DPS

modern
Indian
School
On

AlWakrah,
State of
Qatar

Biology Project
Effect Of Cannabis
The Human Body

20152016

By,
Kevin Joseph,
XII 'E'

DPS modern Indian School

Bonfaide Certificate

Certified to be the Bonafide Project work

in Biology done by Kevin Joseph of class
XII Section E of DPS Modern Indian
School during the year 2015-2016.

______________
_____________
Signature of Principal
Signature of Subject Teacher
School Seal:

Submitted for the practical examination held on

______________ at ___________________________.
2 | Page

Internal Examiner
External Examiner
________________
________________
Date:

Ackno
wledg
ment

would like to
express my sincere
gratitude to my Biology teacher, Mrs.
Soma Bhattacharjee and our Principal,
Mrs. Asna Nafees who gave me the
golden opportunity and valued support
to do a wonderful project on the topic
Effects of Cannabis on the human
body. I would also like to thank my
parents, who sacrificed their precious
time to help me complete the project in
the given time.

3 | Page

CONT
ENTS
1.
Introduction
2.
Cannabinoids
and Cannabinoid receptors
3.
Biochemical mechanisms in the
brain
4.
Toxicity
5.
Psychoactive effects
6.
Somatic effects
7.
Neurological effects
8.
Cardiovascular effects
9.
Long term effects of Cannabis
10. Medicinal use of Cannabis
11. Bibliography
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INTRO
DUCTI
ON

Cannabis, also
known as
marijuana, and by
numerous other
names, is a preparation of the Cannabis plant
intended for use as a psychoactive or drug and
as medicine. Pharmacologically, the principal
psychoactive constituent of Cannabis is
tetrahydrocannabinol (THC); It is one of 483
known compounds in the plant, including at least
84 other cannabinoids, such as cannabidiol
(CBD), cannabinol (CBN), tetrahydrocannabivarin
(THCV), and cannabigerol (CBG).

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The effects of cannabis are caused by chemical

compounds in cannabis, including cannabinoids
such as tetrahydrocannabinol (THC). Cannabis
has both psychological and physiological effects
on the human body. Five European Countries,
Canada, and twenty US states have legalized
medical cannabis if prescribed for nausea, pain or
the alleviation of symptoms surrounding chronic
illness. Cannabis use is associated with social and
behavioral problems, and carries a risk to
physical and mental health.
These effects caused by cannabis on different
parts of the human body are looked into in this
project.

Canna
biniod
s and
Canna
binoid
recep
tors
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The most notably prevalent

psychoactive substances in
cannabis are cannabinoids, most
notably THC.

The cannabinoid receptor is a

typical member of the largest
known family of receptors called

a G protein-coupled receptor. A signature of this

type or receptor is the distinct pattern of how the
receptor molecules spans the cell membrane
seven times. The location of the cannabinoid
receptor exists on the cell membrane and both
outside (extracellularly) and inside
(intracellularly) the cell membrane. CB1
receptors, the bigger of the two, are
extraordinarily abundant in the brain. CB2
receptors are structurally different, found only on
cells of the immune system, and seem to
function similarly to its CB1 counterpart. CB2
receptors are most commonly prevalent on Bcells, natural killer cells, and monocytes, but can
also be found on polymorphonuclear neutrophil
cells, T8 cells and T4 cells. In the tonsils, the CB2
receptors appear to appear to be restricted to Blymphocyte-enriched areas. THC and endogenous
anandamide additionally interact with glycine
receptors.

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Bioch
emica
l
mech
anism
s in
the
brain

8 | Page

Cannabinoids usually contain a

1,1'-di-methyl-pyran ring,
constituting a family of about 60
bi-cyclic and tri-cyclic
compounds. Like most other
neurological processes, the
effects of cannabis on the brain
follow the standard protocol
of signal transduction, the
electrochemical system of
sending signals through neurons
for a biological response. The
binding of cannabinoids to

cannabinoid receptors decrease adenylyl

cyclase activity, inhibit calcium N channels, and
disinhibit K+A channels. There are at least two
types of cannabinoid receptors (CB1 and CB2).
The CB1 receptor is found primarily in the brain
and mediates the psychological effects of THC.
The CB2 receptor is most abundantly found on
cells of the immune system. Cannabinoids act
as immunomodulators at CB2 receptors, meaning
they increase some immune responses and
decrease others. For example, nonpsychotropic
cannabinoids
can
be
used
as
a
very
effective anti-inflammatory.
The
affinity
of
cannabinoids to bind to either receptor is about
the same, with only a slight increase observed
with the plant-derived compound CBD binding to
CB2 receptors more frequently. Cannabinoids
likely have a role in the brains control
of movement and memory, as well as natural
pain modulation. It is clear that cannabinoids can
affect pain transmission and, specifically, that
cannabinoids
interact
with
the
brain's
endogenous opioid system
and
may
affect
dopamine transmission. This is an important
physiological pathway for the medical treatment
of pain.

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Toxici
ty

No fatal
overdoses with
cannabis
use have been
reported as
of 2010. THC, the
principal psychoactive constituent of the
cannabis plant, has an extremely low toxicity and
the amount that can enter the body through the
consumption of cannabis plants poses no threat
of death. The ratio of cannabis material required
to produce a fatal overdose to the amount
required to saturate cannabinoid receptors and
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cause intoxication is approximately 40,000:1. It

was found in 2007 that while tobacco and
cannabis smoke are quite similar, cannabis
smoke contained higher amounts
of ammonia, hydrogen cyanide, and nitrogen
oxides, but lower levels of carcinogenic polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs).

Cannabis smoke contains thousands of organic

and inorganic chemical compounds. Over fifty
known carcinogens have been identified in
cannabis smoke. These include nitrosamines,
reactive aldehydes, and polycyclic hydrocarbons,
including benz[a]pyrene. Marijuana smoke was
listed as a cancer agent in California in 2009. A
study identifies cannabis smoke as a carcinogen
and also finds awareness of the danger is low
compared with the high awareness of the
dangers of smoking tobacco particularly among
younger users. Other observations include
possible increased risk from each cigarette; lack
of research on the effect of cannabis smoke
alone; low rate of addiction compared to tobacco;
and episodic nature of cannabis use compared to
steady frequent smoking of tobacco.

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Fig. The ratio of fatal dose to effective dose for various drugs.
Comparatively Cannabis (Marijuana) requires a small dose to be
effective and hence is really fatal.

When T
reaches

PSYCHOA
CTIVE
EFFECTS

HC enters the blood stream and

the brain, it binds to cannabinoid
receptors. The endogenous
ligand o
f these receptors is anandamide,
the
effects of which THC emulates.
This agonism of the cannabinoid receptors results in changes in
the levels of various neurotransmitters,
especially dopamine and norepinephrine; neurotransmitters
which are closely associated with the acute effects of cannabis
ingestion, such as euphoria and anxiety. Some effects may
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include a general perception, euphoria, feelings of well-being,

relaxation or stress reduction, increased appreciation of humor,
music (especially discerning its various
components/instruments) or the arts,
joviality, metacognition and introspection, enhanced
recollection (episodic memory), increased sensuality, increased
awareness of sensation, increased libido and creativity.
Abstract or philosophical thinking, disruption of linear memory
and paranoia or anxiety are also typical. Anxiety is the most
commonly reported side effect of smoking marijuana. Between
20 and 30 percent of recreational users experience intense
anxiety and/or panic attacks after smoking cannabis, however,
some report anxiety only after not smoking cannabis for a
prolonged period of time.
Cannabis also produces many subjective and highly tangible
effects, such as greater enjoyment of food taste and aroma, an
enhanced enjoyment of music and comedy, and
marked distortions in the perception of time and space (where
experiencing a "rush" of ideas from the bank of long-term
memory can create the subjective impression of long elapsed
time, while a clock reveals that only a short time has passed).
At higher doses, effects can include altered body image,
auditory and/or visual illusions, pseudo-hallucinatory,
and ataxia from selective impairment of polysynaptic reflexes.
In some cases, cannabis can lead to dissociative states such
as depersonalization and derealisation; such effects are most
often considered desirable, but have the potential to induce
panic attacks and paranoia in some unaccustomed users.

Some of
effects of
increased
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Soma
tic
effect
s

the short-term physical

cannabis use include
heart rate, dry mouth,

reddening of the eyes (congestion of the conjunctival blood

vessels), a reduction in intra-ocular pressure, muscle relaxation
and a sensation of cold or hot hands and feet.

Fig. A blood shot eye.

The

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Neuro
logica
l
Effect
s

areas of the brain where

cannabinoid receptors are most

prevalently located are consistent with the behavioural effects

produced by cannabinoids. Brain regions in which cannabinoid
receptors are very abundant are the basal ganglia, associated
with movement control; the cerebellum, associated with body
movement coordination; the hippocampus, associated
with learning, memory, and stress control; the cerebral cortex,
associated with higher cognitive functions; and the nucleus
accumbens, regarded as the reward center of the brain. Other
regions where cannabinoid receptors are moderately
concentrated are the hypothalamus, which regulates
homeostatic functions; the amygdala, associated with
emotional responses and fears; the spinal cord, associated with
peripheral sensations like pain; the brain stem, associated
with sleep, arousal, and motor control; and the nucleus of the
solitary tract, associated with visceral sensations
like nausea and vomiting.

Fig. Cannabinoid receptor sites

Experiments on animal and human tissue have demonstrated a

disruption of short-term memory formation, which is consistent
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with the abundance of CB1 receptors on the hippocampus, the

region of the brain most closely associated with memory.
Cannabinoids inhibit the release of several neurotransmitters in
the hippocampus such as acetylcholine, norepinephrine,
and glutamate, resulting in a major decrease in neuronal
activity in that region. This decrease in activity resembles a
"temporary hippocampal lesion."
In in-vitro experiments THC at extremely high concentrations,
which could not be reached with commonly consumed doses,
caused competitive inhibition of the AChE enzyme and
inhibition of -amyloid peptide aggregation, implicated in the
development of Alzheimer's disease. Compared to currently
approved drugs prescribed for the treatment of Alzheimer's
disease, THC is a considerably superior inhibitor of A
aggregation, and this study provides a previously unrecognized
molecular mechanism through which cannabinoid molecules
may impact the progression of this debilitating disease.

Cardi
ovasc
ular
Effect
s

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Short-term (one to two hours) effects on the cardiovascular

system can include increased heart rate, dilation of blood
vessels, and fluctuations in blood pressure. There are medical
reports of occasional infarction, stroke and other cardiovascular
side effects. Marijuana's cardiovascular effects are not
associated with serious health problems for most young,
healthy users. Researchers reported in the International Journal
of Cardiology, "Marijuana use by older people, particularly
those with some degree of coronary artery or cerebrovascular
disease, poses greater risks due to the resulting increase in
catecholamines, cardiac workload, and carboxyhemoglobin
levels, and concurrent episodes of profound postural
hypotension. Indeed, marijuana may be a much more common
cause of myocardial infarction than is generally recognized. In
day-to-day practice, a history of marijuana use is often not
sought by many practitioners, and even when sought, the
patient's response is not always truthful".
A 2008 study found that heavy, chronic smoking of marijuana
(138 joints per week) changed blood proteins associated
with heart disease and stroke. A 2000 study found that a
middle-age person's risk of heart attack rises nearly fivefold in
the first hour after smoking marijuana, "roughly the same risk
seen within an hour of sexual activity". Cannabis arteritis, a
very rare peripheral vascular disease similar to Buergers
disease, is found in very rare cases of chronic smoking of
cannabis.

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Longterm
effect
s of
canna
bis

Acute psychosis
Although there has been an
association noted between cases of
acute psychosis and long-term
cannabis use, the precise nature of
the relationship is controversial;
evidence suggests that cannabis use
may worsen psychotic symptoms
and increase the risk of relapse.

Chronic psychosis
According to one review, long term cannabis use
"increases the risk of psychosis in people with certain
genetic or environmental vulnerabilities", but does not
cause psychosis. Important predisposing factors include
genetic liability, childhood trauma and urban
upbringing.[7] A second review concluded that cannabis
use may cause permanent psychological disorders in
some users such as cognitive impairment, anxiety,
paranoia, and increased risks of psychosis. Key
predisposing variables include age of first exposure,
frequency of use, the potency of the cannabis used,
and individual susceptibility.

Schizophrenia
Among people with schizophrenia there is insufficient
evidence to determine whether cannabis use leads to
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improvement or deterioration of the condition, but

patients who use cannabis have been found to display
increased cognitive performance compared to nonusers.
Use of cannabis in adolescence or earlier increases the
risk of developing schizoaffective disorders in adult life,
although the proportion of these cases is small.
Susceptibility is most often found in users with at least
one copy of the polymorphic COMT gene.
Cannabis with a high THC to CBD ratio produces a
higher incidence of psychological effects. CBD may
show antipsychotic and neuroprotective properties,
acting as an antagonist to some of the effects of THC.
Studies examining this effect have used high ratios of
CBD to THC, and it is unclear to what extent these
laboratory studies translate to the types of cannabis
used by real life users. Research has shown that CBD
can safely prevent psychosis in general.

Depressive disorder
Less attention has been given to the association
between cannabis use and depression, though
according to the Australian National Drug & Alcohol
Research Centre, it is possible this is because cannabis
users who have depression are less likely to access
treatment than those with psychosis.
Teenage cannabis users show no difference from the
general population in incidence of major depressive
disorder (MDD), but an association exists between early
exposure coupled with continued use into adult life and
increased incidence of MDD in adulthood. Among
cannabis users of all ages, there may be an increased
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risk of developing depression, with heavy users

seemingly having a higher risk.

Cancer
According to a 2013 literature review, marijuana could
be carcinogenic, but there are methodological
limitations in studies making it difficult to establish a
link between marijuana use and cancer risk. The
authors say that bladder cancer does seem to be linked
to habitual marijuana use, and that there may be a risk
for cancers of the head and neck among long-term
(more than 20 years) users. Gordon and colleagues
said, "there does appear to be an increased risk of
cancer (particularly head and neck, lung, and bladder
cancer) for those who use marijuana over a period of
time, although what length of time that this risk
increases is uncertain."

Respiratory effects
A 2013 literature review by Gordon and colleagues
concluded that inhaled marijuana is associated with
lung disease.
Of the various methods of cannabis consumption,
smoking is considered the most harmful; the inhalation
of smoke from organic materials can cause various
health problems (e.g., coughing
and sputum). Isoprenes help to modulate and slow
down reaction rates, contributing to the significantly
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differing qualities of partial combustion products from

various sources.

Reproductive and endocrine effects

Cannabis consumption in pregnancy is associated with
restrictions in growth of the fetus, miscarriage, and
cognitive deficits in offspring. Although the majority of
research has concentrated on the adverse effects of
alcohol, there is now evidence that prenatal exposure
to cannabis has serious effects on the developing brain
and is associated with "deficits in language, attention,
areas of cognitive performance, and delinquent
behavior in adolescence". A report prepared for
the Australian National Council on Drugs concluded
cannabis and other cannabinoids are contraindicated in
pregnancy as it may interact with the endocannabinoid
system.

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An
Medic
overview
of
althe
use

of
Canna
bis

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Medical cannabis has several potential beneficial

effects. Evidence is moderate that it helps in chronic
pain and muscles spasms. Lesser evidence supports its
use to help with nausea during chemotherapy, improve
appetite in those with HIV/AIDS and also help with
sleep.
The National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA) states that
cannabis is unlikely to be useful as medicine as "(1) it is
an unpurified plant containing numerous chemicals
with unknown health effects; (2) it is typically
consumed by smoking further contributing to potential
adverse effects; and (3) its cognitive impairing effects
may limit its utility."

Nausea and vomiting

Medical cannabis is somewhat effective
in chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting (CINV)
and may be a reasonable option in those who do not
improve following preferential treatment. Comparative
studies have found cannabinoids to be more effective
than some conventional antiemetics such
as prochlorperazine, promethazine,
and metoclopramide in controlling CINV, but these are
used less frequently because of side effects including
dizziness, dysphoria, and hallucinations. Long-term
cannabis use may cause nausea and vomiting, a
condition known as cannabinoid hyperemesis
syndrome.

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HIV/AIDS
Evidence is lacking for both efficacy and safety of
cannabis and cannabinoids in treating patients with
HIV/AIDS or for anorexia associated with AIDS. As of
2013, current studies
suffer from effects of bias, small sample size, and lack
of long-term data.

Pain
Cannabis appears to be somewhat effective for the
treatment of chronic pain, including pain caused
by neuropathy and possibly that due
to fibromyalgia and rheumatoid arthritis. A 2009 review
states it was unclear if the benefits were greater than
the risks, while a 2011 review considered it generally
safe for this use. In palliative care the use appears safer
than that of opioids.

Multiple sclerosis
Studies of the efficacy of cannabis for treating multiple
sclerosis have produced varying results. The
combination of 9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and
cannabidiol (CBD) extracts give subjective relief of
spasticity, though objective post-treatment
assessments do not reveal significant changes.
Evidence also suggests that oral cannabis extract is
effective for reducing patient-centered measures of
spasticity. A trial of cannabis is deemed to be a
reasonable option if other treatments have not been
effective.

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Fig. Cannabis fluid extract

Fig. Medical Marijuana Dispensary

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1.

Biblio
graph
y

www.wikipedia.com
2.Pradeeps New Course Biology Class
12
3.
www.drugfreeworld.org

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