Journal of Materials Processing Technology 106 (2000) 3439

New methods of aluminium and aluminium-alloy chips recycling

J. Gronostajski*, H. Marciniak, A. Matuszak
Institute of Mechanical Engineering and Automation, Technical University of Wrocaw, ul. ukasiewicza 3/5, 50-371 Wroclaw, Poland

Abstract
A technology that has been developed systematically in recent years is that of the manufacturing of sintered products with predetermined properties. It has been demonstrated that such products can be manufactured from waste such as aluminium and aluminiumalloy chips. The method consists in the conversion of the chips directly into a nished product. The method has been applied to the
production of composite materials, characterised by good strength properties at room and elevated temperature, as well as for bearing
materials. # 2000 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Aluminium; Aluminium alloys; Recycling; Composites

1. Introduction
When metal products are manufactured, considerable
amounts of waste in the form of chips and discards are
produced. This waste and scrap is returned to melting,
whereby some of the metal is recovered and reutilised in
production processes. During the recycling of the waste, a
lot of metal is lost as a result of oxidation and the costs of
labour and energy as well as the expenditures on environmental protection increases the general cost of the process.
However, there is a different way of recycling metal chips,
consisting in the direct conversion of chips into compact
metal. The method contains the cutting of chips to a
granulated product that is then cold pressed and hot extruded
or hot forged, whereby melting is eliminated. This kind of
recycling can be applied to iron, copper and aluminium
alloys and, to some extent, to cast iron [110].
Considering metal losses and comparing the costs
involved can assess the efciency of the two methods of
recycling. Such an assessment is presented in paper [11] for
aluminium scrap recycled by continuous extrusion according to the Conform method [12] in industrial installations.
In the process of melting aluminium and aluminium-alloy
waste and scrap, on average about 10% of the metal is burnt
and about 10% of it is lost because aluminium mixes with
the slag removed from the surface of the ladle [11,13,14].
The losses are irreversible and can reach about 35% if
melting takes place in gas- or oil-red furnaces instead of

Corresponding author.

induction furnaces. The main cause of the substantial losses

of aluminium and aluminium-alloy waste during conventional recycling is its low density (even after the pressing
operation) due to which it stays rather long on the surface of
the molten metal and oxidises intensively. There are further
losses during casting such as risers, shrink holes and so on,
which reach about 8%. Later, during the processing of
aluminium ingots, there are losses amounting to about
18%. Therefore ultimately no more than 54% of the metal
is recovered.
In the case of the direct conversion of aluminium and
aluminium-alloy chips into compact metal by extrusion, the
waste is the part of the chips from which impurities cannot
be removed (2%) and the extrusion waste is of up to 3%; thus
ultimately 95% of the metal is recovered.
Usually the energy consumed for the conventional recycling of aluminium is 1619 GJ/t, whereas in the direct
conversion of aluminium chips into compact material only
56 GJ of energy per ton is needed. By reducing the number
of operations, the direct conversion method allows labour to
be reduced to 2.56.5 man-hours per ton of the product,
whilst for conventional recycling, this gure is much higher,
ranging from 11 to 15 man-hours per ton, including 3 manhours per ton for the production of ingots, 5 man-hours per
ton needed to produce billets and 35 man-hours per ton for
the production of sections.
The benets of the direct conversion of aluminium and
aluminium-alloy chips into compact metal include also a
possible reduction in the funds spend on environment protection as a result of the reduced consumption of ores and
energy carriers, and less degradation of the natural environment because of reduced air-pollution emission. Flow charts

0924-0136/00/$ see front matter # 2000 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 9 2 4 - 0 1 3 6 ( 0 0 ) 0 0 6 3 4 - 8

J. Gronostajski et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 106 (2000) 3439

35

The chips should have: (i) a proper chemical composition

to produce composites with specic properties; and (ii) no
mechanical and other than machining impurities that would
make the comminution of the chips to a granulated product
difcult on which can change their chemical composition.
2.1. Preparation of aluminium and aluminium-alloy chips
for the manufacture of products by the direct conversion
method

Fig. 1. Flow charts of the conventional recycling of aluminium and

aluminium-alloy chips and of their direct conversion [1].

of the conventional recycling of aluminium and aluminiumalloy chips and of their direct conversion are shown in Fig. 1.
To sum up, it should be emphasised that the environmentally clean direct conversion of aluminium scrap into compact metal results in savings of 40% in material, 2631% in
energy and 1660% in labour.
Factors that contribute signicantly to the bonding of
aluminium and aluminium-alloy chips with an introduced
consolidating phase include: (i) the amount, form and size of
the consolidating phase; (ii) the degree of neness of the
aluminium and aluminium-alloy chips; (iii) the cold pressing parameters; (iv) the shape of the extrusion dies; (v) the
degree of reduction; (vi) the lubrication method and the
lubricants used; and (vii) the temperature and rate of extrusion.
An extrusion stand must have facilities for the compacting
of the prepared conglomerate of chips with the reinforcing
phase, the sintering of the green compact and the extrusion
of products with specied geometry. The important factors
are the method of lubricating and the kind of lubricant used,
which must not hinder the bonding of the chips together and
with the consolidating phase, but must exert inuence on the
friction forces between the surface of the tools and the
extruded composites. Aluminium and aluminium-alloy
chips can be recycled with and without a reinforcing phase.
As reinforcing phases can be used aluminium oxide, tungsten, silicon carbide, ferro-chromium and aluminium
bronze.
2. Aluminium and aluminium-alloy chips as stock for
the manufacturing of products
Aluminium and aluminium-alloy chips belong to a group
of reclaimed raw materials which should be collected and
stored, by the categories, classes and grades of metals, in
boxes with a hard bottom, in containers in storehouses, or in
yards with roofs, to protect the material against becoming
mixed up [7].

The preparation of aluminium chips for the manufacture

of products by direct conversion covers: (i) the segregation
of the chips; (ii) the cleaning of the chips of impurities; and
(iii) the comminution of the chips to a granulated product.
Aluminium and aluminium-alloy chips should be segregated according to their chemical composition and also
divided depending on their impurities immediately at production plants, which will make it easier to obtain products
of a desired chemical composition: the segregation of the
chips at a later stage is practically impossible.
Aluminium and aluminium-alloy chips are fouled chiey
with the coolants and lubricants used in machining, usually
with oil emulsion. The emulsion can be removed from the
chips by a chemical method or a thermal method [1,15].
Tests [2,3] and literature analyses [16] of different methods of purifying aluminium and aluminium-alloy chips of oil
emulsion taking into account economic, technological and
environmental aspects point to the thermal method (without
the deposition of carbonisation products on the surface of the
chips) as the most appropriate method.
To be suitable for sintering, the chips must be granulated.
Considering this and the requirements that powders used for
the making of sinters must meet, strip chips were comminuted by cutting them up into particles of no more than
several millimetres length. The chips were comminuted in a
cutting mill of the authors' design [3]. To make composites,
the following aluminium granulated particle sizes were
used: below 4 mm; from 4 to 2 mm; below 2 mm; from 1
to 0.5 mm and below 0.5 mm.
2.2. Mixing of aluminium or aluminium-alloy granulated
products with reinforcing phases
To mix aluminium and aluminium-alloy granulated products with reinforcing phases; initially an atritor-type ball
mill was employed. The mill had a xed chamber and a
rotary mixer (with a vertical axis of rotation) which drove
steel balls of 12.5 mm diameter. As a result of the action of
the steel balls on the material, the latter is fragmented and
cold bonded and a granulated product with a composite
(hard dispersion particles in the metal matrix) and highly
rened structure is obtained. Such mills have the drawback
that gravitational segregation of particles occurs in them and
the heavier particles settle on the bottom of the mixing
chamber, which leads to the non-uniform distribution of the
heavier reinforced particles and to the impoverishment of

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J. Gronostajski et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 106 (2000) 3439

them, in this respect relative to the initial composition of the

mixture fed into the mill.
To avoid this, a high-power ball mill with a horizontal axis
of rotation, an inside diameter of the drum Db130 mm, a
length of the drum Lb150 mm and a number of revolutions
nb300 rpm was constructed. The mill was lled with
20 mm diameter steel balls for up to 45% of its volume.
It was used for the mixing of aluminium and aluminiumalloy granulates products with particles of reinforcing
phases.
2.3. Compacting of mixtures
Mixtures of the granulate product and the reinforcing
phase produced in the ball mill were subjected to compacting, sintering and extrusion. The mixtures were pre-compacted by cold pressing in a device with a oating die under
a constant pressure of 210400 MPa. In some cases, presintering was employed to set in motion the diffusion
transport of matter between the aluminium and aluminium-alloy particles and the reinforcing phases. Because
of the relatively small number of contact bridges between
the particles and the highly intensive oxidation of their
surfaces, the diffusion transport of matter during sintering
which would be free of large plastic strains was very limited.
Therefore to obtain diffusion bonding between particles by
crushing the layer of oxides and actuating diffusion processes under a high pressure and temperature, hot extrusion
was employed as the nal operation. Hot extrusion was
carried on in the temperature ranging from 500 to 5508C
after cold pressing.
3. Kinds of produced materials
3.1. Materials produced from aluminium and its alloys
without reinforcing-phase addition
Laboratory investigations [4,5] of the bonding of aluminium and AlMg2 and AlCu4 aluminium alloy chips without
a reinforcing-phase addition have shown that the chips after
proper preparation can be bonded through the processes of
cold pressing and hot extrusion. The size of granulated
particles below 4 mm has no signicant effect on the properties of the extruded product. The extrusion should be
performed in the temperature range between 500 and
5508C and the fractional reduction needed for the bonding
of the comminuted chips should equal at least four. The
round-cross-section and small-diameter products obtained
in this way have properties comparable to those of solid
materials. This is due to the good bonding of the chips
and the consolidating action of the crushed aluminium-oxide
layer covering the comminuted chips. The amount of
thus obtained reinforcing phase is small but it has a noticeably favourable effect on the properties of the material
obtained.

3.2. Aluminium and aluminium-alloy composites with

tungsten powder
The stock was in the form of aluminium and AlMg2 and
AlCu4 aluminium-alloy chips comminuted to a size of
below 4 mm and tungsten powder with a particle size of
up to 180 mm. The comminuted chips and tungsten powder
were mixed in a vertical-rotation ball mill for 2 h in the case
of aluminium chips and for 3 h in the case of AlMg2 and
AlCu4 aluminium-alloy chips. The mixtures prepared in this
way were cold compacted under a pressure of 210 MPa in a
device with a oating die and then hot extruded at the
temperature of 5008C, with a 6.25 reduction and a rate of
extrusion of 102 m/s. The chemical composition of the
composites produced is given in Table 1 [17,18].
To obtain this composition of the composites, nearly twice
as large an amount of tungsten powder had to be introduced
into the mixtures because a lot of it stayed (due to gravitational segregation) at the bottom of the vertical-rotation-axis
ball mill. The mass density of the mixture, depending on its
tungsten content, ranged from 1.2 to 1.5 g/cm3. After cold
pressing, a material with the density of above 2.2 g/cm3 was
obtained and the aluminium, aluminium-alloy and tungsten
particles had displaced considerably, which resulted in their
mechanical bonding. After hot extrusion, a relative density
of over 98% of the theoretical density of the aluminium or
aluminium-alloy mixture with a proper amount of tungsten
was obtained. The slightly lower density of AlMg2 and
AlCu4 based composites in comparison with that of Al
based composites is due to the worse plastic properties of
the AlMg2 and AlCu4 alloy matrix as compared with the
plasticity of pure aluminium.
A 1.5% addition of tungsten to all of the kinds of
composites only slightly increases their hardness. The greatest hardness was always obtained at the highest tungsten
content and was 37 HB for aluminium-matrix composites,
63 HB for AlMg2-alloy-matrix composites, and 100 HB for
AlCu4-alloy-matrix composites.

Table 1
The chemical composition of the composites
Designation of material
AlW0
AlW0.3
AlW0.6
AlW0.75
AlMg2W0
AlMg2W0.7
AlMg2W1.2
AlMg2W1.5
AlCu4W0
AlCu4W0.6
AlCu4W0.8
AlCu4W1.6

Chemical composition (wt.%)

Mn

Mg

0.52
0.50
0.49
0.49
0.63
0.58
0.72
0.69

2.10
2.09
2.08
2.07
0.68
0.74
0.61
0.64

0.30
0.60
0.75

0.70
1.20
1.50

0.62
0.80
1.60

J. Gronostajski et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 106 (2000) 3439

37

3.3. Aluminium and aluminium-alloy composites with

ferro-chromium powder

and extrusion. The cold compacting was performed in a

device with a oating die under a constant pressure of
250 MPa. The sintering was conducted in a vacuum of
103 hPa or in air at 5508C for 2 h. Hot extrusion was
carried on in the temperature range 5005508C with an
extrusion coefcient of 16. A mixture of zinc stearate with
graphite was used as lubricant.
The specimens for torsion test at 20, 150, 300 and 4508C
were prepared from extruded bars of 10 mm diameter.
Specimens of 6.5 mm diameter and of 10 mm measuring
length were deformed at a strain rate of 1.2101 s1. For
torsion tests, a screw plastometer under full computer control was used. The method of calculation of the ow stress
and the true strain in the torsion test is described in [21], both
of the properties being calculated according to the Huber
Mises theory. The structure was investigate using optical and
scanning electron microscopes and for image analysis the
system VISILOG-4 was used.
For description of the different composites the following
symbols were applied: A1BT, A1BV, A1OT, A1OV, A2BT,
A2BV, A2OT, A2OV, A3BT, A3BV, A3OT, A3OV. The rst
sign describes the based materials: A aluminium, P
AlMg2 alloy, and K AlCu4 alloy; the second sign shows
the content of ferro-chromium: 114%, 29% and 36%; the
third sign shows the dimensions of the granulated chips: B
below 0.5 mm, and O 0.51.0 mm; and the fourth sign
shows the atmosphere of sintering: T air, and V
vacuum.
It was found that the effect of the sintering atmosphere on
the mechanical properties of the composites was negligible
so all of the results presented in the paper are associated with
the sintering in air. The effect of the ferro-chromium content
on the maximum values of the ow stress is shown in Fig. 2.
At the lower temperatures of 20 and 1508C the ow stress
increases rapidly with ferro-chromium addition up to 6%,
and then decreases, whilst for reinforcing phase higher than
9% it has a constant value. At the higher temperatures of 300
and 4508C a nearly continuous increase of stress with ferrochromium content is observed. Such a relationship means
that the effect of ferro-chromium on the ow stress is

The good mechanical properties of composites with

tungsten powder suggest that it could be possible to produce
composites from aluminium and its alloys chips with the
addition of reinforcing phases for high-temperature application. As the starting materials, a mixture of granulated chips
of pure aluminium with ferro-chromium powder of grain
size less than 50 mm containing 25% of Cr were used [20].
The granulated chips of two fractions, 0.51.0 mm and
below 0.5 mm, were mixture with different amounts of
reinforcing phases: 6, 9 and 14%. A high-power ball mill
with a horizontal axis of rotation lled with 20 mm diameter
steel balls to up to 45% of its volume was used for the mixing
of granulated aluminium and its alloy chips with particles of
reinforcing phase. Mixtures of the granulate chips and the
reinforcing phase were subjected to compaction, sintering

Fig. 2. The effect of ferro-chromium content on the ow stress at different

temperatures.

The Brinell hardness of the composites produced is only

slightly higher than that of metallurgically produced aluminium and its respective alloys without a tungsten addition.
The reasons why the increase is so small may be the porosity
of the composites, a lack of diffusion bonds between some
particles and low tungsten content. Still, one must say that
areas of porous material occur extremely rarely in the
structure of the composites. The structure of the composites
usually has a very small number of pores with discontinuous
diffusion bonds between the particles. Similar diffusion
bonds were observed in copper-matrix composites [19]. A
mechanism of this kind of bonding is similar to that of the
decreasing porosity during the extrusion of sintered materials.
The good diffusion bonding and the low porosity of the
produced composites were obtained as a result of: (i) a high
extrusion temperature at which the matrix material becomes
highly plastic and lls the pores; and (ii) a low extrusion rate
whereby the time needed for the lling of the pores by the
matrix material and the diffusion transport of matter is
extended.
As the tungsten content increases, the yield point and the
tensile strength increase slightly. By comparing the properties of the composites and the solid materials without
tungsten one nds that aluminium-based composites have
a higher yield point and almost the same tensile strength as
that of the solid material, whereas AlMg2-matrix-based
composites have the same yield point and slightly lower
tensile strength than that of the solid material.
In general, the strength and plastic properties of the
composites are only slightly different from those of the
corresponding solid materials. On one hand, the addition of
tungsten and the aluminium oxides that are formed in the
process of making the composites improve their strength
properties and on the other hand, the remaining porosity and
the lack of diffusion bonds in some areas impair these
properties.

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J. Gronostajski et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 106 (2000) 3439

3.4. Aluminium composites with aluminiumbronze

particles

Fig. 3. The effect of temperature and chip fraction on the ow stress (14%
FeCr25).

dependent on the applied temperature: the higher the temperature the greater is the amount of reinforcing phase
needed to obtain good strengthening properties.
The effect of temperature on the maximum values of the
ow stress of composites made from smaller and larger
fractions of granulated aluminium chips is presented in
Fig. 3. From this gure it can be seen that up to 3008C
the ow stress decreases slowly, but thereafter decreases
rapidly. Better mechanical properties were obtained for
composites made from a smaller fraction of granulated chips
(Fig. 3). This can be explaining by a more uniform distribution of the ferro-chromium phase in the aluminium matrix
when using a smaller fraction of chips.
The fracture strain of the composites increases with
temperature and decreases with ferro-chromium content.
The biggest differences in fracture strain are observed
between composites containing 14% of ferro-chromium
and composites with a lesser content of reinforcing phase
(6 and 9%).
On the basis of the results of the present investigation of
manufacturing composites from granulated chips with ferrochromium addition as a reinforcing phase, it has been
concluded that: (i) the effect of the ferro-chromium content
on the ow stress is dependent on the applied temperature,
the greater the temperature the greater is the amount of
reinforcing phase needed to obtain good strengthening
properties; (ii) composites have good strength properties
at up to 3008C, but at greater temperature a rapid decrease of
strength is observed; (iii) better mechanical properties were
obtained for composites made from smaller size granulated
chips (below 0.5 mm) than from larger size (0.51.0 mm);
(iv) the effect of the sintering atmosphere on the mechanical
properties is negligible; (v) the fracture strain increases
continuously with temperature but the fracture strain of
composites containing 14% of ferro-chromium is much
lower than that of composites containing a lesser amount
of ferro-chromium; and (vi) the method can be used to
extrude products in the form of bars, sections and pipes,
which can be formed in further operations.

In recent years, research aimed at producing composite

materials based on aluminium and its alloys to be used for
the manufacturing of bearings has been conducted [2226].
Such composites are usually produced from aluminium
powders with silicon-powder, silicon carbide and graphite
additions [16].
An original concept of producing such a composite,
consisting in the mixing and bonding of aluminium chips
with aluminiumbronze chips through cold compaction and
extrusion, has been developed. As a result of the diffusion of
copper during extrusion and heat treatment applied after
extrusion from the particles of the aluminiumbronze to the
aluminium matrix, a phase transformation leading to an
increase in the quantity of intermetallic phases takes place.
Due to this the particles become harder and more wear
resistant.
Aluminium-matrix composite bearing materials are produced by bonding comminuted aluminium chips with a
coarsely comminuted fraction of aluminiumbronze chips
(below 2 mm and between 2 and 4 mm). The quantity and
the kind of reinforcing phase will be determined on the basis
of further research. Composite materials produced in this
way will be characterised by a typical bearing-alloy structure, i.e. by large hard load-carrying particles distributed in
the soft aluminium matrix. A structure like this cannot be
obtained in the case of aluminium alloys by other methods
than powder metallurgy.
It has been observed that when the reinforcing phase is
increased by 1530%, the yield point and the strength
determined in the tensile test are reduced but in the compression test these two properties are increased. Composites
with a larger-size reinforcing phase are characterised by
somewhat better strength properties and worse plastic properties. On the basis of the results obtained from the mechanical tests it can be stated that the strength and plastic
properties of the composites produced meet the requirements for bearing materials.
An analysis of the tribological properties of the composites shows that composites with 1522% reinforcing-phase
content and with larger-size particles (24 mm) have better
tribological properties. Also, the coefcients of friction at
different pressures are lower for the composite with the
larger-particle reinforcing phase. A clear decrease in wear
has already been observed for above 15% of reinforcingphase content [26].
4. Conclusions
Aluminium and aluminium-alloy chips can be recycled by
the direct conversion method, which is characterised by low
energy-consumption and large material savings. The most
suitable way of recycling the chips is their processing

J. Gronostajski et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 106 (2000) 3439

through hot extrusion. The method can be used to extrude

products in the form of bars, sections and pipes, which can
be formed further as if they were made of a homogenous
material. By employing hot extrusion, sintering can be
eliminated, since the latter proceeds with sufcient intensity
during extrusion.
The results of the tests that were carried out have shown
the following.
1. The relative densities of the composites after hot
extrusion are almost identical to theoretical values.
2. The strength of the composites without reinforcing
phases differ marginally from those of the corresponding solid materials, and by introducing the reinforcing
phase the strength can be improved, especially at higher
temperatures.
3. It has been found that the way in which the reinforcing
phase is introduced into the comminuted aluminium and
aluminium-alloy chips has a signicant effect on the
quantity and distribution of the reinforcing phase in the
matrix.
4. Floating die compaction and the good lubrication of the
tool surfaces ensure a uniform distribution of the density
in the green compact.
5. To obtain the bonding of particles separated by a layer
of oxide and a highly compacted product, two conditions must be fullled: the employment of thin
aluminium-oxide and large plastic deformation.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank the Polish Committee of
Sciences Research for funding this work.
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