MATH 101 Logic and Set Theory

Set Theory and Zermello-Fraenkel Axioms

1. Axiom of Extension: If a and b are sets, and if,

x, x a

x b,

iff

then

a b.

Theorem. Equality of sets satisfies the following properties, for all sets a, b, and c.
i.
ii.

aa

a bba

(a b) (b c) a c

iii.

2. Axiom Schema of Subsets: For any set a, there exists a set b such that,

x, x b

iff

xa

and

b x a | A( x)

A(x).

That is,
Theorem. The set b is unique.
b a,

Definition:

iff,

x, x b x a

*a is called a superset of b.

a b a b b a.
Theorem. For any two sets a and b,
Properties of set inclusion:

aa

i.
ii.

a bb a a b
a bb c a c

iii.

b
Definition: a iff,

ba
and

b a.

This means that there exists

Definition: b is an improper subset of a iff

xa

such that

x b.

b a.

3. Axiom of Pairing: If a and b are sets, then there exists set c such that

ac

and

b c.

x c | x a x b
From the axiom schema of subsets, for a given set c, there exists the set
which contains just a andb. This set is unique.

MATH 101 Logic and Set Theory

a, b x c | x a x b
Denote:

*unordered pair a andb

a x | x a
*unit set or singular set of a

Hence every set is an element of some set. Axiom of pairing says that any two sets are elements

a , a, a ,
of some set. Thus given a set a, it is possible to create sets such as

a, a , a, a ,...

Temporary Axiom: There exists a set.

Thus we can establish the existence of a set with no elements. By the axiom schema of subsets,
there exists a set

x a | x x.

such that for a given set a,

Theorem.
i.

ii.
iii.

is unique.

for any set a.

Each nonempty set a has at least two distinct subsets, a and

c a, b

Set Operations: Let

a b x | x a x b
a c x | x a x b

4. Axiom of Union: For every set c, there exists set y such that if

x b

x y.
for some b of c, then

a b a a b
Theorem.
a b x a | x b
a b a b b a

*relative complement of b in a
*symmetric difference of a and b

MATH 101 Logic and Set Theory

a, b
Ordered Pairs:

a , a, b
is the set

a, a a
a, b c, d a c b d
Theorem. If a, b, c, and d are sets, then

a1 , a2 ,..., an
Ordered n-tuple:

a1 , a2 ,..., an1 , an
is the ordered pair

a, b, c

Example: Ordered triple

a, b , c

is the ordered pair

xa
5. Axiom of Power Set: For each set a, there exists set b such that for all x, if

then

x b.

x b | x a.
Apply the axiom schema of subsets to form the set

That is, for all x, x is a

x a.

member of this set iff

x | x a ,
Definition: Let a be a set. The set

Cartesian Product:

a b

ab

denoted by (a), is called the power set of a.

x, y
is the set of all ordered pairs

where

xa

y b.
and

a b .

If
then
Theorem. Let a, b, and c be sets.
i.
ii.

ab ba a b

a b ac bc

a b c a b a c

iii.

a b c a b a c
iv.

Relations: A relation is a set whose elements are ordered pairs. If

or and we say that x is -related to y iff .

is a relation, we write ,

MATH 101 Logic and Set Theory

A relation is a subset of the cartesian product of two sets. If is a relation and for some
sets a and b, then we say that is a relation from a to b. If , then we say that is a
relation in a.
n-ary Relation: A set of ordered n-tuples.
Universal Relation:

aa

Void Relation: Relation with no element.

x, x | x a.

ia
Identity Relation:

is the set

x y.

ia
Thus for each x, y in a, x y iff

Domain and Range: Let

be a relation from a to b.
x | x, y .

The domain of

is the set

y | x, y .

The range of

is the set

Equivalence Relation:

i.

A relation

ii.

A relation

iii.

A relation

in a set a is reflexive in a if and only if x

in a set a is symmetric if and only if x

in a set a is transitive if and only if x

Equivalence Class: Let

x a.

i.

x for each x in a.

y and y

x.
z

z.

y | x, y .

x
[x] or

is the set

for every x in a.

x y

ii.

iii.

Either

x y x y

a xa x

or

iv.
Partitions: Let
i.

a .

A partition of a, denoted by , is a subset of (a) such that:

MATH 101 Logic and Set Theory

ii.

b c

bc

a bA b
iii.

Theorem. Let
be an equivalence relation in a. Then the collection of distinct
classes in a is a partition of a.

-equivalence

Conversely, if is a partition of a and a relation is defined by if and only if there exists

such that , , then is an equivalence relation in a.
Functions: A function f from a tob is a relation from a to b such that:
i.
The domain of f is a.
y z,
( x, y ) f
( x, z ) f
ii.
If
and
then
that is, no two ordered pairs in f must have the
same first coordinate.
Arguments and Images: x is called an argument of f and y is called the value of f at x, or the
image of x under f, or the element into which f carries x.

Df a
The element f(x) is the sole f-relative of x. That is, each element of

c a.

has a single relative.

f [c],

Image Set and Co-domain: Let

The image of c under f, denoted by
is the set
{ y | ( x, y ) f
x c}.
f [c ] { y | y f ( x )
x c}
for some
That is,
for some

Rf
The set f[a] is called the image set of f and is also denoted by im f. This is precisely the range
f b
of the function f. Note that im
and b is called the co-domain of f.

c a,
Injection Map: If f is a function from a to b, and

the restriction of f in c, is the function

( x, f ( x)) | x c.
Dg D f
A function g is the restriction of f to some subset of the domain of f iff

and

x Dg .

g ( x) f ( x)

for all
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MATH 101 Logic and Set Theory

The restriction of f in c is also called an injection map (or inclusion map) from c to b.
Equality of Functions: f and g are equal iff they have exactly the same ordered pairs as elements.

f g D f Dg
That is,

f ( x) g ( x )

and

for all x in the common domain.

f b,

Surjectivity: A function f from a to b is said to be onto or surjective iff im

y b x a
y f (x ).
such that

that is, for each

x1 , x 2 a,

Injectivity: A function f from a to b is said to be one-to-one or injective iff

x1 x 2 f ( x1 ) f ( x 2 ),

f ( x1 ) f ( x 2 ) x1 x 2 .

alternatively,
This means that f maps distinct elements to distinct elements, that is, no two ordered pairs must
have the same second coordinate.
Bijectivity: A function f from a to b that is both injective and surjective is called a bijection or a
one-to-one correspondence.
Definition: Two sets a andb are said to be equivalent (or equipollent) if there is a bijective

a ~ b.
function from a to b. In this case, we write
number of elements or cardinality.

Permutation of a Set: Let

a .

A bijective function from a toa is called a permutation of a.

{( x, z ) | y

g f

Composition of Functions:

This implies that the sets a and b have the same

is the set

Remarks:
g f
i.
is a function.
ii.

Composition is not commutative.

iii.

Composition is associative.

( x, y ) f

such that

( y , z ) g}

and

g f f g , f , g

g f h g f

h , f , g , h

Dg f x D f | f ( x ) Dg

Note:
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MATH 101 Logic and Set Theory

g f

iv.

f, g injective

v.

f, gsurjective
surjective.
g f

injective
f injective.
g f

surjective
g surjective.

vi.
vii.

g f

injective.

R 1 ,
Inverse Relation: Let R be a relation from a to b. The inverse relation of R, denoted by

is the

R ( y, x) | ( x, y ) R
1

relation from b to a given by the set

DR 1 RR RR 1 DR
Note:
Inverse Function
Note: The inverse relation of a function is not necessarily a function.

f 1 ,
Theorem. Let f be a bijective function from a to b. Then the inverse relation of f, denoted by
is a function from b to a. This will be called the inverse function of f.

Remarks:

1 1

i.

f f 1 ib ,
ii.

ib
where

f ia ,

iii.

( x, x) | x b.
is the identity function on b given by

ia
where

( x, x) | x a.
is the identity function on a given by

f 1
iv.

is bijective.

g f 1

f 1 g 1

v.

MATH 101 Logic and Set Theory

Partial Ordering: A relation on a set a is a partial ordering in a iff it is reflexive, anti-symmetric,
and transitive.

Definition: A relation

is anti-symmetric iff, whenever x

y and y

x y.
x, then

Definition: A partially ordered set is a set together with a specific partial ordering.
Examples:

1. A family of sets ordered by inclusion or subset relation,

2. The set of real numbers under the relation less than or equal to,
3. The set of integers under the relation of divides, that is x | y iff

y kx

such that

Remarks:

a,

i.

A set a that is partially ordered by

a,

is denoted by the pair

ii.

If

is a poset and x

iii.

We say that x strictly precedes y if x

Linear Ordering: A total order

x y

y, we say that x precedes y, or y dominates x.

x y.

y and

is a partial order with the additional property that

x y x y
,

x y x y.

x y

or

x y

Note: The notation

means
The notation
is the same as
Example: The natural order on the set of real numbers is a total ordering.

x y
.

Definition: Two distinct elements in a poset are not comparable if neither element precedes the
other.
Definition: A relation on a set is called a linear or total ordering iff it is a partial ordering where
any two elements are comparable.

a,

a ' , '

Isomorphism of Posets: Two posets

and
are said to be isomorphic, denoted by
f : a a'
x y f ( x ) ' f ( y ).
a a'
, if there exists a bijective function
such that
Note: f is an order-preserving function (isotone).

MATH 101 Logic and Set Theory

a,
Theorem. A partially ordered set
is isomorphic to a collection of sets, indeed, a collection
of subsets of a, partially ordered by inclusion.
Proof: Let

xa

S x z a | z x

Define

f : a S x | x a

. Define

a,
First Element: Let

z x.x a

be a poset. The element

f ( x) S x
by

za

is called a first (least) element if

that is, z precedes every element of a.

Z ,
Example: In

, 1 is the least element but no last element exists.

a,
Last Element: Let

x w.x a

be a poset. The element

wa

is called a last (greatest) element if

, that is, w dominates every element of a.

Example: The
is the first element and a is the last element in the family of subsets of a
ordered by inclusion.
Note: The first and last elements are unique, if they exists.

a,
Minimal Element: Let

be a poset. An element

wa

x w w x

is called a minimal element if

That is, there is no element which strictly precedes w.

a,
Maximal Element: Let

be a poset. An element

za

is called a maximal element if

zxzx
That is, there is no element which strictly dominates z.
Remarks:
i.
A first element is a minimal element and the only one. A last element is a maximal
element and the only one.
ii.
A totally ordered set can contain at most one minimal element which would then be a first
element. Likewise, it can contain at most one maximal element which would then be a
last element.
iii.
Every finite poset has at least one maximal element and at least one minimal element.
iv.
Not every poset, even if totally ordered, need have a first element.
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MATH 101 Logic and Set Theory

a,
Well-Ordered Sets: A poset
element.

is well-ordered if each non-empty subset of a has a first

Remarks:
i.
The positive integers under the natural order is a well-ordered set.
ii.
The integers under the natural order is linearly ordered but is not well-ordered.

x y
The following is a well ordering of Z via:
x is to the left of y.
0, 1,-1, 2,-2, 3,-3,,n,-n,
Note: Every well-ordered set is totally ordered.

ya

Proof: Let a be a well ordered set, and x,

. The subset {x,y} has a first element which
therefore must precede the other. Hence any two elements in a are comparable.
Theorem. Every subset of a well-ordered set is well-ordered.
b a,

Theorem. If a is well-ordered and

then b is well-ordered.

a,
Least Upper Bound: Let
be a poset and b a. An element z a is an upper bound for b if
and only if x z, xb. An element z a is a least upper bound (supremum) for b if and only
if z is an upper bound for b and z y for all upper bounds y for b.
z = sup b
z = lubb
Remarks:
i.
A set may have many upper bounds.
ii.
A supremum is an upper bound which is a lower bound for the set of all upper bounds.
iii.
The supremum is unique.

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MATH 101 Logic and Set Theory

a,

w a
be a poset and b a. An element

Greatest Lower Bound: Let

w x, x b.

b if and only if

is a lower bound for

w a
An element

is a greatest lower bound (infimum) for b if and

w y
only if w is an lower bound for b and
for all lower bounds y for b,
z = inf b
z = glb b
Remarks:
i.
A set may have many lower bounds.
ii.
An infimum is a lower bound which is an upper bound for the set of all lower bounds.
iii.
The infimum is unique.

6. Axiom of Choice:
(Version 1) There exists a choice function for any non-empty family of non-empty sets.
(Version 2) The product of a family of non-empty sets indexed by a non-empty set is non-empty.
Note:

iI

Ai

1. The Cartesian product

is the set of all choice functions defined on .
2. The axiom of choice lies at the foundation of mathematics and, in particular, the theory of
sets. It brings about some of the most important and powerful results in mathematics.

Ai | i I
Choice Function: Let =

be a non-empty family of non-empty sets. A choice function

f Ai Ai

iI Ai
for is a function f:

defined by

Essentially a choice function for a given family of sets chooses an element from each set in the
family.
Zorns Lemma: Let a be a non-empty poset in which every totally ordered subset has an upper
bound. Then a contains at least one maximal element.

Well-Ordering Principle: If a is a non-empty set, then there exists a linear ordering

of a such

a,
that

is well-ordered. In other words, every non-empty set can be well-ordered,

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MATH 101 Logic and Set Theory

The following are equivalent:

i.
The Axiom of Choice
ii.
Zorns Lemma
iii.
Well-Ordering Principle

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