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Aryal
Unit 1
Introduction
Organization Behavior Concept
Understanding one individual's behavior is a challenging problem in and of itself. The work of
organizations gets done through the behavior of people, individually or collectively, on their own or
in collaboration with technology. Thus, central to the management task is the management of
organizational behavior. To do this, there must be the capacity to understand the patterns of behavior
at individual, group, and organization levels, to predict what behavior responses will be elicited by
different managerial actions, and finally to use understanding and prediction to achieve control.
Organizational behavior is the study of what people do in an organization and how that behavior
affects the performance of the organizations. It is an academic discipline concerned with describing,
understanding, predicting, and controlling human behavior in an organizational environment.
According to S.P. Robbins, "Organizational Behavior (OB) is a field of study that investigates
the impact that individuals, groups, and structure have on behavior within organizations, for
the purpose of applying such knowledge toward improving an organization's effectiveness."
Like other inputs into an enterprise, the human beings employed by that enterprise constitute a
resource -- in this case, a human resource. Other resources must be managed to ensure both the
efficiency and effectiveness of the organization. It takes economists, accountants, and financial
analysts to understand and utilize the firm's monetary resources. Similarly, technologists, engineers,
and trades people serve to help management utilize the firm's material and production facilities
efficiently. It is the role of the Human Resource Manager, and others, skilled in the analysis of human
interaction with the work environment, to assist management in the proper utilization of human
resources. The study of Organizational Behavior facilitates the process of explaining, understanding,
predicting, maintaining, and changing employee behavior in an organizational setting.
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In 1776, Adam Smith advocated a new form of organizational structure which is based on the
division of labour. One hundred years later, German sociologist Max Weber wrote about rational
organizations and initiated discussion of charismatic leadership. Soon after, Frederick Winslow
Taylor, also known as father of scientific management, introduced the systematic use of goal setting
and rewards to motivate employees. In the 1920s, Australian-born Harvard professor Elton Mayo and
his colleagues conducted productivity studies at Western Electric's Hawthorne plant in the United
States.
Although the above contributions traces its roots back to Max Weber and earlier scientists,
organizational behavioral studies is generally considered to have begun as an academic field with the
advent of scientific management of F.W. Taylor. In the Taylorism, rationalizing the organization with
specific sets of instructions and time-motion studies, individual compensation system can lead lead
to the increased productivity and efficiency.
After the First World War, the focus of organizational studies shifted to analysis of how human
factors and psychology affected organizations, a transformation propelled by the identification of the
Hawthorne Effect of Elton Mayo. This Human Relations Movement focused on teams, motivation,
and the actualization of the goals of individuals within organizations, the Prominent scholars for it
were, Frederick Herzberg, Abraham Maslow, David McClelland, and Victor Vroom, those have
contributed in motivational theories.
The Second World War further shifted the field, as the invention of large-scale logistics and
operations research and the management science. Interest grew in theory and methods to the
sciences of management rather that art, including systems theory, the study of organizations with a
complexity theory perspective and complexity strategy. The major contributors were Herbert
Alexander Simon and James G. March.
In the 1960s and 1970s, the field was strongly influenced by social psychology also and the emphasis
in academic study was on quantitative research. An explosion of theorizing, much of it at Stanford
University and Carnegie Mellon, produced Bounded Rationality, Informal Organization, Contingency
Theory, Resource Dependence, Institutional Theory, and Population Ecology theories, among many
others.
Starting in the 1980s, cultural explanations of organizations and change became an important part of
study. Qualitative methods of study became more acceptable, informed by anthropology, psychology
and sociology.
Specific Contributions
Frederick Winslow Taylor (1856-1915):
Taylor was the first person who attempted to study human behavior at work using a systematic
approach. Taylor studied human characteristics, social environment, task, physical environment,
capacity, speed, durability, cost and their interaction with each other. His overall objective was to
reduce and/or remove human variability. Taylor worked to achieve his goal of making work
behaviors stable and predictable so that maximum output could be achieved. He relied strongly
upon monetary incentive systems, believing that humans are primarily motivated by money. He
faced some strong criticism, including being accused of telling managers to treat workers as
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machines without minds, but his work was very productive and laid many foundation principles for
modern management study.
Elton Mayo:
Elton Mayo, an Australian national, headed the Hawthorne Studies at Harvard. In his classic writing
in 1931, Human Problems of an Industrial Civilization, he advised managers to deal with emotional
needs of employees at work.
Mary Parker Follett:
Mary Parker Follett was a pioneer woman management consultant in the industrial world, which was
mainly dominated by males. As a writer, she provided analyses on workers as having complex
combinations of attitude, beliefs, and needs. She told managers to motivate employees on their job
performance, apull rather than a "push" strategy.
Douglas McGregor:
Douglas McGregor proposed two theories/assumptions, which are very nearly the opposite of each
other, about human nature based on his experience as a management consultant. His first theory was
Theory X, which is pessimistic and negative; and according to McGregor it is how managers
traditionally perceive their workers. Then, in order to help managers replace that
theory/assumption, he gave Theory Y which takes a more modern and positive approach. He
believed that managers could achieve more if managers start perceiving their employees as selfenergized, committed, responsible and creative beings. By means of his Theory Y, he in fact
challenged the traditional theorists to adopt a developmental approach to their employees. He also
wrote a book The Human Side of Enterprise in 1960; this book has become a foundation for the
modern view of employees at work.
Psychology
Psychology refers to the science that tries to measure, explain, predict and sometimes change the
behavior of humans. OB focuses on human psychology through learning, perception, personality
emotions, training, leadership, motivation, job satisfaction etc.
Sociology
It is the study of people in the organization in relation with others which includes, group, teams,
communication, power, conflict etc.
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Behavioral Science
Psychology
Sociology
Contribution
Unit of Analysis
Learning
Motivation
Personality
Emotions
Perception
Training
Leadership effectiveness
Job satisfaction
Individual decision making
Performance appraisal
Attitude measurement
Employee selection
Work design
Work stress
Individual
Group dynamics
Work teams
Communication
Power
Conflict
Inter group behaviour
Formal organization theory
Organizational technology
Organizational change
Organizational culture
Social Psychology
Anthropology
Group
Behavioral change
Attitude change
Communication'
Group process
Group decision making
Organizational
System
Comparative values
Comparative attitudes
Cross-cultural analysis
Organizational culture
Organizational Environment
Political science
Output
Conflict
Intraorganizational politics
Power
Source: Stephen P. Robbins
Social psychology
Study of
Organizational
Behavior
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It is the combine of both Psychology and Sociology which focuses on influence of people on one
another. The fields of study are: Behavioral change, attitude change, communication, group process
and group decision making.
Anthropology
It is the study about societies to identify about human beings and their activities such as cultures and
environments.
Political Science
Political science primarily focuses on studying the behavior of individuals and groups within the
political environment within the organization which includes conflict, Intraorganizational politics
and power.
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4. Responding to Outsourcing
Outsourcing involves the transfer of the management and/or day-to-day execution of an
entire business function to an external service provider. The client organization and the
supplier enter into a contractual agreement that defines the transferred services. Under the
agreement the supplier acquires the means of production in the form of a transfer of people,
assets and other resources from the client. The client agrees to procure the services from the
supplier for the term of the contract. Business segments typically outsourced include
information technology, human resources, facilities, real estate management, and accounting.
It is the both challenge and opportunity for the organization and responding to it in the
benefit of the firm is certainly the difficult job. Eventhough it has many opportunites to the
firm, it may create problem damaging the local market, low social responsibility, low quality
in product or service, high staff turnover, fraud, security related issues etc .
5. Improving Customer Service:
Customers are treated as the 'god' for the organizations in the recent days. The service to be
rendered by the employees should be pleased by the clients in service industries like teaching,
technical support, fast-food counters, airlines etc. OB can contribute to improving in
organization's performance to the managers through identifying about the employee attitudes
and behavior associated with customer satisfaction creating the customer-responsive culture.
OB can help the managers in creating customer-friendly culture, prompt responding to
customer needs and providing the guidance about pleasing them.
6.
7. Empowering People
Managers are giving up controls to the lower levels , they are becoming highly flexible,
organization encourages the employee participation in decision making and forming selfmanaged teams in modern organizations. Workers are accepting responsibility and managers
are granting them the authority. Empowering changes leadership style, power relationships,
needs skills and abilities about understanding and predicting employees' behavior and for
this, OB is inevitable.
8. Stimulating Innovation and Change
The challenge for the today's managers is stimulating the product and service innovation for
the survival and growth in competitive environment the change to adjust to it. The
employees may resist the change and innovation having the stumbling block to it. OB
provides the adequate ideas and techniques to remove the block and go further ahead.
9. Coping with "Temporariness"
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Globalization, advance in product and services, technology changes make the organization
compelled to change the nature of job, flexibility in structure, jobs are regularly redesigned.
Even the organizations are also changing. The part-time workers, temporary workers or
short-term contractors are increasing especially in developed countries to cope with increased
work pressure, use expert knowledge and reduce labour cost. The developing countries like
Nepal also facing challenges about the part time and temporary workers. However, the
human resource managers are getting challenges to manage such contingent workers. Part
time workers are frequently moving from one job to another. It is very difficult to fully retain
them and keep then in the organization for long time.
Managers need to cope those "temporariness" in job and workers. They need to learn about
flexibility, to predict, creating the organizational culture, overcome the barriers to change,
which can be learnt through OB.
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Managers try to provide in-house advice about DOs and DONTs regarding ethical behavior.
They Create protection mechanisms write and distribute codes of ethics to their employees
and sometimes they also offer seminars, workshops, and training to improving the ethical
behavior
11.
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13.
Innovative plan for special career needs: Flexible working hours, reduced hours, quality of
work life
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Contingent workforce
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Unit 2
Perception
Concept
Perception is our sensory experience of the world around us and involves both the recognition of
environmental stimuli and actions in response to these stimuli. Through the perceptual process, we
gain information about properties and elements of the environment that are critical to our survival.
Perception not only creates our experience of the world around us; it allows us to act within our
environment.
"Perception is a process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory impression in
order to give meaning to their environment." S.P. Robbins
It is the process of becoming aware of something through the senses and achieving understanding of
it; the process of interpretation based on sensation; the psychological ability to process or use
information received through the sense organs
So that perception is the set of psychological processes by which people recognize, organize,
synthesize, and give meaning (in the brain) to the sensations received from environmental stimuli (in
the sense organs)
Why is it Important?
Study about perception is very important because peoples behavior is based on their perception of
what reality is, not on reality itself. The world that is perceived is the world that is behaviorally
important.
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Sensation usually refers to the immediate, relatively unprocessed result of stimulation of sensory
receptors in the eyes, ears, nose, tongue, or skin. Perception, on the other hand, better describes one's
ultimate experience of the world and typically involves further processing of sensory input. In
practice, sensation and perception are virtually impossible to separate, because they are part of one
continuous process.
Perceptual Process
The perceptual process is a sequence of steps that begins with the environment and leads to our
perception of a stimulus and an action in response to the stimulus.
We speak of a 'sense of humor' because different people sense humor in different things. What one
person perceives (senses) to be funny, another person might not.
On the other hand when one has managed to perceive humor in something, laughter (in one register
or another) follows rather automatically. It is the behavioral response to the perception of humor.
The perceptual process involves brain structuring, and how it organizes incoming stimuli,
determines what we experience.
The perceptual process is a sequence of steps that starts with the stimuli that happen in our
surroundings and leads through nerve transmission through peripheral and central nerves and the
brain to our perception of what is going on. It also includes our resulting action to the original
stimulus.
So, the perceptual process involved when we go outside from a room with no windows on a rainy
day is that the stimulus from the environment - the fact that it is raining and cold and we are getting
wet - is recognized by our senses. Our eyes, ears, cold receptors and touch receptors all send signals
to the brain, which works out that its raining.
The cognitive process within the brain then comes up with the decision to go back inside and pick up
a coat and an umbrella before we set out again. This is our response to the stimulus.
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Internal factors: The behavior that are believed to be under the personal control of the individual.
(Late: Over slipping)
External factors: The result from outside cause; that is the person is seen as having been forced into
the behavior by the situation. (Late: Traffic Jam)
Distinctiveness:
Consensus:
Everyone who is faced with a similar situation responds in the same way
Consistency:
Selective Perception People selectively interpret what they see on the basis of their interest,
background, experience, and attitudes. (Student asked: Which subject is most
useful? Each teachers reply that their own subject is highly useful and most
important to study)
Halo Effect
Contrast Effects
Projection
Attributing ones own characteristics to other people. (If you are highly
talented, others too have)
Stereotyping
Judging someone on the basis of ones perception of the group to which that
person belongs. (All Muslims are not terrorists)
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Perceiver
Target
Situation
2. When an individual looks at a target and attempts to interpret what he or she sees, that
interpretation is heavily influenced by personal characteristics of the individual perceiver.
3. The more relevant personal characteristics affecting perception of the perceiver are attitudes,
motives, interests, past experiences, and expectations.
4. Characteristics of the target can also affect what is being perceived. This would include
attractiveness, gregariousness, and our tendency to group similar things together. For example,
members of a group with clearly distinguishable features or color are often perceived as alike in
other, unrelated characteristics as well.
5. The context in which we see objects or events also influences our attention. This could include
time, heat, light, or other situational factors.
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4. Alternative Development: Decision makers rarely seek optimum solutions but satisfying or
good enough ones.
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Unit 3
Learning
Concept
Learning is one of the most important mental functions of humans, animals and artificial cognitive
systems. It relies on the acquisition of different types of knowledge supported by perceived information. It
leads to the development of new capacities, skills, values, understanding, and preferences. Its goal is the
increasing of individual and group experience.
According to S.P. Robbins, Learning is any relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs
as a result of experience.
So that learning is the process of acquiring knowledge, skills, attitudes or values through study,
experience or teaching that causes a change of behaviour that is persistent, measurable and specified or
allows an individual to formulate a new mental construct or revise a prior mental conduct. It is an
ongoing process in occurring at all times.
Steps in Learning
The followings four are the steps in learning process:
1. Input: The communication or message, information or any other that you get from the
sensory organs is the input for learning.
2. Response: The response after getting input as an understanding of input It is the acting
shown by the learner, your immediate response whether you motivate or not.
3. Motivation: The drive towards the learning process, showing the activity, interest and attitude
to learn. Individuals need high degree of motivation towards learning
4. Reinforcement: The final outcome of learning determines the reinforcement. It is the process
of forcing the learner to change his or her behavior. The learner is reinforced to learn
something using positive as well as negative ways. For eg., students get punishment if they
became unable to answer.
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Models of Learning
Also known as theories of learning, models of learning explain about how individuals learn in their life.
The scientific investigation of the learning process was begun at the end of the 19th century by Ivan
Pavlov in Russia and Edward Thorndike in the United States. Three models are currently widely used to
explain changes in learned behavior.
Robbins defines that "Operant conditioning is a type of conditioning in which desired voluntary
behavior leads to a reward or prevents a punishment." Operant condition claims that people can
learn to behave to get something they want or avoid something the don't want. While classical
conditioning involves natural/normal reaction, operant conditioning require ticular technique
was responsible for a particular behavior change.
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In shaping behavior, reinforcement is very important tool rather then punishment or extinction. So that
whether it is positive or negative, you need to apply reinforcement but schedules can be varied. It can be
continuous or intermittent, fixed interval or variable-interval type.
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Unit 4
Personality
Concept
As we meet different people in our daily lives, we talk about their personality. We need to see
personality not at parts of the person, but as a whole. Personality is the different physical and mental
characteristics that reflect how a person looks, feels, decides, acts and reacts which comprises internal
(invisible) and external (visible) character.
Personality can be defined as:
Personality is made up the characteristic patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that make a
person unique. Personality originates within the individual and remains fairly consistent throughout
life.
Personality psychologists are interested in the unique characteristics of individuals, as well as
similarities among groups of people. Personality is displayed through thoughts, feelings, behaviors
and many other ways.
Determinants of Personality
Heredity
Researchers have discovered that almost fifty percent of human behavior and personality
characteristics are genetically inherited. Those are the parental and biological factors, physiological
and psychological factors.
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Environment
The environment the individual grows up, the family background, culture and society, norms and
belief, values and attitude, education, income, employment influences the personality. Positive &
negative aspects of upbringing affect personality.
Environment
Heredity
Physical structure
Facial attractiveness
Temperament (nature)
Muscle Composition
Energy Level
Gender, age, race,
height, weight
Personality Behavior
Family background
Education
Income
Employment
Experience
Situation
The situational factors
that shows the certain
behaviors (Place,
Function, Position)
Situation
Even though environment and heredity determines the personality, the situation may modify in
individual's personality. The demand of the current situation, the place, function and position greatly
influences in showing the certain behavior. Some situations are: in temple, at employment interview,
at Picnic, Public Park.
Personality Traits
Personality traits are the bearing or enduring characteristics that describes the behavior of an
individual like shy, aggressive, lazy, ambitious, loyal, timid (fearful) etc.. Individuals show those
traits repetitively in a noticeable form and those characters become personality traits. Researchers
believe that the personality traits could help in employee selection, placement and career
development.
Different scientists tried to identify the common personality traits and they spent many years . The
two popular models of Personality Traits are explained below.
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Those who prefer Sensing Perception favor clear, tangible data and
information that fits in well with their direct here-and-now experience. They
like practical and prefer routine and order.
In contrast, those who prefer Intuition Perception are drawn to information
that is more abstract, conceptual, big-picture, and represents imaginative
possibilities for the future.
Sensing Characteristics
Intuitive Characteristics
b) The second set of mental preferences identifies how people form "Judgments" or make
decisions. In the Myers MBTI Type Code, this is the third letter.
Those who prefer Thinking Judgment have a natural preference for making
decisions in an objective, logical, and analytical manner with an emphasis on tasks
and results to be accomplished.
Those whose preference is for Feeling Judgment make their decisions in a
somewhat global, visceral, harmony and value-oriented way, paying particular
attention to the impact of decisions and actions on other people.
Thinking Characteristics
Feeling Characteristics
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a) Introversion vs Extroversion
Those who prefer Introversion draw their primary energy from the
inner world of information, thoughts, ideas, and other reflections. When
circumstances require an excessive amount of attention spent in the
"outside" world, those preferring Introversion find the need to retreat to a more
private setting, they are very quit and shy.
In contrast, those who prefer Extraversion are drawn to the outside
world as their elemental source of energy. Rarely, if ever, do extraverted
preference people feel their energy batteries are "drained" by excessive
amounts of interaction with the outside world. They must engage the things,
people, places and activities going on in the outside world for their life force, they
are sociable and outgoing
Extraverted Characteristics
Introverted Characteristics
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b) Judging vs Perceiving
Those who prefer Judging typically leads to a style oriented towards closure,
organization, planning, or in some fashion managing the things and or people
found in the external environment. The drive is to order the outside world.
They want control, to be ordered and well structured.
Those who prefer Perceiving typically results in an open, adaptable, flexible
style of relating to the things and people found in the outside world. The drive
is to experience the outside world rather than order it; in general lack of closure
is easily tolerated.
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Judging Characteristics
Perceiving Characteristics
plan on-the-go.
I am full of ideas.
I am quick to understand things.
I have a rich vocabulary.
I have a vivid imagination.
I have excellent ideas.
I spend time reflecting on things.
I use difficult words.
I am not interested in abstract ideas. (reversed)
I do not have a good imagination. (reversed)
I have difficulty understanding abstract ideas. (reversed)
2. Conscientiousness - a tendency to show self-discipline, responsible, act dutifully, and aim for
achievement; planned rather than spontaneous behaviour.
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I am always prepared.
I am exacting in my work.
I follow a schedule.
I get chores done right away.
I like order.
I pay attention to details.
I leave my belongings around. (reversed)
I make a mess of things. (reversed)
I often forget to put things back in their proper place. (reversed)
I shirk my duties. (reversed)
3. Extroversion - energy, positive emotions, surgency, and the tendency to seek stimulation and
the company of others.
Extraversion, also called "extroversion," is characterized by positive emotions, surgency, and
the tendency to seek out stimulation and the company of others. Extraverts enjoy being with
people, and are often perceived as full of energy. They tend to be enthusiastic, action-oriented
individuals who are likely to say "Yes!" or "Let's go!" to opportunities for excitement. In
groups they like to talk, assert themselves, and draw attention to themselves. Introverts lack
the exuberance, energy, and activity levels of extraverts. They tend to be quiet, low-key,
deliberate, and less involved in the social world. Their lack of social involvement should not
be interpreted as shyness or depression. Introverts simply need less stimulation than
extraverts and more time alone.
Sample Extraversion items
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harmony. Agreeable individuals value getting along with others. They are generally
considerate, friendly, generous, helpful, and willing to compromise their interests with others.
Agreeable people also have an optimistic view of human nature. They believe people are
basically honest, decent, and trustworthy.
Disagreeable individuals place self-interest above getting along with others. They are
generally unconcerned with others well-being, and are less likely to extend themselves for
other people. Sometimes their skepticism about others motives causes them to be suspicious,
unfriendly, and uncooperative.
Sample Agreeableness items
I am interested in people.
I feel others emotions.
I have a soft heart.
I make people feel at ease.
I sympathize with others feelings.
I take time out for others.
I am not interested in other peoples problems. (reversed)
I am not really interested in others. (reversed)
I feel little concern for others. (reversed)
I insult people. (reversed)
I am easily disturbed.
I change my mood a lot.
I get irritated easily.
I get stressed out easily.
I get upset easily.
I have frequent mood swings.
I often feel depressed.
I worry about things.
I am relaxed most of the time. (reversed)
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3. Self-Esteem
Self-esteem is a person's overall self-appraisal of his or her own worth. It is the degree they
like or dislike themselves. Self-esteem encompasses beliefs (for example, "I am
competent /incompetent") and emotions (for example, success/failure, pride/ humiliation).
Self-esteem can apply specifically to a particular dimension (for example, "I believe I am a
good writer, and feel proud of that in particular") or have global extent (for example, "I
believe I am a good person, and feel proud of myself in general").
4. Self-Monitoring
The theory is proposed by Mark Snyder in 1974. The theory refers to the process through
which people regulate their own behavior in order to "look good" so that they will be
perceived by others in a favorable manner. It disintinguishes between high self-monitors,
who monitor their behaviour to fit different situations, and low self-monitors, who are more
cross-situationally consistent.
Some people are sensitive to how other sees them, and they always adjust their behavior to
external situational factors. People who are high self-monitors constantly watch other people,
what they do and how they respond to the behavior of others and will hence usually adapt
well to differing social situations. On the other hand, low self-monitors are generally unaware
to how other see them and hence show to their own different style.
5. Risk Taking
It is the willingness to take risk or chances. Some people want to take high risk for gaining
something while others do not like taking risk. Such personality highly influences the
managerial decision making and information needed for it. High risk taking managers make
more rapid decisions and use less information in making their decisions than do the low risk
taking managers.
6. Type A Personality
The Type A and Type B are a personality type theory that describes a pattern of behaviors of
the individuals.
Type A individuals can be described as impatient, excessively time-conscious, insecure about
their status, highly competitive, aggressive, and incapable of relaxation. Type B individuals,
in contrast, are described as patient, relaxed, and easy-going.
Type A's
1. Are always moving, walking and eating rapidly
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2. fell impatient with the rate at which most events take place
3. strive two think or do two o more things at once
4. cannot cope with leisure time
5. are obsessed with numbers, measuring their success in terms of how many or how
much of everything they acquire
Type B's
1. Never suffer from sense of time urgency with its accompanying impatience
2. feel no need to display or discuss either their achievements or accomplishments unless
such exposure is demanded by the situation
3. play for fun and relaxation, rather than to exhibit their superiority at any cost
4. can relax without guilt (fault)
Source: S.P. Robbins and Seema Sanghi, 2007 p.p 105
7. Proactive Personality
Proactive personality is the trait of the individual who identify opportunities, show initiative,
take action and preserve until meaningful change occurs. They create a positive change in
environment to remove obstacles and go forward. These people are highly suitable for
entrepreneurship, management and they are likely to be success. Nevertheless, they may
leave the organization to establish their own business. They are very clever in maintaining
relationship, influencing work situations and career planning.
1. Person-Job Fit
In this context, John Holland Development Personality-Job Fit Theory. He explained it
Holland presents six personality types and proposes that satisfaction and the propensity to
leave a job depend on the degree to which individuals successfully match their personalities
to an occupational environment.
Each one of the six personality types has a congruent occupational environment.
The theory argues that satisfaction is highest and turnover lowest when personality and
occupation are in agreement.
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Type
Personal Characteristics
Congruent Occupation
Mechanic,
drill
press
operator,
assembly-line
worker, farmer
Biologist, economist,
mathematician news
reporter
Accountant, corporate
manager, bank teller, file
clerk
Most important for an organization facing a dynamic and changing environment, and
requiring employees who are able to readily change tasks and move fluidly between teams.
It argues that people leave jobs that are not compatible with their personalities.
Matching people to the organizational culture at the time of hiring should result in higher employee
satisfaction and reduced turnover.
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Unit 5
Motivation
Concept and Process
Since motivation influences productivity, supervisors need to understand what motivates employees
to reach peak performance. It is not an easy task to increase employee motivation because employees
respond in different ways to their jobs and their organization's practices.
Motivation is the set of processes that moves a person toward a goal. Thus, motivated behaviors are
voluntary choices controlled by the individual employee. The supervisor (motivator) wants to
influence the factors that motivate employees to higher levels of productivity.
Factors that affect work motivation include individual differences, job characteristics, and
organizational practices. Individual differences are the personal needs, values, and attitudes,
interests and abilities that people bring to their jobs. Job characteristics are the aspects of the
position that determine its limitations and challenges. Organizational practices are the rules,
human resources policies, managerial practices, and rewards systems of an organization.
Supervisors must consider how these factors interact to affect employee job performance.
"The process that account for an individual's intensity direction and persistence of effort toward
attaining a goal." - S.P. Robbins
"Motivation is the set of forces that causes people to behave in certain ways." R.W. Griffin
On any given day, an employee may choose to work as hard as possible at a job, to work
just a hard enough to avoid a reprimand (warning), or to do as little as possible. The Level
of motivation varies both between individual and within individuals at different times
which lead to show the aforementioned behavior.
Choice of behavior to
satisfy need
Evaluation of Need
Satisfaction
Motivation
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Importance of Motivation
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Motivation Theories
Early Theories
The theories which have not held up well under examination
1. Maslow's Need Hierarchy Theory
2. Hertzberg's Motivation Hygiene Theory
3. Theory X and Theory Y
Contemporary Theory
There are number of contemporary theories that have one ting in common-each has a reasonable
degree of valid supporting documentation.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Expectancy Theory
ERG Theory
Equity Theory
McClelland's Need Achievement Theory
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Achievement
Challenging job
Self Actualization
Needs
High order
needs
Status
Esteem Needs
Respect of others, and ego
or status needs
Friendship
Social needs
Belongingness, affection, friendship
Safety needs
Stability
Bodily needs
Physiological needs
Hunger, thirst, the activity, sleep, sex
Job Title
Friends at work
Pension Plans
Low order
needs
Base Salary
Criticisms
1.
2.
3.
4.
Theoretical difficulties
Not research based
Superfluous classification scheme: The model is based more on wisher of what an 'SHOULD BE' rather
than what he 'ACTUALLY' is.
Individual difference
Assumption of Theory X
1.
2.
3.
4.
Employees inherently dislike work and, wherever possible, will attempt to avoid it.
Since employee dislike work, they must be coerced, controlled, or threatened punishment to achieve
goals.
Employees will avoid responsibility and seek formal direction whenever possible
Most workers place security above all other factors associated with work and will display little
ambition.
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Assumption of Theory Y
1.
2.
3.
4.
(dissatisfiers)
- These factors are necessary to avoid dissatisfaction.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
Motivational Factors
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
Achievement
Recognition
Work itself
Responsibility
Advancement
Growth
Dissatisfaction
Herzberg's view
Motivators
Satisfaction
No satisfaction
Hygiene Factors
No dissatisfaction
Dissatisfaction
Criticisms
1. The procedure that Hertzberg used is limit by its methodology. When things are going well, people
tend to take credit themselves. They blame failure on the extrinsic environment.
2. The reliability of Hertzberg's methodology is questioned.
3. No overall measure of satisfaction was used.
4. The theory is inconsistent with previous research. It ignores situational variables.
5. No relationship between satisfaction and productivity.
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There are three groups of core needs: existence, relatedness and growth.
Growth
Relatedness
(Social needs)
Existence
(Physiological and
safety needs)
ERG Theory argues that satisfied lower-order needs lead to desire to satisfied higher-order needs; but multiple
needs can be operating as motivators at the same time, and frustrations in attempting to satisfy a higher-level
need can result in regression to a lower level need.
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3.
-
1. Self-inside : An employee's expectations in a different position inside his or her current organization
2. Self-outside : An employee's experiences in a situation or position outside his or her current
organizations.
?
=
Outcomes (Others)
Input (Others)
When employees perceive an inequity, they can be predicted to make one of six choices:
1) Change their inputs-effort
2) Change their outcomes-result (product)
3) Distort perception of self
4) Distort perception of others
5) Choose different referent
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PO
Individual
Performance
Valence
Organization
al Resources
Personal
Goals
Theory
Summary
Individual
Hierarchy of
Needs
Abraham
Maslow
Five needs in an hierarchical order from lowest to highest: physiological, safety, social,
esteem, self actualization.
An individual moves up the hierarchy and, when a need is substantially realized,
moves up to the next need.
Theory XTheory Y
Douglas
McGregor
Proposes two alternative sets of assumptions that managers hold about human beings'
motivation-one basically negative, labeled Theory X; and the other basically positive,
labeled Theory Y.
McGregor argues that Theory Y assumptions are more valid that Theory X and that
employee motivation would be maximized by giving workers greater job involvement
and autonomy
MotivationHygiene
Frederick
Hertzberg
Argues that intrinsic job factors motivate whereas extrinsic factors only placate
employees.
ERG Theory
Clayton
Alderfer
Need
Achievement
David
McClelland
There are three groups of core needs: existence, relatedness and growth.
Existence: Physiological and safety needs
Relatedness: Social needs
Growth: Esteem, Self actualization needs
Proposes that there are three major needs in workplace situations: achievement,
affiliation and power: A high need to achieve has been positively related to higher work
performance when jobs provide responsibility, feedback, and moderate challenge.
Equity Theory
J. Stacey
Adams
Expectancy
Theory
Victor Vroom
Proposes that motivation is a function of valence (value) of the effort performance and
the performance reward relationships.
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Unit 6
Groups in Organization
Concept
Group can be defined as two or more humans that interact with one another, accept expectations and
obligations as members of the group, and share a common identity. A true group exhibits some
degree of cohesion and is more than a simple collection or aggregate of individuals, such as people
waiting at a bus stop. Characteristics shared by members of a group include interests, values, ethnic
or social background, and kinship ties. According to Paul Hare, the defining characteristic of a group
is social interaction.
So that group can be defined as two or more freely interacting individuals who share a common
identity and purpose.
"Group is defined as two or more persons who interact regularly to accomplish a common purpose
or goal." - Gary Dessler
"A work group is a collection of two or more people who interact with each other, share similar
interests and come together to accomplish some work activity." - Arnold & Feldman
"Two or more individuals, interacting and interdependent, who have come together to achieve
particular objectives."- S.P. Robbins
Characteristics of group
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)
i)
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Self-Esteem. Groups can fulfil social needs. People enjoy the regular interaction that
comes with group membership. For many people, these on-the-job interactions are
their primary source for fulfilling their needs for affiliation.
Power. What cannot be achieved individually often becomes possible through group
action. There is power in numbers.
Goal Achievement. There are times when it takes more than one person to accomplish
a particular task-there is a need to pool talents, knowledge, or power in order to
complete a job. In such instances, management will rely on the use of a formal group.
(Source: S.P. Robbins and Seema Sanghi, 2007 p.p. 229)
Types of groups
1) Formal group:
Formal group is a collection of people created to do something productive that contributes to
the success of the larger organization. Formal group is defined by organizational structure
and established under formal authority.
a) Command group: A group created by the organization that report directly to the
specified manager and are controlled by him/her.
b) Task Groups: A group with cross command relationship who are not limited to their
hierarchical form and work together to complete a job or task. They need high
coordination among the group members and are responsible for specific non-routine
activities.
2) Informal group: A group created by its members for purpose that may or may not be relevant
to the organization's goals. It is not defined by organizational structure and it does not have
formal authority. It is a collection of people seeking friendship and acceptance that satisfies
esteem needs.
a) Interest group: Those who form a grouping to fulfil the certain interest which is
concerned by each member.
b) Friendship group: The group which is formed for social alliance and they come
together that have common characteristics for fostering friendship. (Ethnic
groups/Religious Groups of other )
Personal interest
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- Temporary in nature
(Ethnic groups, politics affiliated unions are some examples)
To accomplish tasks that are not possible individually through formal relations alone
Forming
This is the initial stage when the group comes together and members begin to develop their
relationship with one another and learn what is expected of them. This is the stage when team
building begins and trust starts to develop and individuals test themselves whether they can be
the part of group. Group members will start establishing limits on acceptable behavior through
experimentation. In this stage, it is uncertain about the purpose, structure of group and leader.
Forming
Test which
interpersonal
behaviors ate
acceptable and which
are unacceptable to
the other members
Storming
Storming
Norming
Performing
Develop
group structure
Group's
agenda
Recognizing
leader
Pattern of
interaction
Acceptance of
roles and
understand others
role
Sense of unity
Enacting roles
Direct effort
toward goal
attainment and
performance
During this stage of group development, interpersonal conflicts arise and differences of opinion
about the group and its goals will surface. If the group is unable to clearly state its purposes and
goals or if it cannot agree on shared goals, the group may collapse at this point. It is important to
work through the conflict at this time and to establish clear goals. It is necessary for there to be
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discussion so everyone feels heard and can come to an agreement on the direction the group is to
move in.
Norming
Once the group resolves its conflicts, it can now establish patterns of how to get its work done. In
this stage, we find the close relationship and cohesiveness among the group members.
Expectations of one another are clearly articulated and accepted by members of the group.
Formal and informal procedures are established in delegating tasks, responding to questions, and
in the process by which the group functions. Members of the group come to understand how the
group as a whole operates.
Performing
It is the final stage for the permanent work group. During this fourth stage of group
development, issues related to roles, expectations, and norms are no longer of major importance.
The group is now focused on its task, working intentionally and effectively to accomplish its
goals. The group will find that it can enjoy its accomplishments and that members will be
learning new skills and sharing roles.
After a group enters the performing stage, it is unrealistic to expect it to remain there
permanently. When new members join or some people leave, there will be a new process of
forming, storming, and norming engaged as everyone learns about one another. External events
may lead to conflicts within the group. To remain healthy, groups will go through all of these
processes in a continuous circle.
Adjourning
The final stage of group development is adjourning which is only for the temporary groups. In
this stage, the temporary group members who has specific goal enclose all their activities and
formally end the group.
When conflict arises in a group, do not try to silence the conflict or to run from it. Let the conflict
come out into the open so people can discuss it. If the conflict is kept under the surface, members
will not be able to build trusting relationships and this could harm the groups effectiveness. If
handled properly, the group will come out of the conflict with a stronger sense of cohesiveness
then before.
Group Structure:
Concept
Group structure is the process of shaping the behavior of the individual members to make it
possible to explain and able to predicting their behavior for increasing the group performance.
We study the different variables of those group structure which helps understanding and
shaping the behavior.
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Leadership
Leadership is a process by which a person influences others to accomplish an objective and
directs the organization in a way that makes it more cohesive and coherent. Leaders carry out this
process by applying their leadership attributes, such as beliefs, values, ethics, character,
knowledge, and skills. To be an effective leader, your followers must have trust in you and they
need to be sold on your vision.
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situations, the maintenance of the boss becomes too expensive - either by draining the resources
of the group as a whole, or by impeding the creativity within the team, even unintentionally.
Roles
A role is a set of connected behaviors, rights and obligations as conceptualized by actors in a social
situation. It is mostly defined as an expected behavior in a given individual social status and social
position. A set of expectations govern the behavior of persons holding a particular role in group; a
set of norms that defines how persons in a particular position should behave.
According to S.P. Robbins, Role is a set of expected behavior patterns attributed to someone occupying
a given position in a social unit.
Role Identity: It is the certain behaviors and attitudes of the individual which are consistent with a
role. Individuals have the ability to shift or change their roles rapidly when the situation or
environment changes. For Example, employee changes his or her role rapidly after the promotion.
Role Perception: Role perception is the view of the individuals how they need to act while playing
roles in a given situation. We perceive to act in different situations by the friend, society, teachers,
videos or other source. An employee perceives managerial roles observing the activities of seniors.
Role Expectation: It is the expectation from others how should you act in a given situation.
Psychological contract is an example in which management and employees do unwritten contract
what management expects and vice versa.
Role confusion is a situation where an individual has trouble determining which role he/she should
play. For example, one could be a college student who would attend a convention of a particular
recreational interest and find his or her teacher there. Conflict between behaving as a student and as
an enthusiast who shares the same interest emerges, leading to confusion.
Role conflict characterises a situation where fulfilling a certain role has a conflict with fulfilling
another role. For example, you found your teacher made a mistake and should you report that? If
you did, you might disgrace him and if you didn't, you might not fulfil your role as student. While
role conflict takes place across different role sets, role strain happens within the same role set.
Every member of a group plays a certain role within that group. Some roles relate to the task aspect of
the group, while others promote social interaction. Here are the examples of some roles that group
members play.
Task-Oriented Roles
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Social Roles
Individualistic Roles
Follower: Goes along with the group and accepts the group's
ideas.
These roles place the group member above the group and are
destructive to the group.
Aggressor: Attacks other group members, deflates the status of
others, and other aggressive behavior.
Blocker: Resists movement by the group.
Recognition seeker: Calls attention to himself or herself.
Self-confessor: Seeks to disclose non-group related feelings or
opinions.
Dominator: Asserts control over the group by manipulating the
other group members.
Help seeker: Tries to gain the sympathy of the group.
Status
Status is a position or rank given to groups or group members by the organization. It can be the
job title, benefits and services, facilities etc. which differentiates the status from one to another.
Status plays a dominant role in organizational behavior since it affects motivation, leadership, job
satisfaction and other behavioral consequences.
In organization, people who control the group using their power tend to be in high status. The
leader or manager of a group will be in high status than the members or employees. Besides this,
status also depends upon to the contribution to the group. For instance, in a playgroup, the
individual who has extra performance can have higher status event though they are in same
group.
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Norms
Norms are the standards (degrees of acceptability and unacceptability) for conduct that helps
individuals judge what is right or wrong and good or bad in a given social setting. They:
According to S.P. Robbins, Norms are acceptable standards of behavior within a group that are shared
by the groups members.
Reasons that groups enforce norms
To express key group values and enhance the groups unique identity.
Norms are effective guides for social behavior. Norms must be activated before they can guide.
Individuals are expected to fulfill their role in society. Society regulates the behavior of different
roles on a reward or punishment system. Individuals primarily attempt to fulfill their roles for
their own succession.
Rewarded- Individuals are rewarded for living up to their roles (i.e. students getting an "A" on
their exam)
Punished- Individuals are punished for not completing the duties of their role (i.e. a salesman is
fired for not selling enough product)
Size
Size does matter at least as far as groups are concerned. In very small groups, the addition or
loss of one member can of course make a radical difference to the group process. Larger groups
need to be managed in quite different ways from smaller ones. So let's tackle this systematically:
"Formal" features refer to necessary properties of the group, and are functions of the number of
people and "Process" features are more empirically determined. Those formality and process are
more important as the size gets greater.
Smaller groups are faster to complete the tasks and making decisions than the larger one. But if
the purpose of group is problem solving and fact finding, they can get better result because of
more inputs. Generally, seven members of group are found to be effective and here should be odd
number in group size.
Social loafing
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The term social loafing is one important finding about the group size. Social loafing is a
tendency of the individuals to make less effort in group than individually. So it claims that
the sum total productivity of the individuals always less than that of group. It indicates that
increase in group size inversely related to individual performance.
Composition
The group members should have the variety of abilities. The dissimilar abilities, inclusive and
participative group can be effective than the similar and homogenous. There should be different
personalities, gender, race, age, academic background and level, skills, experience. But there can
be different compositional factors according to the group objectives and types. If there is high
level of diversity, it creates conflict and competition in group leading to high productivity if the
leader is very able to manage conflict.
Cohesiveness
Cohesiveness is the degree of being attractive, motivated and committed in the group. It is the
level of mutual understanding, cooperation and belongingness within the members.
The group which are cohesive can spent hours of time in interaction, they can stay together and
collectively defend the external threats. It is the factor that keeps its members within the group
for long duration.
Relationship between Group Cohesiveness, Performance Norms and Productivity
Performance Norms
Cohesiveness
High
Low
High
Productivity
Moderate
productivity
Low
Productivity
Moderate to
Low
Productivity
High
Low
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Disadvantages
1 The process takes longer, so it is costlier
2 Compromise decision resulting from
indecisiveness may emerge`
3 One person may dominate the group
4 Group think may occur
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2. Members apply direct pressures on those who momentarily express doubts about \any
of the group's shared views or who question the validity of arguments supporting the
alternative favored by the majority.
3. Members who have doubts or hold differing points of view seek to avoid deviating from
what appears to be group consensus by keeping silent about misgiving and even
minimizing to them shelves the importance of their doubts.
4. There appears to be an illusion of unanimity (harmony or agreement). If someone
doesn't speak, its assumed that he or she is in full accord. In other words, abstention
(non-participation) becomes viewed as a Yes vote.
Source: S.P. Robbins and Seema Sanghi, p. p. 247
b) Groupshift: It is change in decision risk between the group's decision and the individual
decision that members within the group would make; can be with towards conservatism or
greater risk - S.P. Robbins. Group shift, also known as a special case of group think, is a
change in decision risk between the groups decision and the individual decision that
members within the group would make, can be either toward conservatism (traditional or
popular) or greater risk decision in comparison to the decision by the individual alone. In
group decision, the initial positions of individual members of a group are exaggerated toward
a more extreme position
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Disadvantages
Credit for another persons ideas may impede participation
Works best when participants represent a wide range of disciplines
2) Delphi Group: A form of group decision making in which a group is used to achieve a
consensus of expert opinion without face-to-face meeting of experts. It is a group process
which helps aggregates viewpoints in settings where subjective information has to be relied on
the production of numerical estimates and forecasts on selected statements and depends on
written feedback (instead of bringing people together)
Characteristics
Panel of experts
Facilitator who leads the process (manager)
Anonymous participation
Makes it easier to change opinion
Iterative processing of the responses in several rounds
Interaction through questionnaires
Same arguments are not repeated
Estimates and associated arguments are generated by and presented to the panel
Statistical interpretation of the forecasts
Individual Activity
Team members
receive description
of problem
Individuals silently
write down
possible solutions.
Advantages
Best for small group meetings
Fact finding and Idea generation
Search of problem or solution
Disadvantages
Not suitable for routine business and Bargaining
Problems with predetermined outcomes
50
Individual Activity
Individuals silently
rank or vote on each
solution presented.
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For the decision making a large number software packages available for the decision makers for their
decision analysis. Those software packages can be use for group decision making, voting or other
analysis and prediction of values. Web based applications can also be used of offline software like o
Excel, Access may also be used for decisional purpose.
Advantages
Graphical support for problem structuring, value and probability elicitation
Facilitate changes to models relatively easily
Sensitivity analyses can be easily conducted
Analysis of complex value and probability structures
Possibility to carry out analysis in distributed mode
Unit 7
Leadership
Concept and Nature
Leader is a person who can influence the behaviour of others without having to rely on force, who is
a person accepted by others as a leader.
"Leadership is the ability to influence a group toward the achievement of goals." - Robbins
"Leadership is a process, the use of noncoercieve influence to shape the group's or
organization' goals, motivate behaviour toward the achievement of those goals, and help
define group or organization culture; as a property, the set of characteristics attributed to
individuals who are perceived to be leaders." - Griffin
So that the leadership can be defined as a process that takes place in groups in which one member
influences and controls the behaviour of the other members toward some common goal."
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Activity
Creating an agenda
Developing a human
network for achieving the
agenda
Executing plans
Management
Planning & Budgeting
- Establishing detailed steps,
allocating resources
Organizing and staffing
- Structure, Staffing,
Delegating authority,
monitor and implement
Controlling and Problem
Solving
- Monitoring results vs plan,
- Solving problem
Leadership
Establishing direction
- Developing vision
Aligning people
- Communication
- Influencing
- Creating teams
Motivating and Inspiring
- Energizing people to overcome major
political, bureaucratic and resource
barriers
Functions of Leadership
a) Establishing direction : Giving the proper direction to the followers where determining the
destination
b) Aligning people: Keeping the followers within the control of leader
c) Motivating and inspiring: Motivate them and try to be inspired by the leader
d) Change management: Manage any type of organizational change convincing the followers,
creating trust to the management
i) Environmental adaptation: Make the change according to the environmental change to adopt
to it
Honesty - Display sincerity, integrity, and candor in all your actions. Deceptive behavior
will not inspire trust.
Competent - Your actions should be based on reason and moral principles. Do not make
decisions based on childlike emotional desires or feelings.
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Forward-looking Set goals and have a vision of the future. The vision must be owned
throughout the organization. Effective leaders envision what they want and how to get it.
They habitually pick priorities stemming from their basic values.
Inspiring - Display confidence in all that you do. By showing endurance in mental,
physical, and spiritual stamina, you will inspire others to reach for new heights. Take
charge when necessary.
Fair-minded - Show fair treatment to all people. Prejudice is the enemy of justice. Display
empathy by being sensitive to the feelings, values, interests, and well-being of others.
Straightforward - Use sound judgment to make good decisions at the right time.
Imaginative - Make timely and appropriate changes in your thinking, plans, and methods.
Show creativity by thinking of new and better goals, ideas, and solutions to problems. Be
innovative.
Leadership Theories
1) Trait Theory of Leadership
Trait theory assumes that some basic trait (character) or set of traits existed that differentiated
leaders from non leaders. Those traits include intelligence, assertiveness, good looking, good
vocabulary, attractiveness, self-confidence, ability, commitment etc. It emphasizes on 'leaders
by born'
It assumes that people inherit certain qualities and traits that make them better suited to
leadership. Trait theories often identify particular personality or behavioral characteristics
shared by leaders. But if particular traits are key features of leadership, how do we explain
people who possess those qualities but are not leaders? This question is one of the difficulties
in using trait theories to explain leadership.
Decenzo and Robbins have mentioned six traits which differentiated leaders from nonleaders.
Drive: High effort, high energy and persistent to achieve goal
Desire to lead: Strong desire to influence and lead others
Honesty : Trust by followers, honest in their words
Self-confidence: can do approach for doing right things
Intelligence: Intelligence skill to gather, interpret, analyze the information for
appropriate decision and to create vision, solving problems.
f) Job relevant knowledge: The leader should exceed the job knowledge in technical as
well as non-technical matters
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
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i)
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High
1.9
9.9
5.5
1.1
9.1
High
1.1 - Impoverished style: Little concern for production as well as people. They try to
use of minimum effort to get wok done to be popular.
1.9 - Country club style: The leader focuses on people like, friendship at work,
motivation and no priority is given for production.
9.1 - Task manager style: The autocratic style of leading in which the concern of
managers will be on high production rather than people's needs and satisfaction.
9.9 - Team builder style: The most effective leadership in which manager focuses on
high production through employee participation, motivation and commitment.
5.5 - Middle of roader style: The very safe style of leadership in which manager tries
to balance the concern for production as well as people, the individual is
compromiser.
ii)
Michigan Studies
The researchers of University of Michigan which was led by Rensis Likert in 1940,
concluded that there are two types of behaviours of the managers in the organization.
a) Job-centered leader behaviour
The behaviour of leader who pay close attention to the job and work procedures
involved with that job.
b) Employee-centered leader behaviour
The behaviour of leaders who develop cohesive (unified) work group and ensuring
employees' satisfaction, freedom and provide necessary assistance to their
subordinates.
iii)
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3) Contingency Theory
Contingency theories of leadership focus on particular variables related to the environment
that might determine which particular style of leadership is best suited for the situation.
According to this theory, no leadership style is best in all situations. Success depends upon a
number of variables, including the leadership style, qualities of the followers, and aspects of
the situation.
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Performance
Relationship Oriented
Good
Favorable
Poor
Unfavorable
Category
II
III
IV
VI
VII
VIII
Leader-member relations
Task structure
Position power
Good
High
Strong
Good
High
Weak
Good
Low
Strong
Good
Low
Weak
Poor
High
Strong
Poor
High
Weak
Poor
Low
Strong
Poor
Low
Weak
Since his assumption is the fix of leadership style in individual, we have only two ways to
improve the effectiveness in leadership; those are i) change the leader and ii) change the
situation (relation, task structure and position power)
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Unit 8
Communication
Concept
Communication is a process that allows people to exchange information by one of several methods.
There are auditory means, such as speaking or singing, and nonverbal, physical means, such as body
language, sign language, paralanguage, touch or eye contact.
"Communication is the process of transmitting information from one person to another."
"Effective communication is the process of sending message in such a away that the message
received is as close in meaning as possible to the message intended." - Griffin
Communication Structure
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
Message
Sender
Encoding
Channels
Noise
Feedback
Types of communication
1. Formal and Informal Communication
Formal communication
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Decoding
Receiver
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Informal communication
Informal communication may or may not follow official reporting relationships. It can be the
followings :
a) Grapevine
An informal communication network suitable for large scale organization.
i.
Gossip chain : One person tells many
ii.
Cluster chain : One person passes information to the selected few individuals
b) Management by wandering around
Some managers keep in touch with what's going on by wandering around and talking
with people
Barriers to Communication
Nothing is so simple that it cannot be misunderstood. - Freeman Teague, Jr.
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o
o
Culture, background and bias - We allow our past experiences to change the
meaning of the message. Our culture, background, and bias can be good as they
allow us use our past experiences to understand something new, it is when they
change the meaning of the message then they interfere with the communication
process.
Noise - Equipment or environmental noise impede clear communication. The
sender and the receiver must both be able to concentrate on the messages being
sent to each other.
Ourselves - Focusing on ourselves, rather than the other person can lead to
confusion and conflict. The "Me Generation" is out when it comes to effective
communication. Some of the factors that cause this are defensiveness (we feel
someone is attacking us), superiority (we feel we know more that the other), and
ego (we feel we are the center of the activity).
Perception - If we feel the person is talking too fast, not fluently, does not articulate
clearly, etc., we may dismiss the person. Also our preconceived attitudes affect our
ability to listen. We listen uncritically to persons of high status and dismiss those of
low status.
Message - Distractions happen when we focus on the facts rather than the idea.
Our educational institutions reinforce this with tests and questions. Semantic
distractions occur when a word is used differently than you prefer. For example,
the word chairman instead of chairperson may cause you to focus on the word and
not the message.
Environmental - Bright lights, an attractive person, unusual sights, or any other
stimulus provides a potential distraction.
Smothering - We take it for granted that the impulse to send useful information is
automatic. Not true! Too often we believe that certain information has no value to
others or they are already aware of the facts.
Stress - People do not see things the same way when under stress. What we see
and believe at a given moment is influenced by our psychological frames of
references - our beliefs, values, knowledge, experiences, and goals.
These barriers can be thought of as filters, that is, the message leaves the sender, goes
through the above filters, and is then heard by the receiver. These filters muffle the message.
And the way to overcome filters is through active listening and feedback.
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Organizational skills
-
Follow up
Regulate information flows
Understand the richness of media
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Unit 9
Conflict Management
Concept
Conflict is a situation of disagreement to others view, idea, principle or other matter. It is the
opposition in the decision or approach given by other employees. It may be misunderstanding or
miscommunication or real but inevitable element of interpersonal relationships in organizations.
"Conflict is a disagreement between two or more individual, group or organizations." - Griffin
"Conflict is a process that begins when one party perceives that another party has negatively
affected, or is about to negatively affect, something that the first party cares about." - S.P.
Robbins
Conflict may be job-related or personal, simple or strong, short-lived or for months or even years.
Traditionally, it viewed as a problem, but in modern days, it is viewed that some conflicts are
beneficial to the organizations. All the conflicts are not harmful.
Thoughts of Conflict
High
Traditional view: The belief that all conflict is harmful and must be avoided
Performance
Human relations view: The belief that conflict is a natural and inevitable outcome in any group.
Interactionist view: The belief that conflict is not only a positive force in a group but it is absolutely
Optimal
necessary for a group to perform effective
ly. level of conflict
Low
Low
High
Conflict
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If there is absolutely no conflict in the group or organization, its members may become lazy with no
competition in organization. As a result, group or organizational performance and innovation may
subsequently begin to suffer. A moderate level of conflict among group or organizational members,
on the other hand, can spark motivation, creativity, innovation and initiative and raise performance.
Too much conflict though can produce undesirable results such as hostility and lack of cooperation,
which lower performance.
Stage II
Stage III
Stage IV
Stage V
Potential opposition
or incompatibility
Cognition and
personalization
Intentions
Behaviour
Outcomes
Antecedent
conditions
Communication
Structure
Personal variables
Perceived
Conflict
Felt
Conflict
Conflict-handling
intentions
Competing
Collaborating
Compromising
Avoiding
Accommodating
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Over conflict
Party's
behaviour
Other's
reaction
Increased
group
performance
Decreased
group
performance
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Stage V: Outcome
As a consequence of actions and reaction as behaviour of conflict, it mat increase or decrease the
organizational performance.
Functional Outcomes: Conflict can be highly constructible t when it improves the quality of
decisions, stimulates creativity and innovation, encourages interest and curiosity among group
member, provides the medium through which problems can be raised and releasing tension and
foster the environment for self-evaluation and change. It focuses on majority decision and avoids the
rubber-stamp of decision or group think.
Dysfunctional Outcomes: It is the destructive consequence of conflict that can be destruction of
group, reduction in group cohesiveness, fighting between group members, halt of functioning
threaten for group survival etc.
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Sources of Conflict
1) Interpersonal conflict
- Great variety in goals, perception, attitudes
- Personality clash, distrust each other's motives, dislike one another
- Gender problem
2) Inter group conflict
- Conflict between two or more organizational groups that may arise from organizational
causes than interpersonal causes
- Different department often have different goals, different targets
3) Conflict between organization and environment
- Conflict between the organizations because of competition
- Conflict between organization and its particular stakeholders
Interdepartmental Conflict
One of the major causes of organizational conflict is structural, also known as interdepartmental.
Organizations are designed around product lines, regions or technical specialties. These activities are
assigned to departments that often have mutually exclusive structured interests and goals among the
departmental employees and they interact within a framework of scarce resources and task
dependency. When resources are relatively fixed and when one department's gain is at the expense of
another, conflict should be expected. For example, employee selection is the gain HR Department but
the cost involved in the selection is expense for finance department.
If two sub-units in an organizational system have differentiated goals and are functionally
interdependent, conditions exist for conflict. Interdependence produces the need for team work,
mutual cooperation and understanding but it also creates conflict.
Major causes of departmental conflict:
o
o
o
o
o
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1. Competing
It is a desire to satisfy one's interests, ignoring the impact on the other party to the conflict.
This strategy results from a high concern for self-group's own interests with less concern for
others. The outcome is "win/lose." This strategy includes most attempts at bargaining. It is
generally used when basic rights are at stake or to set a precedent. However, it can cause the
conflict to escalate and losers may try to retaliate.
2. Collaborating
It is the intention of the parties to solve the problem by clarifying differences, cooperation and
mutually beneficial outcome for all conflicting parties. This results from a high concern for
your group's own interests, matched with a high concern for the interests of other partners.
The outcome is "win/win." This strategy is generally used when concerns for others are
important. It is also generally the best strategy when society's interest is at stake. This
approach helps build commitment and reduce bad feelings. The drawbacks are that it takes
time and energy. In addition, some partners may take advantage of the others' trust and
openness. Generally regarded as the best approach for managing conflict, the objective of
collaboration is to reach consensus.
3. Avoiding
It is avoiding the conflicting parties/people, withdrawing or ignoring. These results from a
low concern for self-group's own interests coupled with a low concern for the interests of
others. The outcome is "lose/lose." This strategy is generally used when other issues are more
pressing. It is also used when confrontation has a high potential for damage or more
information is needed. The drawbacks are that important decisions may be made by default.
4. Accommodating
Sacrificing your goal so that others can achieve their goal (to maintain relationship). his
results from a low concern for your group's own interests combined with a high concern for
the interests of other partners. The outcome is "lose/win." This strategy is generally used
when the issue is more important to others than to you.
5. Compromising
Each party in a conflict give up something and solve problem. his strategy results from a high
concern for your group's own interests along with a moderate concern for the interests of
other partners. The outcome is "win some/lose some." This strategy is generally used to
achieve temporary solutions, to avoid destructive power struggles or when time pressures
exist.
Approach
Description
When to use
Problem Solving
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Approach
Description
When to use
creativity to the problem.
Comprise
Smoothing
Smoothing de-emphasizes the differences between This approach is particularly useful for minor
points of view and focuses on commonalities. The or unimportant issues, or issues that are not
smoothing approach involves minimizing the
critical to project success.
importance of the problem at the heart of the
conflict in an effort to make the conflict seem
pointless.
Forcing
The forcing approach requires others to yield to the This approach should be used when time is a
point of view of one side or another. It is also called critical factor. It is imperative that the project
the win-lose approach and can increase conflict.
manager provides the desired resolution to
The forcing approach involves you, as project
the conflict. This approach doesn't solve the
manager, using your influence and powers within conflict, but it does ensure that things get
the project team to simply resolve the issue
done.
yourself, making a decision about the way to move
forward.
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5. Develop procedures for routine tasks and include the employees' input.
a. Have employees write procedures when possible and appropriate.
b. Get employees' review of the procedures.
c. Distribute the procedures.
d. Train employees about the procedures.
6. Regularly hold management meetings, for example, every month, to communicate new initiatives
and status of current programs.
7. Consider an anonymous suggestion box in which employees can provide suggestions.
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Managing Conflict
A Guide for Watershed Partnerships
Understanding conflict.
What is conflict?
Conflict is a natural disagreement resulting from individuals or groups that differ in attitudes, beliefs, values or
needs. It can also originate from past rivalries and personality differences. Other causes of conflict include
trying to negotiate before the timing is right or before needed information is available.
The ingredients of conflict.
Needs - Needs are things that are essential to our well-being. Conflicts arise when we ignore others' needs,
our own needs or the group's needs. Be careful not to confuse needs with desires (things we would like, but
are not essential).
Perceptions - People interpret reality differently. They perceive differences in the severity, causes and
consequences of problems. Misperceptions or differing perceptions may come from: self-perceptions, others'
perceptions, differing perceptions of situations and perceptions of threat.
Power - How people define and use power is an important influence on the number and types of conflicts that
occur. This also influences how conflict is managed. Conflicts can arise when people try to make others change
their actions or to gain an unfair advantage.
Values - Values are beliefs or principles we consider to be very important. Serious conflicts arise when people
hold incompatible values or when values are not clear. Conflicts also arise when one party refuses to accept
the fact that the other party holds something as a value rather than a preference.
Feelings and emotions - Many people let their feelings and emotions become a major influence over how
they deal with conflict. Conflicts can also occur because people ignore their own or others' feelings and
emotions. Other conflicts occur when feelings and emotions differ over a particular issue.
Conflict is not always negative. In fact, it can be healthy when effectively managed. Healthy conflict can lead
to...
Growth and innovation
New ways of thinking
Additional management options
If the conflict is understood, it can be effectively managed by reaching a consensus that meets both the
individual's and society's needs. This results in mutual benefits and strengthens the relationship. The goal is for
all to "win" by having at least some of their needs met.
How public and private conflicts differ.
Most of us have experience with conflict management and negotiation in private disputes (with a salesman,
among family members or with your employer).
Public conflicts, like those that can occur during watershed management efforts and other environmental issues
often are rooted in trying to balance environmental protection and economic growth and jobs. Keep in mind,
however, that effective watershed management can result in both economic and environmental benefits. Some
complicating factors include:
Distribution of costs and benefits. Those who benefit may not be the same as those who pay the costs.
Perceptions of problems. People tend to blame others for causing the problem.
Speed of clean-up or other actions. Some will want changes to take place more quickly than others.
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Managing Conflict
There are five steps to managing conflict. These steps are:
Analyze the conflict
Determine management strategy
Pre-negotiation
Negotiation
Post-negotiation
Step 1: Analyze the conflict.
The first step in managing conflict is to analyze the nature and type of conflict. To do this, you'll find it helpful to
ask questions.
Answers may come from your own experience, your partners or local media coverage. You may want to
actually interview some of the groups involved. Additional information regarding analyzing conflicts can be
found in the Guide to Information and Resources.
Step 2: Determine management strategy.
Once you have a general understanding of the conflict, the groups involved will need to analyze and select the
most appropriate strategy. In some cases it may be necessary to have a neutral facilitator to help move the
groups toward consensus.
Conflict Management Strategies
Collaboration
Compromise
Competition
Accommodation
Avoidance
Collaboration - This results from a high concern for your group's own interests, matched with a high concern
for the interests of other partners. The outcome is "win/win." This strategy is generally used when concerns for
others are important. It is also generally the best strategy when society's interest is at stake. This approach
helps build commitment and reduce bad feelings. The drawbacks are that it takes time and energy. In addition,
some partners may take advantage of the others' trust and openness. Generally regarded as the best approach
for managing conflict, the objective of collaboration is to reach consensus. (See the Building Local Partnerships
guide for more information about consensus.)
Compromise - This strategy results from a high concern for your group's own interests along with a moderate
concern for the interests of other partners. The outcome is "win some/lose some." This strategy is generally
used to achieve temporary solutions, to avoid destructive power struggles or when time pressures exist. One
drawback is that partners can lose sight of important values and long-term objectives. This approach can also
distract the partners from the merits of an issue and create a cynical climate.
Competition - This strategy results from a high concern for your group's own interests with less concern for
others. The outcome is "win/lose." This strategy includes most attempts at bargaining. It is generally used when
basic rights are at stake or to set a precedent. However, it can cause the conflict to escalate and losers may try
to retaliate.
Accommodation - This results from a low concern for your group's own interests combined with a high
concern for the interests of other partners. The outcome is "lose/win." This strategy is generally used when the
issue is more important to others than to you. It is a "goodwill gesture." It is also appropriate when you
recognize that you are wrong.The drawbacks are that your own ideas and concerns don't get attention. You
may also lose credibility and future influence.
Avoidance -This results from a low concern for your group's own interests coupled with a low concern for the
interests of others. The outcome is "lose/lose." This strategy is generally used when the issue is trivial or other
issues are more pressing. It is also used when confrontation has a high potential for damage or more
information is needed. The drawbacks are that important decisions may be made by default.
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Step 4: Negotiation.
Interests - When negotiating be sure to openly discuss interests, rather than stated positions. Interests include
the reasons, needs, concerns and motivations underlying positions. Satisfaction of interests should be the
common goal.
Options - To resolve conflicts, concentrate on inventing options for satisfying interests. Do not judge ideas or
favor any of the options suggested. Encourage creativity, not commitment.
Evaluation - Only after the partners have finished listing options, should the options be discussed. Determine
together which ideas are best for satisfying various interests.
Written agreement - Document areas of agreement and disagreement to ensure common understanding. This
helps ensure that agreements can be remembered and communicated clearly.
Commitment - Every partner must be confident that the others will carry out their parts of the agreement.
Discuss and agree upon methods to ensure partners understand and honor their commitments.
When evaluating options...
Use objective criteria for ranking ideas
Make trade-offs among different issues
Combine different options to form acceptable agreements
Step 5: Post-negotiation.
Once negotiation is complete, the group will need to implement the decisions made. Some key steps include:
Ratification - The partners must get support for the agreement from organizations that have a role to play in
the agreement. These organizations should be partners and should have been involved in the previous steps.
Each organization will need to follow its own procedures to review and adopt the agreement.
Implementation - You and your partners' jobs are not done when you've reached agreement. Communication
and collaboration should continue as the agreement is carried out. The partnership will need to have a plan to
monitor progress, document success, resolve problems, renegotiate terms and celebrate success.
Negotiation skills.
Negotiation is an important skill for coming to an agreement when conflicts develop at home, at work and when
dealing with issues like those related to watershed management. When negotiating...
Separate people from the problem.
When negotiating, remember you're dealing with people who have their own unique needs, emotions and
perceptions.
Some conflicts are based on differences in thinking and perceptions. These conflicts may exist mainly in
peoples' minds. It helps for each party to put themselves into the other's shoes so they can understand each
other's point of view.
Identify and openly discuss differences in perceptions, being careful not to place blame. In addition, recognize
and understand the other side's emotions as well as your own.
Interest vs. Position
People often confuse interests with positions. An interest may be reducing litter in roadside ditches. There are
many possible ways of addressing this interest. One might be the position of mandatory recycling. Another
position might be a deposit on bottles and cans. Still another could be organizing a clean-up day.
Focus on interests, not positions.
Focusing on interests, rather than positions, makes it possible to come up with better agreements. Even when
people stand on opposite positions, they usually have a few shared interests.
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It takes time and effort to identify interests. Groups may not even be clear about their own interests. It helps to
write down each group's interests as they are discovered. It helps to ask why others take the positions or make
the decisions they do. Partners will have multiple interests. Interests involving important human needs (such as
security, economic well-being, a sense of belonging, recognition and control over one's life) are difficult to
negotiate.
Develop optional solutions.
When developing optional solutions that meet the interests of all sides, try to meet as many of each side's
interests as possible. Start by inviting all sides to brainstorm ideas (before reaching a decision). Brainstorming
is discussed in the Leading & Communicating guide.
Some obstacles to developing innovative options are:
Judging and rejecting prematurely
Searching for a single best answer
Putting limits on scope or vision
Considering only your own interests
To overcome these obstacles, view the situation through the eyes of different partners. Focus on shared
interests to make the process smoother for all involved. Look for meaningful opportunities, not simple solutions.
Developing objective criteria.
When developing criteria for selecting or combining possible alternatives, revisit the conflicting interests. These
can't be ignored or "wished" away. Instead discuss them as you begin developing criteria for judging
alternatives. Also keep in mind principles such as fairness, efficiency and scientific merit.
Strive for criteria that are legitimate, practical and unbiased. You may also find it helps to explore the criteria
used in making past decisions and discuss criteria with your partners or outside experts.
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3. Competing. Work to get your way, rather than clarifying and addressing the issue. Competitors love
accommodators.
a. Use when you have a very strong conviction about your position.
4. Compromising. Mutual give-and-take.
a. Use when the goal is to get past the issue and move on.
5. Collaborating. Focus on working together.
a. Use when the goal is to meet as many current needs as possible by using mutual
resources. This approach sometimes raises new mutual needs.
b. Use when the goal is to cultivate ownership and commitment.
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Unit 10
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Force
Examples
Technology
Economic shocks
Competition
Global competitors
Mergers and consolidations
Growth of e-commerce
Social trends
World politics
Resistance to Change
Organizational change is an enviable phenomenon in every enterprise. However, research has shown
that people of the organization resists change. Such resistance may severely interrupt the change
process. The followings are the major forces for resistance to change.
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employees accept change can be done. Cooptation is another process which uses the
manipulation and participation providing the key role in decision making to the leader of
potential resistance group. The purpose is not to consider their advice but get the
endorsement.
6. Coercion: It is the process of using force and threats on the resisters is coercion. It is the last
step and if the step five (manipulation and cooptation) doesn't work, management is
compelled to coerce the employees for change.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
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1. Respect for people: Individuals are perceived as being responsible, conscientious and caring,
they should be treated with dignity and respect
2. Trust and support: The effective and healthy organization is characterized by trust,
authenticity, openness and a supportive climate
Data Collection
Evaluation
Feedback and
Confrontation
Action Planning
Interventions
Sensitivity Training
Survey Feedback
Process Consultation
Team Building 82
Inter-group development
Appreciative Inquiry
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3. Feedback and confrontation: After the initial diagnosis and identifying solutions, a summary of
collected data is provided to employees for their feedback. Confrontation takes place with
disagreement. The OD team is responsible to address those disagreements and defines the areas of
priority for change.
4. Action Planning: It is the specific plan with appropriate resource allocation. With the consultation
of experts, appropriate actions with alternatives are developed with potential consequences.
5. Interventions: It is the process of implementing the change towards the development.
Interventions are the techniques of OD for bringing the change. Such techniques are:
Sensitivity Training: It is a method of changing through unstructured group interaction.
Members brought together in a free and open environment in which participants discuss
themselves and their interactive processes, loosely directed by a professional behavioral
scientist. It is a process of laboratory training in which participants learn by observing rather
than saying which helps in dealing interpersonal problems.
Survey Feedback: It is the process of using questionnaires to identify differences among
members' perceptions. The result of survey is discussed I groups to develop remedies.
Training and development activities can also be initiated to solve the major problems.
Process Consultation: It is a process of consultation in which external consultant assists a
client to understand process events with which he or she must deal and identify processes
that need improvement. The consultant helps the client solving his or her own problems with
best processes.
Team building: Work teams are formed to implement change process which will have highinteraction in group activities to increase trust and openness among team members. It can be
applied within groups at which activities arte interdependent
Inter-group development: It is the process of changing the attitude, stereotypes and
perception of the group in each other. Understanding and coordination will be developed
among different group and make harmonious working environment.
Appreciative Inquiry: Seeks to identify the unique qualities and special strengths of an
organization, which can then be built n to improve performance.
Others:
Organizational restructuring: Process of overall change in organizational structure
Technological changes: Modification of work methods, redesigning jobs, application and
installment of modern technologies
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