainstshockincaseofafault(protectionagainstindirectcontact)isprovidedby
automaticdisconnectionofsupply.Thisprotectivemeasurenecessitatescoordinationofthetypesofsystemearthingand
thecharacteristicsoftheprotectivedevices.ThisSectiondiscussesthebasiccriteriaforachievingthisprotection.
18.0.3
Protectionagainstelectricshockbothinnormalservice(protectionagainstdirectcontact)andincaseoffault
(protectionagainstindirectcontact)canbeachievedbyseveralmeasures.Detailsofachievingprotectionthroughthe
choiceofanappropriateprotectivemeasureisthesubjectofIS:732*.Oneofsuchmeasuresisprotectionbyautomatic
disconnectionofsupply.Automaticdisconnectionisintendedtopreventatouchvoltagepersistingforsuchtimethata
dangercouldarise.Thismethodnecessitatescoordinationof(a)thetypeofsystemearthing,and(b)characteristicsof
protectivedevices.Descriptionofthetypesofsystemearthingpermittedandtherequirementsforearthingarrangements
andprotectiveconductorsvisavisprotectionagainstshockisthesubjectofthiscode.
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18.0.4
Protectivemeasurebyautomaticdisconnectionofsupplyfollowinganinsulationfaultreliesontheassociationof
twoconditionsgivenbelow:
a. Theexistenceofaconductingpath(faltloop)toprovideforcirculationoffaultcurrent(thisdependsontypeof
systemearthing)and
b. Thedisconnectionofthiscurrentbyanappropriatedeviceinagiventime.
Thedeterminationofthistimedependsonvariousparameters,suchasprobabilityoffault,probabilityofaperson
touchingtheequipmentduringthefaultandthetouchvoltagetowhichapersonmighttherebybesubjected.
Limitsoftouchvoltagearebasedonstudiesontheeffectsofcurrentonhumanbody(seeIS:84371977).
18.0.5
Thestudyoftheelectricalimpedanceofthehumanbodyasafunctionoftouchvoltageandmagnitudeofcurrent
flowinthebodyasafunctionofitsdurationlikelytoproduceagiveneffectaretwocomponentswhichhelpinestablishing
arelationshipbetweenprospectivetouchvoltageanditsdurationwhichwillnotresultinharmfulphysiologicaleffectsfor
anyperson.
Table8showsthevaluesofdisconnectingtimestforgiventouchvoltagesfortwomostcommonconditions.
TABLE8DISCONNECTINGTIMESFORDIFFERENTTOUCHVOLTAGES
PROSPECTIVETOUCH
VOLTAGEUc
CONDITION1*
Z1
CONDITION2
Z2
(V)
(mA)
(s)
(mA)
(s)
25
075
23
50
1725
29
925
54
047
75
1625
46
060
825
91
030
90
1600
56
045
780
115
025
110
1535
72
036
730
151
018
150
1475
102
027
660
227
010
220
1375
160
017
575
383
0035
280
1370
204
012
570
491
0020
350
1365
256
008
565
620
500
1360
368
004
560
893
*Dryormoistlocations,dryskinandsignificantfloorresistance.22
Wetlocations,wetskinandlowfloorresistance.
18.0.6
Itisnecessary,therefore,toapplytheseresultsemanatingoutofIS:84371977*tothevariousearthingsystems.
ThedisconnectingtimesspecifiedfordifferentcircuitsinthiscodefollowsbasicallythesummaryinTable8,inaddition
takingintoaccountthelikelihoodoffaultsandlikelihoodofcontact.
18.0.7
TNSystemsAllexposedconductivepartsshallbeconnectedtotheearthedpointofthelowersystembyprotective
conductors.Theprotectiveconductorsshallbeearthedneareachpowertransformerorgeneratoroftheinstallation.If
othereffectiveearthconnectionsexist,itisrecommendedthattheprotectiveconductorsalsobeconnectedtosuchpoints,
whereverpossible.Earthingatadditionalpointsasevenlyaspossibleisdesirable.Itisalsorecommendedthatprotective
conductorsshouldbeearthedwheretheyenteranybuildingsorpremises.
Thecharacteristicsoftheprotectivedevicesandthecrosssectionalareaofconductorsshallbesochosenthatifa
faultofnegligibleimpedanceoccursanywherebetweenaphaseconductorand
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*Codeofpracticeforwiringinstallations.
Guideoneffectsofcurrentspassingthroughthehumanbody.
*Guideoneffectsofcurrentspassingthroughthehumanbody.
34
aprotectiveconductororexposedconductivepart,automaticdisconnectionofthesupplywilloccurwithinthe
minimumpossiblesafetime.Thetimeofoperationwoulddependonthemagnitudeofthecontactpotential.Asageneral
rule,65Vmaybeclearedwithin10secondsandvoltagesoftheorderof240Vandaboveshallbeclearedinstantaneously.
Thisrequirementismetif:
ZsIaUc
where
Zs
faultloopimpedance,
Ia
currentensuringtheautomaticoperationofdisconnectingdevice,and
U0
conventionalvoltagelimits.
NOTE1Zsmaybecalculatedormeasured.
NOTE2ThedurationofIapermitteddependsODtheprospectivetouchvoltage.Thetouchvoltageis
calculatedfromthevoltageofthesystemandtheratiooftheimpedanceofthesourceandthefaultloop.
Highertouchvoltagesshouldbeclearedinshortertimes.
Ifthisconditioncannotbefulfilled,supplementarybondinginaccordancewith18.0.10maybenecessary.
18.0.8
TTSystemsAllexposedconductivepartscollectivelyprotectedbythesameprotectivedeviceshallbe
interconnectedbyprotectiveconductorswithanearthelectrodecommontoallthoseparts.Whereseveralprotective
devicesareusedinseries,thisrequirementappliesseparatelytoalltheexposedconductivepartsprotectedbyeachdevice.
Forcompliancewiththerequirementof18.0.7(para2),thefollowingshallbefulfilled:
RAIaUc
where
Ra
resistanceoftheearthedsystemforexposedconductiveparts,
Ia
operatingcurrentsofthedisconnectingseriesdeviceorsettingsofshuntrelays,and
Uo
conventionalvoltagelimit(32Vincaseofrelayswithtimelag).
18.0.9
ITSystemsTheimpedanceofthepowersystemearthshallbesuchthatontheoccurrenceofasinglefaultto
exposedconductivepartsortoearth,thefaultcurrentisoflowvalue.Disconnectionofthesupplyisnotessentialonthe
occurrenceofthefirstfault.Protectivemeasuresmust,however,preventdangerontheoccurrenceoftwosimultaneous
faultsinvolvingdifferentliveconductors.
Thefollowingconditionshallbefulfilled:
RAIaUc
where
RA
resistanceoftheearthedsystemforexposedconductiveparts,
Ia
operatingcurrentsofthedisconnectingseriesdevice,and
Uo
conventionalvoltagelimit.
18.0.10
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EquipotentialBondingIftheconditionsspecifiedin18.0.7to18.0.9cannotbefulfilledforautomatic
disconnectionofsupply,itisnecessarytoprovidelocalequipotentialbonding(seealso18.3.4).Thisappliestoentire
installationorapartthereof,anitemofapparatusoralocation.Theprotectiveconductorsforlocalbondingshallalso
conformto12.2.Wheredoubtexistsregardingeffectivenessofsupplementaryequipotentialbonding,itshallbeconformed
if:
where
Z = impedancebetweensimultaneouslyaccessibleexposedconductivepartsandextraneousconductiveparts,andearthingsystem
Ia = operatingcurrentofthedisconnectingseriesdeviceand
U = conventionalvoltagelimit.
18.1
BasicPurposeofEarthFaultProtectionTheoccurrenceofanearthfaultinaninstallationcreatestwo
possiblehazards.Firstly,voltagesappearbetweenexposedconductivepartsandextraneousconductiveparts,andifthese
partsaresimultaneouslyaccessible,thesevoltagesconstituteashockhazard,thisconditionbeingknownasindirect
contact.
Secondly,thefaultcurrentthatflowsinthephaseandprotectiveconductorsofthecircuitfeedingthefaulty
equipment(theearthfaultmay,ofcourse,occurinthefixedwiringofthecircuititself)maybeofsuchamagnitudeasto
causeanexcessivetemperatureriseinthoseconductors,therebycreatingafirehazard.
Theprotectivemeasureknownasearthedequipotentialbondingandautomaticdisconnectionofthesupplyis
intendedtogiveahighdegreeofprotectionagainstbothhazards.Thechoiceofprotectivedeviceusedtogive
disconnectionisinfluencedbythetypeofsystemofwhichtheinstallationispart,becauseeither:
a. theearthfaultloopimpedancehastobelowenoughtoallowadequateearthfaultcurrenttolowtocausean
overcurrentprotectivedevice(forexample,afuseorcircuitbreaker)inthefaultycircuittooperateinasufficiently
shorttimeor
b. whereitisnotpossibletoachievealowenoughearthfaultloopimpedance,disconnectionmaybeinitiatedbyfitting
eitheraresidualcurrentdeviceoravoltageoperatedearthleakagecircuitbreakerwiththeformerbeingpreferred.
35
18.2EarthingofInstallations
18.2.1
ProtectionAgainstIndirectContact(AgainstElectricShockinCaseofaFault)Protectionagainstindirectcontact
isachievedbytheadoptionofoneofthefollowingprotectivemeasures:
a. Safetyextralowvoltage
b. TheuseofGlassIIequipmentorbyequivalentinsulation
c. Anonconductinglocation
d. Earthfreelocalequipotentialbonding
e. Electricalseparationand
f. Earthedequipotentialbondingandautomaticdisconnectionofthesupply.
NOTE1TheprimaryconcernofthisCodeis(d)and(f)whileothermethodsofprotectionagainst
indirectcontactarecoveredinotherrelevantIndianStandardCodesofPractice.
NOTE2Item(a)requiresthatthenominalvoltageofthecircuitconcerneddoesnotexceedextralow
voltagethatthesourcehasahighdegreeofisolationfromhighervoltagecircuits(forexample,aClassIIsafety
isolationtransformer)andthatlivepartsalsohaveasimilardegreeofisolationorseparationfromthose
circuits.Themostimportantrequirement,however,isthatlivepartsandexposedconductivepartsofasafety
extralowvoltagecircuitshouldnotbeconnectedtoearth,protectiveconductorsorexposedconductiveparts
ofanothercircuit.Wherethesegeneralrequirementsarenotmetbutthenominalvoltagestilldoesnotexceed
extralowvoltage,thecircuitisdescribedasafunctionalextralowvoltagecircuitandonepartofitmaybe
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connectedtoearth.
NOTE3Item(b)isgenerallyapplicableandcoverstheselectionanduseofequipmentcomplyingwith
eitherinsulationencasedClassIIequipment(allinsulated)ormetalcasedClassIIequipment.Insomecases,
suchasfactorybuiltassembliesofswitchgearandcontrolgear,theequivalenttermusedistotalinsulation.
Item(b)canalsobeachievedbytheapplicationofsuitablesupplementaryorreinforcedinsulationto
equipmentonsite.
Earthingoftheequipmentisnotrequiredinfact,bydefinitiontherewillbenofacilityforearthing
providedinClassIIequipment.
NOTE4Items(c),(d)and(e)areoflimitedinterestastheycanbeappliedonlyinspecialsituations
andusedundereffectivesupervision.Theyallincludeahighdegreeofisolationfromearth.
NOTE5InthisSection,detailedconsiderationislimitedtoearthedequipotentialbondingand
automaticdisconnectionofthesupply.
18.2.2
EarthedEquipotentialBondingandAutomaticDisconnectionoftheSupplyThetwoaimsofthisprotective
measureareto:
a. ensurethatwhenanearthfaultoccurs,thevoltagesappearingbetweenexposedconductivepartsandextraneous
conduetivepartsinthelocationservedbytheinstallationconcernedareminimizedand
b. ensurerapiddisconnectionofthecircuitinwhichthatearthfaultoccurs.
Inordertomeet(a),azoneiscreatedbyfirstconnectingallextraneousconduetivepartsbymeansofequipotential
bondingconductorstothemainearthingterminalorearthelectrode(s)oftheinstallation.
Thezoneiscompletedbytheconnectionofallexposedconduetivepartsofthecircuitsintheinstallationandof
currentusingequipmentfedfromthosecircuitstothemainearthingterminal(orinstallationearthelectrode)usingcircuit
Whilstsuchazoneiscalledanequipotentialzone,thisdoesnotmeanthatvoltagescannotexistbetweenconductive
partsinthatzonewhenanearthfaultoccurs.Thevoltagesreferredtoearlier(see18.1)willstillexistbetweentheexposed
conduetivepartsofperfectlysoundequipmentandbetweensuchpartsandextraneousconductiveparts,buttheapplication
ofbondingminimizesthesevoltagesineachcase.
Aninstallationmayconsistofanumberofzonesforinstance,whenaninstallationsuppliesanumberofbuildings,
equipotentialbondingisnecessaryineachbuildingsothateachconstitutesazonehavingareferencepointtowhichthe
exposedconductivepartsofthecircuitsandcurrentusingequipmentinthatbuildingareconnected.
Thesecondaimofthisprotectivemeasureismetbylimitingtheuppervalueoftheearthfaultloopimpedanceof
eachcircuittoavaluedeterminedbythetypeandcurrentratingoftheprotectivedeviceconcernedsuchthat,onthe
occurrenceofanearthfault(assumedtobeofnegligibleimpedance),disconnectionwilloccurbeforetheprospectivetouch
voltagereachesaharmfulvalue.
18.2.3
ExtraneousConductivePartsTheextraneousconduetivepartsthatarerequiredtobebondedtothemainearthing
terminaloftheinstallation(ortotheearthelectrodeoftheinstallation)include:
a. gaspipes
b. otherservicepipesandducting
c. risersandpipesoffireprotectionequipment
d. exposedmetallicpartsofthebuildingstructureand
e. lighteningconductors(seeSection8).
NOTEConnectionstopipes,ductingandexposedmetallicpartsofbuildingstructureshouldbe
consideredmostcarefully.Insometypesofearthingsystems,especiallyTNCorTNCSsystemseffectively
connectextraneousconductingmetalworktothesupplysystemneutralandcouldcausecontinuously
circulatingcurrentsandstandingvoltagesthatmightresultinelectrochemicalcorrosionorrandomspark
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hazardsinpotentiallyflammableatmospheres.
36
18.2.4
ExposedConductivePartsExposedconductivepartsthatarerequiredtobeconnectedbymeansofprotective
conductorstothemainearthingterminal(orearthelectrode)oftheinstallationareasfollows:
a. Allmetalworkassociatedwithwiringsystem(otherthancurrentcarryingparts)includingcablesheathsandarmour,
conduit,ducting,trunking,boxesandcatenarywires
b. TheexposedmetalworkofallClassIfixedandportablecurrentusingequipment.Evenwhereatthetimeofthe
erectionoftheinstallationthisequipmentisofClassIIconstructionoritsequivalent,becausethereisapossibility
thatinthelifeoftheinstallationtheequipmentmaybereplacedbyClassIequipment,allfixedwiringaccessories
shouldincorporateanearthingterminalthatisconnectedtothemainearthingterminalbymeansoftheprotective
conductorsofthecircuitsconcerned.
c. Theexposedmetalworkoftransformersusedintheinstallationotherthanthosethatareanintegralpartof
equipment.Thesecondarywindingsoftransformersshouldalsobeearthedatonepointofthewinding,unlessthe
transformerisasafetyisolatingtransformersupplyingapartoftheinstallationwheretheprotectivemeasure
electricalseparationisbeingused).
Exposedconductivepartsthat(becauseoftheirsmalldimensionsordisposition)cannotbegrippedorcontactedbya
majorsurfaceofthehumanbody(thatis,ahumanbodysurfacenotexceeding50mm50mm)neednotbeearthedif
theconnectionofthosepartstoaprotectiveconductorcannotreadilybemadeandreliablymaintained.Typicalexamples
ofsuchpartsarescrewsandnameplate,cableclipsandlampcaps.Fixingscrewsfornonmetallicaccessoriesneednotbe
earthedprovidedthereisnoappreciableriskofthescrewscomingintocontactwithliveparts.
Otherexposedconductivepartsnotrequiredtobeearthedare:
1. Overheadlineinsulatorbracketsandmetalpartsconnectedtothemifsuchpartsarenotwithinarmsreachand
2. ShortlengthsofmetalconduitorothermetalenclosuresusedtogivemechanicalprotectiontoequipmentofClassII
orequivalentcunstruction.
18.ProtectionagainstExcessiveTemperatureRiseandMechanicalDamage
18.3.1
GeneralTheprotectivecircuitofaninstallationincludesthefollowing(seeFig.20):
a. Circuitprotectiveconductors
b. Equipotentialbondingconductorsand
c. Earthingconductors.
Undercertaincircumstances,theremayalsobelocalequipotentialbondingconductors.
ThedeterminationofcrosssectionalareasofalltheseconductorsisthesubjectofSection2(alsosee18.4)andhere
considerationislimitedtothetypesofconductorthatcanbeusedwithsomeindicationoftheprecautionsthatshouldbe
takenduringerection,particularlythoseconcernedwithmechanicalandchemicaldeteriorationandelectrodynamic
effects.
18.3.2
EarthingconductorsCopperearthingconductors,ingeneral,neednotbeprotectedagainstcorrosionwhenthey
areburiedinthegroundiftheircrosssectionalareaisequaltoorgreaterthan25mm2.Incaseofburiedsteelconductors,
appropriatecorrosionfactorsbaseduponthesummedupcorrosionindexescorrespondingtodifferentparameters
connectedwiththematerialforgrounding,environmentalconditions,natureofsoil,etc(seeSection4)shouldbeapplied
indeterminingthesizeoftheearthingconductor,howevertheminimumsizeshouldnotbelessthan50mm.Ifthe
earthingconductorisoftapeorstrip,thethicknessshouldbeadequatetowithstandmechanicaldamageandcorrosion.
Itshouldberememberedthatplainuncoatedcopperispositivetoplainuncoatedburiedsteelandwhen
interconnectedbyacurrentcarryingconductor,thesemetalswillformanelectrochemicalcellthatcancauseaccelerated
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corrosionofsteel.Asaroughguide,adccurrentof1Aleavingaburiedsteelstructurecanremovenearly9kgofmetalin
oneyear.
Wheresuchconductorsareprotectedagainstcorrossionbutarenotmechanicallyprotected,theminimumcross
sectionalareais16mm2iftheconductorisofcopperorcoatedsteel(Table4).Thedeterminationofthecrosssectional
areawheretheearthingconductorisbothmechanicallyprotectedandprotectedagainstcorrosionisconsideredinalater
section.
Aluminiumorcoppercladaluminiumconductorsshouldnotbeusedforfinalundergroundconnectionstoearth
electrodes.Whereacopperconductoristobejoinedtoaluminium,thecoppershouldbetinned,unlessanapproved
conductorisused.
Theconnectionoftheearthingconductortotheearthelectrodeorothermeansofearthingshouldbereadily
accessibleandsoundlymadebytheuseofsolderedjointsorsubstantialclampsofnonferrousmaterial.Wherethe
earthingconductoristobeconnectedtothemetalarmourandsheathofacable,thearmourshouldbebondedtothe
metalsheathandtheprincipalconnectionbetweenthecableandtheearthingconductor
37
shouldbetothemetalsheath,andshouldpreferablybesoldered.However,ifaclampisusedforthisconnectionthe
clampshouldbesodesignedandinstalledastoprovidereliableconnectionwithoutdamagetothecable.
18.3.3
CircuitProtectiveConductorsAcircuitprotectiveconductormayformpartofthesamecableastheassociatedlive
conductors,eitherasacoreofthatcableorthemetallicsheathorarmouring,oritmaybeseparatelyruninsulated
conductor,theinsulationbeingatleastequivalenttothatprovidedforasinglecorenonsheathedcableofappropriatesize.
Aseparatelyruncircuitprotectiveconductorhavingacrosssectionalareagreaterthan6mm2orofcopperstripisnot
requiredtobeinsulated.Allprotectiveconductorsshould,however,beprotectedagainstphysicaldamageandotherforms
ofdamage,forexample,weldingcurrentstrayreturnpaths.Wherethesheathofacableincorporatinganuninsulated
protectiveconductorhavingacrosssectionalareaof6mm2orlessisremovedatjointsandthetermination,theconductor
shouldbeprotectedbyinsulatingsleeving.
Whenthemetallicsheathisusedeveryjointinthatsheathshouldbesomadethatitscurrentcarryingcapacityis
notlessthanthatofthesheathandwherenonmetallicjointboxesareused,meanssuchasametalstriphavinga
resistancenotgreaterthanthatofthecorrespondinglengthofsheathofthelargestcableenteringtheboxshouldbe
providedtomaintaincontinuity.
Whenusingthemetallicsheathorarmourasaprotectiveconductor,attentionshouldbepaidtotheabilityofcable
glandsandconnectionstocarryprospectiveearthfaultcurrents.Particularcareshouldbetakentoavoidproblemswith
nonconductingfinishes.
Metallicenclosuresforcables,suchasconduit,ductingandtrunking,maybeusedascircuitprotectiveconductors
butwhereflexibleorpliableconduitisused,separateprotectiveconductorsshouldbeusedtomaintaintheintegrityofthe
earthpath.Whereconduitisused,ahighstandardofworkmanshipininstallationisessential.Jointsshouldbesomade
thattheircurrentcarryingcapacityisnotlessthantheconduititself.Slacknessinjointscanresultindeteriorationinand
evencompletelossofcontinuity.Plainsliporpingripsocketsareconsideredinsufficienttoensuresatisfactoryelectrieal
continuityofjoints.Inthecaseofunscrewedconduit,theuseofluggripfittingisrecommended,butforoutdoor
installationsandwhereotherwisesubjectedtoatmospherecorrosion,screwedconduitshouldalwaysbeused,suitably
protectedagainstcorrosion.Inscrewedconduitinstallations,theliberaluseoflocknutsisrecommended.Jointsinall
conduitsystemsshouldbepaintedoverallafterassembly.
Theseprecautionsshouldbeadequate,butperiodicaltestsshouldbemadetoverifythatelectricalcontinuityis
satisfactorilymaintained.
18.3.4
LocalEquipotentialBonding(18.0.10)Theequipotentialzonepartiallycreatedbythebondingofextraneous
conductivepartstothemainearthingterminaldependsforitsefficacyonmetaltometalcontactofnegligibleimpedance.
Withinaparticularpartofthezonewhereextraneousconductivepartsaresimultaneouslyaccessiblewitheitherother
extraneousconduetivepartsorexposedconductivepartsorboth,testsmayshowthatitisnecessarytocarryoutlocal
equipotentialbondingbetweenthepartsconcernedinordertoobtainsatisfactorylowimpedance.
18.3.5
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ElectrolyticCorrosionUnderdampconditions,electrolyticcorrosionisliabletooccuratcontactsbetween
dissimilarmetals.Copperandalloyshavingahighcoppercontentareparticularlyliabletocausecorrosionunderthese
conditionswhenincontactwithaluminiumbasedalloys.
Whendisimilarmetalsformpartofanelectricalcircuit,thejointsshouldbecleanandassembledfreeofmoisture,
andthenimmediatelysealedwithasuitablemediumagainsttheingressofmoisture.
Wheredampconditionsprevail,thefittings,fixingscrewsandsaddlesusedtosecurealuminiumbasedalloy
conductors,shouldbemadeofaluminiumalloyorsuitablyprotectedsteel(zonecoated)andallthepointsofcontact
betweenthempainted.
Particularattentionshouldbepaidtopipeworkbecauseoftheriskofreplacementofpartofthepipesystembynon
metallicpipesorjoints.Metalworkthatmayrequirebondingincludesexposedmetalpipes,sinkstaps,tanks,radiators,and
wherepracticableandaccessible,structuralcomponents.
18.4
CrossSectionalAreasoftheConductorsofanInstallationProtectiveCircuitThecrosssectionalareas
oftheconductorsoftheprotectivecircuitareinfluencedbythelimitation,placedonearthloopimpedancestoensure
disconnectionofthecircuitinwhichandearthfaultoccursintheprescribedtime,thatis,instantaneousdisconnectionfor
highercontrolpotentialanddisconnectionwithtimelagforlowervoltages.
Whereaprotectivedeviceconcernedisafuse,miniaturecircuitbreakerorothertypesofseriesovercurrentdevice,
thosedisconnectingtimesimplythattheearthfaultloopimpedancesshouldbesuchthattheearthfaultcurrentis
considerablygreaterthantheratedcurrentofthedevice(orofthesameorderasoccurringundershortcircuitconditions)
ResidualCurrentDevices(RCDs)shallbeprovidedtodisconnectthecircuitwithinthesametimeincaseofimpedanceor
arcingfaultconditions.Thedevicesettingshouldbeinterlinkedwithearthfaultloopimpedance,safecontactpotentialand
permissibletimefordisconnection.
38
Alltheconstituentconductorsoftheprotectivecircuitshouldthereforebeofadequatecrosssectionalareatoensure
thatthetemperaturesattainedbytheconductorsdonotexceedtheirprescribedlimitingvalues.
18.5
ConsumersEarthConnections(see6.1.1)Themethodofconnectionofthemainearthingterminalofan
installationtoearthdependsonthetypeofsystemofwhichthatinstallationispart.Thedifferentsystemsaredescribedin
Fig.2to8.
Whenthesourceofenergyisprivatelyowned,thereshouldbenometallicconnectionwiththegeneralpublicsupply
unlesstherehasbeenconsultationwiththeelectricityauthorityconcerned.
Itshouldbeemphsizedthataninstallationtogetherwithitssourceofenergymaynotconsistentirelyofone
particulartypeofsystem.Insuchcases,eachpartofthatinstallationmayberequiredtobetreatedseparatelywithout
detrimenttootherpartsofthesameinstallation.Byandlarge,thetypesofsystemencounteredfallinoneorother
categoriesshowninFig.2to8.
19.SELECTIONOFDEVICESFORAUTOMATICDISCONNECTIONOFSUPPLY
19.1
GeneralIngeneral,everycircuitisprovidedwithameansofovercurrentprotection.Iftheearthfaultloop
impedanceislowenoughtocausethesedevicestooperatewithinthespecifiedtimes(thatis,sufficientcurrentcanflowto
earthunderfaultconditions),suchdevicesmaybereliedupontogivetherequisiteautomaticdisconnectionofsupply.If
theearthfaultloopimpedancedoesnotpermittheovercurrentprotectivedeviecstogiveautomaticdisconnectionofthe
supplyunderearthfaultconditions,thefirstoptionistoreducethatimpedance.Itmaybepermissibleforthistobe
achievedbytheuseofprotectivemultipleearthingorbyadditionalearthelectrodes.Therearepracticallimitationstoboth
approaches.
Incaseofimpedance/arcingfaults,seriesprotectivedevicesmaybeineffectivetoclearthefaults.Analternate
approachistobeadoptedforthecompletesafetyoftheoperatingpersonnelandequipmentfromthehazardsthatmay
resultfromearthfaults.Thisistouseresidualcurrentdeviceswithappropriatesettingstoclearthefaultswithinthe
permissibletime,basedontheprobablecontactpotential.Thismethodisequallyapplicablewhereearthloopimpedances
cannotbeimproved.
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InTTsystems,thereisanadditionaloptionoftheuseoffaultvoltageoperatedprotectivedevices.Whilstthese
deviceswillalwaysgiveprotectionagainstshockrisk,providedtheyarecorrectlyinstalled,thepresenceofparallelearths
fromthebondingwillreducetheeffectivenessofthefireriskprotectiontheyoffer.Theseare,therefore,moresuitedfor
isolatedinstallationsthatdonothaveinterconnectionstootherinstallations.Itshouldalsoberememberedthatevery
socketoutletcircuitthatdonothaveearthingfacilityinahouseholdorsimilarinstallationshouldbeprotectedbya
residualcurrentdevicehavingaratedresidualoperatingcurrentnotexceeding30mA.
Onallothersystemswhereequipmentissuppliedbymeansofasocketoutletnothavingearthingfacilityorby
meansofaflexiblecableorcordusedoutsidetheprotectivezonecreatedbythemainequipotentialbondingofthe
installationsuchequipmentshouldbeprotectedbyaresidualcurrentoperateddevicehavinganoperatingcurrentof30
mAorless.
19.2
UseofOvercurrentProtectiveDevicesforEarthFaultProtectionWhereovercurrentprotectivedevices
areusedtogiveautomaticdisconnectionofsupplyincaseofearthfaultinordertogiveshockriskprotection,thebasic
requirementisthatanyvoltageoccurringbetweensimultaneouslyaccessibleconductivepartsduringafaultshouldbeof
suchmagnitudeanddurationasnottocausedanger.Thedurationwilldependonthecharacteristicoftheovercurrent
deviceandtheearthfaultcurrentwhich,inturn,dependsonthetotalearthfaultloopimpedance.Themagnitudewill
dependontheimpedanceofthatpartoftheearthfaultlooppaththatliesbetweenthesimultaneouslyaccessibleparts.
Thebasicrequirementcanbemetif:
a. acontactpotentialof65voltsiswithinthetolerablelimitsofhumanbodyfor10seconds.Henceprotectiverelayor
devicecharacteristicshouldbesuchthatthis65voltscontactpotentialshouldbeeliminatedwithin10secondsand
highervoltageswithshortertimes.
b. avoltageof250voltscanbewithstoodbyahumanbodyforabout100milliseconds,whichrequiresinstantaneous
disconnectionofsuchfaults,givingrisetopotentialriseof250voltsormoreabovethegroundpotential.
Themaximumearthfaultloopimpedancecorrespondingtospecificratingsoffuseorminiaturecircuitbreakerthat
willmeetthecriteriacanbecalculatedonthebasisofanominalvoltagetoearth(Uo)andthetimecurrentcharacteristics
ofthedeviceassumingworstcaseconditionsthatis,theslowestoperatingtimeacceptedbytherelevantstandards.Thus,if
thesevaluesarenotexceeded,compliancewiththiscodecoveringautomaticdisconnectionincaseofanearthfaultis
assured.
Whereitisrequiredtoknowthemaximumearthfaultloopimpedanceacceptableinacircuitfeeding,afixed
applianceorsetofappliancesandprotectedbyanovercurrentdevice,theminimum
39
currentthatmaybenecessarytoensureoperationoftheovercurrentdevicewithinthepermissibletimeof10
secondsforacontactpotentialof65voltsisfoundfromthecharacteristiccurveofthedeviceconcerned.Applicationof
theOhmsLawthenenablesthecorrespondingearthfaultloopimpedancetobecalculatedasprovidedintheformulaein
18.0.3to18.0.6.
Forcircuitssupplyingsocketoutlets,thecorrespondingearthfaultloopimpedancecanbefoundbyasimilar
calculationforearthedequipment.Whenequipmentarenotearthedandconnectedtosocketoutletswithoutearthing
facility,disconnectionshouldbeensuredfor30mAwithin10secondsandwithappropriatedecrementsintimeforhigher
currents.
Thismethodrequiresaknowledgeofthetotalearthloopimpedancealone(ratherthanindividualcomponents)and
is,therefore,quickanddirectinapplication.Itssimplicitydoesexcludesomecircuitarrangementsthatcouldgivethe
requiredprotection.
Whilecalculationsgivethemaximumearthfaultlooporprotectiveconductorimpedancetoensureshockrisk
protectionunderfaultconditionsitisalsonecessarytoensurethatthecircuitprotectiveearthconductorisprotected
againstthethermaleffectsofthefaultcurrent.Theearthfaultloopimpedanceshould,therefore,belowenoughtocause
theprotectivedevicetooperatequicklyenoughtogivethatprotectionaswell.Thisconsiderationplacesasecondlimiton
themaximumearthloopimpedancepermissibleandcanbecheckedbysuperimposingonthetimecurrentcharacteristic
oftheoverloaddevice,theadiabaticlinehavingtheequation:
NOTEValuesofkfortypicalprotectiveconductorconditionsaregivenin12.2.2.1andTables6Ato
6D.
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Detailsofthemaximumpermissibleearthloopimpedanceforthethermalprotectionofcablesbyfusescanalsobe
computed.However,thetimecurrentcharacteristicsofaminiaturecircuitbreakeraresuchthatiftheloopimpedanceis
lowenoughtogiveautomaticdisconnectionwithinsafedisconnectingtimesoprovidingshockriskprotection,itwillalso
givethenecessarythermalprotectiontotheearthconductorlikelytobeusedwithabreakerofthatspecificrating.Figure
21showstherelationshipbetweentheadiabaticlineandthecharacteristicoffusesandminiaturecircuitbreaker.
Inorderthatthedeviceswillgivethermalprotectiontotheprotectiveconductor,operationhastoberestrictedto
theareatotherightofpointAwherethesecurvescross.Thus,themaximumearthfaultloopimpedanceforthermal
protectionofthecableisthatcorrespondingtotheminimumearthfaultcurrentforwhichthedevicegivesprotection.The
valueofthiscurrentcanbereadfromthecurveandthecorrespondingloopimpedancecanbecalculatedfrom:
where
Zs
earthfaultloopimpedance,
Uo
nominalvoltagetoearth,and
Ir
earthfaultcurrent.
Foragivenapplication,themaximumpermittedearthfaultloopimpedancewouldbethelowerofthetwovalues
calculatedforshockriskprotectionorthermalrestraintrespectively.
Itwillbenotedthattheadiabaticlinecrossesthecharacteristiccurveforaminiaturecircuitbreakeratasecond
pointB.Thisdenotesthemaximumfaultcurrentforwhichabreakerwillgivethermalprotectionbutitwillgenerallybe
foundinpracticethatthisvalueishigherthantheprospectiveshortcircuitcurrentthatoccursinthecircuitinvolvedand
cannot,therefore,berealized.
FIG.21RELATIONSHIPBETWEENADIABATICLINESANDCHARACTERISTICS
40
19.3
EarthFaultProtectiveDevicesTherearetwobasicformsofsuchdevicesthatcanbeusedforindividualnon
earthed/earthed(withlimitedapplication)equipmentasfollows:
a. ResidualCurrentOperatedDevices(RCD)AnRCDincorporatestwocomponentitems.Acorebalancetransformer
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assemblywithawindingforeachrecognizingtheoutofbalancecurrentthatthefaultproducesinthemain
conductors.Thisinducesacurrentthatisusedtooperatethetrippingmechanismofacontactsystem.Foroperating
currentsof05Aormore,theoutputfromsuchatrausformerassemblycanoperateaconventionaltripcoildirectly.
Forlowervaluesofoperatingcurrent,itisnecessarytointerposealeaydevice,eithermagneticorsolidstate.
Devicesforloadcurrentsgreaterthan100Ausuallycompriseaseparatetransformerassemblywithacircuit
breakerorcontactrelay,mountedtogetherwithinacommonenclosure.Devicesforloadcurrentsbelow100A
usuallyincludethetransformerandcontactsystemwithinthesamesingleunit,whichisthendescribedasaresidual
currentoperatedcircuitbreaker(RCB).SuchanRCBshouldbeconsideredaparticulartypeofRCBalthoughitisthe
mostusualform.
Awidechoiceofoperatingcurrentsisavilable(typicalvaluesarebetween10mAand20A)RCBsarenormally
nonadjustablewhilstRCDsareoftenmanufacturedsothatoneofseveraloperatingcurrentsmaybechosen.Single
phaseandmultiphasedeviceswithorwithoutintegralovercurrentfacilitiesareavailable.
Whereresidualcurrentbreakersof30mAoperatingcurrentorlessarebeingused,thereisachoicebetween
devicesthatareentirelyelectromechanicalinoperationandthosethatemployasolidstatedetector.The
electromechanicaltypesaregenerallysmallandcompactandwilloperateonthepowerbeingfedtothefaultalone
whereasthesolidstatetypewhichtendtobebulkiertorequireapowersupplytoensureoperation.Wherethis
powersupplyisderivedfromthemains,itmaybenecessarytotakeaddedprecautionagainstfailuresofpartofthat
mainssupply.Devicessuitablefortimegradingaremorelikelytobeofthesolidstateformasarethosehaving
higherthroughfaultcapacity.
AtestdeviceisincorporatedtoallowtheoperationoftheRCDtobechecked.Operationofthisdevicecreates
anoutofbalanceconditionwithinthedevice.TrippingoftheRCDbymeansofthetestdeviceestablishesthe
following:
1. theintegrityoftheelectricalandmechanicalelementsofthetrippingdeviceand
2. thatthedeviceisoperatingatapproximatelythecorrectorderofoperatingcurrent.
Itshouldbenotedthatthetestdevicedoesnotprovideameansofcheckingthecontinuityoftheearthing
leadortheearthcontinuityconductor,nordoesitimposeanytestontheearthelectrodeoranyotherpartofthe
earthingcircuit.
AlthoughanRCDwilloperateoncurrentsequaltoorexceedingitsoperatingcurrent,itshouldbenotedthat
itwillonlyrestrictthetimeforwhichafaultcurrentflows.Itcannotrestrictthemagnitudeofthefaultcurrent
whichdependssolelyonthecircuitconditions.
b. FaultVoltageOperatedEarthLeakageCircuitBreakers(ELCB)Avoltageoperatedearthleakagecircuitbreaker
comprisesacontactswitchingsystemtogetherwithavoltagesensitivetripcoil.Oninstallations,thiscoilis
connectedbetweenthemetalworktobeprotectedandasgoodaconnectionwithearthascanbeobtained.Any
voltageriseaboveearthonthatmetalworkexceedingthesettingofthecoilwillcausethebreakertotripsogiving
indirectshockriskprotection.
Trippingcoilsaredesignedsothatafaultvoltageoperateddevicewilloperateona40Vrisewhentheearth
electroderesistanceis500or24Vona200electrode.Singleandmultiphaseunits,withorwithoutovercurrent
facilities,areavailableforloadcurrentsupto100A.
Atestdeviceisprovidedonavoltageoperatedunittoenabletheoperationofthecircuitbreakertobe
checked,operationofthedeviceappliesavoltagetothetripcoilsosimulatingafault.
Trippingofthecircuitbreakerbymeansofthetestdeviceshowstheintegrityoftheelectricalmechanical
elementsthattheunitisoperatingwiththecorrectorderofoperatingvoltageand,inaddition,provestheconductor
fromthecircuitbreakertotheearthelectrode.Itcannotproveotherfeaturesoftheinstallation.
Whilstthevoltageoperated(ELCB)willoperatewhensubjectedtoafaultvoltageof20Vormore,itshouldbe
notedthatitcannotrestrictthevoltageinmagnitudeonlyinduration.
41
c. CurrentOperatedEarthLeakageCircuitBreakersForindustrialapplications,earthleakagecircuitbreakers
operatingonmilliampereresidualcurrentsorworkingonfaultvoltageprincipleareoflittleuse,sincemilliamperes
ofearthleakagecurrentforanextensiveindustrialsystemisanormaloperatingsituation.Trippingbasedonthese
currentswillresultinnuisanceforthenormaloperation.Milliamperesofcurrentinasystem,whereexposed
conductivepartsofequipmentsareeffectivelyearthedandfaultloopimpedanceiswithinreasonablevalues,willgive
riseonlytoagroundpotential/contactpotentialriseofafewmillivolts.Thiswillinnowaycontributetoshockor
firehazard.Hereobjectionablefaultcurrentswillbeafeworafewtenthsofamperes.Insuchcases,residualcurrent
operateddevicessensitivetothesecurrentsmustbemadeuseofforearthfaultcurrentandstableoperationofthe
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plantwithoutnuisancetripping.Thisisachievedeitherbyseparaterelaysorinbuiltreleasesinitiatingtripsignalsto
thecircuitbreakers(Fordetails,refertoSection5).
19.4
SelectionofEarthFaultProtectiveDevicesIngeneral,residualcurrentoperateddevicesarepreferredand
maybedividedintotwogroupsaccordingtotheirfinalcurrentoperatingcharacteristics.
a. RCDsHavingMinimumOperatingCurrentsGreaterThan30mAThesedevicesareintendedtogiveindirect
shockriskprotectiontopersonsincontactwithearthedmetal.
b. RCDsHavingMinimumOperatingCurrentof30mAandBelowThesedevicesaregenerallyreferredtoashaving
highsensitivityandcangivedirectshockriskprotectiontopersonswhomaycomeincontactwithliveconductors
andearthprovidedthattheRCDoperatingtimesarebetterthanthosegiveninIS:84371977*.Itshouldbenoted
thatsuchRCDscanonlybeusedtosupplementanearthconductorandnotreplaceone.
InadditiontogivingprotectionagainstindirectcontactordirectcontactRCDsmayalsogivefireriskprotection,the
degreeofprotectionbeingrelatedtothesensitivityofthedevice.
AnRCDshouldbechosenhavingthelowestsuitableoperatingcurrentThelowertheoperatingcurrentthegreater
thedegreeofprotectiongiven,itcanalsointroducepossibilitiesofnuisancetrippingandmaybecomeunnecessarily
expensive.Theminimumoperatingcurrentwillbeaboveanystandingleakagethatmaybeunavoidableonthesystem.A
furtherconsiderationarisesifitisintendedtohaveseveraldevicesinseries.Itisnotalwayspossibletointroducetime
gradingtogivediscriminationwhereasalimitedamountofcurrentdiscriminationcanbeobtainedbygradingthe
sensitivitiesalongthedistributionchain.
Themaximumpermittedoperatingcurrentdependsontheearthfaultloopimpedance.Theproductofthenet
residualoperatingcurrentloopimpedanceshouldnotexceed65volts.
Itisoftenacceptableoncommercialgroundstohaveseveralfinalcircuitsprotectedbythesameresidualcurrent
devices.This,however,doesresultinseveralcircuitsbeingaffectedifafaultoccursononeofthecircuitssoprotectedand
thefinancialadvantageshavetobeweighedagainsttheeffectsofloosingmorethanonecircuit.
ItshouldalsobenotedthatdifferenttypesofRCDindifferentcircuitsmayreactdifferentlytothepresenceofa
neutraltoearthfaultontheloadside.Suchanearthconnectiontogetherwiththeearthingofthesupplyattheneutral
pointwillconstituteashuntacrosstheneutralwindingontheRCDtransformer.Consequently,aportionoftheneutral
loadcurrentwillbeshuntedawayfromthetransformeranditmayresultinthedevicetripping.Ontheotherhand,sucha
shuntmayreducethesensitivityofthedeviceandpreventitstrippingevenunderlinetoearthfaultconditions.Ingeneral,
therefore,careshouldbetakentoavoidaneutraltoearthfaultwhereRCDsareinuse,althoughtherearesomedesigns
beingdevelopedthatwilldetectandoperateundersuchconditions.OninstallationswithseveralRCDs,careshouldbe
takentoensurethatneutralcurrentsarereturnedviathesamedevicethatcarriesthecorrespondingphasecurrentandno
other.Failuretoobservethispointcouldresultindevicestrippingevenintheabsenceofafaultonthecircuittheyare
protecting.
WhenusingfaultvoltageoperatedELCBs,themetalworktobeprotectedshouldbeisolatedfromearthsothatany
faultcurrentpassesthroughthetrippingcoilgivesbothshockandfireriskprotection.However,thisisolationisnotalways
practicableandthepresenceofasecondparallelpathtoearthwillreducetheamountoffireriskprotectionoffered.
Becausethecoilisvoltagesensitive,thepresenceofsuchaparallelpathwillnotreducetheshockriskprotectionoffered
providedthatthissecondpathgoestoearthwellclearofthepointatwhichtheearthleakagecircuitbreakertripcoilis
earthed.Itisrequiredthattheearthingconductorisinsulatedtoavoidcontactwithotherprotectiveconductorsorany
exposedconductivepartsorextraneousconductivepartsso
*Guideoneffectsofcurrentpassingthroughthehumanbody.
42
astopreventthevoltagesensitivityelementfrombeingshunted,alsothemetalworkbeingprotectedshouldbe
isolatedfromthatassociatedwithothercircuitsinordertopreventimportedfaults.
VoltageoperatedELCBsaresuitableforprotectionofisolatedinstallationsonaTTsystemsuchasoccurinrural
areas.Table9showsthemaximumearthelectrodeimpedancewithswitchdifferenttypesofbreakermaybeused.
TABLE9MAXIMUMEARTHELECTRODERESISTANCEFORDIFFERENTTYPESOFCIRCUITBREAKER
TYPEOFBREAKER
OPERATINGCURRENT
MAXIMUMEARTHELECTRODERESISTANCE()
300mA
166
30mA
1666
RCD
VoltageOperatedELCB
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30mA
1666
VoltageOperatedELCB
500
SECTION4POWERSTATIONS,SUBSTATIONSANDOVERHEADLINES
20.EARTHINGINPOWERSTATIONSANDSUBSTATIONS
20.1
GeneralIngeneral,earthinginstallationswillberequiredatpowerstationsandsubstationsfor:
a. Theneutralpointsofeachseparateelectricitysystemwhichhastobeearthedatthepowerstationorsubstation
b. Apparatusfremeworkorcladdingorothernoncurrentcarryingmetalworkassociatedwitheachsystem,for
example,transformertanks,powercablesheaths
c. Extraneousmetalworknotassociatedwiththepowersystems,forexampleboundaryfences,sheathsofcontrolor
communicationcables.
Forsafety,theobjectiveofearthbondingistoensurethat,innormalorabnormalconditions,anyvoltageappearing
onequipmenttowhichthereisaccessshouldbebelowadangerouslevel.Itisnotpracticabletoensurethatmetalpartsare
earthedandremainneartrueearthpotentialduringthepassageofearthfaultcurrents,particularlyonhighvoltagesystems
withdirectlyearthedneutrals.Theobjectiveshould,therefore,betoprovideeffectivebondingoflowimpedanceand
adequatecurrentcarryingcapacitybetweenpartswithwhichanyonemaybeinsimultaneouscontact,andtoarrange,as
faraspossible,thatlargefaultcurrentsdonotflowbetweensuchpoints.
Tominimizeriskofdamagetocertainauxiliaryplant,theriseofpotentialofastationearthinginstallationabovethe
potentialoftrueorremoteearthshouldbeaslowaspracticable,sincethispotentialwillbeappliedacrossprotective
insulationofanyplantwithconnectionstoearthexternaltothesubstation,forexample,plantwithconnectionstopilotor
telephonecablesorcablesheaths.Forsimilarreasons,thepotentialdifferencebetweenearthedpointsinthestation
shouldalsobekepttoaminimum.Wheresurgeprotectionisprovided,theconnectionoftheprotectivedevicestoearth
shouldbeasdirectaspossible.Thedischargeofhighcurrentswithhighfrequencycomponentsrequiresearthconnections
oflowresistanceandreactance,thatis,shortconnectionswithasfewchangesofdirectionaspossible.
Wheretheneutralpointsoftwoelectricallyseparateelectricitysystemsareconnectedtoacommonearthelectrode
systematasite,thereisacouplingofthesystemsintheeventofanearthfaultoccurringoneithersystembyvirtueofthe
riseofearthpotentialduetothepassageofthefaultcurrentthroughtheearthelectrodesystem.Similarly,ifnoncurrent
carryingmetalworkisbondedtothesameearthelectrodeastheneutralpointofthesupplythemetalworkwillexperience
thesameriseofearthpotential.Ifcompleteseparationofelectricalsystemswererequired,itwouldbeessentialthatthe
neutralpointsofeachsystemanditsassociatedmetalworkbeseparatelyearthed.Ifsuchamethodwereadopted,each
earthingsystemwouldrequireinsulationfromotherearthingsystemstowithstandthemaximumriseofearthpotential
occurringinanysystembyvirtueoflightningcurrentsorpowersystemfaultcurrents.Insulationtothislevelisrarely
practicable.
Thechoiceofusingacommonearthorseparateearthsforthesystemofdifferentvoltagesatatransformingpoint
affect:
a. theprobabilityofbreakdownoccurringinatransformerbetweenthehigherandlowervoltagesidesduetolighting
orothersurgesand
b. thesafetyofconsumersortheirpropertysuppliedbyanylowvoltagesystemdistributedfromthestationagainst
ariseofpotentialoftheearthedneutralbyahighvoltagesystemearthfaultatthestation.
Theformerriskisreducedbyuseofacommonearthsystem,andthelatterdangeronlyarisesiftheresistanceofthe
earthelectrodesystemisnotsufficientlylowtolimittheriseofearthpotentialtoasafevalue.Thereisadvantageinusinga
commonearthwheretheearthelectroderesistance,includingtheparallelresistanceofanybondedmetalwork,etc,to
earthis1orless,asisusualatpowerstations,largeoutdoorsubstationsorsubstationssupplyinganetworkofcables
whosesheathshavealowimpedancetoearth.
Thesubstationearthsystemriseofpotentialwillnotbeexcessiveiftheresistanceoftheearthelectrodesystemis
smallcomparedtothetotalearthfaultcircuitimpedance.Systemsofhigher
43
yoltage(66kVandabove)generallyhavetheneutraldirectlyearthed,sincetheincreaseincostsofinsulationthat
wouldberequiredforthetransformerwindingwouldbeconsiderable.
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Inruralsituations,whereoverheadlinesareused,itmay,incertaincircumstances,beinadvisabletouseacommon
earth(see20.2).
Therequirementsare,therefore,bestconsideredseparatelyforsubstations:
a. wherelowvoltageisconfinedtoauxiliarysupplieswithinthesubstation
b. substationsthatprovideanexternallowvoltagesupplyand
c. powerstations.
Theuseofneutralearthingswitchgearinpublicsupplysystemsisavoided,wherepossible,sinceadirectearthis
simple,reliableandcheaperthanaswitchedearth.Thecircumstancesinwhichneutralearthingswitchgearmaybe
necessaryaresobroadthatitisnotpracticabletoformgeneralrulesontypeandapplication.
20.2
GeneralEarthingArrangementAtypicalearthingarrangementforanoutdoorswitchyardisshowninFig.22.
Atypicalearthingarrangementforconnectingthereinforcementoffoundationsofsubstationbuildingandswitchyard
RCCmastsisshowninFig.23.
FIG.22ATYPICALEARTHINGGRIDFORANOUTDOORSUBSTATION(66kVANDABOVE)
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FIG.23EARTHINGOFFOUNDATIONREINFORCEMENT(CONCRETEENCASEDEARTHINGELECTRODE)
Theperimeterfencemayneedtobeearthedseparatelyfromthemainstationearthelectrodesystem(see20.6.1).
Thetertiarywindingofapowertransformershouldbeconnectedtothetransformertankbyaconnectionof
sufficientcrosssectionalareatocarrytheprimaryshortcircuitcurrent.
Inthecaseofpolemountedtransformersonoverheadlinesystems,difficultiesmayariseinareasofhighsoil
resistivity.Here,ifthepolecarriesalsoisolatingswitchgearwithlowleveloperatinghandle,uptothreeseparatelyearthed
electrodesystemsmayberequired.Thatfortheneutralofthelowvoltagesystemisusuallyprovidednotnearerthanone
polespanawayonthelowvoltageline.Thatforthehighvoltagemetalwork(transformertank,switchframework,support
metalwork),consistsofoneearthelectrodeatornearthepole.Resistancesof5to50aresometimestheminimum
economicallypossible.Inaudition,anearthmatshouldbeprovided,nearthegroundsurface,inthepositiontakenupbya
personoperatingtheswitchhandlethismatshouldbeconnectedtotheswitchhandle.Thematshouldbeelectrically
separatedfromthemainelectrodethisisconsideredtobeachievedbyspacingthenearestelementofthatelectrodeat
least1mfromtheperipheryofthematandbyplacingthetwoearthingwiresonoppositesidesofthepole.Thetopsofthe
mainelectrodesshouldbeatleast225mmandpreferably750mmbelowtheground,andtheearthingwiretothemain
electrodeofoutdoortyperubberorplasticsinsulatedcableuptoapoint2mabovegroundlevel.Thiscable,betweenthe
bottomofthepoleandtheelectrodeshouldbelaidina50mmdiameterearthenwareductfilledsolidwithbitumen.
20.3GeneralEarthingArrangementsatPowerStationsofPublicElectricitySupplies
45
20.3.1
NeutralEarthingofGeneratorCircuitsAtmodernlargepowerstationsforpublicelectricitysupplythegeneration
circuitsgenerallycompriseastarconnectedstatorcircuitwithanoperatingvoltageuptoabout26kV,directlyconnected
toastepupdelta/startransformer,thehighervoltagewindinggenerallyoperatingat132Vk,275kVor400kV,withthe
transmissionsystemneutralpointdirectlyearthed.
Thefollowingthreemethodshavebeenusedforearthingtheneutralofthegeneratorwindings:
a. Earthingthroughtheprimarywindingofamatchingtransformer,withresistorconnectedacrossthesecondary
winding
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b. earthingthrougharesistorand
c. earthingthroughtheprimarywindingofavoltagetransformer.
Method(a)iscurrentpractice,thedesignbeingsuchthatthemaximumsubstainedearthfaultcurrentinthe
generatorcircuitisrestrictedto10to15A,thuslimitingthedamageatthepointoffault.Theneutralandearthing
connections,however,areofadequatecapacitytowithstandfor3stheearthfaultcurrentthatwouldflowintheeventof
thematchingtransformerterminalsflashingoverduringanearthfault.Theresistorusedforthearrangementisofthe
metallicgridnoninductivetype.
Method(b)canbeusedtoachievethesamedegreeoffaultcurrentlimitation,bydesignofasuitablehighcurrent
resistor,butisnotpreferredonthegroundsofcostanditslessrobustconstructionthanthatoftheequipmentusedin
method(a).Itwasearlierpractice,however,toindividuallyeartheachgeneratoratpowerstationsbyliquidearthing
resistorsdesignedtolimittheearthfaultcurrenttoabout300A.
Method(c)isnowhistoric,buthadtheadvantagethatminimaldamageresultedatanearthfault.Ifdesired,the
generatorcouldremainincircuitwhileoperationalarrangementsweremadetopermititswithdrawal.However,this
imposedahighervoltagestressonthestatorwindingsandplantontheunfaultedphases,andthemachinedesignusually
imposedlimitationsonthis.Theoutputfromthesecondarywindingofthevoltagetransformercouldbearrangedto
activateanalarmortripthegeneratorcircuitasdesired.Indesigningtheneutralandearthingconnectionstothevoltage
transformer,theearthfaultcurrentusedwasthatresultingbyflashoverofthevoltagetransformerduringanearthfault.
Someoldpowerstationshavegeneratorsconnecteddirectlytodistributionsystembusbarsingeneral,theneutral
terminalsofsuchgeneratorshavebeenearthedvialiquidneutralearthingresistorsofsuchavaluethatthemaximum
sustainedearthfaultcurrentisoftheorderoffullloadcurrentofthegenerator.Installationsofneutralpointswitchboards
withswitchingofneutralpointsandearthingresistorshavebeenabandonedinfavourofindividualunswitchedearthing
resistors.
20.3.2
EarthingofPowerStationAuxiliarySystemsThereare,incommonuse,threemethodsofearthingtheneutral
pointinpowerstationauxiliarysystems:
a. Solidearthing
b. earthingthroughavoltagetransformer(orvoltagerelay)withasurgediverter(butnotafuse)shuntingtheprimary
winding(ortherelay)
c. Resistanceearthing.
Methods(a)and(c)involvetheautomaticdisconnectionoftheindividualfaultcircuit.
Withmethod(b),analarmcanbearrangedtobeoperatedfromthesecondaryofthevoltagetransformerandthe
schemeenablesallauxiliariestobekeptinserviceuntilitisconvenienttomaketheauxiliaryswitchboarddead.
Method(a)isnormallyusedinpowerstationswithsmallergeneratingsetsandmethod(c)usedinthelargerpower
stations.Method(b)hascertaindisadvantages,suchasthecomplicationinarrangingforspeedyidentificationofthe
individualfaultycircuitandthepossibledifficultiesarisingfromfunctioningofthesurgediverter.
20.4
EquipmentEarthingatPowerStationsPracticeinequipmentearthingatpowerstationsisidenticaltothat
forlargesubstationsnotgivingexternallowvoltagesupplies(see20.2).Acommonearthisusedfortheneutralearthingof
generatorsandpowerstationauxiliaries,andforallequipmentframework,cladding,powercablessheathsandextraneous
metalworknotassociatedwiththepowersystems,otherthantheperimeterfence(see20.6.1.).
20.5PowerStationandSubstationEarthElectrodes
20.5.1
GeneralTherequiredcharacteristicsofearthelectrodesystemare:
a. asuitablylowresistance,underallvariationsduetoclimaticconditions,forthefaultcurrentsenvisaged
b. currentcarryingcapabilityforallcurrentsanddurationsthatmayariseinnormaloperatingconditionsorduring
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faultorsurgedischargeconditions,withoutundueincreaseinresistance
c. suitablelocationinthevicinityofanylightingdischargedevicessuchthatearthconnectionconductorsfromsuch
devicesareasshortandstraightaspossibletominimizesurgeimpedanceand
d. earthelectrodeinstallationsshouldbedurableandofsuchmaterialanddesigntoavoidcorrosions.
46
Forhighvoltagesystemearthing,thevalueoftheresistanceoftheearthelectrodesystem,withanyadventitious
earthsduetothebondingofmetalwork,etc,incontactwithearth,shouldbesuchthattheriseinpotentialoftheelectrode
systemabovethepotentialofremoteearthisaslowaseconomicallypossible.Intheabsenceofanyspecificrestriction,
attemptshouldbemadetorestricttheriseofpotentialwithinsafevalue.Atsomesites,theriseinearthpotentialwill
inevitablyexceedthesevalues,andspecialprecautionsarenecessary.
Wherethesoilofasiteishostilebyvirtueofalkalinityoracidityitmaybenecessarytoembedearthelectrodesin
rammedneutralsoiltoavoidcorrosion.
Earthelectrodesystemscanalsorepresentsomehazardtoadjacentundergroundservicesorstructuralsteelwork
throughelectrolyticactionbetweendissimilarmetals(see23).Wherethisdangercannotbeavoidedbyselectionof
compatiblemetals,theadoptionofcathodicprotectionorotherremedicalactionmaybenecessary.
Atpowerstationsandsubstationsthesteelinforcementinfoundationsandpilescanbeusedtoprovideaneffective
electrodesystem,withoutnecessitytoprovidefurtherburiedelectrodes.Wherepilesareusedtheyshouldbebondedby
weldingandconnectedtoearthbondingbarsatleastfourpoints.
Wherenosubstantialadventitiousearthsexistorwheretheyareinadequate,itisnecessarytoinstallelectrodes(see
9.1,9.2and12.1.1).
Allcladdingorsteelworkatastationshouldbebondedtotheearthingsystemasshouldallstructuralsteelwork,but
attentionisdrawntoprecautionsagainstunduerelianceonthelatterasanelectrode.
20.5.2
ChoiceandDesignWhereelectrodesoflargesurfaceareaarenecessarytoprovidetherequisitecurrentcarrying
capacity,earthplatesarerecommended.Thesearegenerallyofcastiron,notlessthan125mmthick,andareusually122
mby122m.Asanalternativetoplates,castironpipesmaybeinstalled.Theseare,forexample,about100mmindiameter
and3mlong,butarenotgenerallyascosteffectiveasplatesforequivalentsurfacearea.
Forlowercurrentratingrequirements,drivenrodsarepreferred,usually,ofthecoppercladsteeltype.Theyare
generallydriveningroups,preferablywithaspacingofnotlessthantheirlength,althoughthisisnotalwaysachievable.
Closerspacingreducestheireffectiveness.Theuseofdrivenrodsisadvantageouswherethedeeperstratasofasitehavea
lowerresistivitythantheupperstratasbuttheymaynotbesuitableifthesiteisstonyorhasarocksubstrata.
Atlargesubstationcompounds,itisusualtolayameshofundergroundearthstripstowhichsystemneutral
terminalsandtheearthbondingconductorsfromabovegroundstructuresareconnected.Inadditiontoprovidingan
approximatelyequipotentialsurfaceoverthesubstation,theearthstripmeshfrequentlysufficestoprovideanelectrodeof
suitableresistanceandcurrentcarryingcapacitywithoutaugmentation.
20.6EarthingConductorsforPowerStationsandSubstations
20.6.1
DispositionItisnecessarytoprovidepermanentandsubstantialconnectionsbetweenallequipmentandtheearth
electrodessoastoaffordalowresistancepathforfaultcurrentsbothtoearthandbetweenitemsofequipment.In
addition,allothermetalplantinoraboutthestationshouldbeconnectedtothemainstationearthingsystem.Themost
efficientdispositionofearthingconductorsrequiredwilldependonthelayoutofequipmentandthefollowingmaybe
takenasaguide:
a. IndoorEquipmentAmainearthbarshouldbeprovidedandconnectedtotheframeworkofeachitemandtothe
earthelectrodes.Exceptforthesmallestinstallations,thereshouldbeaconnectiontotheearthelectrodesateach
endoftheearthbaror,ifthisisintheformofaring,atseveralpointsonthering.TheseConnectionsmay,
dependingonthelayoutbeburiedcablesofasizeadequatefortheshortcircuitcurrent.Wherethestructureofa
switchboardisextensiveoroccupiesmorethanonefloor,afurtherparallelmainearthbarmayberequiredwhich
shouldbecrossconnectedtoitscompanionbaratonepointatleastineachsectionoftheswitchboard.
Themainearthbarshouldbesoplacedthatcablesheathscanbereadilyconnectedtoit.Whencablesareso
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connected,thebondsshouldbemadetothecableglandonwhichtheleadsheathshouldbeplumbedandthe
armouringclamped.Themainearthbarshouldbeaccessiblefortheconnectionofanydetachableearthingdevices
providedwiththeswitchgear.
Branchconnectionsfromthemainearthbarshouldbeprovidedtoallaccessoryequipment,suchascontrol
andrelaypanels,constructionalsteelworkandfireextinguishingequipment.
Wherebusbarprotectioniseffectedatswitchboardsbyframeleakage,twomainearthbarsarerequired.The
framebarinterconnectingtheframeworkoftheswitchunitswillbeconnectedtothetrueearthbarthrougha
currenttransformerandboltedlinksfortestpurposes.Thetrueearthbarshouldberunseparatelyfromtheframe
earthbarinconvenientpositionforthe
47
connectionofcablesheathsandearthingdevices.Whereitismountedontheswitchunits,itshouldbe
insulatedtherefrombyinsulationcapableofwithstandingatestvoltageof4kVrmsalternatingcurrentfor1
minutes.
Whereinsulatedcableglandsareused,itisrecommendedthatislandinsulationshouldbeprovidedto
facilitatetesting.
b. OutdoorEquipment(ExcludingPoleMountedTransformers)Amainearthbarshouldbeprovided,sodisposedas
toallowoftheshortestsubsidiaryconnectionstoallmajorequipment,suchastransformersorcircuitbreakers.
Whereverpossible,thisshouldbearrangedtoformaringroundthestation.Themainearthbar(orring)shouldbe
connectedwhererequiredtoearthelectrodes.Forlargerstations,theringshouldbereinforcedbyoneormore
crossconnections.
Fromthemainearthbar,branchconnectionsshouldbetakentoeachitemofapparatusandwhereseveral
suchitemslietogether,asubsidiaryringwithshortbranchesispreferabletoanumberoflongerindividualbranches
fromthemainbar.Theaimshouldbetoprovideameshsystemwhereverthiscanbecontrivedwithreasonable
economy.
Theoperatingmechanismsforoutdoorairbreakswitchdisconnectorsandearthswitchesandcircuitbreaker
controlkiosks,etc,notintegralwiththecircuitbreakershouldbeconnectedtothemainearthgridbyabranch
earthconnectionentirelyseparatefromthatemployedforearthingtheairbreakswitchdisconnectororearth
switchbase,orthecircuitbreakerstructure.Thefurthercontributiontosafetygivenbyaninsulatedinsertinthe
mechanismdriveissmallcomparedwiththatobtainedfromsuchabranchearthconnectionand,therefore,
insulatedinsertsarenotrecommendedinoperatingmechanismsofapparatusinstalledinsubstations.Whilesites
coveredwithhardcoreandstonechippingswillconstituteasurfacelayerwitharelativelyhighspecificresistance,in
theinterestsofsafety,ametalgridcanbeprovidedattheoperatingpointstogivealevelstandingareaandanearth
connectionmadefromthisgridtotheoperatinghandle.
Whereitcanbeprovedthatthecurrentcarryingcapacityofamainaluminiumorsteelmemberorwelded
sectionsformingastructureareatleastequaltothatoftherequiredaluminiumorcopperearthconductor,the
structuremayformpartoftheconnectionandthereisnoneedtofixanearthconductoralongthissection.A
structuremadeupofboltedsectionsshouldnotbereliedupontoformanefficientearthbondbetweenequipment
andthemainearthgrid,andloopsbondingacrossstructuraljointsarerequired.
Connectionstometalcladding,steelstructureandmetaldoorframesandwindowsoranyothermetallic
panelsshouldbemadeinsidebuildings.
Wheretheearthwireofanincominglineendsattheterminalsupportsandisnotconnectedtoapointonthe
substationstructures,asubsidiaryearthconnectionshouldbeprovidedbetweenthesubstationearthsystemandthe
baseofthesupport.Ifthelatterliesoutsidethesubstationfence,theearthconnectionshouldbeburiedwhereit
passesunderthefenceandshouldbekeptwellclearofthelatter.
Earthconnectionstosurgedivertersshouldbeofsamplecrosssectionandasdirectaspossibletheyshould
notpassthroughironpipeswhichwouldincreasetheimpedancetosurgesoftheconnection.Theearthconnections
ofthedivertersshouldbeinterconnectedwiththemainearthingsystemsince,fortheeffectiveprotectionofthe
substationequipment,adefiniteconnectionoflowimpedancebetweentheequipmentandthedivertersisessential.
20.6.2Design
20.6.2.0
GeneralThetermearthinggridappliesonlytothatpartofthegridwhichisburiedinsoil.Fordesigncalculations
ofthegridresistancetothesoil,onlytheburiedpartofthegridistobetakenintoaccount.Thatpartofthegridwhichlies
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embeddedinconcreteandalsoreinforcementconnectedtothegroundingpadsdolowerthecombinedgridresistancebut
thiscontributionmaynotbetakenintoaccountwhiledesigningtheearthinggrid.
20.6.2.1
ConductorsinstalledabovegroundEarthingconductorsforpowerstationsandsubstationswillnormallybe
selectedfromcopperoraluminiumorsteelsectionsadequatelyratedinsizetocarrythedesignedearthfaultorthreephase
faultcurrentfortheappropriatedesignedmaximumdurationwithoutexceedingatemperaturegiveninTable6A.
Compliancewiththisrequirementwilladditionallyensuresatisfactorybondingwithoutexcessivevoltagedifferencealong
anyconductor.
Therequiredcrosssectionalareaoftheearthingconductorisdeterminedbythechoiceofconductormaterialand
themaximumdurationofthefaultcurrent.Thegenerallyaccepteddurationfordesignpurposesareonesecondfor
voltagesabove33kVand3secondsforlowervoltages.
48
20.6.2.2
ConductorsburiedasstripelectrodesTheearthinggridconsistsoftheverticalpipeelectrodesorplateelectrodes
interconnectedbyhorizontalconductorswhichserveasastripelectrode(9.2.3)inadditiontoformingaearthinggrid.It
isrecommendedthatthedurationofearthfaultcurrentshouldbetakenasonesecondfor230and400kVsubstations,
and3secondswhiledesigningearthgridsforallothervoltagelevels.
Itisrecommendedthatthedurationofearthfaultcurrentshouldbetakenasonesecondfor66kVandabove
voltagelevelsubstationsand3secondswhiledesigningearthgridsforallothervoltagelevelsbelow66kV.
Theotherfactorswhichshallbetakenastheconsiderationwhiledesigningtheearthgridaregivenbelow:
a. Factorofsafetyfortheabilityoftheearthconductortocarrythefaultcurrentduringtheperiodthefaultpersists,
withoutanythermalandmechanicaldamagetotheconductor
b. Therelativeimportanceoftheinstallationforwhichtheearthingsystemisbeingdesigned
c. Thelikelyincreaseinthenearfutureinthefaultlevelintheareawheretheearthconductorhasbeeninstalled
d. Operatingtimeoftheprotectivedevices
e. Corrosionoftheearthconductor
f. Factorofsafetyforworkmanshipinjointing,etcand
g. Maximumpermissibletemperatureraisefortheburiedpartofthegrid,whichmaybetakenas450Cforcopperand
steelconductors.
20.6.2.3Sizing
a. Thecrosssectionoftheareaofthegridconductorshallnotbelessthanthevaluestipulatedin12.2.2.1wherethe
valueofkistobetakenas80forsteel.Thisisbasedonareasonableassumptionthat1and3secondsdurationcould
notbeadequatetobakeoutthegroundmoisturearoundtheelectrodeespeciallyasonlyapartofthecurrentwould
beflowingacrosselectrodesoilinterface,Forcorrosionallowance,see8.6.1.
b. KtisacoefficientwhichtakesintoaccounttheeffectofnumbernspacingD,diameterdanddepthofburialhofthe
gridconductors.
c. KsisacoefficientwhichissimilartoKtdependentonthemeshwidthandthenumberofparallelconductorsgiven
bytheemphiricalrelationship.
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d. Ktisanirregularityfactortoallowfornonuniformityofground,dependentonthenumberofparallelconductorsin
thegroundusedinthemesh.
Kt=065+0172n
wheren=numberofparallelconductors.
e. Meshpotential:Meshpotentialisthepotentialdifferenceinvoltsfromgridconductortogroundsurfaceatcentre
ofmeshgrid.
where
I
faultcurrentinamperes,and
Lengthofburiedconductor.
f. Thedurationoffaultforcalculationofstep,touchandmeshpotentialshallbetheactualbreakerfaultclearingtime.
20.6.3Construction
20.6.3.1
GeneralItisessentialforthesafetyofpersonnelandplantthatanearthsystemshouldremaineffective
throughouttheliteoftheplant.Itisdifficultinmanycasestomakeacheckofcontinuityafterinstallation.Thesystem,
therefore,hastoberobustandprotectedfrommechanicaldamageandcorrosion,wherenecessary.Anyjointsshouldbe
capableofretaininglowresistanceaftermanypassagesoffaultcurrent.
20.6.3.2
LavingconductorsBuriedbarecopperorsteelconductorsformingpartoftheearthingsystemshouldbeatabout
600mmdeepwhich,inadditiontogivingprotectiontotheconductorandconnections,shouldensurethatitwillnormally
bebelowfrostline.Aluminimumshouldonlybeusedforabovegroundconnections.
NOTEIftheindigeneoussoilishostiletocopper,thatis,acidicwithapHvalueoflessthan6or
alkalinewithapHvalueofmorethan10,suitablesurroundingsoilshouldbeimported.
Whereanadequateearthinginstallationisprovided,thesubsidiaryconnectionsfromthemainearthgridto
equipmentmaybelaidatadepthandbyroutesmostappropriatetositeconnections.Forconvenienceinconnectingto
equipment,theymaybelaidatadepthofabout250mm,and
49
astheyare,therefore,ingroundmoresubjecttoseasonalorprogressivechangesofresistivity,itmaybeassumed
thattheymakenegligiblecontributiontowardsreducingstationearthresistance.Ontheotherhand,theydoserveto
reducesurfacegradientwithinthestationsite.Converselywheretheseconnectionarealsorequiredtoimprovetheearth
valueofthestation,the600mmdepthisrequired.Theaboverecommendationsdealmainlywithstationsonnormalsites.
Wheregroundconditionsrestricttheinstallationdepthorwherethesoilresistivityisexcessive,additionalmeasuresmay
berequiredbeyondthestationboundarytoimprovetheoverallearthvalue.
Theearthinginstallationwithinthestationwill,however,bondthestationplantandrestricttouchpotentialsto
acceptablelimits.
Wherebaremetalconductorisburiedundermetalfencing,andthefencingisindependentlyearthed,theconductor
shouldbeinsulatedbythreadingthroughnonmetallicpipeextendingforatleast2meachsideofthefenceoralternatively
insulatedconductormaybeused.
Whenlayingstrandedconductorforearthingpurposes,careshouldbetakentoavoidbirdcagingofthestrands.
20.6.3.3
FixingconductorsInfixingaluminiumorcopperconductorstostructures,etc,insulatedclipsshouldbeusedto
avoiddrillingandpreventelectrolyticaction.Galvanizedclipsshouldnotbeused.Fixingshouldbespacednotmorethan1
mapart.
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Earthconductorsintrenchescontainingpowerand/ormulticorecablesshouldbefixedtothewallsnearthetop
(forexample,100mmfromthetop).
Copperearthstripsupportedfromorincontactwithgalvanizedsteelshouldbetinnedtopreventelectrolyticaction.
Sharpbendsrequiredinaluminiumstripshouldbeformedbytheuseofabendingmachine.
Aluminiumearthingconductorswillgivesatisfactoryperformanceincontactwithconcrete,cement,plasterand
brickwork,andmaybeburiedinconcreteorplaster,provideditremainsdryaftersetting.Inoutdoorinstallations,the
conductorwillweathertoagreyappearanceandinmarineorindustrialatmospheresslightsurfacepittingmayoccur.This
willnotaffectperformancesincethesectionsarerelativelylarge.Theinterfacesofallmechanicaljointsshouldbe
protectedwithasuitableelectricaljointcompound,particularlyanybimetallicjoints.Allbimetallicjointsshouldthenbe
encapsulatedinagreaseimpregnatedtape,masticcompoundorbitumasticpaint,etc,toexcludemoisture.
Ingeneral,aluminiumshouldonlybeusedabovegroundandtheconnectionstoearthelectrodesmadeabove
groundwithbimetallicjoints.Aluminiumcanbeusedbelowgroundonlyifefficientlyprotectedorsheathedagainst
contactwithsoilandmoisture.
20.6.3.4Jointingconductors
a. GeneralAllcrossingsofconductorsinthemainearthgridshouldbejointed.Compressiontypejointsmaybeused
forstrandedconductors.Nonconductorstripshouldbedrilledforabolthavingadiametergreaterthanonethirdof
thewidthofthestrip.Ifthisdiameterwillbeexceeded,thanawiderflagshouldbejointedtothestrip.
b. AluminiumtoaluminiumWhenpossible,jointsonstripconductorshouldbearcweldedusingeitherthetungsten
inertgasarc(TIC)ormetalinertgasarc(MIG)techniques.Oxyacetylenegasweldingorbrazingmayalsobeused.
Rangesofcompressionfittingsandtoolsareavailableforroundconductors.Roundconductorscanalsobe
flattenedandpunchedwithsuitabletoolstoformaterminal.
Roundandrectangularconductorscanbejoinedwithboltedclamps.
Rectangularconductorscanbejoinedorterminatedbydrillingandbolting.Whenmakingaboltedtypejoint,
thesurfaceofthealuminiumshouldbecleanedthoroughlybywirebrushingandgreasedoranapprovedjointing
compoundappliedimmediatelytobothmatingsurfaces.Boltsshouldthenbetightenedandallexcessgreaseor
compoundwipedoffanddiscarded.
Toensureadequatecontactpressureandavoidoverstressing,torquespannersshouldbeused.Theconductor
manufacturersliteratureshouldbeconsultedforfurtherdetailsforthejointsandprocedures.
Coldpressureweldingandexplosivebondingcanbeusedforjointingrectangularconductors.Theappropriate
manufacturershouldbeconsultedfordetailsoftheseprocedures.
c. AluminiumtocopperJointsbetweenaluminiumandcoppershouldbeoftheboltedtypeandbeinstalledinthe
verticalplaneataminimumdistanceof150mmabovegroundlevel.
Theratingsurfaceofthealuminiumshouldbecleanedthoroughlybywirebrushingandgreasedoran
approvedjointingcompoundappliedandthecoppertinned.Greaseoranapprovedjointingcompoundshouldbe
appliedtothemeltingsurfaceof
50
thealuminium.Afterbolttighteningbytorquespanner,excessgreaseorcompoundshouldbewipedoffand
discarded,andthejointprotectedfromtheingreaseofmoisturebytheapplicationofsuitableplasticscompoundor
irradiatedpolyethylenesleevewithmasticlining.Alternatively,thejointmaybeprotectedbyabitumasticpaint.
Aluminiumconductorconnectionstoequipmentshould,wherepossible,beintheverticalplane.Surface
preparationofthealuminiumandthemakingofthejointshouldbeaspreviouslydescribed.Thefinishedjoint
shouldbeprotectedbyabitumasticpaint.
d. CoppertocopperThefollowingmethodsmaybeused:
1. Brazingusingzincfreebrazingmaterialwithameltingpointofatleast600C
2. Bolting
3. Rivetingandsweatingand
4. Explosivewelding.
Earthingconductorconnectionstoequipmentshould,asfaraspracticable,bemadeontoverticalsurfaces
only.Inthecaseofpaintedmetal,thepaintshouldbecarefullyremoved.Earthingconductorsshouldbetinned
whereconnectedtogalvanizedsteelwork.Noconnectionpointshouldbelessthan150mmabovegroundlevel.In
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anyposition,subjecttocorrosion,thefinishedjointshouldbeprotectedbybitumasticpaint.
e. LoopsforportableearthsLoopsofplainaluminiumorcoppershouldbeprovidedontheearthconductorateach
locationwhereportableearthingleadsmaybeapplied.Theloopsshouldnotbelessthan180mmlongand75mm
clearoftheearthconductortheyshouldbeataconvenientheightandshouldbeformedseparately,notbybending
theearthstripitself.Loopsshouldbejointedtotheearthconductorusingamethodgivenin20.6.8.4(d).
f. SteelForsteel,itisrecommendedtouseonlyweldedjoints.
20.7EarthingofHighVoltageCableSheaths
20.7.1
ThreeCoreCablesModernhighvoltagepowercablesaregenerallyprovidedwithapolymericinsulating
oversheaths.Thesheathofsolidtypecablesaregenerallydirectlyearthedattheirterminationsandjoints,thecable
sheathsbeingbondedatjoints.Thesheathearthconnectionsofpressuretypecablesaregenerallymadeviaaremovable
linkinalockableboxtopermitperiodictestingoftheoversheathinsulation,thejointsbeinginsulated,butthesheaths
bondedthrough.Thetestrequirementalsomeansthatinsulatingglandsshouldbeprovidedatthecableterminationboxes
oftransformers,switchgear,etcandatcablesealingendsorjoints.
20.7.2
SingleCoreCableTailsThesheathsofsinglecorecableshavealongitudinalinducedvoltage,themagnitudeof
whichisdirectlyproportionaltothecurrentflowinginthecore.Whenbothendsofasinglecorecablearebondedto
earth,acurrentflowsinthesheathandthethermaleffectsofthissheathcurrentderatesthecapacityofthecablecore.
Wherethisderatingisunacceptableandthevalueofthestandinginducedvoltageisacceptable,itisusualtoearththe
sheathsofthesinglecorecablesatthetrifurcatingboxorinthecaseofsinglecoremains,theendofthetrefoilformation,
thecableglandsatsealingendsorplantcableboxesbeingoftheinsulatedtype.Theacceptablelevelofthemaximum
sheathvoltageisgenerallytakenas65Vwithfullratedcurrentflowinginthecable,butwheretheratiooffaultcurrentto
fullratedcurrentissohighthatthevoltagedevelopedacrossaninsulatedglandisunacceptable,itisnecessarytoderate
thepermissiblevoltagetosomelevellowerthan65V.
20.7.3
SingleCoreCableMainsThechoiceofterminationandearthingarrangementsforsinglecorecablemainsisa
matterofeconomics.Thepossiblemethodsofearthingareasfollows:
a. SolidBondingInthissystem,thesheathbondingandearthingarrangementsaresuchthatthesheathsare
maintainednearearthpotentialthroughouttheirlength.
b. SinglePointBondingThismethodisasdescribedin20.7.2forsinglecoretails,andissubjectedtopractical
limitationsofcablelengthspermissible.
c. CrossBondingInthismethod,thecablelengthisdividedintothreeequalsections(orintoamultipleofthreesuch
sections)andateachsectionjunction,aninsulatingjointisprovided.Atthesejoints,thesheathofeachcable
sectionisbondedtothesheathofadifferentphasecableofthenextsectionthroughlockablelinkboxes.Bysuitable
connection,thephasersumofthelongitudinalsheathvoltageiszero,andatthecableterminations,thesheathsof
allthreecablesarebondedtoearth.Itisusualtoprovideathreephasestarconnectedsetofcableprotectionsat
eachintermediateinsulatingjointtheseprotectorsarenonlinearresistorspresentinglowimpedancetosurge
currents.Thecrossbondingmethodpermitsthefullratingofthecabletobemaintained,butincursconsiderable
costintheprovisionofinsulatingjoints,linkboxes,protectors,etc.
20.8
MiscellaneousMattersinPowerStationsandSubstationsIftwoormorestationsareadjacentonwhat
maybeconsideredtobeonesite,theearthingsystemsandthestationsshouldbeinterconnectedtoformasingleearthing
51
system.Wherethestationsactuallyadjoin,theextremitiesoftheirearthingsystemsshouldbeconnectedtogetherso
thatthewholeareaisenclosedbytheearthingsystem.Wheretheseparationistoolargetotreatasadjoiningstations,an
interconnectingearthconductorofsubstantialcrosssectionshouldberuntoensurethat,asfaraspracticable,fault
currentsaredivertedfromcablesheathsandarmour.Thisisofparticularimporatncewherefaultcurrentflowinginone
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stationisprovidedfromtheadjoiningstation,forexample,whereaswitchingstationadjoinspowerortransforming
stationsitessothatanearthfaultintheswitchgearcausescurrentflowbetweenthetwositesinordertoreachthesystem
neutralatthegeneratorsortransformers.Suchinterconnectionsbetweensitescanincludelinkssuitablydisposedtoassist
intesting.
Exceptwherespecialinsulationiscalledfor,sheathsofallmaincablesshouldbeconnectedtothestationearth
system.Withmulticorecablestheconnectionisgenerallymadeatthetermination.
Wherehighearthfaultcurrentsaretobeexpected,andanappreciableriseofpotentialofthestationsystemwith
respecttothegeneralbodyoftheearthmayensure,specialcareisnecessarywithconnectionsotherthanmaincablesor
linesenteringthestation,suchaswaterpipesandtelephoneorpilotcables,waterpipesshouldincludeaninsulated
sectionpolymericpipingisoftensuitable.Inseveralcases,isolatingtransformersmaybenecessaryfortelephone
connections.BritishTelecomprovidesisolationequipmentattheircircuitterminationswhenthepotentialriseexceeds
430V(650Vforhighreliabilitylines).Pilotcablesshouldbeprovidedwithinsulatedglandsandsodisposedasto
minimizethepossibilityoffaultcurrentsbeingcarriedbythesheaths.
Wherecarriercurrentequipmentisemployed,afurtherearthelectrode,normallyadrivenrod,shouldbeprovided
atorimmediatelyadjacenttoeachstructuresupportingthecouplingcapacitors.Thisearthelectrodeisanadditionalone
forthehighfrequencyequipmentandshouldbebondedintothemainearthingsystem.Thestructuressupportingthe
couplingcapacitorsshouldbeearthedinthenormalway.
21.EARTHINGASSOCIATEDWITHOVERHEADPOWERLINES
21.1
TypeofSupportAnyconsiderationofwhethermetalworkassociatedwithoverheadpowerlinesshouldbe
earthedand/orbondedhastotakeaccountofthetypeofsupport.Someoverheadlinesaresupportedbylatticatowersof
metallicconstruction,othersbypoles,whichmaybeofsteel,wood,concreteoroffabricatedconstruction,forexample,
glassreinforcedplasticsbracketsattachedtobuildingsarealsousedtosupportconductors.
21.2
InsulationFailureFollowinganinsulationfailure,avoltagemayexistbetweenanysupportingmetalworkand
earth.Thepublicaregenerallyprotectedifnometalworkwithin3mofthegroundisliabletobecomeliveonfailureof
insulation.Ifthesupportsareclosetobuildings,etc,theparticularcircumstanceshavetobeconsidered.
21.3
LatticeSteelStructuresTherewilloftenbesatisfactoryearthingoflatticesteelstructures,polesofmetallic
constructionandreinforcedconcretepolesthroughtheircontactwiththeground.Inareasofhighearthresistivity,special
earthingarrangementsmaybenecessaryanoverheadprotectiveconductorattachedateachsupportandconnectedtothe
neutralofthesupplyandofthelinemaybethemosteconomicalsolution.Thisconductorifpositionedabovethelive
conductors,willalsoprovideameasureoflightningprotection.
21.4PolesofNonconductingMaterial
21.4.1
GeneralWhereapoleisofnonconductingmaterial,forexamplewoodorglassreinforcedplastics,thepolewillact
againsttheflowofleakagecurrentandcanbeexpectedtopreventdangerneargroundlevelduetoleakageacrossorfailure
ofanyinsulatorsupportingalineconductor,exceptwherethereisinterveningequipmentormetalworkthatisormay
becomelive.
Forthereasonsgivenin21.4.2to21.4.5,thereareadvantagesinnotearthingthepoletopmetalworkofsuch
polesandinnotmakingbondingconnectionstoit.
21.4.2
OmissionofBondingWhereinsulatorsareattachedtoapoleortononconductingcrossarms,etc,attachedtothe
pole,ommissionofbondingofpoletopmetalworkgivesagreaterimpulsewithstandvoltage,sothereislessriskoffaults
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duetophasetophaseflashover.Toreduceriskoffire,wherewoodencrossarmsareused,careshouldbetakentomake
close,firecontactbetweenthecrossarmandtheinsulatorpipe.
21.4.3
OmissionofEarthingIfpoletopmetalworkisnotearthed,transientfaultsduetobirds,flyingbranches,etc,
bridgingtheclearancebetweenlineconductorsandthemetalworkaregreatlyreduced.
21.4.4
Transformers,RodoperatedSwitchgearandCableTerminationsIncaseswhereequipment,suchas
transformers,rodoperatedswitchgearorcableterminationsaremountedonawoodenorreinforcedplasticspole,the
impulseflashovervalueoftheadditionalinsulationprovidedbythepoleisimpaired,andallthemetalworkonthepole
needstobebondedandearthed.
21.5
StaysTopreventstaycorrosionthatwouldotherwiseoccurduetopassageofsmallleakagecurrentsoccurring
eveninnormaloperation,stayinsulatorsshouldbefittedinstaywiresonpoles.
52
Nopartofthestayinsulatorshouldbelessthan3mabovegrounditshouldbefittedashighupthestayaspossible,
butthestayinsulatorshouldbesopositionedthattherecanbenocontactbelowthestayinsulatorbetweenthestaywire
andanyphaseconductor(includingajumperconnection),shouldeitherofthembreakorbecomeloose
21.6
MetalBracketsAttachedtoBuildingsAmetalbracketattachedtooradjacenttoanymetalworkonorjoining
partofanybuildingorstructureandsupportingaphaseconductorneedstobeearthedunlesstheconductorisboth
insulatedandsupportedbyaninsulator,eachformofinsulationbeingsuitablefortheconditionsunderwhichitwillbe
requiredtooperateintheeventoffailureoftheother.
21.7
EarthWiresandEarthConnectionAnyconnectionbetweenmetalworkandearthhastobeoflowresistivity,
bothtoprovideforpromptoperationofprotectiveequipmentandtominimizeinductiveinterferencewith
communicationscircuitsintheeventofaflowoffaultcurrent.Electromagneticinterferenceisreducediftheresistanceof
theearthreturnpathissmallcomparedwithitsreactance.At50Hz,inductiveinterferencemaybecausedbytheuseofa
highresistivitywire(forexample,steelwire)evenifitisperfectlyearthed.Asinglelowresistivityearthwiremadeof
copper,aluminiumetc,shouldbeusedanditshouldavoidpassingclosetoconductorsorcablesbelongingtoothercircuits.
Itshouldbeprotectedagainstmechancialdamageforadistanceof3mabovegroundlevel.
21.8
LightningProtectionAlightningconductorattachedtoastructureandearthedatitslowerendactstoreduce
thelikelihoodofalightningstrike.Anoverrunningaerialearthwireonoverheadpowerline,besidesformingpart,ofthe
earthreturnpath,alsogivesadegreeoflightningprotection.Thelowertheimpedancebetweenaerialearthwireand
earth,thebetteristheprotectionsincethisreducesthepossibilityofabackflashoverfromtheearthedmetalworktoline
conductorsontheoccasionofadirectstriketotheearthwire.
SECTION5INDUSTRIALPREMISES
22.GUIDELINESONEARTHINGOFINDUSTRIALPREMISES
22.1
GeneralThedesignofearthingsystemforanyschemeisdevelopedonthebasisofbasicrequirements.
22.1.1
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Sofarastheconsumerstakingsupplyat240Vareconcernedaccordingtotheprovisionsofthebasicstatutes,itis
theresponsibilityofthesuppliertoprovideearthedterminalatthepremisesoftheconsumer.Inthecasesofconsumers
takingsupplyathighervoltages,earthingschemeshouldbesodesignedastosatisfythebasicstatutoryrequirementsand
alsotoprovideadequateprotectionagainstgroundfaults.
22.1.2
Theearthingsysteminthepremisesofconsumersatvoltagesabove240VshouldbedesignedasaPMPsystemwith
separateprotectiveconductor.Theneutralofthetransformershouldbeconnectedtobeearthelectrodesbyduplicate
connectionsandadequatenumberofearthelectrodesshouldbeprovidedwithinterlinkingearthbusforgettingan
optimumvalueoftheearthresistancedependinguponthesettingoftheearthfault/earthleakagerelaysandalsotolimit
theextentofriseofpotentialinthecaseofsolidlyearthedsystem,thegroundfaultcurrentcanbeoftheorderof
symmetricalshortcircuitcurrentandhencethethermaldesignoftheearthbusandtheearthingsystemshoulddepend
uponthemaximumsymmetricalshortcircuitcurrentavailable.Thedurationoftheearthfaultcurrentaccordingtothe
existingdesignpracticeis3seconds.However,incaseofinstallationswhereadequateprotectivearrangementshavebeen
incorporatedsoastoinstantaneouslyisolatethesystemintheeventofagroundfault,alesserdurationcanbeconsidered
fordesignpurposes.
22.1.3
Asfarasthevalueoftheearthresistanceisconcerned,theobjectivefromthepointofsafetyconsiderationisnotto
attainminimumvalueoftheearthresistanceasissometimesunderstood.Buttheconsiderationshouldbewhetherthereis
adequatecoordinationbetweenthepracticallyobtainablevalueoftheearthresistanceandsettingoftheprotectiverelays.
Thisaspectisverymuchrelevantinthecaseofinstallationswherethevalueoftheearthresistivitywhichistobetakenfor
thecalculationsisabnormallyhigh.Thedispositionoftheearthelectrodes,andtheextentandsizeofearthgridwillalways
dependuponthedispositionofplantelectricsthelayoutshouldbedoneinsuchamannerastokeeptheearthcontinuity
resistancetowithinthestipulatedfigure.Thethermalratingoftheearthelectrodeisspecifiedbythiscodewhichgivesthe
formulaforthemaximumallowablecurrentdensityinanearthelectrode.However,inthecaseofaprotectivemultiple
earthingsystemwheretheneutralofthesupplytransformerandthenoncurrentcarryingmetalpartsinthesystemare
interconnectedbythecommonearthgrid,whichisdesignedfortheprospectivefaultcurrent,thereisnoreasontodesign
theearthelectrodesassumingthattotalearthfaultcurrentisdissipatedthroughtheearthelectrodes.Inthecaseofan
interconnectedsystem,earthfaultcurrentisreturnedtotheneutralmostlythroughtheinterconnectedsystem,earthfault
grid.However,dependinguponthe
53
valueoftheearthresistivity,apercentageofthecurrentmayflowthroughthemassoftheearthaswell.The
current,whichtakestheearthreturnpath,enterstheearththroughdifferentearthelectrodes.Hence,whiledesigningthe
earthelectrodes,thethermalcapabilityoftheearthelectrodesneedbeverifiedonlywithreferencetotheportionofthe
currentwhichmaytaketheearthreturnpath,whichdependsupontheearthresistivity.Inthenormalrangeofearth
resistivitiesbetween10and1000m,thisdivisionofcurrentisfoundtobeinbetween80percentand20percentfor
designpurposes.Hence,dependinguponthedispositionoftheplantelectrics,anoptimumnumberofearthelectrodesare
providedasanchoragesfortheearthgrid.Thevalueoftheearthresistanceofthegridsoformedisthencalculated
assumingthebareinterconnectedgridasastripelectrode.Thevalueoftheearthresistancesoobtainedshouldbewithin
reasonablelimits,otherwisebroughtdownbyaddingmoreetectrodes.Thegroundfaultprotectivedeviceorthephasefault
protectivedevice(incasethereisnogroundfaultprotectivedevice)issettooperateattheminimumcurrentwhichis
obtainableunderagroundfaultcondition.Thethermalratingoftheearthelectrodesarethencrossverified,basedupon
thepercentageofcurrentwhichtakestheearthreturnpath.Basedupontheabovephilosophy,thefollowingguidelinesfor
thedesignofanearthingsystemintheHTconsumerspremisesareissued.
22.2ConsiderationforEarthing
22.2.1
Themainearthingconductorwillberuninbetweenstandardearthelectrodesconformingtospecificationsand
distributeduniformallyaroundtheworkingarea.Allthenoncurrentcarryingmetalpartsoftheequipments,switchboards,
etc,willbesolidlyconnectedtothisearthgridorequipotentialbondingconductorbyduplicateearthconnectionsof
adequatesize.ForinterconnectingswitchboardsprotectedbyHRCfusestothisearthgrid,thesizeofinterconnectionneed
notbemorethan75mm2copperoritsequivalent.Inlayingouttheearthelectrodesandtheearthconductors,allefforts
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shouldbemadetomaintainauniformpotentialgradientinandaroundtheworkarea.Thetransformerneutralshouldbe
solidlyconnectedtothisgridbyduplicateearthconnections,onegoingdirectlytoearthelectrodesandothergoingtothe
commonearthbus.Thesizeoftheneutralearthingconductorshouldinnocasebelessthanthatofthesizeofthemain
earthingconductor.
22.2.2
Theearthgridshouldberunataminimumdepthof50cmbelowground.Whenbareconductorsareusedasearth
grid,thiscanalsobeassumedtodissipatethefaultcurrenttothemassoftheearthandforcalculatingtheeffectivevalueof
theearthresistanceofthisgrid,thisgridcanbetreatedasastripelectrodeandthestandardformulacanbeappliedfor
calculatingtheearthresistanceofthegrid.
22.2.3
Thecontinuityresistanceoftheearthreturnpaththroughtheearthgridshouldbemaintainedaslowaspossible
andinnocasegreaterthanoneohm.
22.2.4
InthecaseofEHTsubstations,wherethereispossibilityofthegroundpotentialattainingveryhighvalues(ofthe
orderof5kVandabove)intheeventofanearthfault,theearthgriddesignshouldbebasedonthetolerablelimitsofthe
potentialgradientinthesubstationarea,andthestepandtouchpotentialduetofaultconditions.
22.2.5
InthecaseofEHTsubstations,theearthconductorsshouldbebareandtheyshouldbeburieddirectinground.
22.3TheEarthElectrodes
22.3.1
Theearthelectrodesareprovidedtodissipatethefaultcurrentincaseofearthfaultsandtomaintaintheearth
resistancetoareasonablevaluesoastoavoidriseofpotentialoftheearthinggrid.Practice,whichhasbeenfolloweduptil
now,istodesigntheearthelectrodesfortheappropriatethermalwithstandcapacity,assumingthetotalfaultcurrenttobe
passingthroughtheearthelectrodes.Thisistrueinthecaseofanearthingsystemwhichisnotinterconnectedwith
neutralearthing(TT/ITsystem).ButwiththeadoptionofPMEsysteminindustrialdistributionwheretheneutralis
solidlyconnectedtotheearthinggrid,theabovepracticerequiresrevisionashasalreadybeenpointedoutin22.1.3in
ordertoavoidredundancyandtherebytoavoidunnecessaryexpenditure.Theamountofcurrentthatmayactuallybe
dissipatedthroughtheearthelectrodesdependstoalargeextent,ontheearthresistivityofthesoil.Dependinguponthe
valueoftheearthresistivity,thetotalfaultcurrentfromthesupplysystemwillreturntoneutralpartiallythroughtheearth
gridandpartiallythroughtheearthreturnpath.Thepercentageofcurrentwhichflowsdirectlythroughtheearthgrid
dependsontheresistanceoftheearthreturnpathinrelationtotheearthresistivity.Thestandardearthresistivityvalues
typicallyvaryintherangebetween10and1000ohms.Inthisrangeofvariation,itcanbereasonablyassumedthatthe
faultcurrentdivisionatthepointofentrytotheearthgridis20to80percent.Forverificationofthefaultdissipating
capacityofearthelectrodes,onlytheportionofthefaultcurrentwhichisdivertedtotheearthelectrodeneedbetakenand
undertheseconditionsthemaximumallowablecurrentdensityasstipulatedinthiscodeshouldnotbeexceeded.
22.3.2
Thenumberofearthelectrodesrequiredforaparticularinstallationwillbebasicallydecidedbytheoptimumvalue
oftheearthresistancewhichisrequiredtomaketheprotectivesystemoperation.Hence,theoptimumvalueoftheearth
resistancedependsuponthereasonablepotentialriseandsettingoftheearthfaultisolatingdevices
54
ortheseries,protectivedevicesincasewherethereisnogroundfaultdetectingdevices.Themaincriterionisthat
thevalueoftheearthreturnresistanceshouldnotbesohighasnottoproducetherequiredgroundfaultcurrentfor
actuatingtheprotectivedeviceswithinthestipulatedtime.Orinotherwords,theoptimumvalueoftheearthresistanceis
closelyrelatedtosettingoftheearthfaultprotectivedevicesusedinthesystem.Forasmallinstallation,asageneralrule,
intheeventofadirectearthfaulttheearthfaultcurrentproducedshouldnotbelessthanfivetimesthehighestratingof
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themaximumprotectivefusesorthesettingoftheearthfaultrelayifsuchadeviceisprovided.
22.4
DeterminationofEarthResistivityAshasalreadybeenpointedout,thevalueoftheearthresistivityplaysan
importantroleinthedesignoftheearthelectrodes.Intheconventionalmethod,theearthresistivitywhichistobeapplied
inthedesigncalculationsistakenasthearithmeticmeanofanumberofmeasuredvaluesintheareaunderconsideration.
Thefiguresoobtainedseldomprojectsarealisticvalue.Amorescientificapproachistomeasuretheearthresistivityin
differentradialdirectionsfromacentralpointwhichmaybetakenastheproposedloadcentre.Withthevaluesso
obtained,apolarcurveisdrawn.Thepolarcurveisconvertedtoanequivalentcircle(see36.6).Theradiusofthecircleis
takentobetheaveragevalueoftheearthresistivityfigurewhichistobeappliedindesigncalculations.Necessary
allowanceshould,ofcourse,begivenforfactorssuchasvariationsinclimaticconditions,treatmentofsoil,etc.
22.5DesignofEarthBus
22.5.1
DesignofearthbusisbaseduponthegeneralguidelinesgiveninSection2.Thesizeofthemainearthgridwillbe
decidedonthebasisoflinetogroundfaultcurrentassumedtobesymmetricalshortcircuitcurrentinthesystem.This
assumptionisfairlyreasonableinthecaseofasolidlyearthedsystemwheretheratiobetweenXO/XIislimitedtolessthan
3andtheohmicvalueoftheearthreturnpathtothesupplyneutralisreasonablylow.Theminimumfaultlevelexistingat
thesupplypointwillbeassumedtobe13.1kAortheactualfaultcurrentwhicheverisgreaterforpremisesatvoltagesabove
1kV.
22.5.2
Barecopper,PVCcoveredaluminiumorGIsubjecttorelevantrestrictionsbasedonthelocationandnatureof
installationmaybeusedasearthingtoconductors.Thesizeoftheearthingconductorswillbecalculatedaccordingto
guidelinesgiveninthecode.Thetimedurationofthefaultcurrentasrecommendedis3seconds.Accordingtostandards
developedinthisregard,thesizeoftheearthingconductorswillbebaseduponcurrentdensitiesasgiveninSection2of
thiscode.Acorrosionfactorof5percentofunitdropinthevalueofcorrosionindexupto10isrecommededforsteel/GI
earthingconductorswhiledesigninganearthingscheme,situationsofcorrosionindexofbelow10shouldnotbeallowed.
22.5.3
Inthecaseofsystemswherestandardprotectivearrangmentshavebeenprovidedforisolatingthegroundfaults
instantaneously,dueconsiderationcanbegiventothisaspectindecidinguponthesizeoftheearthingconductorbygiving
dueallowancetolowerdurationofthegroundfaultcurrents.
22.6CorrelationBetweenGroundingandEarthFaultProtection
22.6.1
Thephasefaultprotectivedevicenormallyusedinsystemsoperatingat415Vaffordreasonableprotectionagainst
arcinggroundfaults.Thegroundfaultcurrentdependsupontheimpedancetozerosequencecurrentflowsanddependsto
alargeextentonthegroundingnetworkandtheearthresistivity.Thepickupvalueofthegroundfaultrelaysorthevalue
ofthephasefaultprotectivedeviceshouldbecoordinatedfortherequiredprotectionforthesystem.Incasethe
impedanceoftheearthreturnpathforgroundfaultcurrentcannotberegulatedsoastoproduceadequtefaultcurrentfor
operatingthephasefaultprotectivedeviceslikefuses,suchcircuitsshouldbeprotectedbyseparategroundfaultprotective
devices.Hence,thenecessityofseparategroundfaultprotectiondependsonthegroundingnetworkanditseffective
impedanceandearthgriddesigniscloselyrelatedtotheeffectivenessofthephasefaultprotectivedeviceinclearinga
groundfaultinplacewhereseparategroundfaultprotectivedevicesarenotprovided.
22.7GroundingandGroundFaultProtection
22.7.1
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Inrecent,years,therehasbeenanincreasinginterestintheuseofgroundfaultprotectioninindustrialdistribution
circuits.Thisinteresthasbeenbroughtaboutbyadisturbingnumberofelectricfailures.Henceitisworthwhiletoexplore
theneedforbettergroundfaultprotectionandtoexaminethegroundingpracticesinthelightoftherequiredprotection.
22.7.2
Distributioncircuitswhicharesolidlygroundedorgroundedthroughlowimpedancesrequirefastclearingofground
faults.Thisinvolveshighsensitivityindetectinglowgroudfaultcurrentsaswallasthecoordinationbetweenmainand
feedercircuitprotectivedevices.Faultclearingmustbeextremelyfastwherearcingispresent.
22.7.3
Theappealofeffectivegroundfaultprotectionisbasedonthefollowing:
55
1. Themajorityofelectricfaultsinvolveground.Ungroundedsystemsarealsosubjecttogroundfaultsandrequire
carefulattentiontogroundfaultdetectionandgroundfaultprotections.
2. Thegroundfaultprotectivesensitivitycanberelativelyindependentofcontinuousloadcurrentvaluesandthereby
havelowerpickupsettingsthanphaseprotectivedevices.
3. Groundfaultcurrentsarenottransferredthroughsystem,inthecaseofpowertransformerswhichareconnected
deltastar,deltadelta.Thegroundfaultprotectionforeachsystemvoltagelevelshouldbeindependentofthe
protectionatothervoltagelevels.Thispermitsmuchfasterrelayingthancanbeaffordedbyphaseprotectivedevice
whichrequirecoordinateusingpickupvaluesandtimedelayswhichextendfromtheloadtotheservicegenerators,
oftenresultinginconsiderabletimedelayatsomepartsinthesystem.
4. Arcinggroundfaultswhicharenotpromptlydetectedandclearedcanbeextremelydestructive.Arelativelysmall
investmentcanprovideveryvaluableprotections.
22.8
Muchofthepresentemphasisongroundfaultprotectioncentresaroundorcircuitsbelow550V.Protectivedevices
haveusuallyfuseswitchesofcircuitbreakerswithintegrallymountedphasetrippingdevices.Theseprotectiveelementsare
termedasoverloadorfaultovercurrentdevicesbecausetheycarrythecurrentineachphaseandclearthecircuitonly
whenthecurrentreachesamagnitudegreaterthanfullloadcurrent.Toaccommodateinrushcurrentssuchasmotor
startingortransformermagnetisinginrush,phaseovercurrentdevicesaredesignedwithinversecharacteristics,whichare
ratherslowatovercurrentvaluesuptoabout5timesrating.Forexample,a1600Acircuitbreakerwithconventionalphase
protectionwillcleara3200Afaultinabout100seconds.Althoughitcanbeadjustedintherangeof30to200seconds,at
thisfaultvalue.A1600Afusemayrequire10minutesormoretoclearthesame3200Afault.Theselowvaluesoffault
currentsareassociatedpredominantlywithfaulttogroundandhavegenerallyreceivedlittleattentioninthedesignof
earthingsystems,untiltheoccurrenceofmanyseriouselectricfailuresinrecentyears.Incontrast,ongroundedsystemsof
33kVandabove,ithasbeenastandardpracticetoapplysomeformofgroundfaultprotection.
22.9
Theactioninitiatedbygroundfaultsensingdeviceswillvarydependingupontheinstallation.Insomecases,suchas
servicestodwelling,itmaybenecessarytoimmeditatelydisconnectthefaultedcircuittopreventlossoflifeandproperty.
However,theopeningofsomecircuitsincriticalapplicationsmayinitself,endangerlifeorproperty.Therefore,each
particularapplicationshouldbestudiedcarefullybeforeselectingtheactiontobeinitiatedbythegroundfaultprotective
devices.
22.10ProtectionAgainstArcingGroundFaultsandEarthLeakage
22.10.1
Necessityofarcinggroundfaultprotectionespeciallyfor415Vinstallationsisnotverywellunderstoodand
protectiveschemessuggestedfornormalindustrialinstallationsnevergivemuchimportancetothisaspect.Itisalsoseen
thatthefactthataseriesprotectivedevicelikebreakerorafusedoesnotofferprotectionagainstanearthfaultorarcing
groundfaultina415Vsystem,isveryoftenforgotten.Inthecaseofsuchinstallations,theavoidanceofarcingground
faultsisimportantfromthepointofviewofpersonalsafelyandequipmentdamage.
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SECTION6STANDBYANDOTHERPRIVATEGENERATINGPLANTS
23.EARTHINGINSTANDBYANDOTHERPRIVATEGENERATINGPLANTS(INCLUDING
PORTABLEANDMOBILEGENERATORS)
23.1
GeneralTheearthingofstandbyandotherprivategeneratingplantisnecessarytoprotectagainstindirectcontact
thatmayresultinelectricshock.Theobjectiveistocreateazoneinwhichvoltagebetweenexposedconductivepartsand
extraneousconductivepartsareminimizedintheeventofanearthfault.
Inthissectiontherequirementismetbyconnectingthegeneratingsetframe(s),metalliccablesheathsand
armouring,andallexposedconductivepartstoanearthingconductor,andbyconnectingthesystemtoearth(normallyat
onepointonly).
Exceptinsomespecialapplications,thereis,ineverycase,needforanindependentearthelectrodeforenergy
sourceearthingatthepremiseswherethegeneratorislocated.(Anysuppliersprotectiveearthterminalatthepremises
shouldalsobeconnectedtotheindependentearthelectrode).
Therearemanyvariationsinsystemdesignandforanyparticularapplication,theprecisemethodofenergysource
earthingissubjecttotherecommendationsofthemachinemanufacturers,thesystemparametersand,wheremains
suppliesarealsoinvolved,theagreementoftheconcernedsupplyauthority.
Itmay,however,benotedthattheguidanceincludedinthissection,appliestostockprotectionaswellasprotection
ofequipment.
56
23.2LowVoltageUpto1000VGenerators
23.2.1
EarthElectrodesTheoverallresistancetoearthoftheelectrodesformingtheconnectiontothegeneralmassof
earthfromthelowvoltageenergysourcehastobeconsistentwiththeearthfaultprotectionprovidedandshallbeaslow
aspossible.
23.2.2SingleLowVoltageGeneratorEarthing(SynchronousMachines)
23.2.2.1
Generatoroperatinginisolation(fromthemainsorothersupplies)Inthisbasicarrangement,thegenerator
neutralpointshouldbeconnectedtotheneutralofthelowvoltageswitchgearwhichisitselfconnectedthroughabolted
link(fortestpurposes)toanearthingconductorandtheindependentearthelectrode.
23.2.2.2
Standbygenerator(withoutparallelingfacility)Inadditiontotheearthingrequirementsstatedforasetoperating
inisolationfromothersupplies,specialattentionneedstobegiventothechangeoverarrangementforstandbyset,which
hastoensurethattherecanbenoinadvertentparallelconnection(seeFig.24).
Ingeneralfourpolechangeoverswitchingbetweenthemainsandstandby,suppliesshouldbeusedtoprovide
isolationofthegeneratorandelectricityboardneutralearths.However,inthecaseofaprotectivemultipleearthing(PME)
supply,threeorfourpoleswitchingmaybeused.
23.2.2.3
Standbygenerator(capableofparalleloperationwithincomingmainssupply)Electricityboardswillnot
generallypermitcontinuousparalleloperationofasynchronousmachinewiththelowvoltagemainssupply,unlessthere
arenootherconsumersonthenetwork.However,shorttermparalleloperationfornobreakloadtransferortestingmay
bepermitted.Also,ifasynchronusmachineoutputisrectifiedandconnectedthroughamainsmodulatedstaticinverter
continuousparalleloperationwillusuallybepermitted.Inthelattercase,thegeneratorneutralterminalshouldbe
connectedtotheindependentearthelectrodeandtoanyelectricityboardearth.
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Forshorttermparalleloperation,givingnobreakloadtransfer,thealternativeenergysourceearthing
arrangements,whichmaybeused,areasdescribedin23.2.3.1,exceptthatonlyonegeneratingsetisinvolved.
FIG.24SINGLELowVOLTAGESTANDBYGENERATOR(WITHOUTPARELLELINGFACILITY)
57
23.2.3MultipleLowVoltageGeneratorEarthing(SynchronousMachines)
23.2.3.1
GeneratoroperatinginisolationfromothersuppliesWhenlowvoltagegeneratingsetsareoperatedinparallel,the
energysourceearthingmethodisinfluencedbythemagnitudeofthecirculatingcurrents,particularlythirdharmonic,
whichcanarisewhengeneratorsareconnectedasfourwiremachines.Ifthemagnitudeofthecirculatingcurrentdueto
thenatureoftheloadorthedesignofthegeneratorsisexcessivewhentheneutralsareconnected,thenaneutralearthing
trnsformerorstarpointearthingswitchesarerequired.
Hence,threealternativeneutralearthingarrangementsarepossibleforparalleloperationasfollows:
a. AllgeneratorneutralsconnectedWiththisarrangement,theneutralbusbarinthemainlowvoltageswitchgearis
connectedthroughaboltedlinktoanearthingconductorandindependentearthelectrode.
b. NeutralearthingtransformerByprovidinganeutralearthingtransformersolidlyconnectedtothebusbars,the
systemneutralcanremainearthedatalltimeswhilstanynumberofgeneratorscanbeconnectedtothebusbarsas
threewiremachines.
c. GeneratorstarpointswitchingWhenthisarrangementisadopted,itisnecessarybeforethefirstgeneratoris
startedforitsstarpoint/neutralearthingswitchtobeclosed.Whensubsequentsetsarestarted,theirstarpoint
earthingswitchesremainopen.Thisavoidsthecirculatingcurrentproblem,butitisessentialthatelectricaland
mechanicalinterlocksonthestarpoint/earthswitchesensuretheintegrityoftheenergysourceneutralearth
connectionatalltimesandunderallpossibleoperatingconditions.
23.2.3.2
Standbygenerators(withoutmainsparallelingfacility)Thealternativeneutralearthingarrangementsforstandby
generatorsareassetoutin23.2.3.1forgeneratorsoperatedinisolationfromanelectricityboardsupply.Theearthing
arrangementsareshowninthefollowingdrawings:
a. Allgeneratorneutralsconnected(seeFig.25)
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b. Neutralearthingtransformer(seeFig.26)and
c. Alternatorstarpointswitching(Fig.27).
Forstandbygeneratorswithnomainsparallelingfacility,thechangeoverarrangementhastopreventinadvertent
connectionofthegeneratoroutputsandelectricityboardsupply.
FIG.25LowVOLTAGESTANDBYGENERATORSWITHNEUTRALSCONNECIED
58
FIG.26LowVOLTAGESTANDBYGENERATORSWITHNEUTRALEARTHINGTRANSFORMERS
Ingeneral,fourpolechangeoverswitchingbetweentheelectricityboardsupplyandthestandbysupplyshouldbe
usedtoprovideisolationoftheneutralearths.However,inthecaseofaprotectivemultipleearthing(PME)electricity
boardsupply,threeorfourpoleswitchingmaybeused.
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23.2.3.3
Standbygenerators(capableofparalleloperationwiththeincomingmainssupply)Theconditionsforwhich
paralleloperationofmultiplegeneratingsetinstallationswiththemainssupplymaybepermittedbytheelectricityboard
arethesameasapplyforsinglegenerators(see23.2.2.3).
Thepossiblealternativeenergysourceearthingarrangementsareaslistedin23.2.3.2.
23.2.4
SingleandMultipleGeneratorEarthing(SynchronousMachines)Theparalleloperationofsynchronous
machinesisgenerallypermittedsuchmachinesarenormallyprovidedwheretheprimemoverisdrivenbywind,wateror
biochemicalplant,butmaybeprovidedwithanyprimemover.Anyneutralpointofsuchmachinewindingsshouldbe
earthed,butthemachineframeworkandanyotherextraneousmetalworkshouldbeconnectedtotheelectricityboard
earthterminal,ifprovided.
23.2.5
SmallPortableLowVoltageGeneratorsupto5kVAinRatingWhereportablegeneratorsareusedtoprovidea
supplyandearthingisconsideredasameansofprotectionagainstelectricshock,theyarerequiredtobeconnectedas
follows:
a. Singlephasemachinesshouldhaveeitheracentretaponthewindingconnectedtoearthor,ifnotcompatiblewith
thesystem,oneendconnectedtoearthanddesignatedtheneutral.TheCentretapmethodreducestheeffective
lineearthvoltageandisparticularlyusedwherethegeneratoristofeed110Vportabletoolsand
b. Threephasemachinesshouldhavetheirwindingsconnectedinstar,withthestarconnectionmadeavailableand
connectedtoearth.
Inallcases,theexposedmetalworkofthegeneratorshouldbeadequatelyconnectedtotheearthterminal,
preferablywithaboltedconnection.
Theearthelectrodeshouldhaveaminimumcrosssectionareaifitisnotprotectedagainstcorrosionof25mm2for
copperand50mm2forsteel.Whilstthereisnominimumvalueofearth
59
electroderesistance,itshouldbeaslowaspossible.Theupperlimitshouldnotexceedthevaluerequiredforthe
protectivedevicestooperateanddisconnecttheloadinatimenotexceedingthesafevalue.
NOTETheselectionofdevicesfortheautomaticdisconnectionofsupplyiscoveredinSection3.
Forportablegenerators,residualcurrentdeviceshavinganoperatingtimeof40msorlessataresidualcurrentof
250mAarerecommendedtoameansofprovidingadditionalprotectionagainsttheeffectofelectricshock.However,itis
importanttotestsuchdevicesregularly,particularlywhenthegreaterisusedinahostileenvironment.Themethodof
connectingarodusedontheoutputofaportablegeneratorisshowninFig.28.
23.2.6
MobileGeneratorsWhereasupplyistakenfromamobilegenerator,thefollowingrecommendations,additionalto
thosegivenin23.2.5shallapply:
a. Thegeneratorneutralshouldbeconnectedtothevehiclechassis
b. Theearthterminalateachoutletonthegeneratorvehicleshouldbeconnectedseparatelytothealternatorneutral
wherethelatterisbondedtothevehiclechassisand
c. Whereanelectricityboardprotectiveearthterminalorexposedstructuralmetalworkispresent,itshouldbe
connectedtotheearthingconductoronthemobilegenerator.
23.3HighVoltageGenerators
23.3.1
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EarthElectrodesandEarthingResistorsWhereanearthelectroderesistanceis1orless,acommonearthmay
beusedforthehighvoltagegeneratorandforthelowvoltagesystemderivedthroughhighvoltage/lowvoltage
transformation.
NOTEForfurtherinformationsee20.1(c).
Wherearesistorisusedforearthingthestarpointofahighvoltagegenerator,itisnormallydesignedtolimitthe
earthfaultcurrenttothesameorderofmagnitudeasthemachinesfullloadcurrent.Ingeneral,howeverearthingvia
resistorsisnotnecessaryforsinglegeneratorsof1MWorlessinrating.
FIG.27LowVOLTAGESTANDBYGENERATORSWITHSTARPOINTSWITCHING
60
FIG.28METHODOFCONNECTINGARESIDUALCURRENTDEVICE(r.c.d.)ONTHEOUTPUTOFA
PORTABLEORMOBILEGENERATOR
23.3.2
SingleHighVoltageGeneratorEarthing(SynchronousMachineswithStarConnectedAlternaters).
23.3.2.1
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Generatoroperatinginisolation(frommainsorothersuppliersThestarpointofthegeneratorshouldbe
connected(viaaresistor,ifnecessary)andthroughaboltedlinkfortestpurposestoanearthingconductorandthe
independentearthelectrode.
23.3.2.2
Standbygenerator(withoutparallelingfacility)Inadditiontotheearthingrequirementsdescribedforaset
operatinginisolationfromothersupplies,thepresenceofanincomingelectricityboardsupplymakesnecessarythe
interlockingofthestandbysupplycircuitbreakerstopreventinadvertentconnection(seeFig.29).
FIG.29SINGLEHIGHVOLTAGESTANDBYGENERATINGSETNOTSUITABLEFORPARALLELOPERATION
61
23.3.2.3
Standbygenerator(capableofparalleloperationwithanincomingsupply)Theoperationofaprivategenerator
(orgenerators)inparallelwithanelectricityboardhighvoltagesystemissubjecttotheparallelandtechnicalagreementof
theelectricityboard.
Inmostcaseswhereparalleloperationwithanincomingelectricityboardisrequired,anearthingcontactoris
necessarybetweenthegeneratorstarpointandtheboltedtestlink(seeFig.30).Thecontactorshouldbeinterlockedwith
theincomingsupplycircuitbreakersothatitisopenduringperiodsofparalleloperationbutclosesatalltimes.Inthe
eventoftheelectricitysupplybeinglostduringaperiodofparalleloperation,theearthingcontactorshouldbearrangedto
closeautomatically.Theformofgeneratorearthing(directorresistance)isdependentuponthesystemparametersandthe
machinemanufacturersrecommendations.
23.3.3MultipleHighVoltageGeneratorEarthing
23.3.3.1
GeneratorsoperatinginisolationfromothersuppliesWhenitisrequiredtooperatetwoormore
generatorsinparallelandthemethodofenergysourceearthingisdirectorresistanceearthing,thenearthingcontactors
shouldbeinstalledbetweeneachgeneratorstarpointandtheearthingconductoreachelectrode(asdescribedin
23.2.3.1).Thecontactorsneedtobeinterlockedsothatonlyonecanbeclosedtomaintainasingleenergysourceearth.
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Ifaneutralearthingtransformeristobeusedforenergysourceearthings,itshouldbeconnectedasshowninFig.
31exceptthatinthecaseofanisolatedgeneratingsystem,theearthingcontactorsisnotrequired.
23.3.3.2
Standbygenerators(withoutmainsparallelfacility)Whenthegeneratingsetsarenottobeoperatedinparallel
withthemainssupply,andhavedirectorresistanceearthing,thestandbygeneratorcircuitbreakersandmainscircuit
breakerneedtobeinterlocked.
Ifaneutralearthingtransformerisusedtherequirementsarethesameasdescribedforasinglestandbygeneratorin
23.3.2.2asshowninFig.31,butwithouttheearthingcontactor.
FIG.30SINGLEHIGHVOLTAGESTANDBYGENERATINGSETSUITABLEFORPARALLELOPERATION
WITHINCOMINGMAINSSUPPLY
62
23.3.3.3
Standbygenerators(capableofparalleloperationwithanincomingmainssupply)Whenthegeneratingsetshave
directorresistanceearthingandareusedasstandbytothemains,earthingcontactorsareneededifparallelrunningisa
requirement.Theseshouldbeinterlockedwiththeincomingmainssupplycircuitbreakersothattheyareopenduring
paralleloperationofthesetwiththemains,butoneisclosedatallothertimes(seeFig.32).
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FIG.31MULTIPLEHIGHVOLTAGESTANDBYGENERATINGSETSWITHNEUTRALEARTHING
TRANSFORMERSUITABLEFORPARALLELOPERATIONWITHEACHOTHERANDWITHTHEINCOMINGMAINS
SUPPLY
FIG.32MULTIPLEHIGHVOLTAGESTANDBYGENERATINGSETSSUITABLEFORPARALLELOPERATION
WITHEACHOTHERANDWITHTHEINCOMINGMAINSSUPPLY
SECTION7MEDICALESTABLISHMENTS
63
24.PROTECTIVEMEASURESTHROUGHEARTHINGINMEDICALESTABLISHMENTS
24.0
GeneralInthecontextofthisSectioninstallation,meansanycombinationofinterconnectedelectrical
equipmentwithinagivenspaceorlocationintendedtosupplypowertoelectricalequipmentusedinmedicalpractice.
24.0.1
ForthepurposesofthisSection,referencemayalsobemadetoSP:30(Part3/Sec4)1985*.
24.0.2
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Assuch,somepartsoftheinstallationmaybepresentinthepatientsenvironment,wherepotentialdifferences,that
couldleadtoexcessivecurrentsthroughthepatient,mustbeavoided.Forthispurposeacombinationorearthingof
equipmentandpotentialequalizationintheinstallationseemstoprovidethebestsolution.Adisadvantageofsuchasystem
isthatinthecaseofaninsulationfaultincircuitsdirectlyconnectedtosupplymains,thefaultcurrentmaycausea
considerablevoltagedropovertheprotectiveearthconductoroftherelevantcircuit.Sinceareductionofsuchavoltage
dropbytheapplicationofincreasedcrosssectionalareasofprotectiveconductorsisusuallyimpractical,availablesolutions
arethereductionofthedurationoffaultcurrentstoearthbyspecialdevicesortheapplicationofapowersupplywhichis
isolatedfromearth.
24.0.3
Generallyapowersupplysystemincludingaseparatedprotectiveconductorisrequired.(TNSSystem)inmedical
establishment(see6.1.1).
Inadditionthefollowingprovisionsmayberequired,dependinguponthenatureoftheexaminationsortreatments
performed:
a. Additionalrequirementsconcerningprotectiveconductorsandprotectivedevicestorestrictcontinuousvoltage
differences.
b. Restrictionofvoltagedifferencesbysupplementaryequipotentialbonding.Duringtheapplicationofequipmentwith
directcontacttothepatient,atleastapotentialequalizedzonearoundthepatientshallbeprovidedwithapatient
centrebondingbartowhichtheprotectiveandfunctionalearthconductorsoftheequipmentareconnected.All
accessibleextraneousconductivepartsinthezoneshallbeconnectedtothispotentialequalizationbar.
c. Restrictionofthepotentialequalizationzonearoundonepatient,meaningpracticallyaroundoneoperationtableor
aroundonebedinanintensivecareroom.
d. Ifmorethanonepatientispresentinanarea,connectionofthevariouspotentialequalizationcentrestoacentral
potentialequalizationbusher,whichshouldpreferablybeconnectedtotheprotectiveearthsystemofthepower
supplyforthegivenarea.Initscompletedform,theequipotentialbondingnetworkmayconsistpartlyoffixedand
permanentlyinstalledbondingandpartlyofanumberofseparatebondingswhicharemadewhentheequipmentis
setupnearthepatient.Thenecessaryterminalsforthesebondingconnectionshouldbepresentonequipmentand
intheinstallation.
e. Restrictionofthedurationoftransientvoltagedifferencebytheapplicationofresidualcurrentoperatedprotective
devices(earthleakagecircuitbreakers).
f. Continuityofpowersupplytocertainequipmentinthecaseofafirstinsulationfaulttoearthandrestrictionof
transientvoltagedifferencesbyapplicationofisolatingtransformers.
g. MonitoringoffirstinsulationfaulttoearthinanITSystems(see6.1.1)(thesecondarysideofanisolating
transformer)withsufficientlyhighimpedancetoearth.
NOTEAdditionalsafetymeasuresarerequiredbesidesearthingdescribedinthisSection.Thesecover
firesafety,safetysupplysystemsandinterferencesuppression.ReferencemaybemadetoNEC(Part3,Section
4)*.
*NationalElectricalCode.
24.1SafetyProvisions
24.1.1
SafetymeasuresfromthepointofviewofearthingaredividedintoanumberofprovisionsasgiveninTable10.
24.1.2
ProvisionPoshallbeapplicabletoallbuildingscontainingmedicallyusedrooms.ProvisionPIshallbeapplicablefor
allmedicallyusedrooms.
OtherrequirementsofthisSection,neednotbecompliedwith,if:
a. aroomisnotintendedfortheuseofmedicalelectricalequipment,or
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b. patientsdonotcomeintentionallyincontactwithmedicalelectricalequipmentduringdiagnosisortreatment,or
c. onlymedicalelectricalequipmentisusedwhichisinternallypoweredorofprotectionClassII.
Theroomsmentionedunder(a),(b)and(c)maybe,forexample,massagerooms,generalwards,doctorsexamining
room(office,consultingroom),wheremedicalelectricalequipmentisnotused.
64
TABLE10SAFETYPROVISIONS
(Clause24.1.1)
PROVISIONS
PRINCIPALREQUIREMENTS
INSTALLATIONMEASURES
(1)
(2)
(3)
P0
Durationoftouchvoltagerestrictedtoasafelimit
P1
AsP0butadditionally:Touchvoltagesinpatientenvironmentrestrictedtoa AdditionaltoP0Supplysystemwith
safelimit
TNS,TTorITsystem(see6.1.1)
additionalrequirementsforprotective
earthing,etc
P2
P3
AsPIbutadditionally:Resistancebetweenextraneousconductivepartsand
AdditionaltoPI:Supplementary
theprotectiveconductorbusbaroftheroomnotexceeding01
equipotentialbonding
AsPlorP2butadditionally:Potentialdifferencebetweenexposedconductive AsP1orP2:Measurementnecessary,
partsandtheprotectiveconductorbusbarnotexceeding10mVinnormal
correctiveactionpossiblynecessary
condition(seeNote)
P4
P5
AsP1orP2.Additionalprotectionagainstelectricshockbylimitationof
AdditionaltoP1orP2:Residualcurrent
disconnectingtime
operatedprotectivedevice
Continuityofthemainssupplymaintainedincaseofafirstinsulationfaultto AdditionaltoP1,P2orP3:Isolated
earthandcurrentstoearthrestricted
supplysystemwithisolation
monitoring
NOTENormalconditionmeanswithoutanyfaultintheinstallation.
24.1.3
GuidanceontheapplicationoftheprovisionsaregiveninTable11.
24.1.4
AtypicalexampleofaninstallationinahospitalisgiveninAppendixCofNEC(Part3,Section4)*.
25.SUPPLYCHARACTERISTICSANDPARAMETERS
25.0ExchangeofInformation
25.0.1
Propercoordinationshallbeensuredbetweenthearchitect,buildingcontractorandtheelectricalengineerorthe
variousaspectsofinstallationdesign.Thenecessaryspecialfeaturesofinstallationsshallbeascertainedbeforehandwith
referencetoTable11.
25.1
CircuitInstallationMeasuresforSafetyProvisions(SeeTable10,col3).
25.1.1
ProvisionP0General
25.1.1.1
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AllbuildingsinthehospitalareawhichcontainmedicallyusedroomsshallhaveaTNS,TTpowersystem.The
conventionaltouchvoltagelimit(LL)isfixedat50Vac.
NOTETheuseofTNCSsystem(inwhichthePENconductormaycarrycurrentinnormal
condition)cancausesafetyhazardsforthepatientsandinterferewiththefunctionofmedicalelectrical
equipment,dataprocessingequipment,signaltransmissionlines,etc.
25.1.2
ProvisionP1:MedicalTNSSystem
25.1.2.1
Theconventionaltouchvoltagelimit(LL)isfixedat25Vac.
25.1.2.2
Protectiveconductorsinsideamedicallyusedroomshallbeinsulatedtheirinsulationshallbecolouredgreen
yellow.
25.1.2.3
Exposedconductivepartsofequipmentbeingpartoftheelectricalinstallationusedinthesameroomshallbe
connectedtoacommonprotectiveconductor.
25.1.2.4
Amainequipotentialbondingwithamainearthingbarshallbeprovidednearthemainserviceentrance.
Connectionsshallbemadetothefollowingpartsbybondingconductors:
a. lighteningconductor
b. earthingsystemsoftheelectricpowerdistributionsystem
c. thecentralheatingsystem
d. theconductivewatersupplyline
e. theconductivepartsofthewastewaterline
f. theconductivepartsofthegassupplyand
g. thestructuralmetalframeworkofthebuilding,ifapplicable.
Mainequipotentialbondingconductorsshallhavecrosssectionalareasofnotlessthanhalfthecrosssectionalarea
ofthelargestprotectiveconductoroftheinstallation,subjecttoaminimumof6mm2.Thecrosssectionalarea,neednot,
however,exceed25mm2ifthebondingconductorisofcopperoracrosssectionalareaaffordingequivalentcurrent
carryingcapacityinothermetals.
65
TABLE11EXAMPLESOFAPPLICATIONOFSAFETYPROVISIONS
(Clause24.1.3)
MEDICALLYUSEDROOM
POTECTIVEMEASURES
P0/P1
P2
P3
P4
P5
1.Massageroom
2.Operatingwashroom
3.Ward,General
4.Deliveryroom
5.ECG,EEG,EMGroom
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5.ECG,EEG,EMGroom
6.Endoscopicroom
7.Examinationortreatmentroom
8.Labourroom
9.Operatingsterilizationroom
10.Orologyroom(notbeinganoperatingtheatre)
11.Radiologicaldiagnosticandtherapyroomotherthanmentionedunder20and24
12.Hydrotherapyroom
13.Physiotherapyroom
14.Anaestheticroom
x1
15.Operatingtheatre
x1
16.Operatingpreparationroom
x1
17.Operatingplasterroom
x1
18.Operatingrecoveryroom
x1
19.Outpatientoperatingroom
x1
20.Heartcatheterizationroom
x1
21.Intensivecareroom
x1
22.Intensiveexaminationroom
x1
23.Intensivemonitoringroom
x1
24.Angiographicexaminationroom
x1
25.Hemodialysisroom
x1
26.Centralmonitoringroom(seeNote)
x1
NOTEOnlyifsucharoomispartofamedicalroomgroupand,therefore,intstalledinthesamewayasanintensivemonitoring
room.Centralmonitoringroomhavingnoconductiveconnectiontothemexiallyusedroom(forexample,byuseofisolatingcoupling
devicesforsignaltransmission)maybeinstalledasnonmedicallyusedfrom(ProvisionP0only).
M
mandatorymeasure
recommendedmeasure
x1
asx,butonlyforinsulationmonitoringdeviceand
additionalmeasuremaybeconsidereddesirable.
25.1.2.5
Eachmedicallyusedroomorroomgroupshallhaveitsownprotectiveconductorbusbar,whichshouldhave
adequatemechanicalandelectricalpropertiesandresistanceagainstcorrosion.
Thisbusbarmaybelocatedintherelevantpowerdistributionbox.Theleadsconnectedtoterminalsofsucha
protectiveconductorbarshallbeidentifiedandshallbesimilarlydesignatedondrawingsoftheinstallationsystem.
25.1.2.6
Theimpedance(Z)betweentheprotectiveconductorbarandeachconnectedprotectiveconductorcontactinwall
socketsorterminalsshouldnotexceed02,iftheratedcurrentoftheovercurrentprotectivedeviceis16Aorless.In
caseofaratedcurrentexceeding16A,theimpedanceshouldbecalculatedusingtheformula:
inallcasesZshallnotexceed02.
(Ir=ratedcurrentofovercurrentprotectivedeviceinamperes).
NOTEThemeasurementoftheprotectiveconductorimpedanceshouldbeperformedwithanac
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currentnotlessthan10Aandnotexceeding25Afromasourceofcurrentwithanoloadvoltagenot
exceeding6V,foraperiodofatleast5a.
25.1.2.7
ThecrosssectionalareaoftheprotectiveconductorshallbenotlessthantheappropriatevalueshowninTable7.
Thecrosssectionalareaofeveryprotectiveconductorwhichdoesnotformpartofthesupplycableorcable
enclosureshallbe,inanycase,notlessthan:
a. 25mm2,ifmechanicalprotectionisprovidedand
b. 4mm2,ifmechanicalprotectionisnotprovided.
25.1.2.8
Itmaybenecessarytoruntheprotectiveconductorseparatefromthephaseconductors,inordertoavoid
measuringproblemswhenrecordingbioelectricpotentials.
25.1.3
ProvisionP3:SupplementaryEquipotentialBonding
25.1.3.1
Inordertominimizethetouchvoltage,allextraneousconductivepartsshallbeconnectedtothesystemof
Anequipotentialconductorbarshallbeprovided.Itshouldbelocatedneartheprotectiveconductorbar(seealso
25.1.2.5).Acombinedprotectiveconductorandequipotentialbondingbarmaybeused,ifallconductorsareclearly
markedaccordingto25.1.2.5and25.1.3.3(e).
25.1.3.2
Connectionsshallbeprovidedfromtheequipotentialbondingbartoextraneousconductivepartssuchaspipesfor
freshwater,heating,gases,vacuumandotherpartswitha
66
conductivesurfacearealargerthanC02m2oralineardimensionexceeding20cmorsmallerpartthatmaybe
graspedbyhand.
Additionally,thefollowingrequirementsapply:
a. Suchconnectionsneednotbemadeto:
1. Extraneousconductivepartsinsideofwalls(forexample,structuralmetalworkofbuildings)havingnodirect
connectiontoanyaccessibleconductivepartinsidetheroom,and
2. Conductivepartsinanonconductiveenclosure
b. Inlocationswherethepositionofthepatientcanbepredeterminedthisprovisionmayberestrictedtoextraneous
conductivepartswithinthepatientenvironment(seeAppendixBofNEC(Part3,Section4)and
c. Inoperatingtheatres,intensivecarerooms,heartcatheterizationroomsandroomsintendedfortherecordingof
bioelectricalactionpotentialsallpartsshouldbeconnectedtotheequipotentialbondingbarviadirectandseparate
conductors.
25.1.3.3
Thefollowingrequirementsshallbefulfilled:
a. Theimpedancebetweenextraneousconductivepartsandtheequipotentialbondingbarshallnotexceed01.
NOTEThemeasurementofthisimpedanceshouldbeperformedwithacurrentnotlessthan10
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Aandnotexceeding25Aduringnotlessthan5sfromacurrentsourcewithanoloadpotentialnot
exceeding6Vac.
b. Allequipotentialbondingconductorsshallbeinsulated,theinsulationbeingcolouredgreenyellow.
NOTEInsulationoftheequipotentialbondingconductorsisnecessary,toavoidloopsbycontact
andtoavoidpickingupofstraycurrents.
c. Equipotentialconductorsbetweenpermanentlyinstalledextraneousconductivepartsandtheequipotentialbonding
barshallhaveacrosssectionalareaofnotlessthan4mm2copperorcopperequivalent.
d. Theequipotentialbondingbar,ifany,shouldhaveadequatemechanicalandelectricalproperties,andresistance
againstcorrossion.
e. Theconductorsconnectedtotheequipotentialbondingbarshallbemarkedandshallbesimilarlydesignatedon
drawingsoftheinstallationsystem.
f. Aseparateprotectiveconductorbarandanequipotentialbondingbarinamedicallyusedroomorinaroomgroup
shallbeinterconnectedwithaconductorhavingacrosssectionalareaofnotlessthan16mm2copperorcopper
equivalent(see25.1.3.1).
g. Anadequatenumber(underconsideration)ofequipotentialbondingterminalsotherthanthoseforprotective
conductorcontactorpinsofsocketoutletsshouldbeprovidedineachroomfortheconnectionofanadditional
protectiveconductorofequipmentorforreasonsoffunctionalearthingofequipment.
25.1.4
ProvisionP3:RestrictionofTouchVoltageinRoomsEquippedforDirectCardiacApplication
25.1.4.1
Thecontinuouscurrentthrougharesistanceof1000connectedbetweentheequipotentialbondingbarandany
exposedconductivepartaswellasanyextraneousconductivepartinthepatientenvironmentshallnotexceed10MAin
normalconditionforfrequenciesfromdcto1kHz.
Foradescriptionofpatientenvironment,seeAppendixBofNEC(Part3,Section4).Wherethemeasuringdevice
hasanimpedanceandafrequencycharacteristics,thecurrentmayalsobeindicatedasacontinuousvoltagewithalimitof
10mVbetweenthepartsmentionedabove.
a. Duringthetest,itisassumedthatfixedandpermanentlyinstalledmedicalelectricalequipmentisoperating.
b. Normalconditionsmeanswithoutanyfaultintheinstallationandinthemedicalelectricalequipment.
NOTETocomplywiththisrequirement,itmaybenecessarytoapplyoneormoreofthefollowingmethods:
Extraneousconductivepartsmaybe:
a. connectedtotheequipotentialbondingbarbyaconductorofalargecrosssectionalareainordertoreduce
thevoltagedropacrosssuchaconductor,
b. insulatedsothatitisnotpossibletotouchthemunintentionally,and
c. providedwithisolatingjointsatthoseplaceswheretheyenterandleavetheroom.
Exposedconductivepartsofpermanentlyinstalledequipmentmaybeisolatedfromtheconductivebuilding
construction.
25.1.5
ProvisionP4:ApplicationofResidualCurrentProtectiveDevices
25.1.5.1
Theuseofaresidualcurrentprotectivedeviceisnotrecognizedasasolemeansofprotectionanddoesnotobviate
theneedtoapplytheprovisionsPIandP2.
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25.1.5.2
Eachroomoreachroomgroupshallbeprovidedwithatleastoneresidualcurrentprotectivedevice.
25.1.5.3
Aresidualcurrentprotectivedeviceshallhaveastandardratedoperatingresidualcurrent//N30mA.
25.1.5.4
Amedicalisolatingtransformerandthecircuitssuppliedfromitshallnotbeprotectedbyaresidualcurrent
protectivedevice.
67
25.1.5.5
Electricalequipment,forexample,generallightingluminaries,installedmorethan25mabovefloorlevel,neednot
beprotectedbyaresidualcurrentprotectivedevice.
25.1.5.6
Fixedandpermanentlyinstalledelectromedicalequipmentwithapowerconsumptionrequiringanovercurrent
protectivedeviceofmorethan63Aratedvaluemaybeconnectedtothesupplymainsbyuseofaresidualcurrent
protectivedevicewithIN300mA.
25.1.6
ProvisionP5:MedicalITSystem
25.1.6.0
TheuseofamedicalITSystemforthesupplyofmedicallyusedroomforexample,operatingtheatres,maybe
desirablefordifferentreasons:
a. AmedicalITSystemincreasesthereliabilityofpowersupplyinareaswhereaninterruptionofpowersupplymay
causeahazardtopatientoruser
b. AmedicalITSystemreducesanearthfaultcurrenttoalowvalueandthusalsoreducesthetouchvoltageacrossa
protectiveconductorthroughwhichthisearthfaultcurrentmayflow
c. AmedicalITSystemreducesleakagecurrentsofequipmenttoalowvalue,wherethemedicalITSystemis
approximatelysymmetricaltoearth.
ItisnecessarytokeeptheimpedancetoearthofthemedicalITSystemashighaspossible.Thismaybe
achievedby:
a. restrictionofthephysicaldimensionsofthemedicalisolatingtransformer,
b. restrictionofthesystemsuppliedbythistransformer,
c. restrictionofthenumberofmedicalelectricalequipmentconnectedtosuchasystem,and
d. highinternalimpedancetoearthoftheinsulationmonitoringdeviceconnectedtosuchacircuit.
IftheprimaryreasonfortheuseofamedicalITSystemisthereliabilityofthepowersupply,itisnotpossibleto
define,forsuchsystem,ahazardcurrentandaninsulationresistancemonitoringdeviceshouldbeused.
If,ontheotherhand,therestrictionofleakagecurrentofequipmentisthemainreasonfortheuseofthemedical
ITSystem,aninsulationimpedancemonitoringdeviceshouldbeused.
25.1.6.1
Foreachroomoreachroomgroupatleastonefixedandpermanentlyinstalledmedicalisolatingtransformershall
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beprovided.
25.1.6.2
Amedicalisolatingtransformershallbeprotectedagainstshortcircuitandoverload.
IncaseofashortcircuitoradoubleearthfaultinpartsofoppositepolarityofthemedicalITSystem,thedefective
systemshallbedisconnectedbytherelevantovercurrentprotectivedevice.
Ifmorethanoneitemofequipmentcanbeconnectedtothesamesecondarywindingofthetransformer,atleast
twoseparatelyprotectedcircuitsshouldbeprovidedforreasonsofcontinuityofsupply.
25.1.6.3
Overcurrentprotectivedevicesshallbeeasilyaccessibleandshallbemarkedtoindicatetheprotectivecircuit.
25.1.6.4
Aninsulationmonitoringdeviceshallbeprovidedtoindicateafaultoftheinsulationtoearthofalivepartofthe
medicalITSystem.
25.1.6.5
Fixedandpermanentlyinstalledequipmentwitharatedpowerinputofmorethan5kVAandallXrayequipment
(evenwitharatedpowerinputoflessthan6kVA)shallbeprotectedbyProvisionP4.Electricalequipment,forexample,
generallighting,morethan25mabovefloorlevel,maybeconnecteddirectlytothesupplymains.
25.1.6.6
GeneralrequirementsforinsulationmonitoringdevicesAseparateinsulationresistanceorimpedancemonitoring
deviceshallbeprovidedforeachsecondarysystem.Itshallcomplywiththerequirementsof(a)to(d)below:
a. Itshallnotbepossibletorendersuchadeviceinoperativebyaswitch.Itshallindicatevisiblyandaudiblyifthe
resistanceorimpedanceoftheinsulationfallsbelowthevaluegivenin25.1.6.7and23.1.6.8.
b. Atestbuttonshallbeprovidedtoenablecheckingtheresponseofthemonitortoafaultconditionasdescribedin
25.1.6.4.
c. Thevisibleindicationmentionedin(a)oftheinsulationmonitoringdeviceshallbevisibleinthemonitoredroomor
roomgroup.
d. Theinsulationmonitoringdeviceshouldbeconnectedsymmetricallytothesecondarycircuitofthetransformer.
25.1.6.7
InsulationresistancemonitoringdeviceTheacresistanceofaninsulationresistancemonitoringdeviceshallbeat
least100k.Themeasuringvoltageofthemonitoringdeviceshallnotexceed25V,andthemeasuringcurrent(incaseof
ashortcircuitofanexternalconductortoearth)shallnotexceed1mA.Thealarmshalloperateiftheresistancebetween
themonitoredisolatedcircuitandearthis50korless,settingtoahighervalueisrecommended.
25.1.6.8
InsulationimpedancemonitoringdeviceAninsulationimpedancemonitoringdeviceshall
68
givereadingcalibratedintotalhazardcurrentwiththevalueof2mAnearthecentreofthemetrescale.
Thedeviceshallnotfailtoalarmfortotalhazardcurrentsinexcessof2mA.Innocase,however,shallthealarmbe
activateduntilthefaulthazardcurrentexceeds07mA.
NOTEThevalueof2mAor07mAarebasedonpracticalexperiencewith110to120Vpower
supplies.Fora220240Vpowersupply,itmaybenecessarytoincreasethesevaluesto4and14mAbecause
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ofthehigherleakagecurrentofequipment.
DuringthecheckingoftheresponseofthemonitortoafaultconditiontheimpedancebetweenthemedicalIT
Systemandearthshallnotdecrease.
SECTION8STATICANDLIGHTNINGPROTECTIONEARTHING
NOTEForthetimebeing,thegeneralprinciplesofstaticandlightningprotectionearthing,together
withtherelevantrulesforsuchpurposesascontainedinIS:76891974Guideforcontrolofundesirablestatic
electricityandIS:23091969Codeofpracticefortheprotectionofbuildingsandalliedstructuresagainst
lightning(firstrevision)areconsideredasvalidinthissection.Asimultaneousreview/revisionofthese
standardsisinprogress.
Forcompletenessoftheearthingcode,itisproposedtoincluderelevantearthingandbondingdetails
forcontrolofstaticelectricityandlightningprotectioninSection8induecourse.
SECTION9MISCELLANEOUSINSTALLATIONSANDCONSIDERATIONS
28.EARTHINGINPOTENTIALLYHAZARDOUSAREAS
28.1EarthingandBonding
28.1.1
Earthingshouldbeinaccordancewiththerelevantsectionsofthiscode.Theconnectionbetweenmetalparttobe
groundedandthegroundingconductorshallbemadesecuremechanicallyandelectricallybyusingadequatemetallic
fitting.Thegroundingconductorsshallbesufficientlystrongandthick,andtheportionsofconductorwhicharelikelyto
becorrodedordamagedshallbewellprotected.Groundingconductorswhichshallnotreachahazardoushigh
temperatureduetotheanticipatedmaximumearthfaultcurrentflowingshallbeused.
28.1.2
ProtectionagainstlightningshallbeprovidedinaccordancewithSection8.Specificguidelinesforinstallationsin
hazardouslocationsaregiveninIS:23091969*Interconnectionsystemwithotherburiedmetalservicesand/orearth
terminationsforequipmentgroundingforthepurposeofequalizingthepotentialdistributioninthegroundshould
preferablybemadebelowground.
28.1.3
Portableandtransportableapparatusshallbegroundedwithoneofthecoresofflexiblecableforpowersupply.The
earthcontinuityconductorandthemetallicscreen,whereverprovidedfortheflexiblecable,shouldbebondedtothe
appropriatemetalworkoftheapparatusandtoearthingpinoftheplug.
28.1.4
Efficientbondingshouldbeinstalledwhereprotectionagainststraycurrentsorelectrostaticchargesisnecessary.
28.1.5
EarthingandBondingofPipelinesandPipeRacksUnlessadequatelyconnectedtoearthelsewhere,all
utilityandprocesspipelinesshouldbebondedtoacommonconductorbymeansofearthbarsorpipeclampsand
connectedtotheearthingsystematapointwherethepipelinesenterorleavethehazardousareaexceptwhereconflicting
withtherequirementsofcathodicprotection.Inaddition,itisrecommendedthatsteelpiperacksintheprocessunitsand
offsiteareasshouldbegroundedatevery25m.
28.2PermissibleTypeofEarthingSystem
28.2.1
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Guidanceonpermissiblepowersystemsisgivenbelow:
*Codeofpracticefortheprotectionofbuildingsandalliedstructuresagainstlighting(firstrevision).
a. ifapowersystemwithanearthedneutralisused,thetypeTNSsystemwithseparateneutral(M)andprotective
conductor(PE)throughoutthesystemispreferred.
Theneutralandtheprotectiveconductorshallnotbeconnectedtogetherorcombinedinasingleconductor
inahazardousarea.
ApowersystemoftypeIndianTNC(havingcombinedneutralandprotectivefunctionsinasingleconductor
throughoutthesystem)isnotallowedinhazardousarea.
b. IfatypeITpowersystem(separateearthsforpowersystemandexposedconductiveparts)isusedinZone1,itshall
beprotectedwitharesidualcurrentdeviceevenifitisasafetyextralowvoltagecircuit(below50V).
ThetypeTTpowersystemisnotpermittedinZone0.
69
c. ForanITpowersystem(neutralisolatedfromearthorearthedthroughimpedance),aninsulationmonitoringdevice
shouldbeusedtoindicatethefirstearthfault.However,equipmentinZone0shallbedisconnectedinstantaneously
incaseofthefirstearthfault,eitherbythemonitoringdeviceorbyaresidualcurrentoperateddevice.
d. ForpowersystemsatallvoltagelevelsinstalledinZone0,dueattentionshouldbepaidtothelimitationofearth
faultcurrentsinmagnitudeandduration.Instantaneousearthfaultprotectionshallbeinstalled.
ItmayalsobenecessarytoprovideinstantaneousearthfaultprotectiondevicesforcertainapplicationsinZone1.
28.2.2
PotentialEqualizationToavoiddangeroussparkingbetweenmetallicpartsofstructures,potentialequalizationis
alwaysrequiredforinstallationsinZone0andZone1areasandmaybenecessaryforinstallationsinZone2areas.
Therefore,allexposedandextraneousconductivepartsshallbeconnectedtothemainorsupplementaryequipotential
bondingsystem.
Thebondingsystemmayincludenormalprotectiveconductors,conduits,metalcablesheaths,steelwirearmouring
andmetallicpartsofstructuresbutshallnotincludeneutralconductors.Theconductancebetweenmetallicpartsof
structuresshallcorrespondtoacrosssectionofatleast10mm2ofcopper.
Enclosuresarenottobeseparatelyconnectedtotheequipotentialbondingsystemiftheyaresecuredtoandarein
metalliccontactwithstructuralpartsorpipingwhichareconnectedtotheequipotentialbondingsystem.
Foradditionalinformation,seerelevantsectionofthiscode.
However,therearecertainpiecesofequipment,forexample,someintrinsicallysafeapparatus,whicharenot
intendedtobeconnectedtotheequipotentialbondingsystem.
29.TELECOMMUNICATIONCIRCUITSANDEQUIPMENT
29.1
GeneralInadditiontoprotectiveearthingwhichmayberequiredinaccordancewiththiscode,
telecommunicationsystemsmayrequirefunctionalearthsforanyorallofthefollowingpurposes:
a. tocompletethecircuitsoftelegraphortelephonesystemsemployingonearthpathforsignallingpurposes
b. toearththepowersupplycircuitandstabilizethepotentialoftheequipmentwithrespecttoearth
c. forlightningprotectiveapparatusand
d. toearthscreeningconductorstoreduceelectricalinterferencetothetelecommunicationcircuits.
Ifequipmentrequiresbothaprotectiveearthandafunctionalearthconnection,itispreferredthatthetwoearths
shouldbeseparatedwithintheequipmentsothatpowersystemfaultcurrentscannotflowinthefunctionalearthing
conductors.Thefunctionalearthingsystemandconductorscanthenbedesignedsolelyinaccordancewiththe
requirementsofthetelecommunicationsystem.Alternatively,theprotectiveandfunctionalearthmaybeconnected
togetherwithintheequipmentbutinthiscasethefunctionalearthsystemandconductorsshouldbesuitableforthe
currenttheymaycarryunderpowersystemfaultconditions.
Thegeneralrecommendationsforlightningprotectionapplytoearthsystemsfortelecommunicationlightning
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protection.
Thetelecommunicationfunctionalearthshouldbeobtainedfromapointwhichevenunderpowersystemfault
conditionsisunlikelytohaveadangerouspotentialtoremoteearth.
TheconsumersearthterminalofaTNsystemissuitable,otherwiseasuitableearthelectrodesystem,separatefrom
theprotectiveearth,shouldbeprovided.
29.2
TelecommunicationCircuitsAssociationwithHighVoltageSupplySystemsTelecommunicationcircuitsusedin
anywayinconnectionwithorincloseproximitytohighvoltageequipmentrequirespecialattentionanddueconsideration
shouldbegiventothesafeguardingofsuchcircuitsagainstriseinpotentialofthesupplysystemearthelectrodes.
Whenatelecommunicationcircuitisprovidedinabuilding,whereahighvoltagesystemterminatesandthe
telecommunicationcircuitispartoforiselectricallyconnectedtoasystemoutsidetheearthelectrodearea,precautions
shouldbetakentosafeguardpersonnelandtelecommunicationplantagainstriseofpotentialoftheearthelectrodesystem.
Thetermearthelectrodesystemincludesallmetalwork,suchaspowercablesheaths,pipes,frameworksof
buildingsandmetalfences,bondedtothepowersystemearthelectrodesandsituatedwithinadistanceof100moutside
thefencingthatsurroundsthehighvoltagecompoundorcompoundsitalsoincludesthefirstthreesupportsofany
overheadlineleavingthestation.Theearthelectrodeareaisanyareawithin5mofanypartoftheearthelectrode
system.
Thefollowingpracticeisrecommended:
70
a. Inallcasesasgreataseparationasispracticableshouldbeprovidedbetweenthetelecommunicationcablesandthe
stationearthelectrodesystem.Nevertheless,withinastation,topreventtheappearanceofpotentialdifferences
betweennormallyaccessiblemetalparts,allsuchpartsofthetelecommunicationinstallationshouldbeconnectedto
thestationearthelectrodesystem.
b. Atstationswheretheneutralofthehighvoltagesystemisearthed,itisgenerallypracticablefromaknowledgeofthe
impedanceoftheearthelectrodesystemandofthemaximumearthfaultcurrenttoestimatetheriseofearth
potentialthatwilloccurupontheincidenceofafault.Wheretheestimatedoesnotexceedsafevaluesnoprecaution
additionaltothatdescribedin(a)isnecessary.Thislimitmaybeextendedtohighervaluesifallthepowerlines
contributingtotheearthfaultcurrentareinthehighreliabilitycategory.
Iftheestimateisabovesafelimits(see20.5.1),thefollowingadditionalprecautionsshouldbeobserved.
c. Wherethetelecommunicationcircuitlieswithintheearthelectrodearea,itshouldberunininsulatedcablecapable
ofwithstandingtheapplicationofatestvoltageof2200Vdc(orac50Hzpeak)or(1500+2U)Vdc(orac50Hz
peak),whereUistheestimatedriseofearthpotential,whicheveristhegreater,betweenconductorsandearthfor1
min.Itispreferredthatthecableshavenometallicsheath,armouringorscreenbut,ifanyexists,itshouldbe
isolatedeitherfromtheriseofearthpotentialorfromtherestofthetelecommunicationnetworkbyinsulation
capableofwithstandingtheabovetestvoltage.Thestationterminalequipmentandwiringshouldbeisolatedfrom
thelinebyabarrierdesignedtowithstandthetestvoltageasabove.Allwiringandapparatusconnectedtotheline
sideofthisbarriershouldbeinsulatedfromthestationearthtowithstandthesametestvoltage.
d. Anyearthconnectionforthetelecommunicationcircuitrequiredonthelinesideofisolatingbarriershouldbe
obtainedfromapointoutsidetheearthelectrodeareaviaeitherapairinthetelecommunicationcableoracable
insulatedinaccordancewith(c).
Inpractice,(c)and(d)arenormallyconfinedtostationswheretheneutralofa33kVorhighervoltagesystemis
earthedsince,atotherstations,linefaultsdonotusuallyproducedangerousconditions.
30.BUILDINGSITES
30.1
Intheoftendampandroughenvironmentofbuildingsites,precautionstopreventelectricalhazardshavetobe
robustandregularlyinspectedandthisparticularlyappliestotheearthingsystem.
Becauseofthegreatdifficultyofensuringthatallincomingmetallicservicesandextraneousmetalworkarebonded
totheneutralofthesupplysystem,wherethesupplyisat415V/240V,tothussatisfytherequirementsofthePME
approval,itisunlikelythatthesupplyauthoritywillofferanearthterminalwherethesupplysystemhasamultipleearthed
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neutral.Ifthesupplyisatavoltagehigherthan415V,thedeveloperwillhavetoprovidetheneutralearthingonthelow
voltagesystem.
30.2
Themainprotectionagainstelectricalhazardsonaconstructionsiteistheuseofareducedlowvoltagesystemfor
powertools(110Vbetweenphasesand55Vtomidpointearthor65Vtostarpointearth)andsafetyextralowvoltagefor
suppliestoheadlamps,etc.
Theearthfaultloopimpedancesonareducedvoltagesystemorona240/415Vsystemservingfixedequipment
shouldallowdisconnectionwithinthesafeduration.
30.3
Earlydiscussionswiththeelectricityboardareessentialsothatagreementonthetypeofsupply,includingearthing
facilities,canbeobtained.Wherethesupplyisprovidedfromthelowvoltagedistributionsystem,theincreasinguseof
protectivemultipleearthing(PME)willusuallypreventanearthingterminalbeingprovidedbytheelectricityboardbecause
ofthedevelopersinabilitytocomplywiththerequirementsofthePMEapprovalduringconstructionwork.
31.MINESANDQUARRIES
31.1
GeneralEarthingrequirementsforminesandquarriesarebasedonthebroadprinciplethatexposedconductive
partsofapparatusshouldbeefficientlyconnectedtoearthorotherwiseprotectedbyotherequallyeffectivemeansto
preventdangerresultingfromariseinpotential(aboveearth)ontheseconductiveparts.
Insomeminesandcertainquarries(quarriesincludeopencastcoalsites),inadditiontoshockrisk,therearealso
dangersassociatedwiththepossiblepresenceofflammablegasandexplosivematerials.Inthesecases,separatelocal
earthingmaybenecessarytoavoidincendivesparkscausedbystaticelectricaldischarge.
31.2
PowerSystemEarthingAtmostminesandquarries,theincomingsupplyisprovidedbythesupplyauthority
whowillinstalswitchgearandmeteringfortheirownpurpose.Itisimportanttoclearlyestablishinallcases,thepointat
whichthesupplyauthoritiesresponsibilitiesterminateandwheretheconsumersresponsibilitycommence.
Ifthesupplyisfromatransformer(orgenerator),thatis,thepropertyofthesupplyauthority,andisonsite,a
requestshouldbemadeforthemtofacilitateconnectionoftheconsumersearthingsystemtotheneutralormidvoltage
point.Insomecases,thesupplyauthoritywillallowtheuseoftheirearthelectrodeforjointuse,inthiseventthe
consumermaynothavetoprovideandmaintainhisownearthelectrode.Ifthesupplyisfromatransformer
71
thatisnotthepropertyofthesupplyauthority,oriftheconsumergenerateselectricityprivately,thentheconsumer
shouldprovideandmaintaintheearthelectrodesthathavetheneutralormidvoltagepointsbondedtothem.
Ifthesupplytransformer(orgenerator)isdistantfromtheconsumerspremises,provisionofanearthterminalat
thepremisesshouldberequested.Wherethisispossible,theearthterminalshouldbemadeavailablebymeansofan
additionalearthconductorinthesupplycableoroverheadline.
NOTEThesupplycablesheathandarmouringmayservethepurposeofthisearthconductorprovided
thattheyarebondedtothesupplysourceearth,neutralormidvoltagepointandmeetthe50percent
conductivityrequirement.
Iftheprovisionofsuchanearthterminalisimpracticable,thenitisimperativethattheearthelectrodesatthe
supplysourceandconsumerspremisesaremaintainedsuchthattheirresistancetothegeneralmassofearthisaslowas
possible,forexample,lessthan2,andappropriateearthfaultprotectionisprovided.
Inallcases,theaimshouldbetomaintainearthelectroderesistance,aslowasispracticable,takingaccountofthe
siteconditions,forexample,soil/rockresistivity.Except,however,fortheinstancequotedabove,theachievementofalow
resistanceisnotsoimportantasadequatebondingofallexposedmetallicpartsbacktothesupplysourceneutralormid
voltagepointearthelectrode.
Themainssupplysystemneutralormidvoltagepointsshouldbeearthedatonepointonlyandinthecaseofmines,
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thisshouldbeonthesurface.Theconnectiontoearthmayeitherbeasolidconnectionorviaanimpedancetolimitthe
prospectiveearthfaultcurrentandinthecaseofimpedanceearthedsystems,suitableearthfaultprovided,thatis,capable
ofdetectingtherestrictedflowoffaultcurrent.
Noswitchorcircuitbreakerorfuseshouldbeplacedinanyearthingconductor,althoughaninterlockedchangeover
linkingdeviceisallowedincertaincaseswheretwoormoreearthelectrodesareprovided.Suchadevicewouldbeusedto
allowperiodictestingofanelectroderesistancetothegeneralmassofearth.
31.3
ApparatusEarthingatCoalandOtherMinesEverymetalliccoveringofanycableshouldbeearthed.This
maybeconsideredasformingpartoftheearthingconductorexceptinthecaseofflexibletrailingcableswherespecific
earthingconductorsmayalsoberequired.
Earthingconductorsinstalledforthatpurposeshouldhaveaconductivitythroughout(includingjoints)ofnotless
thanhalfthatoftheconductorhavingthegreatestcurrentcarryingcapacity,towhichthatearthconductorisrelatedand
shouldhaveacrosssectionalareaofnotlessthan14mm2,inthecaseofflexiblecableworkingatlessthan125V,the
crosssectionareaneednotbegreaterthan6mm2alsoaflexiblecableonthesurfaceoftheminesupplyingaloadless
than3kWneednothaveanearthconductorlargerthanthepowerconductors.
Cablesincorporatingsteeltapearmour(unlesssupplementingsteelwire),aluminiumarmourorcoppersheathed
(mineralinsulated)cablesareunsuitableforusebelowground.Generallysingleordouble,steelwirearmouredcablesare
used.Theuseofpaperinsulatedleadcoveredcableisalsodiscouragedfromusebelowgroundowingtothepoor
mechanicalstrengthofthepaperinsulatingmaterial.
Thefollowingarereleasedfromtherequirementstobeearthed,whenusedsolelyatthesurfaceofthemine:
a. anylampholder,thatis,efficientlyprotectedbyacoveringwhichisinsulatedorearthedandmadeoffireresisting
material
b. anyhandheldtoolthatisdoubleinsulated
c. anyportableapparatusworkingatlessthan50Vdcor30Vacand
d. anyothernonportableapparatusworkingatlessthan250Vdcor125Vac.
Inthecaseofelectricalcircuitsusedforcontrol,interlockingandindicatinginstruments,theregulationsallowone
poleoftheauxiliarytransformersecondarywindingservingthesecircuitstobeconnectedtoearthasanalternativeto
midpointearthing.
Wheremobileapparatuscontainingitsownsourceofelectricity,forexample,mobilegeneratorsetsanddiesel
electricvehicles/cranes,isusedonthesurface,thenanexceptionisrequiredfromthepresentregulationsifthe
requirementtoearththesetothemainearthelectrodeisimpracticable.However,thebondingtogetherofallexposed
metallicpartsisrequired.
Newregulationsareproposedwhich,itishoped,willeliminatethisanomallybycallingforallpartsofsuch
apparatustobesecurelybondedtogethertopreventdangerandrelextherequirementtoconnectthestructuretothemain
earthsystem.
Belowground,whereselfcontainedmobileapparatusisused,forexample,batterylocomotives,theseshouldbe
operatedastotallyinsulatedsystems(toavoidsparksbetweenmetalpartsoftheapparatus).Warningsystemsshouldbe
providedtogiveanindicationofleakagetoframe.
Atplacesbelowground,whereflammablegasmayoccurinquantitytoindicatedanger(usuallydeemedtobeplaces
where025percent
72
flammablegascouldbepresentinthegeneralbodyofair),thenlimitationofthemaximumprospectiveearthfault
currentiscalledforonpowersystemsworkingatvoltagesbetween250and1200V(therangeofvoltagenormallyusedfor
coalwindingmachineryservedbyflexibletrailingcables).Inthesecases,themaximumprospectiveearthfaultcurrent
shouldbelimited(normallybyimpedanceearthing)to16Aatvoltagesbetween250and650Vandto2Aatvoltages
between650and1200V.Ineithercase,theswitchgearcontorllingthecircuitshouldbeabletodetectandcutoffthe
supplyofelectricitywithlessthanonethirdofthemaximumprospectiveearthfaultcurrentflowing.
NOTETheratiobetweenmaximumprospectiveearthfaultcurrentandprotectionsettingsisknownas
thetrippingratio.Inpracticeithasbeenfoundthatinordertotakeaccountofvoltagedepressionsoccurring
whenashortcircuitcoincideswithanearthfaultthetrippingratioshouldbesettoatleast5:1.Multipoint
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earthingofapowercircuit(sometimesreferredtoasaninsulatedorfreeneutralsystem)isallowedatany
placeinamine,includingplaceswhereflammablegasmayoccur,providedthatatransformerisusedwhich
hasameanstocutoffthesupplyandpreventdangershouldabreakdownoccurbetweentheprimaryand
secondarywindings.Inthesesystemsthemaximumprospectiveearthfaultcurrentdoesnotusuallyexceed2A
andswitchgearissettotripatlessthanonefifthofthisvalue.
Signallingandtelephonecircuitsmaybeconnectedtoearthwheresafetyisenhancedandthemethodofconnection
isapprovedbytheconcernedauthorityforthattypeofapparatus.
31.4
ApparatusEarthingatMiscellaneousMinesandQuarriesEveryearthingconductorshouldhavean
equivalentcrosssectionalareaofnotlessthan14mm2exceptthisrequirementdoesnotapplytoanearthingconductor,
thatis:
a. themetalliccoveringofacable,whichshouldhaveconductancenotlessthanhalfthatofthelargestcurrent
carryingcapacityconductorinthatcable
b. oneoftheconductorsinamulticoreflexiblecableusedtosupplyportableapparatus,inwhichcasetheearth
conductorhastobeequalincrosssectionalareatothatofthelargestcurrentcarryingconductorand
c. apartofanoverheadlineonthesurfacewhichshouldhaveacrosssectionalareaofnotlessthan12mm2.
Everycableatamiscellaneousmineorquarryoperatingatvoltagesexceeding250Vdcor125Vac,otherthan
flexiblecablesandthosenotrequiredtobecoveredbyinsulatingmaterial,shouldbeprotectedthroughoutbya
suitablemetalliccoveringthathastobeearthed.Metalliccoveringisdefinedintheregulationsanditshouldbe
notedthatthisdoesnotincludeanymetalsotherthanironorsteel,thereforecableswitharmouringsormetallic
covermadeofsoftmetalssuchasaluminiumandcopper(MICCcable)cannotbeusedonthesepremiseswhere
thevoltagesexceed250Vdcor125Vac.
Whereacableisprovidedwithaleadsheath,inadditiontotherequiredmetalliccovering,theconductanceofthe
leadsheathmaybetakenascontributingtothatofthemetalliccovering.Forsuchinstallations,plumbedjointshavetobe
usedwheretheleadsheathisjointedorterminated.
Whereflexiblecableisusedtosupplyportableapparatusatvoltagesexceeding250Vdcor125Vac,suchcable
shouldbeprotectedbyoneofthefollowing:
a. Ametalliccovering(flexiblewirearmouring)thatenclosesalltheconductorsandhavingaconductanceofnotless
thanhalfthatofthelargestcurrentcarryingconductor,orwherethisisimpracticable,havingaconductancenotless
thanthatofa14mm2crosssectionalareacopperconductor.
b. Ascreenofwirestoenclosealltheconductors(collectivelyscreenedtypecable)havingaconductancenotlessthan
thatofa14mm2crosssectionalareacopperconductor.
c. Ascreenofwiresarrangedtoindividuallyencloseeachconductor(individuallyscreenedtypecable),otherthanthe
earthconductor.CablesofthisconstructionforuseinquarrieshavetobeapprovedbyHSE.Formiscellaneous
mines,thescreensshouldeachhaveaconductanceofnotlessthanthatof6mm2crosssectionalareacopper
conductor.
Whereflexiblecablesareusedwithportableapparatusatquarriesandthesizeoftheconductorissuchasto
maketheuseofonemulticorecableimpracticable,singlecorecablesofsuchconstructionandbondedinsucha
mannerasHSEmayapprove,maybeused.
32.STREETLIGHTINGANDOTHERELECTRICALLYSUPPLIEDSTREETFURNITURE
NOTEStreetfurnitureincludesfixedlightingcolumns,illuminatedtrafficsigns,bollardsandother
electricallysuppliedequipmentpermanentlyplacedinthestreet.
32.1
Inallcasesthelocalsupplyauthorityshouldbeconsultedbeforedesignworkonnewstreetfurnitureiscommenced
toascertainthetypeofsystemthatwillsupplythenewinstallation.
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32.2
StreetfurnituremaybefedfromthecircuitprotectedbyaTNSsystemandinsucharrangementsasupplycable
withseparatephase,neutral
73
andprotectiveconductorisrequired,thatis,anSNEcable.Thewiringontheloadsideoftheprotectivedevicein
theunitshouldconsistofseparatephase,neutralandcircuitprotectiveconductors.Exposedextraneousconductivepartsof
theitemofstreetfurniturebeingsuppliedshouldbebondedtotheearthingterminalwithintheequipment.Theearthing
terminalisitselfconnectedtothesupplyprotectiveconductor.
32.3
AnalternativemethodofsupplyingandprotectingstreetfurnitureisbymeansofaTCSsystem.Insuchcases,a
combinedneutralandearthconductorcableisnormallyused,thatis,aCNEcable.
32.4
Wiringontheloadsideoftheprotectivedeviceintheunitsbeingsuppliedshoulduse,unlessaspecialapprovalhas
beenobtained,separatephase,neutralandcircuitprotectiveconductors.Exposedextraneousconductivepartsshouldbe
bondedtotheneutralterminalbyaconductorwithacopperequivalentcrosssectionof6mmorthesameasthatofthe
supplyneutralconductorifthisisless.Thisrequirementdoesnotapplytosmallisolatedmetalpartsnotlikelytocomeinto
contactwithexposedmetallicorextraneousmetalpartsorwithearth,forexample,smallmetallicdoorsanddoorframesin
concreteorplasticsunitsshouldnotbesoconnected.
32.5
Inthecaseofcircuitsfeedingmorethanoneitemofstreetfurniture,forexample,bylooping,anearthelectrode
shouldbeinstalledatthelastorpenultimateunitandthiselectrodeshouldbesuchastomaketheresistancetoearthof
theneutralatanypointlessthan20beforetheconnectionofanycircuitprotectiveorbondingconductorstotheneutral
terminal.Shouldtheprovisionofoneelectroderesultinnotmeetingthe20requirementotherearthelectrodesequally
spacedalongthecircuithavetobeinstalled.Alternatively,theearthelectrodemaybeomittedifitispossibletoconnect
theneutralattheultimateunittoaneutralconnectedtoadifferentsupplysystem.
Therearetwofurtherpossibilitiesthatmayarise:
a. wherethesupplysystemisTNCbutwherethelightingauthoritywishestouseSNEcableintheinstallationand
doesnotwishtousethesupplyauthoritysCNEconductorasafaultpath,and
b. wherethesupplyauthoritydoesnotprovideanearthterminal.
32.6
Inbothofthesecases,thelightingauthorityshouldprovideitsownprotectiveearthingelectrodeandthesystemwill
betheTTsystem.Careisnecessarytoensurethatboththeinitialandcontinuingimpedanceofthefaultpathissufficiently
lowtoensuretheoperationoftheprotectivedeviceontheoccurrenceofafaultinthefixtures.Theneutralearthelectrode
atthesupplytransformerisanimportantpartofthefaultloopbutitsresistancetoearthisnotunderthecontrolofthe
lightingauthority.Insuchcircumstances,considerationshouldbegiventotheuseofresidualcurrentdevicestoensure
disconnectionoffaultyequipment.
Theuseofmetallicstreetlightcolumnsorthemetalcarcassesofcontrolunits,etc,asprotectiveearthelectrodesis
notrecommended.
33.EARTHINGOFCONDCTORSFORSAFEWORKING
33.1
GeneralThisclausedealsonlywiththebroadprinciplesoftheearthingofconductorsforsafetypurposes.Itis
intendedtocoverthesafetyearthingofbothlightandheavycurrentequipmentandisgenerallyapplicabletohighvoltage
equipmenthowever,insomecircumstancesitmay,whererequired,beappliedasanadditionalsafetyfeaturetolow
voltageequipment.Whereapplicable,theuseofsafetyearthsshouldbepartofoverallsafesystemofwork,whichwill
includeisolation,lockingoff,permitstoworkorsimilardocumentsandliaisonbetweenpartiesincontrolofthesupplies
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andincontrolofthework.Toensurethatasafesystemofworkisclearlysetout,asetofdetailedrulesandprocedureswill
benecessaryineachparticularcase.
33.2
SafetyEarthingWhenmaintenanceorrepairwork,etc,istobeundertakenonorneartohighvoltageapparatus
orconductors,precautionsinconnectionwithsafetyearthingshouldbetakengenerallyasindicatedbelow.Allphasesor
conductorsofanyapparatusormaintobeworkedonshouldbemadedead,isolatedandearthedandshouldremain
eartheduntilworkiscompleted.Dueregardshouldbetakenofchangingconditionsduringtheprogressofworkwhich
maynecessitaterevisionofearthingarrangementstoensurethecontinuousofsafetymeasures,forexample,ifa
connectionismadetoanothersourceofsupply,whilstworkisinprogress,thenadditionalearthswouldbenecessaryas
workproceeds.
Safetyearthingequipmentmaybeavailableaspermanentequipment,suchasearthingswitches,aspartof
permanentequipmentsuchasprovisionforintegralearthingofacircuitbreaker,orasportableearthingequipmentsuch
asportableearthingleads.Allsuchequipmentneedstoreceiveregularmaintenanceandshouldbeinspectedbeforeuse.
Whereverpossible,initialearthingshouldbecarriedoutviaacircuitbreakerofothersuitablefaultrateddevice.
Earthingleadsshould,ineverycase,beofadequatecrosssectionalareatocarrywithsafety,duringthetimeof
operationoftheprotectivedevices,themaximumshortcircuitcurrentthatmayflowunderfaultconditions.Ifpossible,
theyshouldeitherbeflexible,braidedorstrandedbarecopperconductorsoraluminiumconductorssuitablyprotected
againstcorrosionandmechanical
74
damage.Innocase,evenfortheearthingoflightcurrentequipment(forexample,highvoltagetestingequipment),
shouldthecrosssectionalareaoftheearthingleadbelessthan6mm.
Ithasbeenfoundinsomecasesthata70mm2copperequivalentearthingleadisthelargestthatcanbe
convenientlyhandled.Insuchcases,wherealargersizeofleadisnecessarytocarrywithsafety,themaximumshort
circuitcurrentthatcanoccur,itmaybenecessarytouseanumberofleadsof70mm2orothersuitablesizeinparallel.
Beforeearthingleadsareapplied,itshouldbeverifiedthatthecircuitisdeadand,whereapplicable,atestbymeans
ofasuitabletypeofvoltageindicatorshouldbeapplied(theindicatoritselfbeingtestedimmediatelybeforeandafter
verification)beforeapplyingearthconnections.
Earthingleadsshouldfirstbeefficientlyboltedorclampedtothepermanentearthingsystemortoasubstantial
electrodeoflowresistance.Shouldnoconvenientpermanentearthelectrodebereadilyavailable,asubstantialcopper
earthspikedrivenwellintothegroundcanbeutilizedtoprovideaquickandconvenienttemporaryearthelectrode.
Whilstsuchaspikeisnotgenerallyadequateasaprimarysafetyearth,itwillgiveadegreeofprotectionagainst
energizingbyinduction.
Earthingleadsshouldthenbesecurelyboltedorclampedtoapparatusofconductorstobeworkedonandthese
connectionsshouldberemovedinallcasesbeforetheearthingleadsaredisconnectedfromtheearthelectrodeorearthing
system.
Asuitableinsulatedearthingpoleordeviceshouldbeusedtoapplyearthingleadstoapparatusorconductorson
whichworkistobeundertaken.
Earthingleadsshouldbekeptasshortaspossibleandbeplacedinsuchapositionthattheycannotbeaccidently
disconnectedordisturbedwhilstworkisinprogress.
33.3
PrecautionsRelatingtoApparatusandCablesInthecaseofswitchgear,phasesofthesectioninwhichthe
workistobedoneshouldbeshortcircuitedandearthedtothesameearthingsystem.Selfcontainedorportableapparatus
isgenerallyavailableforthispurpose.Whereverpossible,automatictrippingfeatnresofcircuitbreakersshouldberendered
inoperativebybeingdisconnectedfromthetrippingbatterybeforethecircuitbreakerisclosedandthebreakeroperating
mechanismshouldbelockedintheclosedposition.
Withtransformers,ifthereisanypossibilityofanywindingbecominginadvertentlylive,theterminalsofall
windingsshouldbeearthedsothatnodangerfromshockcanoccur.Whentheneutralpointsofseveraltransformersare
connectedtoacommonbar,whichisthenearthedthrougharesistanceofanarcsuppressioncoil,theneutralpointofany
transformerthatistobeworkedonshouldbedisconnectedanddirectlyearthedaswellasthephaseterminals.
Whenliquidearthingresistorsaretobeworkedon,particularlywhentheyaredrainedforworkinside,thecentral
electrodeshouldbeshortedtothetankandnotearthedremotely.Thisisespeciallyimportantwheretwoliquidresistors
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arelocatedsidebysideandoneremainsincommissionwhiletheotherisopenedformaintenance.
Whenworkistobecarriedoutonequipmentthatiscapableofcapacitivelystoringelectricalenergy,forexample,
cablesandcapacitors,suchequipmenthastobedischargedtoearthpriortoworkcommencing.As,insome
circumstances,chargecanreappearonsuchapparatuswithoutreconnectingittoasourceofsupply,itisimportantwork
thattheequipmentshouldremainearthedwhilstisinprogress.Thecuttingofacableduringthecourseofworkmay
disconnectconductorsfromsafetyearthsandprecautionsshouldbetakentopreventthishappening.
33.4
PrecautionsRelatingtoOverheadLinesAfteralinehasbeenmadedead,isolated,dischargedandearthedat
allpointsofsupply,aworkingearthshouldbesecurelyattachedtoeachphaseofthelineatthepointorpointswherework
istobecarriedout.
Theprovisionofaworkingearthentailsaconnectiontoacontinuousearthwireortoatemporaryearthelectrode,
theresistanceofwhichneednotbelow.Theapplicationofearthstoallphaseconductorswill,inadditiontoearthingthe
conductors,applyashortcircuittoallphases.
Theconnectionoftheearthingleadtoeachconductoroftheoverheadlineshouldbemadeusingasuitable
mechanicalclampplacedroundtheconductorbymeansofaninsulatedearthingpolewhichcanalsobeutilizedtosecure
theclamptightroundthelineconductor.Whenitisrequiredtoremovetheworkingearthfromtheline,themechanical
clampcanbeunscrewedandreleasedfromtheconductorbymeansofthisrod.Evenwhenanoverheadlineisearthedat
eachpointofsupply,itisnecessarytoplaceaworkingearthateachandeverypositionwhereworkisbeingcarriedouton
thelineonaccountofthedangerofthelinebecomingenergizedbyinductionfromotherpowerlinesandtosafeguard
againstthechargingofthelinebyatmosphericdisturbances.Wheretheworkentailsbreakingaconductor,forexample,
onthejumperatasectioningpoint,itisnecessarytoprovideaworkingearthonbothsidesoftheworkingpoint.
33.5
SafteyEarthingofLowVoltageConductorsInsomecircumstances,itmaybenecessarytoapplysafety
earthingtolowvoltageconductorsinordertopreventdanger.Suchcircumstancesmayinclude,forexample,workon
capacitorsorworkonbareoverheadcranetrolley
75
wires.Wheretheearthingoflowvoltageconductorsisadopted,thenthegeneralprinciplessetoutin33.2,33.3
and33.4shouldbeappliedanddueconsiderationshouldbetakenoffaultcurrentlevels(whichcanbeashighorhigher
thanonhighvoltagesystems),whenthesizeofearthconductorischosen.
34.MAINTENANCEOFEARTHELECTRODES
34.1
Itisrecommendedthatperiodicalchecktestsofallearthelectrodesshouldbecarriedout.Recordsshouldbe
maintainedofsuchchecks.
34.2
Whereearthleakagecircuitbreakersareemployed,acheckshallbekeptontheassociatedearthelectrodeby
periodicallyoperatingthetestingdevicewhichisembodiedintheearthedleakagecircuitbreaker.
34.3
Theneighbouringsoiltotheearthelectrodeshallbekeptmoist,wherenecessary,byperiodicallypouringwater
throughapipewherefittedalongwithitorbypouringwaterintheimmediatevicinityoftheearthelectrode.
34.4SubstationsandGeneratingStations
34.4.1
Recordsshallbekeptoftheinitialresistanceofsubstationandgeneratingstationearthelectrodesandofsubsequent
testscarriedout.
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34.4.2
Normallyannualmeasurementofearthresistanceofsubstationshallbecarriedoutbutlocalcircumstancesinthe
lightofexperiencemayjustifyincreaseordecreaseinthisintervalbutitshouldnotbelessthanonceintwoyears.
34.4.3
Periodicalvisualinspectionofallearthelectrodeconnection,whereveravailable,shallbecarriedouttoensuretheir
rigidityandothersignsofdeterioration.
34.4.4
Inruralsubstations,particularlythoseconnectedtooverheadhighvoltageandlowvoltagelines,greaterreliance
shouldbeplacedontheelectrodesystem,andthereforefacilitiesfortestingtheresistanceoftheelectrodetogeneralmass
ofearth,annuallyorasrequiredbyexperience,shouldbeprovided.
34.4.5
Whereinstallationsareearthedtoametalsheathofthesupplycable,itshallbeverifiedperiodicallythattheearth
faultloopisinasatisfactorystate.
34.4.6
Whereaninstallationisearthedtoacablesheathwhichisnotcontinuoustothesubstationneutral(thatis,thereis
aninterveningsectionofoverheadlinewithoutearthwire),asupplementaryelectrodesystemmaybenecessary.The
adequacyoftheelectrodesystemshallbecheckedinitiallybyanearthfaultlooptest.
34.4.7
Theneighbouringsoiltotheearthelectrodeshallbekeptmoist,wherenecessarybyperiodicallypouringwater
throughapipewherefittedalongwithitorbypouringwaterintheimmediatevicinityoftheearthelectrode.
SECTION10MEASUREMENTSANDCALCULATIONS
35.CALCULATIONOFEARTHFAULTCURRENTS
35.0
GeneralThemagnitudeofthecurrentthatwillflowintheeventofalinetoearthfaultonanearthedsystemis
determinedbytheimpedancefromthesourcetothefaultplustheimpedanceoftheearthreturnpath,includingthe
impedancesofearthingtransformers,resistorsandreactors(seeIS:57281970*).Forinterconnectedsystems,the
calculationofthecurrentmaybecomplicated.
35.1ResistanceEarthing
35.1.1
Whenasinglelinetoearthfaultoccursonaresistancegroundedsystem,avoltageappearsacrosstheresistornearly
equaltothenormallinetoneutralvoltageofthesystem.
35.1.2
Tnlowresistancegroundedsystems,theresistorcurrentisapproximatelyequaltothecurrentinthefault.Thusthe
currentispracticallyequaltothelinetoneutralvoltagedividedbytheresistanceinohms.Thissimplemethodisonly
suitablewhentheearthfaultcurrentissmallcomparedto3phasefaultcurrent.
35.2
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Inaresistanceearthedsystemwithasinglelinetoearthfault,theearthfaultcurrentmaybecomputedfrom:
where
Ig
= earthfaultcurrentinA,
X1
= system+vesequencereactancein/phaseincludingthesubtransientreactanceoftherotatingmachines,
X2
= vesequencereactanceasforX1,
X0
= zerosequencereactanceasforX1,
Xn
= reactanceofneutralgroundingreactor,
XGP = reactanceofgroundreturncircuits,and
E
= linetoearthvoltageinV.
InmostindustrialandcommercialsystemswithoutinplantgeneratorX2=X1.
*Guideforshortcircuitcalculations.
76
35.3SolidEarthing
35.3.1
Inthiscase,thefaultcurrentcanbecomputedfrom:
36.MEASUREMENTOFEARTHRESISTIVITY
36.1ResistivityoftheSoil
36.1.1
Theresistivityoftheearthvarieswithinextremelywidelimits,between1and10000ohmmetres.Theresistivityof
thesoilatmanystationsiteshasbeenfoundtobenonuniform.Variationoftheresistivityofthesoilwithdepthismore
predominantascomparedtothevariationwithhorizontaldistances.Widevariationofresistivitywithdepthisdueto
stratificationofearthlayers.Insomesites,theresistivityvariationmaybegradual,wherestratificationisnotabrupt.
Highlyrefinedtechniquesforthedeterminationofresistivityofhomogeneoussoilisavailable.Todesignthemost
economicalandtechnicallysoundgroundingsystemforlargestations,itisnecessarytoobtainaccuratedataonthesoil
resistivityandonitsvariationatthestationsite.Resistivitymeasurementsatthesitewillrevealwhetherthesoilis
homogeneousornonuniform.Incasethesoilisfounduniform,conventionalmethodsareapplicableforthecomputation
ofearthresistivityWhenthesoilisfoundnonuniform,eitheragradualvariationoratwolayermodelmaybeadoptedfor
thecomputationofearthresistivity.
36.1.2
Theresistivityofearthvariesoverawiderangedependingonitsmoisturecontent.Itis,therefore,advisableto
conductearthresistivitytestsduringthedryseasoninordertogetconservativeresults.
36.2TestLocations
36.2.1
Intheevaluationofearthresistivityforsubstationsandgeneratingstations,atleasteighttestdirectionsshallbe
chosenfromthecentreofthestationtocoverthewholesite.Thisnumbershallbeincreasedforverylargestationsitesof
it,thetestresultsobtainedatvariouslocationsshowasignificantdifference,indicatingvariationsinsoilformation.
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36.2.2
Incaseoftransmissionlines,themeasurementsshallbetakenalongthedirectionofthelinethroughoutthelength
approximatelyonceinevery4kilometres.
36.3PrincipleofTests
36.3.1
Wennersfourelectrodemethodisrecommendedforthesetypesoffieldinvestigations.Inthismethod,four
electrodesaredrivenintotheearthalongastraightlineatequalintervals.AcurrentIispassedthroughthetwoouter
electrodesandtheearthasshowninFig.33andthevoltagedifferenceV,observedbetweenthetwoinnerelectrodes.The
currentIflowingintotheearthproducesanelectricfieldproportionaltoitsdensityandtotheresistivityofthesoil.The
voltageVmeasuredbetweentheinnerelectrodesis,therefore,proportionaltothefield.Consequently,theresistivitywillbe
proportionaltotheratioofthevoltagetocurrent.Thefollowingequationholdsfor:
where
resistivityofsoilinohmmetre,
distancebetweentwosuccessiveelectrodesinmetres,
voltagedifferencebetweenthetwoinnerelectrodesinvolts,
currentflowingthroughthetwoouterelectrodesinamperes,and
depthofburialofelectrodeinmetres.
36.3.1.1
Ifthedepthofburialoftheelectrodesinthegrounddisnegligiblecomparedtothespacingbetweentheelectrodes,
then
36.3.1.2
Earthtestersnormallyusedforthesetestscomprisethecurrentsourceandmeterinasingleinstrumentanddirectly
readtheresistance.ThemostfrequentlyusedearthtesteristhefourterminalmeggershowninFig.33.Whenusingsucha
megger,theresistivitymaybeevaluatedfromthemodifiedequationasgivenbelow:
p=2SR(3)
where
resistivityofsoilinohmmetres,
distancebetweensuccessiveelectrodesinmetres,and
meggerreadinginohms.
36.4TestProcedure
36.4.1
Attheselectedtestsite,inthechosendirection,fourelectrodesaredrivenintotheearthalongastraightlineat
equalintervals,s.Thedepthoftheelectrodesinthegroundshallbeoftheorderof10to15cm.Themeggerisplacedona
steadyandapproximatelylevelbase,thelinkbetweenterminalsPIandCIopenedandthefourelectrodesconnectedtothe
instrumentterminalsasshowninFig.33.Anappropriaterangeonthe
77
instrumentisthusselectedtoobtainclearreadingsavoidingthetwoendsofthescaleasfaraspossible.Thereadings
aretakenwhileturningthecrankatabout135rev/min.ResistivityiscalculatedbysubstitutingthevalueofRthusobtained
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intheequation(3).Incasewheredepthofburialismorethan1/20thofspacing,equation(1)shouldbeusedinsteadof(3).
36.4.2
CorrectionforPotentialElectrodeResistanceIncaseswheretheresistanceofthepotentialelectrodes(thetwo
innerelectrodes)iscomparativelyhigh,acorrectionofthetestresultswouldbenecessarydependingonitsvalue.Forthis
purpose,theinstrumentisconnectedtotheelectrodesasshowninFig.34.Thereadingsaretakenasbefore.The
correctionistheneffectedasfollows.
36.4.2.1
LetthereadingsofthemeggerbeRpwiththeconnectionsasshowninFig.34andtheelectrodespacinginmetres.
IftheuncorrectedvalueofsoilresistivityispandtheresistanceofthevoltagecircuitoftheinstrumentusedtoobtainR
(asindicatedinsidethescalecoverofthemeter)isRv,thecorrectedvalueoftheearthresistivitywouldbe:
=(Rv+Rp)/Rv
36.5TestingofSoilUniformity
36.5.1
Duringthecourseofabovetests,itwouldbedesirabletogetinformationaboutthehorizontalandverticalvariations
inearthresistivityoverthesiteunderconsiderationforthecorrectcomputationoftheresistivitytobeusedinthedesign
calculations.Theverticalvariationsmaybedetectedbyrepeatingthetestsatagivenlocationinachosendirectionwitha
numberofdifferentelectrodespacings,increasingfrom2to250metresormore,preferablyinthesteps2,5,10,15,25
and50metresormore.Iftheresistivityvariationsarewithin20to30percent,thesoilinthevicinityofthetestlocation
maybeconsidereduniform.Otherwiseacurveofresistivityversuselectrodespacingshallbeplottedandthiscurvefurther
analyzedtodeducestratificationofsoilintotwoormorelayersofappropriatethicknessorasoilofgradualresistivity
variation.Thehorizontalvariationsarestudiedbytakingmeasurementsinvariousdirectionsfromthecentreofthe
station.
36.6ComputationofEarthResistivityofUniformSoil
36.6.1
Whentheearthresistivityreadingsfordifferentelectrodespacingsinadirectioniswithin20to30percent,thesoil
isconsideredtobe
FIG.33CONNECTIONSFORAFOURTERMINALMEGGER
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FIG.34TESTCONNECTIONTOMEASURETHESUMOFTHEPOTENTIALELECTRODERESISTANCES
78
uniform.Whenthespacingisincreasedgraduallyfromlowvalues,atastage,itmaybefoundthattheresistivity
readingsismoreorlessconstantirrespectiveoftheincreaseintheelectrodespacing.Theresistivityforthisspacingis
notedandtakenastheresistivityforthatdirection.Inasimilarmanner,resistivitiesforatleasteightequallyspaced
directionsfromthecentreofthesitearemeasured.Theseresistivitiesareplottedonagraphsheetintheappropriate
directionschoosingascale.Aclosedcurveisplottedonthegraphsheetsjointingalltheresistivitypointsplottedtogetthe
polarresistivitycurve.Theareainsidethepolarresistivitycurveismeasuredandequivalentcircleofthesameareaisfound
out.Theradiusofthisequivalentcircleistheaverageresistivityofthesiteunderconsideration.Theaverageresistivitythus
obtainedmaybeusedforthedesignoftheearthinggridandothercomputationsandtheresultswillbereasonablyaccurate
whenthesoilishomogeneous(seeFig.35).
FIG.35POLARCURVE
37.MEASUREMENTOFEARTHELECTRODERESISTANCE
37.1
FallofPotentialMethodInthismethodtwoauxiliaryearthelectrodes,besidesthetestelectrode,areplacedat
suitabledistancesfromthetestelectrode(seeFig.36).AmeasuredcurrentispassedbetweentheelectrodeAtobetested
andanauxiliarycurrentelectrodeCandthepotentialdifferencebetweentheelectrodeAandtheauxiliarypotential
electrodeBismeasured.TheresistanceofthetestelectrodeAisthengivenby:
where
R
resistanceofthetestelectrodeinohms,
readingofthevoltmeterinvolts,and
readingoftheammeterinamperes.
37.1.1
Ifthetestismadeatpowerfrequency,thatis,50c/s,theresistanceofthevoltmetershouldbehighcomparedto
thatoftheauxiliarypotentialelectrodeBandinnocaseshouldbelessthan20000ohms.
NOTEInmostcases,therewillbestraycurrentsflowinginthesoilandunlesssomestepsaretakento
eliminatetheireffect,theymayproduceseriouserrorsinthemeasuredvalue.Ifthetestingcurrentisofthe
samefrequencyasthestraycurrent,thiseliminationbecomesverydifficultanditisbettertouseanearth
testerincorporatingahanddrivengenerator.Theseearthtestersusuallygeneratedirectcurrent,andhave
rotarycurrentreverserandsynchronousrectifiermountedonthegeneratorshaftsothatalternatingcurrentis
suppliedtothetestcircuitandtheresultingpotentialsarerectifiedformeasurementbyadirectreading
movingcoilohmmeter.Thepresenceofstraycurrentsinthesoilisindicatedbyawanderingofthe
instrumentpointer,butanincreaseordecreaseofgeneratorhandlespeedwillcausethistodisappear.
37.1.2
Thesourceofcurrentshallbeisolatedfromthesupplybyadoublewoundtransformer.
37.1.3
Atthetimeoftest,wherepossible,thetestelectrodeshallbeseparatedfromtheearthingsystem.
37.1.4
Theauxiliaryelectrodesusuallyconsistof125mmdiametermildsteelroddrivenupto1mintotheground.
37.1.5
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Allthetestelectrodesandthecurrentelectrodesshallbesoplacedthattheyareindependentoftheresistancearea
ofeachother.Ifthetestelectrodeisintheformofrod,pipeorplate,theauxiliarycurrentelectrodeCshallbeplacedat
least30mawayfromitandtheauxiliarypotentialelectrodeBmidwaybetweenthem.
37.2AlternativeMethod
37.2.1
Themethoddescribedin37.1maynotgivesatisfactoryresultsifthetestelectrodeisofverylowimpedance(one
ohmorless).Thisappliesparticularly,whilemeasuringthecombinedresistanceoflargeinstallations.Inthesecases,the
followingmethodmaybeadopted.
37.2.2
Twosuitabledirections,atleast90degreesapart,arefirstselected.Thepotentialleadislaidinonedirectionandan
electrodeisplaced250to300metresfromthefence.Thecurrentleadistakenintheotherdirectionandthecurrent
electrodelocatedatthesamedistanceasthepotentialelectrode.Areadingistakenunderthiscondition.Thecurrent
electrodeisthenmovedoutin30mstepsuntilthesamereadingisobtainedforthreeconsecutivelocations.Thecurrent
electrodeisthenleftinthelastforegoingpositionandthepotentialelectrodeismovedoutin30mstepsuntilthree
consecutivereadingsareobtainedwithoutachangeinvalue.Thelastreadingthencorrespondstothetruevalueofearth
resistance.
79
FIG.36METHODOFMEASUREMENTOFEARTHELECTRODERESISTANCE
38.MEASUREMENTOFEARTHLOOPIMPEDANCE
38.1
Thecurrent,whichwillflowunderearthfaultconditionsandwillthusbeavailabletooperatetheoverload
protection,dependsupontheimpedanceoftheearthreturnloop.Thisincludesthelineconductor,fault,earthcontinuity
conductorandearthinglead,earthelectrodesatconsumerspremises,andsubstationsandanyparallelmetallicreturnto
thetransformerneutralaswellasthetransformerwinding.Totesttheoverallearthingforanyinstallation,dependingfor
protectionontheoperationofovercurrentdevices,forexample,fuses,itisnecessarytomeasuretheimpedanceofthis
loopunderpracticalfaultconditions.Afterthesupplyhasbeenconnected,thisshallbedonebytheuseofanearthloop
impedancetester.Theneutralisusedinplaceofthephaseconductorforthepurposeofthetest.Theopencircuitvoltage
ofthelooptestershouldnotexceed32volts.
SECTION11DATAPROCESSINGINSTALLATIONS
39.EARTHINGREQUIREMENTSFORINSTALLATIONSOFDATAPROCESSINGEQUIPMENT
39.1General
39.1.1
Section11coversthespecialrequirementsfortheconnectionofdataprocessingequipmenttotheelectricalpower
installationofbuildings,wherethedataprocessingequipmenthasearthleakagecurrentexceedingthelimitspecifiedinIS
:104221982*forequipmentconnectedviaaplugandsocket.
Theserequirementsareintendedtoensurethesafetyofpersonalinthepresenceofsuchleakagecurrent.
TheserulesapplytotheinstallationuptothepointofconnectionoftheequipmentasshowninFig.37.
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Theserulesdonotconsiderinstallationsforwhichtheinfluenceoflightningphenomenamayexist.
Theserulesdonotconsidertheinterconnectionofequipmentondifferentsupplyandearthingsystemsbydata
transmissionlines.
39.1.2
Therequirementsofthissectionmayalsobeappliedwhereinstallations,otherthandataprocessingsuchasthose
forindustrialcontrolandtelecommunicationsequipment,carryhighleakagecurrentduetoradiofrequencyinterference
suppressionfilteringrequirements.
NOTERadiofrequencyinterferencesuppressionfiltersfittedtodataprocessingequipmentmay
producehighearthleakagecurrent.Insuchcases,failureofcontinuityintheprotectiveearthconnectionmay
causeadangeroustouchvoltage.ThemainpurposeofthisCodeistopreventthishazard.
*Requirementsandtestsforsafetyofdataprocessingequipment.
39.2Definitions
39.2.1
DataProcessingEquipmentElectricallyoperatedmachineunitsthatseparatelyorassembledinsystems,
accumulate,processandstoredata.Acceptanceanddivulgenceofdatamayormaynotbeelectronicmeans.
39.2.2
LowNoiseEarthAnearthconnectioninwhichthelevelofconductedinterferencefromexternalsourcesdoesnot
produceanunacceptableincidenceofmalfunctioninthedataprocessingorsimilarequipmenttowhichitisconnected.
NOTEThesusceptibilityintermsofamplitude/frequencycharacteristicsvariesdependingonthetype
ofequipment.
39.2.3
HighLeakageCurrentEarthleakagecurrentexceedingthelimitspecifiedinIS:104221982*forequipment
connectedviaaplugandsocket.
39.2.4
GeneralInstallationRequirementsTherequirementsofthisclauseapplywhereequipmenthavinghighleakage
currentisconnectedtoanytypeofpowersystem.TherequirementsapplytotheinstallationasshowninFig.37.
80
FIG.37EQUIPMENTINSTALLATIONBOUNDARIES
AdditionalrequirementsaregivenforITandTTsystemsin39.2.4.4and39.3.
NOTE1OnTNCsystems,wheretheneutralandprotectiveconductorsarecontainedinasingle
conductor(PENconductor)uptotheequipmentterminals,leakagecurrentmaybetreatedasloadcurrent.
NOTE2Equipmentnormallyhavinghighearthleakagecurrentmaynotbecompatiblewith
installationsincorporatingresidualcurrentprotectivedevices,aswellasthestandingresidualcurrentdueto
leakagecurrent.Thepossibilityofnuisancetrippingduetocapacitorchargingcurrentsatswitchonshallbe
considered.
Equipmentshallbe:
a. stationary,and
b. eitherpermanentlyconnectedtothebuildingwiringinstallationorconnectedviaindustrialplugsandsockets.
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NOTE1Industrialplugsandsocketsarcexamplesofsuitableplugsandsockets.Plugsandsocketsfor
generalusearcnotsuitable.
NOTE2Itisparticularlyimportantforequipmentwithhighleakagecurrentthatearthcontinuity
shouldbecheckedatthetimeitisinstalledandafteranymodificationtotheinstallation.
Itisalsorecommendedthatearthcontinuitybecheckedthereafteratregularintervals.
Additionally,whereleakagecurrentmeasuredinaccordancewithIS:104221982*exceeds10mA,equipmentshall
beconnectedinaccordancewithoneofthethreealternativerequirementsdetailedin39.2.4.1to39.2.4.3.
NOTELeakagecurrentmeasurementsprescribedbyIS:104221982*includelikelyundetectedfault
conditionswithintheequipment.
39.2.4.1
Highintegrityearthconnections
NOTETheaimoftherequirementsdetailedbelowistoprovidehighintegrityearthconnectionsby
usingrobustorduplicateconductorsinassociationwithpermanentconnectionsorrobustconnectors.
Protectiveconductorsshallcomplywiththefollowing:
a. Whereindependentprotectiveconductorsare,thereshallbeoneconductorwithacrosssectionalareaofnotless
than1mm2ortwoconductorswithindependentterminations,eachhavingacrosssectionalareaofnotlessthan
4mm2
81
b. Whenincorporatedinamulticorecabletogetherwiththesupplyconductors,thesumtotalcrosssectionalareaofall
theconductorsshallbenotlessthan1mm2andtheprotectiveconductorsshallcomplywithSection2
c. Whenincorporatedinamulticorecabletogetherwiththesupplyconductors,thesumtotalcrosssectionalareaofall
theconductorsshallbenotlessthan1fmm2andtheprotectiveconductorsshallcomplywithSection2
d. Wheretheprotectiveconductorisinstalledin,andconnectedinparallelwithametalconduithavingelectrical
continuityaccordingtorelevantIndianStandardspecificationonconduitsforelectricalpurposes,aconductorofnot
lessthan2.5mm2shallbeusedand
e. Rigidandflexiblemetallicconduits,metallicductingandmetallicscreens,andarmouringwhichmeetthe
requirementsofSection2.
Eachconductorspecifiedin(a),(b),(c)and(d)shallmeettherequirementsofSection2.
39.2.4.2
EarthintegritymonitoringAprotectivedeviceshallbeprovidedwhichwilldisconnecttheequipment,intheevent
ofadiscontinuityoccurringintheearthconductor,withinthevoltage/timelimitsprescribedbyrelevantstandards.
TheprotectiveconductorsshallcomplywithSection2.
NOTETheaimoftherequirementsdetailedaboveistomonitorthecontinuityoftheprotectiveearth
connectionandprovidedmeansofautomaticsupplydisconnectionincaseoffailure.
39.2.4.3
UseofdoublewoundtransformerEquipmentshallbeconnectedtothesupplyviaadoublewoundtransformerof
otherunitsinwhichtheinputandoutputcircuitsareseparated,suchasmotoralternatorsets(see40).
ThesecondarycircuitshouldpreferablybeconnectedasaTNsystembutanITsystemmaybeusedwhererequired
forthespecificapplication.
NOTETheaimoftherequirementsaboveistolocalizethepathoftheleakagecurrent,andminimize
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thepossibilityofabreakincontinuityinthispath.
39.2.4.4
AdditionalrequirementsforTTsystemTherequirementsbelowensurethattheleakageinnormaloperationofall
equipmentprotectedbyoneandthesameprotectivedeviceislessthanhalfofthatrequiredtooperateearthfault
protectivedevicesfortheinstallationcircuit.
a. ThetotalleakagecurrentI1(inamperes),theresistanceoftheearthelectrodeRA(inohms)andthenominal
operatingresidualcurrentoftheprotectivedevice/n(inamperes)shallberelatedasfollows:
b. Iftherequirementsof(a)cannotbemet,therequirementsof39.2.4.3shallapply.
39.3AdditionalRequirementsforITSystems
39.3.1
ItispreferredthatequipmentwithhighleakagecurrentisnotconnecteddirectlytoITsystemsbecauseofthe
difficultyofsatisfyingtouchvoltagerequirementsonafirstfault.
Wherepossible,theequipmentissuppliedbyaTNsystemderivedfromthemainssupplybymeansofadouble
woundtransformer.
Whereitispossible,theequipmentmaybeconnecteddirectlytotheequipmentmaybeconnecteddirectlytotheIT
system.ThismaybefacilitatedbyconnectingallprotectiveearthconnectionsforequipmentusingtheITsystemdirectlyto
thepowersystemearthelectrode.
39.3.2
BeforemakingdirectconnectiontoanITsystem,installersshallensurethatequipmentissuitableforconnectionto
ITsystemsaccordingtothedeclarationofthemanufacutrer.
39.4SafetyRequirementforLowNoiseEarthingConnections
NOTEItmaybefoundthattheelectricalnoiselevelsontheprotectiveearthingsystemofbuilding
installationscauseanunacceptableincidenceofmalfunctiononadataprocessingequipmentconnectedtoit.
39.4.1
Whatevermeasuresaretakentoprovidealownoiseearthingconnection,itisrequiredthatexposedconductive
partsofdataprocessingshallbeconnectedtothemainearthingterminal.
NOTETheuseofseparateearthelectrodesforsimultaneouslyaccessibleexposedconductivepartsis
notpermitted.
ThisrequirementshallalsoapplytometallicenclosuresofClassIIandClassIIIequipment,andtoFELVcircuits
whentheseareearthedforfunctionalreasons.
Earthconductors,whichservefunctionalpurposesonly,neednotcomplywithSection2.
39.4.2
OtherSpecialMethodsInextremecases,ifthesafetyrequirementsof39.4.1arefulfilledbutelectricalnoiseon
themainearthingterminaloftheinstallationcannotbereducedtoanacceptablelevel,theinstallationhastobetreatedas
aspecialcase.
Theearthingarrangementhastoprovidethesamelevelofprotectionasisgenerallyprovidedbytheserequirements
andparticularattentionshouldbegiventoensurethatthearrangement:
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a. providesadequateprotectionagainstovercurrent
82
b. preventsexcessivetouchvoltagesontheequipmentandensuresequipotentialbetweentheequipmentandadjacent
metalworkorotherelectricalequipment,undernormalandfaultconditionsand
c. meetstherequirementsrelatingtoexcessiveearthleakagecurrent,ifappropriate,anddoesnotinvalidatethem.
40.EXAMPLEOFTHEUSEOFTRANSFORMERS
40.1
TransformerincorporatedinorAttachedtoUnitThetransformershallbeconnectedinaccordancewith
Fig.38inordertoconfinetheearthleakagecurrentinconductorswithintheunit.
NOTENofurtherspecialinstallationmeasuresarenecessary.
40.2
MethodofConnectingTransformersPhysicallySeparatefrom,UnitsTheneutralpointforthe
secondarycircuitshallbeconnectedtoearthatthetransformerandtheearthconnectionsbetweentheequipmentandthe
transformershallcomplywiththerequirementsof39.2.4.1or39.2.4.2.
ConnectionsshallbeasshowninFig.39.
FIG.38METHODSOFCONNECTINGDOUBLEWOUNDTRANSFORMERSSITUATEDWITHINOR
ATTACHEDTOSINGLEUNITS
83
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FIG.39METHODOFCONNECTINGPHYSICALLYSEPARATEDTRANSFORMERS
84
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