Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Transac tional
Analysi s
TonyTilney
Thanet Centre for Psychotherapeu tic Studies
Birmingham
Consulting Editor: Professor Wmdy Dryden
Goldsmiths College, University of London
w
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Co nte nts
_,
vi
Introdu ction
vii
The dictiona ry
137
139
142
Referen ces
147
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v
Introduction
Introduction
ed after TA split off in the 1960s, namely object relations and self psychology. A significant
point was when Carlo Moiso was given the Eric Berne Memorial Scientific Award in 1987
for his article on Ego-states and transference (Moiso, 1985), integrating TA and psychoanalytic concepts. This was followed by an increasing number of articles written from an
integrative standpoint (such as Clark, 1991). There was another obvious change: before
1985 TA tended to look inwards and articles were almost exclusively ll!ferenced to other
TA articles. Now, looking through the Transactional Analysisjournal, J;D.any of the references are to sources outside TA. 1an Stewart (1996a) has called this process 'the psychoanalytic renaissance'. It has sometimes generated tensions among transactional analysts,
some of whom fear that TA may lose its crispness and objectivity if it veers too fur towards
psychoanalysis, whereas others believe that too close an adherence to past patterns may
impede growth. A dictionary ofTA must reflect the field as a whole. I have therefore
included the major concepts ofTAbut have also provided resources needed to read a contemporary advanced article by one of the major integrative writers such as Richard Erskine. This involved including a substantial number of non-TA words. The criterion I have
used for selecting these words is to include:
Words used by Eric Berne (who trained as a psychoanalyst) and which are therefore
essential to understrnding the core literature ofTA. An example is ego-dystonic.
Words borrowed by transactional analysts and in widespread use- and therefore
essential if the dictionary is to enable a reader to make sense of the current literature
e.g. Gestalt, attachment, holding, containment.
Words from other disciplines relating to ideas that have been, or are:being, integrated
into transactional analysis (e.g. depressive position, projective ide'ntification). The
non-TA origin of all these words is clearly indicated.
,
i
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j
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Writing this dictionary focused my attention on how problematicis the function of
words in conveying meaning. The setting out of a word suggests thah1ere is a precise
meaning that can be conveyed to the reader, but the ultimate source of all meaning is
experience (including experience of other meaning structures) and the reader may lack
this. As Willred Bion, the object relations theorist, pointed out, a function of terminology
is to create spaces into which meaning may enter. He wrote: 'the advantage of employing a
sign ... is that it at least indicates that the reader's comprehension of my meaning should
contain an element that will remain unsatisfied until he meets the appropriate realisation.'
For example, a dictionary may contain a definition of the word 'elephant'. However good
this is, it can give little idea of what the experience of seeing an elephant would be like.
However, the definition is good enough if, after reading it, anyone seeing an elephant for
the first time thinks immediately 'that must be an elephant'. It is a tempting for the dictionary-maker to labour overmuch at defining elephants. I hope I have avoided this.
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I
Acknowledgem.ents
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I should like to thank Adrienne Lee for giving me access to previously unpublished
material and pre-publication access to her chapter on process in Contracts in
Counselling (Lee, 1997), Ian Stewart for giving me pre-publication access to his chapter on the history of transactional analysis in Developments in Psychotherapy,
Historical Perspectives (Stewart, 1996a), Mairi Evans and Andy Fookes for the entry on
Gestalt therapy, Andy Fookes for the entry on person-centred therapy, Paul Richards
for the entry on NLP and to Ann Smith for her ideas on the 'drowning person' diagram. I am also grateful to Mairi Evans for constructive criticism and helpful advice.
My thanks also go to Chris Davidson who did an outstanding job in creating the diagrams.
I am grateful to the copyright holders for permission to reproduce the following material which forms part of this book.
The Institute of Transactional Analysis, the European Association for Transactional
Analysis and the International Transactional Analysis Association for the use of their codes
of ethics.
From the Transactional Analysis Joumal (rAJ) and the Transactional Analysis Bulletin
(fAB).
John Dusay for the Egogram: TAJ (1972) 2:3.
Franklin Emst for the OK corral. TAJ (1971) 1:4.
Richard Erskine and Marilyn Zalcman for the Racket System: TA] (1979) 9:1.
Taibi Kahler PhD for the Miniscript: TA] (1974) 4:1.
Stephen Karpman for the Drama Triangle: TAB (1968) 7:26.
Ken Mellor for Impasses: a developmental and structural understanding: TAJ (1980)
10:3.
Ken Mellor and Eric Sigmund for the Discount Matri:x: TA] (1975) 5:3.
vi
Introduction
adaptation
activities are primarily directed to the affect emotion, feeling. Transactional
achievement of goals in the here and
analysis recognises four AUTHENTIC FEELnow. The predominant ego-state tends
INGS: sadness, anger, happiness ('sad,
to be Adult and since the goals are
mad, glad') and fear. Each of these, in
often material rather than social,
the right context, can lead to dealing
stroking and social risk are variable.
constructively with life issues
(although they can also be expressed
adaptation adapting to the perceived or
inappropriately or manipulatively in a
fantasised needs of others (initially the
RACKETY way). Other feelings are more
parents). See ADAPTED CHilD.
complex and include cognitive elements. For example, guilt involves
adapted Child (often written Adapted
beliefs about moral failure, or shame
Child) the Child ego-state functioning
about shortcomings being known to
in response to Parent demands rather
others.
than its own needs. It may be compliant or rebellious. The adapted Child affirmation a positive statement (often a
does not represent a separate internal
self-statement) used to raise self (interpsychic) structure but is one of
esteem and to reinforce new and more
the ways the Child ego-state shows
positive ways of thinking, feeling and
itself in behaviours. This concept is
behaving. Affirmations intervene in the
therefore most useful when we are
SCRlPT SYSTEM by changing beliefS about
viewing the person mainly from a
self and also by promoting non-scripty
behavioural perspective, e.g. analysing
fantasies in place of fantasies which
transactions. See EGO-STATES FUNCTIONAL
supported script.
MODEL and FALSE SELF.
agenda a list of things to be dealt with. In
Adult ego-state often written Adult. The
therapy the client (and sometimes the
ego-state that deals with 'here and now'
therapist) may have a hidden agenda of
reality. Some transactional analysis writ
assumptions, intentions and wishes
ing offers a somewhat limited and
that are not made explicit (and may not
mechanistic model of the Adult, which
even be consciously acknowledged).
is compared to a computer. However,
One of the main functions of CONTRACTany response that is appropriate to curING is to make hidden agendas explicit.
rent reality is an Adult response and
Contracting is thus not only a prelude
this can include emotions.
to the therapeutic process but is an
important therapeutic technique to
adult survivor an adult who suffered
which one may have to tum repeatedly
sexual, physical or emotional abuse in
as therapy proceeds. Transactional
childhood.
analysis therapy is a contractual
process and in the process the theraadvantages of games (reasons for playpist constantly makes explicit what is
ing games) see GAMES, ADVANTAGES OF.
being done and invites the client's consent, so in addition to the macro
advocacy the therapeutic approach in
process in which a formal therapy conwhich the therapist becomes the advotract is negotiated, contracting is going
cate of the Child in the client against
on at the micro level.
his or her persecuting Parent ego-state.
The psychoanalyst Alice Miller (1983, agitation one of the FOUR PASSIVE BEHAV1985) has written extensively about
IOURS (Schiff and Schiff, 1971). This is
this approach. Also see All.IANCE.
shown by repeated purposeless behav-
..,
almost II script
iours. It occurs when there has been a
build-up of undischarged tension
because of failure to act to have needs
met. This is a passive behaviour
because the energy is discharged in a
way that is not directed to solving the
problem. An example would be fidgeting because a lecturer is inaudible
instead of directing the energy into
asking him to speak up.
alcoholism addiction to, abuse of, alcohol. This is regarded by some as a disease, the view taken by Alcoholics
Anonymous. Transactional analysis
regards alcoholism and other forms of
SUBSTANCE ABUSE as involving the ACTING
('playing GAMES') of underlying psychological problems. These may
involve unresolved SYMBIOSIS, an
attempt by the person to become
looked after as he or she was (or
sought to be) as a child. See Steiner
(1971). See also CODEPENDENCY.
om
Be Perfect
Hurry Up
Try Hard
Do it.
always script
univers ity to a profess orship, this also
does not satisfy and you set your heart
on becom ing a Fellow of the Royal
Society and so on). The charac teristic
driver pattern is Please Others + Be
Perfect.
alway s script a PROCES S SCRIPT (Berne ,
1970, 1972) type in which the same
pattern occurs over and over. People
with this script type keep getting into
the same type of situati on (e.g. relationsh ip failure s) and althou gh they
may think each time that they understand what went wrong and will not
make that mistak e again, someh ow, in
a new set of circum stance s, they do.
This is charac teristic ally associ ated
with a Try Hard driver.
anal stage (psych oanaly sis) in Freudi an
develo pment al theory the stage that
occurs betwee n the ages of two and
four and involv es the invest ment of
LIBIDO in the anus. Conce rn with the
contro l of defeca tion may form the
basis of later contro l and obsess ional
proble ms. The obs~ssive compu lsive
and passive aggress ive PERSONALITY ADAP
TATIONS are establi shed at this stage.
atrunement
crazy or excluded Parent. See
PERSONALI-
authentic feeling
i Autonomic arousal refers to this prepabased needs and feelings, a kinesthetration of the body for action.
ic and emotional sensing of the other
but also requires the therapist to
remain aware of the boundary autonomy the ability to act in response
to here-and-now reality and the indibetween him- or herself and the
vidual's own needs, wishes and view of
client. Erskine regards this as a key
reality and not to be controlled by
factor in effective therapy. See also
script beliefs, the demands of an interEMPATifY, l-TIIOU, INTERSUBJECI1VITY.
nal Parent ego-state or the views of
others. Autonomous behaviour is charauthentic feeling a feeling that is felt
acterised by an awareness of self, othspontaneously and without internal
ers and the world, spontaneous behavcensoring and so is congruent with
iour, open expression of AUTIIENTIC FEELexperience and helpful in dealing with
INGS and a willingness to enter into
reality. See FOUR AUTHENTIC FEEllNGS.
INTIMACY by forming respectful real:real
relationships with others. Autonomy is
authority diagram see CONTRACT, TIIREE
a central concept in transactional
CORNERED.
analysis since the achievement of
autonomy indicates release from
autonomic arousal (psychology) the
SCRIPT. Treatment CONTRACTS aim to proautonomic nervous system deals with
mote autonomy-related goals.
fight/flight responses to danger. It has
two branches, the sympathetic and the
parasympathetic. The sympathetic pre- awareness the terms conscious, unconscious, preconscious and subconscious
pares the body for flight or fight,
are little used in transactional analysis.
adrenaline enters the blood, digestion
Instead the distinction is made
is inhibited so that more blood is availbetween what is in or out of awareness
able to the muscles, the heartbeat is
at a given time without postulating the
speeded up and the blood vessels that
existence of specific zones of the mind
supply the muscles are dilated. The
as in Freudian and jungian theory.
parasympathic reverses this process.
basic life positions the existential positions most often taken in relation to behavioural diagnosis of ego-states thlego-state is an internal (intrapsychic)
the value of the self and others. See
UFE POSITIONS.
structure but gives external signs of it
presence and activity. Eric Bernt
Be Perfect one of the five DRIVERS (Kahler
(1961) described four major ways il,
which ego-states can be di,agnosed:
and Capers, 1974). This driver is characterised by a group of behaviours
behavioural (what does the perso1
do?), social (what responses do the.
including extreme precision of speech,
looking upward and counting points
evoke?), historical (does their behavon the fingers. The DRIVER MESSAGE
iour correspond to some aspect of
behaviourism
their personal history?) and phenome- beliefs about self, others and the world
are an important part of the FRAME OF
nological (what is their experience?).
REFERENCE (Schiff et al., 1975), the total
For a reliable diagnosis several of these
pattern of meanings that we use to
are needed, but behavioural cues are
interpret our experience. The SCRIPT is
highly indicative of ego-state and can
the distorted part of this pattern of
be monitored from moment-tomeanings and so includes script
moment, making behavioural diagnosis
beliefs, beliefs that were perhaps once
a very valuable technique. Observations
true for the child we were in the family
can be made of words, tone and speed
we were in then, or more likely were
of speech, gestures, postures, facial
never true but were the best sense we
expressions etc. A level tone, a steady
could make of our world then.
rate of speech, well-chosen words and
Associated with these beliefs will be
relaxed facial muscles would indicate
DECISIONS about how we must behave if
Adult. However, all the cues may not
these beliefs are true. The.terms belief
be congruent. Adult speech patterns
and decision are used extensively in
with an awkward body posture or a
transactional analysis. These are cognifJXed smile would probably indicate
tive terms easily expressed in words;
adapted Child. A diagnosis that is purehowever, the script does not consist
ly behavioural will be of the FUNCTIONAL
purely of words and thoughts, it is also
EGO-STATE (the ego-state as it shows itself
held in behaviours, feelings and the
externally).
body (see BODY SCRIPTING and BODYWORK). The earlier the script element
behaviourism a system of psychology,
was acquired, the larger the non-verbal
and a therapeutic technique based on
element it will contain. Transactional
it, which concentrates on behaviour
analysts are now giving more emphasis
rather than intrapsychic states.
to the early acquisition of script than
Classical behaviourism treated the
did Eric Berne (they are shifting from a
mind as a 'black box' whose internal
mainly Freudian position to a more
processes do not need to be considKleinian position).
ered as long as we understand the
relationship between input and output. Modern behaviourism does tak~ Berne, Eric, founder of transactional
analysis. He was born in Montreal,
some account of mental states, and
Canada in 1910, the son of a doctor.
classical behaviourism has given way
After qualifying as a doctor in 1935, he
to a cognitive-behavioural approach.
moved to the US where he qualified in
Behaviourism had significant influpsychiatry. As well as practising psychience on the development of transacatry he began training as a psychoanational analysis. Its strength lay in its
lyst in 1941 \\-ith Paul Federn, who was
concern with what could be directly
developing the concept of ego-states.
observed, which gave it an objectivity
World War II soon interrupted his
that psychoanalysis lacked. Classical
training and in 1943 Eric Berne, who
behaviourism discounted the imporby then had become an American cititance of intrapsychic processes, howzen, joined the US Army Medical
ever. Through the concept of EGO
Corps. Army service exposed him to a
STATES transactional analysis links
very different culture to his psychoanaobservable behaviours with intrapsylytic training. Psychoanalysis is a very
chic processes and is therefore able to
slow process involving hundreds of
integrate both concepts. See CONDIhours of contact with each client. In
TIONED REFLEX, UNCONDITIONED REFLEX,
the army he had to make judgements
REINFORCEMENT.
8
Berne, Eric
about men in little more than a
minute. He discovered how much
could be found out, even by such brief
contact, through the use of intuition.
He became interested in intuition and
published a series of papers on it in
professional journals. What he had discovered was that there are many cues,
including body posture, tone of voice,
movements, etc. that could be read to
infer mental state. Psychoanalysis, with
its lack of face-to-face contact and its
emphasis on words, missed these. This
connection between the directly
observable and the internal mental
state was to form the basis of transactional analysis. Berne's psychiatric
e:xj,erience had e114bled him to make
these connections but at this stage
they were not yet fully available to him
as conscious knowledge that could be
passed on verbally. In 1947, just after
the end of the war, Berne resumed his
training in psychoanalysis, this time
working with Erik Erikson. Like his
previous training analyst Paul Fedem,
Erikson was an ego psychologist, that
is he belonged to a school of psychoanalysis that stressed the importance
of the way in which the client related
to the outside world through the ego.
DRIVE THEORY psychoanalysis, which preceded ego psychology, had laid greater
emphasis on internal conflicts. Erikson
was particularly interested in the
development of the individual, which
he saw as a lifelong process, and the
societal framework in which this takes
place. These were ideas he was to
bring together in his major work
Childhood and Society (1950).
Berne began to combine these ideas,
intuition, ego-states, behavioural clues
to internal states and Erikson's developmental and social perspectives, into a
system that was soon to become transactional ana.Iysis. He also read very widely
and as the system developed in his mind
he incorporated ideas from many
sources. He wrote a series of papers for
bioenergetics
central focus of transactional analysis.
groups including new theory which he
Again, he chose a colloquial title and a
had developed. He returned to tranSaclight, witty style to reach a mass audiGames
with
tional analysis in 1964
ence, but he was also setting out his
People Play. This was aimed at a small
most advanced thinking. Even when
group of professionals who were beginbeing scholarly as in Transactional
ning to use transactional analysis. It
Analysis in Psychotherapy, The Strucincluded a brief outline of basic theory
ture and Dynamics of Organizations
together with new thinking on a develand Groups and Principles of Group
oping area of transactional analysis; the
Treatment he was lucid and witty, and
theory of GAMES (repetitive patterns of
when he was aiming at a wide audieven
unexCompletely
social interactions).
ence as in Sex in Human Loving and
pectedly, the book soon became a best
What Do You Say After You Say Hello?
seller. Perhaps it was because of the
he could be profound.
combination of Berne's friendly and
Eric Berne has produced a radical
lucid style and his keen sense of humour.
in attitudes to psychotherapy. His
shift
success,
The book was an extraordinary
influence goes far beyond his own
being serialised in mass circulation magschool. He established an original and
azines, translated into 15languages and
potent approach to psychotherapy and
going though many editions. Transacraised public awareness of psychologitional analysis was propelled from a
cal issues. He was charismatic and
little-known derivative of psychoanalygreat innovator and communicator.
sis to a topic of mass interest, and its
Through his writings and his personality
founder, Eric Berne, to an international
he gave transactional analysis a metethrough
book
the
Moreover,
celebrity.
oric start, unique in the history of psywhich it was becoming known was not
chotherapy. At his death problems
written for a mass audience and conremained for those who continued to
tained only a sketchy outline of the genuse and develop transactional analysis.
eral theory. This had a profound effect
These included issues of identity and
on the development of transactional
focus, of balancing the professional
analysis and in particular on the way in
with the popular and the achievement
which it is perceived by other profesof full professional maturity and recogsionals: Games theory was developeci
nition. In the quarter century since then
rapidly by Berne and other transactional
has been achieved.
much
People
Games
analysis professionals.
Play quickly became out of date but it
continued to represent what transac- bioenergetics a method of psychotherapy developed by Alexander Lowen
tional analysis is about to most people.
based on the work of Wilhelm Reich.
Berne's next book, Principles ofGrou.f?
Reich stressed the importance of the
Treatment (1966), was another major
body in holding psychological disturwork embracing transactional analysis
bance, in particular through body
and other theoretical approaches to
armouring, the tightening of blocks of
working with groups. It was followed by
muscles to create defensive structures.
Sex in Human Loving in 1970, the year
He developed methods of working
of his early death at the age of 60. This is a
directly on the body and an energy thewitty but rather lightweight exploration
ory to explain his findings. Lowen has
of sexual relationships in terms of transmodified and extended Reich's ideas.
actional analysis theory. His last book,
Bioenergetics has influenced the conWhat Do You Say After You Say Hello?,
of BODY SCRIPTING in transactional
cept
1972
in
posthumously
was published
analysis (Cassius, 1975, 1977, Childsfrom manuscripts edited after his death.
Gowell and Kinnaman, 1978).
Its main theme is script theory, by then a
bond
Blackstone, Peg transactional analyst.
Given an Eric Berne Memorial Award
in 1996 for work in the area of comparison and/or integration of transactional analysis theory or practice with
other theories or practices by bridging
transactional analysis and current
developmental psychologies (object
relations and self-psychology). See
Blackstone (1993).
blamer the third position in the MINT
scRIPT in which the other person is
blamed from an 'I'm OK, You're not
OK' position while a corresponding
racket feeling (e.g. righteous indignatior:) is felt. In Taibi Kahler's original
formulation of the miniscript this position was known as vengeful Child,
however the functional ego-state may
be negative controlling Parent (critical
Parent) as well as negative adapted
Child.
what the client is prepared to disclose. To this can be added information from other non-verbal sources
such as paralioguistics, e.g. speed,
pitch, tone and loudness of speech.
ERIC BERNE in his early work on intuition drew attention to this rich
source of information that is largely
left untapped by psychoanalysis.
Transactional analysis traces many
connections between behaviour,
thinking and feeling and looks for
INCONGRUITIES in Which differing mes
sages are transmitted simultaneously
through different channels. Body language passes in both directions; the
client is also reading the therapist.
This may be used therapeutically but
can also be antitherapeutic if the therapist is transmitting, out of awareness,
some of their personal material. For a
detailed account of the transactional
analysis theory of body language, see
Steere (1982).
Blemish a GAME initiated from a persecuting controlling Parent position in body scripting the defensive use of the
which the other participant is underbody so that elements oftlie script are
mined by constant fault finding.
stored within parts oFthc body,
enabling thoughts, feelings, memories
Board of Certification (BOC) the body
etc. to be kept out of awareness. This
within the International Transactional
is discussed by Cassius (1975, 1977)
Analysis Association (ITAA) responsible
and Childs-Gowell and Kinnaman
for the control of examinations. The
(1978). For a psychoanalytic approach
corresponding body in the European
to this topic, see McDougall (1989).
Association for Transactional Analysis
See also BIOENERGETICS.
is known as the COC (Council of
Certification).
body work working directly on the body
of clients, by massage, manipulation,
body armouring the tensing of parts of
or inviting them to be aware of or
the body such as muscle blocks as a
move certain parts of their body to
release BODY SCRIPTING. When this is
psychological defence. A form of BODY
SCRIPTING.
done there may be a release of feeling
or previously inaccessible memories
body language the way in which feelmay be contacted. Body work forms a
ings and states of mind are unconmajor part of the technique of
sciously expressed by the posture and
Reichian therapies such as BIOENERGETmovement of the body. This is an
ICS and Radix.
important source of information for
the counsellor or therapist since it is bond a strong emotional connection
difficult to disguise and enables the
between two individuals which forms
therapist's insight to move ahead of
when they enter into ATIACHMENT.
bonding
bonding the setting-up of an emotional bn1imia nervosa an eating disorder in
bond by, for example, seeking proximity
which there is gross overeating often
or dose contact, sharing activities, etc.
followed by purging or self-induced
vomiting. Bulimics have often been
ANOREXIc. Unlike anorexics, bulimics
bound energy in Berne's energy theory
(Berne, 1961) there is energy associated
often maintain normal body weight so
with each ego-state: this may be availthe condition is less obvious. A transable (unbound) and then contributes
actional analysis approach to working
to the energisation (or CAlHEXIS) of that
with bulimics is discussed by Goode
ego-state. However, it may be bound,
(1985) and Vognsen (1985).
that is potentially but not immediately
available. In addition to bound and British Association for Counselling see
BAC.
unbound energy there is also FREE
ENERGY that is able to move freely
between ego-states. At any given hull's eye transaction a TRANSACTION
(especially by a therapist) that impacts
moment the ego-state that has the
greatest amount of free energy is
on all three ego-states (Karpman, 1971).
experienced as self. However the egostate that has executive power is the
one that has the greatest amount of
available energy, and here the
s. /
/
unbound energy counts too, so it is
s, / /
possible for the sense of self to be in
an ego-state that is not actually running things (not in executive). For
R,
' '
example, if we put most of our free
Sc
energy into Adult, so we experience
ourself coming from there but the
remaining free energy goes to Parent
and tops up the unbound energy
there to the point where it takes exec- Figure 1 Bull's eye transaction (Karpman,
utive power, we may watch ourselv~s 1971). S, the stimulus to the Adult ego-state also
acting in response to Parent com- stimulates the Parent and Child ego-states.
mands, while knowing from Adult
that they are inappropriate.
business contract that part of the
therapy or counselling contract that
boundaries limits set on behaviour
relates to the practicalities of how the
regarded as acceptable from others. In
sessions should be conducted (time,
the counselling or therapy situation
place, duration, frequency of sessions,
fees, etc). See CONTRACTING.
these might be on such matters as confidentiality, timekeeping, etc. Many
clients have difficulty in setting bound- bystander (Clarkson, 1987, 1992, 1997).
aries. Boundaries need to be set by
A fourth DRA.\:!A TRIANGLE role is that of
Adult although healthy Parent is a usethe bystander who watches the action
ful support. Angry Parent is likely to
and does nothing to change what is
set rigid and inappropriate boundaries
happening. By denying their responsi
while the Child, particularly if the his
bility and their power to act they are
torical child was engulfed or abused,
having a significant impact on the sysmay be unable to set or defend boundtem. Without bystanders, oppressive
aries.
systems would fmd it hard to operate.
12
catharsis a release of emotion. The term change a movemen t from one state
to
cor;nes from the Greek meaning 'to
another. Clients come into counsellin g
purge' and carries the implicatio n that
or psychothe rapy seeking change but
the process has a healthful, cleansing
they are often unclear about what
function. Such emotiona l releases may
changes are possible or might be helpoccur spontaneo usly during therapy or
fuL Transactio nal analysis is a contracmay be actively sought as in ANGER
tual process in which client and theraWORK. They often signify importan t
pist work together with mutual respect
points in therapy although transactio nand agreemen t. In the early stages conal analysis warns against stroking distracts may refer mainly to a joint
plays of RACKET FEELINGS and thereby
process of exploratio n through which
reinforcin g SCRIPT. See also ABREACTION.
an understan ding of the client's dilemma is developed . This then makes concathect to invest an intrapsyc hic structracts for change possible that can be
ture e.g. an ego-state, with psycholog iclearly specified in terms of outcomes .
cal energy.
See CONTRACT.
cathexis see
Child ego-state
and disturbances within this ego-state
lation of records of earlier patterns of
likely to be reflected in somatic disare
relating
behaving
and
feeling
thinking,
orders. This ego-state is involved in the
to various developmental stages. The
type 2 IMPASSE.
timing of significant events relative to
developmental stages is therefore very
ego-state proper representa
significant in terms of ego-state struc- c. the Child
childhood (about seven
later
of
tive
therefore
and
ture and script formation
ego-state is involved in
This
onwards).
has profound implications for the indiIMPASSE.
1
type
the
vidual. Berne (1961) illustrates this idea
in terms of bent pennies that leave the C3 this term is sometimes used to indicate
pile permanently skewed. Transactional
a Child ego-state within the Parent.
analysis is an integrative approach that
is able to draw on other disciplines and
transactional analysts draw on a wide
range of theories of child development,
notably those of Freud, Mahler (1975)
and, most recently, Stem (1985).
cognitive-behavioural therapy
.::;
in the form of body sensations or clinical one of the four SPECIAL FlEWS of
moods that correspond to early experitransactional analysis. Clinical transacences but are not accompanied by visutional analysts work psychotherapeutial or auditory memories. The obsessive
cally with clients who present with
search for childhood memories without
emotional, psychological, behavioural
a clear therapeutic objective constirutes
or relationship difficulties.
the game of ARCHEOLOGY.
Certified Transactional Analyst see CTA.
child sexual abuse (sometimes abbreviated to CSA) the exposure of chil- COC see COMMISSION OF CERTIFICATION.
dren to sexual experiences that are, or
might be, damaging to their normal code of ethics and practice a document
psychological development, usually for
prepared by a professional body such as
the gratification of an adult. This may
the Instirute of Transactional Analysis
extend from incest to exposure to
that specifies standards of clinical and
pornographic material. Child sexual
professional practice. Reported breaches
abuse may (and often does) have proof the code can result in the implemenfound and complex psychological
tation of a complaints procedure. A
effects. It has implications for developclear and demanding code and effective
ment and for relationships and may
complaints procedure are important for
leave the Child ego-state deeply conthe protection of the c:lient. Uke every
fused and set up powerful script
client of a professional, the client of a
INJUNCI10NS, in particular Don't Exist.
psychotherapist needS to be able to rely
on the therapist's expertise, skills and
Clarke, Jean illesley transactional anaintegrity; however, the psychotheralyst. Won an Eric Berne Memorial
pist's client often contacts him or her at
Award in 1996 for her contributions to
a time of particular V1Jlnerability. An
applying transactional analysis to parexacting code is also of impor..ance to
ent education. See Clarke (1978).
the professional for maintaining public
Classical School the work of Eric Berne
confidence. For examples of transacand his close associates. It also
tional analysis codes of ethics (ITA, EATA
includes later work developed from or
and rrAA) see Appendix 3.
closely related to this work. This
includes many of the major concepts codependency a siruation in which a part
of transactional analysis e.g. EGO-STATES,
ner, consciously or, more often, out of
SCRIPT, GAMES, STROKING and RACKETS.
awareness, supports a dysfunctional
behaviour (e.g. alcohol dependence) in
client the name now preferred for somethe other. By doing this they maintain
one who seeks the help of a counsellor
the relationship in a dysfunctional way
or psychotherapist. Eric Berne used the
to satisfy their own dependency needs.
medical term 'patient' but transactional
This
is characteristic of the GAMES played
analysts along with counsellors and
by
alcoholics
(Steiner, 1971). Both partmany psychotherapists in other disciners
in
a
codependent
relationship are
plines feel that this does not reflect
attempting to maintain SYMBIOSIS.
accurately the balanced and mutually
respectful therapeutic relationship that
cognitive-behavioural therapy theraBerne did so much to promote.
peutic approaches derived from cognitive therapy and behavioural therapy.
client-centred therapy or counselling a
They stress the dose relation between
name formerly used for: Rogerian
Therapy. See PERSON-CENTRED CO!JNbeliefs and behaviour and hold that by
SELUNG AND THERAPY.
changing irrational beliefs it is possible
cold pricklies
to reduce dysfunctional behaviour
and thus achieve relief from dysfunctional feelings. The techniques of the
cognitive-behavi oural therapies correspond closely to what is known in
transactional analysis as DECONTAMINA
TION.
cold pricklies in Steiner's (1974)
imagery in A Fuzzy Tale these symbolise negative strokes.
1()
congruence
specific stimulus that is the result of
experience in which the
qesponse was reinforced (e.g. a pigeon
. being trained to operate a lever by
being given food whenever it does so).
This concept influenced the develop, - -ment of the transactional analysis concept of STROKING.
'~'''r.~,,.-,vi
consciousness
message (from Child or Parent) are 1 ous types of interruption to contact.
consistent. Lack of congruence indiThis concept has been introduced
into transactional analysis by Richard
cates an ULTERIOR TRANSACTJON. What
will be observable will be inconsistenErskine (Erskine and Moursund,
cies between channels of communica1988).
tion (smiling while looking scared,
remaining impassive while talking containment (psychoanalysis, object
about something sad). It is important
relations school) the therapist's taking on whatever the client offers,
to check for congruence when closing
ESCAPE HATCHES. If it is absent the cloopenly or out of awareness, and
being able to deal with it safely from a
sure is likely to be sabotaged by
mature and caring position, however
Child. The term congruence is also
used in person-centred therapy where
disturbing it may be to them. This
concept was used extensively by Bion.
it designates one of Rogers' CORE CONDlTIONS. The meaning here is genuineIn Kleinian imagery it may be seen as
ness (in transactional analysis this is
the therapist providing a safe container
for the client's PROJECTIVE IDENTIFICATION.
called authenticity). By relating
This is closely allied to Winnicott's
authentically, the therapist models
concept of HOLDJNG. In transactional
the behaviour and invites the client to
do likewise. Authenticity involves an
analysis terms this may be seen as
inward contact by the counsellor or
referring to the POTENCY of the therapist.
therapist with their own thoughts,
feelings and body states as well as an
outward contact with the client. It constant Adult a condition in which only
involves a level of risk taking, and a
the Adult ego-state is cathected in
transactions. Similarly constant Child
willingness to speak as well as understand MARTIA!'II.
and constant Parent. See EXCLUSION,
EGO-STATES.
contract
Contamination
(a)
(b)
(a) Child contamination of Adult - e.g. Child belief 'spiders are scary' contaminates Adult to cause
spider phobia. (b) Parent contamination of Adult - e.g. Parent belief 'all Scotsmen are mean'
contaminates Adult to cause prejudice. (c) Double contamination of Adult- e.g. Parent belfei'
'you
a rotten kid', plus. Child belief 'I am a rotten kid'.
are
.~
contract, three-cornered
Steiner (1974) pointed out the simi- , core conditions (person-centred connselling) those qualities expressed
larities betwt:en the therapeutic process ,
within the counsellor-client relationof contracting and legal concepts of contract. Contracts require mutual consent,
ship that are necessary for effective
work. Rogers (1951), within the pervalid consideration (both parties beneson-centred school of counselling,
fit) and competency (not only for the
identified three main core conditions
therapist who needs to be suitably
which he termed, empathy, unconditrained and experienced, but also the
tional positive regard and congruclient needs to have enough available
ence. Transactional analysis stresses
Adult to participate actively in the
the I'm OK: You're OK position and
change process). Also the contract must
authenticity which closely correspond
have a lawful object (it must not have as a
to Rogers' unconditional positive
goal anything that contravenes the law
regard and congruence. See CONGRU
or the accepted ethical principles govENCE, THERAPEUTIC ALLIANCE, PERSON-CENerning the practice of psychotherapy).
TRED COUNSELLING.
See COVERT AGENDA.
contract, three-cornered in certain situa- corralogram a diagram that indicates the
tions a third party may have an interest
amount of time spent in each of the
in the contract e.g. where counselling
four LIFE POSITIONS over a period of
time, usually a day (Ernst, 1971). A
or psychotherapy is done within an
organisation. Each of the contracts
shape is drawn in the centre of an OK
CORRAL diagram. The area covered in
needs to be made clear, e.g. client each quadrant indicates the proportherapist, client - organisation, theration of time spent in that life position.
pist - organisation. This is known as a
three-cornered contract (English,
I+ U+
1975). In certain situations the position
1-U+
is still more complex, especially if a
number of individuals or bodies exercise authority but are not parties to the
contracting. In this case Berne (1966)
recommends the drawing-up of an
authority diagram to define the space
in which contracting takes place.
I+U-
counterscript cure
Classical transactional analysis is closer
mainly of a restructuring of currently
to this original Freudian position than
available resources while 'psychothe Cathexis and redecision schools.
therapy' involves deeper level interThe emphasis in classical transactional
ventions to make additional resources
analysis in on empowering the Adult,
available.
who can then cooperate with the therapist is deconfusing the Child (i.e. the counterinjunctions 'messages' acquired
emphasis is on restructuring rather
in later childhood that specify behavthan 'healing'). REPAR.fu'<TING is based on
iours which the developing child
the concept of the corrective emotionbelieved would gain the approval (and
al experience.
perhaps love) of their parents.
Resorting to these behaviours from an
counselling currently (1997) there is a
adapted Child position generates a
lack of agreement among transactional
spurious sense of OKness that helps to
analysis and counselling organisations
defend against negative elements in
on the exact definition of counselling.
the personality such as INJUNCTIONS. The
A number of definitions have been
five DRNER MESSAGES are important counproposed (e.g. ITM, 1995). What seems
ter-injunctions that occur widely.
to be agreed is that it is a helping activCollectively the counterinjunctions
ity that involves talking to others and
constitute the COUNTERSCRIPT. See
facilitating them in processing their
INJUNCTIONS, SCRIPT MATRIX, DRIVERS, MES
experience and making desired
SAGE FOR1\1AT.
changes in their feeling, thinking and
behaviour. Usually psychological theo- counterfeit strokes a stroke that is not
ries are applied within this facilitation
what it at first appears to be - for
process. Likewise, there is no agreeexample a negative stroke presented as
ment that a clear distinction can be
a positive ('What an unusual dress! Did
made between counselling and psyyou get it secondhand?')
chotherapy. The British A.~sociation for
Counselling (1990), the major profes- counterscript the defensive aspect of the
sional body for counselling in the UK,
script made up Of the COUNTERJNJUNCdoes not make a distinction between
TIONS. The counterscript has a major
the two activities. This is a significant
effect on the way the script is played
issue for transactional analysis as the
out since it clearly specifies behaviours
qualification of Certified Transactional
(originally behaviours that the child
Analyst is awarded in SPECIAl. FIELDS of
believed would gain his or her parents'
application, which include psychotherapproval). The PROCESS SCRIPT type is
apy and counselling. The European
therefore closely related to the counAssociation for Transactional Analysis
terscript and in particular to the princi(EATA, 1997) specifies the counselling
pal DRIVER MESSAGES. See also SCRIPT
special field as being appropriate for
MATRIX.
transactional analysts whose activities
aim at the development and growth of counterscript cure an apparent cure in
people and their frame of reference
which the client has incorporated meswithout these activities corning under
sages from the therapist on how to be
the clinical, organisational or educaa 'good' client into his or her !=Ountertional fiefd. In general those who do
script (Clarkson, 1992). The person is
see a difference between counselling
acting as if change at a deep structural
and psychotherapy tend to place it in
level has occurred (see FLIGHT INTO
the level of intrapsychic restructuring
HEAJ.:rn). The client has OVERADAPTED to
involved: 'counselling' consisting
the therapist. This should not be taken
countertransference
at its face value but may represent a creative dreamer alternative term for
the schizoid PERSONALITY ADAPTATION.
significant stage in therapy in that the
client may cease destructive behaviours and become open to the good critical Parent (often written Critical
Parent) the Parent ego-state functionthinking of the therapist. See also PASing in a critical mode. This is now
SIVE BEHAVIOURS.
regarded as the negative aspect of the
controlling Parent ego-state (-CP). See
countertransference originally the therFUNCTIONAL EGO-STATES.
apist's reaction to the TRANSFERENCE of
the client (e.g. if the client is projecting his or her father on to the thera- crossed transaction see TRANSACTION,
CROSSED.
pist he or she will elicit a response in
the therapist to the psychological
manoeuvres he or she has carried for- Crossman, Pat received the Eric Beme
Memorial Scientific Award in 1976 for
ward from the original situation).
her work on PERM.!SSION and PROTECTION.
Awareness of countertransferenc e
yields important insights (e.g. social
diagnosis of ego-states). If it is missed crossup see FORMU1.A G.
by the therapist then the client and
therapist can be drawn into a replay of crying expressing emotion through the
release of tears, often with sobbing.
the original situation with the parent or
This may be expressive of sadness,
other projected figure. This is often the
pain or sometimes joy. Tra.."lSactional
cause of therapy becoming stuck and is
analysts believe that the expression of
an issue addressed in SUPERVISION.
AUTIIENTIC FEEUNGS is always helpful and
Clarkson (1992) refers to this as reacshould be supported. However, crying,
tive countertransference . The term
along with other forms of emotional
countertransference is also used to
expression, may represent the expresdescribe the therapist's transference on
sion of RACKET FEELINGS. Clients Will
to the client (i.e. the projection on to
sometimes move through the racket
the client of a significant figure from
feelings into authentic feeling, but the
the therapist's past). Clarkson calls this
STROKING of a prolonged or habitual
pro-active countertransference.
release of racket feelings is countertherapeutic.
Courtroom a GAME in which two parties
competitively seek to secure a third
person (often the therapist) as an ally crystallisation see THERAPEUTIC OPERATIONS.
against the other. Often played when
CTA certified transactional analyst. A procouples are being counselled.
fessional qualification entitling the person holding it to practise transactional
covert agenda beliefs about desired or
analysis awarded by the relevant pronecessary outcomes that are held by
fessional body (in Europe this is EATA,
either the client or the therapist and
the European Association for
not made explicit. If not dealt with
Transactional Analysis). The CTA can
these will give rise to UJ.TERIOR TRANSAC
be awarded in four SPECIAL FIEillS: clininoNs in which divergent messages are
cal, organisational, educational or
given simultaneously at the social
counselling. In the UK the award of
(ostensible) and psychological (real)
clinical leads to registration as a
CTA
cONTRAcrthe
of
function
major
A
levels.
psychotherapist by the UK Council for
ING process is to make these agendas
Psychotherapy (UKCP).
open and specific.
?.?
cyclothymic
cure restoration to a state of health. This
has a dear meaning in medical settings
but in psychology is more problematic.
An intervention to reinstate defensive
systems may enable the client to
resume previous levels of functioning
but not be in that client's long-term
interests as defensive systems are limiting. A better outcome may be to help
the client to function without the need
for the defences. Berne (1971)
stressed the importance of cure and
the need to focus on the key issue and
deal with it without being distracted by
peripheral consequences of the
pathology (he compared this to withdrawing a splinter in the toe as
opposed to dealing l\'ith the limp that
resulted from it). The concept of cure
may be seen to run counter to the
humanistic approach, which assumes
an innate tendency to develop in the
way that is uniquely appropriate for
the individual. This humanistic perspective is also part of the philosophical position of transactional analysis. If
cure is a return to (or movement
towards) 'normality', who decides
what is normal? The transactional
analysis answer is 'the client'. In the
process of coNTRACTING, client and therapist agree positive outcomes for the
therapy and the ways in which these
can be verified. These have to be freely
agreed between them. The therapist
does not seek to impose his or her
view on the client but may decline to
work towards an outcome that he or
she believes would not be in the
client's interests. See also PHYSIS.
-l
(psycho analysis ) a
decisio n in transact ional analysis this defence mechan ism
by the EGO to conused
process
mental
means a choice to act or respond in a
internal element s
resist
or
divert
trol,
r
whateve
particul ar way made with
that may give rise to stress or anxiety
mental resource s were available at the
('cause neurosis '). COUNTERJ NJUNCTIO NS
time. This term is applied to very early
an example of a defence mechaare
intuitive
ly
essential
were
that
choices
nism since they placate the internal
selection of what seemed to work best
and so reduce Parent pressure
Parent
that
ns
as well as to later decisio
on the Child. Defence s are almost
involved cognitive weighing of alternaalways associate d with DISCOUNTING.
tives. See also EARLY LIFE DECISION and
SCRIPT.
depressive position
. _nature of the outcome. Games played
at the first degree level result in nothing more than social embarrassment;
:at the second degree level there are
:serious consequences such as loss of a
: :job or divorce and at the third degree
. Jevel they may result in psychiatric hospitalisation, imprisonment, serious
physical harm or even death. See GAMES
and SCRIPT.
depth psychology
aware of the ambivalence of the loved
object (mother) and becomes concerned to make reparation for the
damage he or she imagines his or her
hate has done. See OBJECT CONSTANCY.
This Kleinian concept influenced the
transactional analysis concept of UFE
rosmaN. See also OK CORRAL.
discount matrix
system of diagnosis, Paul War~'s concept of PERSONALI1Y ADAPTATIONS which is
.based on six characteristic patterns of
: ,diagnostic elements.
,.
existence
significance
change
possibilities
personal
abilities
person's ability
to react
differently
person's ability
to solve
problems
person's ability
to act on
options
Figure 5 Discount matrix (Mellor and Sigmund., 1975). Discounting can occur in three areasself, others and the world. A discount matrix diagram relates only to one area.
?Q
drive theory
adaptations were based on the naming
Perrecutor .;::::======~ Rescuer
of these disorders (Vann Joines has
since proposed other names that are
not associated with psychopathol ogy.
The original names used by Paul Ware
are still widely used, however). For
each he identified a pattern of reaction
to feeling, thinking and behaviour.
One of these would be very accessible
(the open door), one would be the
most productive area to concentrate
Victim
on in therapy (the target door), and
one would be heavily involved with Figure 6 Drama rriangle (Karpman, 1968).
defensive systems and so less accessible and a potential source of trouble if dreams Spontaneous imagery occurring
during sleep, which may be accompaaddressed too early in therapy (the
nied by other sensory modalities (heartrap door). See WARE SEQUENCE.
ing, touch, smell, propriocept ion).
Freud saw them as the coded expresdrama triangle (also known as Karpman
sion of unconscious processes (in partriangle) a diagram devised by
ticular repressed conflicts) and
Stephen Karpman (1968) on to which
described them as 'the royal road to
many patterns of interpersonal interacthe unconscious'. In various approachtion (in particular GAMES) can be
es dreams are also seen as residues of
mapped. At the three corners are the
daytime experience, contact with the
three drama triangle positions or roles:
collective unconscious or some other
Persecutor, Rescuer and Victim. Each is
deep creative level of the self or even
spelled with a capital letter to indicate
indications of the future. Berne (1972)
that a drama triangle role is indicated
regarded them as a mechanism for
which may differ from the everyday
dealing with after-burn (the conseusage of the words. Each position is
quences of previous stress) and reachunauthentic and involves discounting.
back (concern over future events).
This is obvious for the Persecutor but
Many transactional analysts work with
the Rescuer is discounting the autonodreams, often using techniques
my of the Victim and their power to
derived from other modalities such as
help themselves (as also is the Victim).
Gestalt or Psychosynthes is.
Rescuers are often also GRANDIOSE about
their power to help others and the
need for their services. Positions may be dreamer see CREATIVE D~'\1ER.
covert; it is possible to persecute from
what is ostensibly a Victim position. drive theory (psychoanal ysis) in the
classical Freudian model of the psyche,
Some people really need help and othbiological instincts (e.g. sex, selfers are prepared to give it from a caring
preservation) give rise to drives that
and respectful position. These authenare forms of psychologic al energy
tic victims and rescuers are not on the
directed to seeking satisfaction of the
drama triangle. As the action unfolds
instinct. Neurosis results from the failthe participants may move round the
ure of the EGO to deal with the contriangle, Persecutor and Victim may
flicts engendered by the pressures of
change roles or the Rescuer become a
drives operating via the ID and the
Victim, etc. This movement around the
constraints of both the SUPEREGO and
triangle is characteristic of GAI\1ES. See
the outside world. In his later theories
also BYSTAI'iDER.
drive theory
~0
Don't Grow Up
DSM-N
drive theory - continued
sages from early childhood) by engag
.Freud postulated two major drives
ing in behaviours which were oncL
related to the life and death instincts
reinforced by parents. The process is
(Eros and Thanatos). The object relaessentially one of gaining conditiona
tions theorists shifted attention to
OKness by adapting to the interna:
relationships with others, in parrictiParent. See also DRIVER MESSAGE. Driver.,
Iar the mother, and internal represenand driver messages share the same
tations of others (OBJECTS and INTERNAl.
names, which are: BE PERFECT, BE STRONG
OBJECTS). Ego psychology, the school
PLEASE OTHERS, TRY HARD and HURRY UP.
of psychoanalysis in which Eric Berne
trained, places greatest emphasis on Drowning person diagram a term often
the struggles of the EGO to deal with
used to refer to Adrienne Lee'!
the internal and external worlds.
'Scriptbound' diagram (Lee, 1988a) se(
Berne makes occasional references 0
page 30. This is a diagram illustrating
drive theory concepts in his writing
the dynamic between COUNTERINJUNC
and it may have influenced his thinkTIONS (in particular DRIVER MESSAGES) an(
ing On HUNGERS. Also the idea of SCRIPT
INJUNCTIONS in maintaining script. She
moving towards a _negative payoff is
was influenced by an idea of Taibi
reminiscent of death instinct theory.
Kahler. A person is shown as attempting to stay afloat despite the weight o;
driver behaviour the behavioural maniconcrete blocks (representing INJUNC
festation of a DRIVER. The word driver
noNs - negative messages from the
usually implies the driver behaviour.
past). To do this the person is clinging
to balloons that represent strategies fm
driver messages the implicit psychologiobtaining
approval learned in childcal message associated with a DRIVER.
hood. These give them conditional
Although it is presented in MESSAGE FOR
OKness ('you are oK:if you do this').
MAT this does not imply that it is incorThe
balloons symbolise COUNTERINJUNC
porated as a verbal message. Driver
TIONS and the messages on them are
messages are COUNTERINJUNCTIONS, that is
the five commonest counterinjunction
they form part of the COUNTERSCRJPT and
messages. These five messages are also
therefore have a profound effect on the
known as DRIVER MESSAGES as they are
way the script is expressed in behav
associated with behavioural pattern;iours (see SCRIPT, PROCEss). In Steiner's
called DRIVERS. The diagram symbolises,
(1971) model of the SCRIPT MATRIX they
in a vivid and accessible way, the mosr
are shown as given by the Parent egoimportant elements of the scruPT MATRIX.
states of the parents to the Parent egostate of the client and represent beliefs
about ways of achieving conditional DSM-IV the Diagnostic and Statistical
Manual of Mental Disorders. A widely
OKness by behaving in ways that might
used diagnostic manual published b)
bring the parents' approval. See also
the American Psychiatric Association. It
ALLO\VER.
contains an elaborate numerical and
drive:;s brief observable behaviours, idendescriptive system for classifying men
tified by Taibi Kahler (Kahler and
tal disorders on the basis of the!=
symptomatology. By concentrating on:
Capers, 1974), which are indicative of
underlying defensive processes. They
symptoms this provides a sy~tem that
is, to a considerable extent, indepenrepresent responses to the couNTER
dent of theories of pathology and therescRIPT and carry the process of the script
fore offers a system of diagnosis that
forwards. When a person is in driver
facilitates communication between prothey are dealing with internal stress
fessionals who have trained in differing
arising from INJUNCTIONS (negative mes-
Dusay,John
modes of psychotherap y. For this reason it is usual to include a DSM-N diagnosis in the case study submitted as
part of the examination for Certified
Transactional Analyst.
ego dystonic
cially by Ronald Fairbairn. Fairbairn ,
ing and identifying change strategies.
(1952) divided the ego into three
It was developed by JACK DUSAY (1972)
parts: one responded to instinctual
who received the Eric Berne Memorial
drives, another opposed them, while a
Scientific Award for his work in 1973.
third, the central ego, dealt with the
outside world. Thus the functions of ego-state Eric Berne (1964) defined an
Freud's three psychic organs were
ego-state as 'a consistent pattern of feelgathered together in the ego. This
ing and experience directly related to a
corresponding consistent pattern of
model probably influenced Berne.
behaviour'. Paul Federn, who originated
Transactional analysis is an ego psythe idea of the ego-state, viewed it as
chology that provides a description of
the totality of a person's experience of
the functioning of the personality in
himself or herself and the external
terms of ego functioning.
world at a given moment. He suggested
ego dystonic a thought, feeling or behavthat past ego-states were stored in memiour is ego dystonic if it causes discomory as totalities. Berne recognised that
there were three types of ego-state: egofort and is experienced as inconsistent
states relating to past experiences of the
with one's conception of oneself. See
self which he called Child ego-states;
EGO SYNTONIC.
ego-states relating to past experiences
of powerful significant others which he
egogram a bar graph indicating the relative amounts of time spent in the five
called Parent ego-states; and current
FUNCTIONAL EGO-STATES; Controlling
ego-states relating to current experiences of here-and-now reality. He called
Parent, Nurturing Parent, Adult,
these Adult ego-states. People would
Natural Child (Free Child) and
Adapted Child. As these are functional
often reconnect with past ego-states and
manifestations of ego-states this refers
when they did they behaved as if these
to behaviours, not to internal processes
archaic ego-states were part of current
reality. When they did so they behaved
(which would need to be represented
in characteristic ways that can be
in terms of STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS). It may
observed. It is therefore possible to infer
therefore not be consistent across
internal mental processes directly from
environments (e.g. it may be different
obseroable behaviours. This discovery
for home and work) but it is a us'eful
way of describing personality function-
Parent ego-state
,---
CP
NP
Adult ego-state
,--
I FC l
AC
Child ego-state
ego-state -
s.
~)
u
n
1a
)f
d
s
)f
Ll
d
1-
Lt
)-
e
s
e
lt
l-
d
d
d
e
t
j
became the basis of transactional analysis. Berne represented each of the populations of ego-states by a circle to create
a diagram of personality structure.
At any given moment CATHEXIS (psychological energy) will be directed
mainly into contacting one ego-state so
the person will be in a Child ego-state,
a Parent ego-state or contacting 'here
and now' reality through an Adult egostate and will demonstrate this through
characteristic patterns of thinking, feeling and behaviour. If a Child ego-state
is contacted it will be a child of a specific age and likewise if a Parent ego-state
is contacted it will be an experience
with a specific parent figure at a specific
time. However, one~ Child ego-states
are selected there is a tendency to stay
with them and move around between
different ones in the same general area.
As a 'shorthand' way of refening to this
transactional analysts are inclined to say
that individuals are in their Child egostate or the Child ego-state or even 'in
Child'. This is acceptable as long as one
keeps in mind that it is not theoretically
accurate. Usually the word 'ego-state' is
omitted and the three types referred to
as Parent, Adult and Child.
r
1
second-order analysis
behavioural diagnosis
social diagnosis
historical diagnosis
phenomenologic al diagnosis
Behavioural diagnosis is the most important
as it is the most accessible, Certain behaviours are characteristic of each ego-state,
e.g. diffident behaviour usually indicates
Child, dominant, controlling behaviour
Parent and rational, practical behaviour
Adult, although each can be indicated in
many other ways. Social diagnosis looks at
the responses evoked in others (e.g. if these
are parental the person is usually in Child).
Historical diagnosis asks 'was there a
historical child or parent figure who
responded in this way?' Phenomenologic al
diagnosis asks 'what does it feel like to be
in this state? Does this correspond to a past
feeling state?' It is rarely possible to make a
complete diagnosis on all four criteria so
diagnosis is usually made mainly on behavioural grounds, using any of the other techniques that are available as checks. If diagnosis is made solely on behavioural
grounds it will be of the FUNCDONAL MODEL
OF EGOSTATES.
, Adult ego-state
p2
i.
:>,(}
escape hatch
psychological energy. Free energy is Erskine, Richard received the Eric Berne
. energy that can be consciously and wilMemorial Scientific Award in 1982
fully directed to any chosen ego-state.
jointly with MARILYN ZALCMAN for their
work on the RACKET sYSTEM and racket
Each ego-state also has its own potential or bound energy. Thls energy cananalysis. Richard Erskine has also
not be used until it is unbound. The
worked extensively on integrating
ego-state with the most available energy
transactional analysis with other therawill be in executive (i.e. be in charge of
peutic modalities, in particular self
behaviour). This can be a mixture of
psychology and object relations psyfree and unbound energy but the egochoanalysis and also Gestalt therapy.
state that is experienced as real self will
See Erskine and Moursund (1988) and
have the most free energy (i.e. you will
Erskine and Trautmann (1993).
have chosen to give it the most energy).
escape hatch the Child's three options 'if
English, Fanita transactional analyst. She
things get bad enough I can always;kill
received the Eric Berne Memorial
myself/blame someone else and kill
Scientific Award in 1978 for her work
them/go crazy' are called the three
on RACKETS, real feelings and the substiescape hatches (Holloway, 1973;
tution factor (English, 1971, 1972).
Cowles-Boyd, 1980). While these
remain open there is the risk that the
episcript a negative script message that
script will lead to a tragic outcome at
the parent passes on to the child seeksome crisis point. While energy
ing by doing so to release themselves
remains invested in them they are also
from the influence of the message a major obstacle to script change since
e.g. a Don't Exist injunction is passed
they represent a mechanism for evadon to the child by a parent. Such transing responsibility for making life
mission can cascade down several genchanges (at the back of the mind there
erations. Also called a 'hot potato'
is the thought 'if things get bad enough
(English, 1969). This can be considered
I could always ... '). Psychotherapy
involves the dismantling of defensive
a form of PROJECTNE IDENTIFICATION.
structures such as COUNTERlNJUNCTIONS
Eric Beme Memorial Awards the Eric
or INJUNCTIONS that form part of a COM
POUND DECISION. This may expose damBerne Memorial Scientific Award was
established in 1971 in memory of Eric
aging early decisions such as 'I have no
right to exist' and increase the risk of
Berne who had died the previous year.
It was given annually to the originator
tragic outcomes. Transactional analysts
of a new scientific concept in transactherefore consider it essential to close
tional analysis. In 1990 the title and
escape hatches before doing major
scope of the award was changed. It is
change work such as REDECISION.
now known as the Eric Berne
Closure involves the client deciding
Memorial Award in Transactional
from Adult to give up the escape hatch
Analysis and is awarded annually for
options with the therapist acting as a
witness. Promising to close escape
published contributions to transactionhatches is an adapted closure that is
al analysis theory or practice, or the
integration or comparison of transacunlikely to hold under stress. Escape- ~
tional analysis theory or practice with
hatch closure is an important way i~\)
other the.rapeutic modalities.
which clients are given PROTECTION.
Sometimes clients are unwilling to
Ernst, Franklin received the Eric Berne
close escape hatches but are able to
decide to do so for a limited period.
Memorial Scientific Award in 1981 for
This may be sufficient for essential
his work on the OK coRRAL (Ernst, 1971)
ethics
e, which is able to
. work to be done safely. Time limited ' e..xecnt ive the ego-stat
s actions is said to
person'
a
ine
determ
es
sometim
is
hatches
closure of escape
In Berne's (1961)
e.
executiv
be in the
referred to as soft closure.
ENERGY theory the ego-sta te that has
the largest total of unboun d and free
ethics the philoso phy of moral behavenergy is in the executi ve. Howev er,
iour. The system of princip les and
the sense of self rests with the egoutes
constit
rules that specify what
state which has the largest amount of
A
not.
does
what
and
ur
behavio
good
energy; therefo re people somefree
to
rule is specific and therefo re easier
behave in ways that they pertimes
rigid.
and
narrow
apply but may prove
ceive as EGO DYSTONIC.
Principl es are more general and closer
to underly ing philoso phy but are more
y a memor y that
difficu lt to apply in specifi c cases. experi ential memor
body states,
through
itself
ts
manifes
Profes sional bodies such as the
moods withor
nces
experie
al
emotion
forAnalysis
Institut e of Transac tional
y compo nents
auditor
or
visual
out
onprofessi
and
ethics
of
codes
mulate
necess arily being involve d. See
al practice to guide their practiti oners
UNTHOUGJIT KNOWN.
of
mixture
d
which contain a balance
es
exampl
the
See
es.
principl
and
rules
TIC OPERATIONS.
of codes of major transact ional analysis explan ation see THERAPEU
3.
ix
Append
in
organis ations
exterop syche in Berne's (1961) theory
Of ego-sta tes the PSYCHIC ORGAN that
who
past
the
euhem erus a figure from
manifes ts itself phenom enologi cally as
sigpositive
lar
particu
a
d
acquire
has
Parent ego-sta te. See also ARCHEO
the
nificanc e for a group (Berne, 1963).
NEOPSYCHE.
PSYCHE,
tional
transac
in
role
Berne has this
analysis.
e....::trovert Oungia n analytic psychol ogy) A
persona lity type charact erised by a tenegoone
which
in
n
situatio
a
e..xclusion
dency to direct energie s outwar ds to
state (Parent, Adult or Child) constan tly
the physica l and social environ ments.
ped,
stereoty
a
in
g
domina tes, resultin
People with this type of persona lity are
predict able attitude , which is maindescrib ed as lively and outgoin g.
often
tained as long as possible in any threatINTROVERT. In Paul Ware's peralso
See
The
1961).
,
(Berne
n
ening situatio
the extrove rt is likely to
theory
sonality
domina nt ego-sta te is referre d to as
HISTIUON!C PERSONALITY
the
in
placed
be
seen
be
may
excludi ng Parent, etc. This
ADAPTATION.
in terms of DISSOCIATION or of concent ration of CATHEXIS in a single ego-state and
s
).
l
)
,.'
)
39
Fedem, Paul
therapist in which each gives somedanger. Unlike anxiety, fear is valuable.1
It differs in being focused on to specifthing of value to the other. See CONTRACT.
ic dangers, thus motivating present
action to avoid future harm. Anxiety is
an unfocused state of arousal that Ferenczi, Sandor
psychoanalyst.
Although close to Freud he advocated
seeks unspecified threats. Appropriate
a much more involved style of working
arousal in dangerous environments is
which took account of the fuct that the
useful but anxiety is often disabling
therapy situation is a two-person sysand may not relate to current dangers.
tem in which both TRANSFERENCE and
By focusing on specific dangers, fear
COUNTERTRANSFERENCE are significant. He
leads to problem solving but anxiety
believed that the client reacted to the
does not.
real personality of the analyst
(Freudian psychoanalysis advocated
Federn, Paul American psychoanalyst
that the analyst be distant and serve as
with whom Berne trained from 1941
a 'blank screen' to receive projecto 1943. Both he and Erik Erikson, the
tions). He saw therapy as giving the
training analyst with whom Berne
client the opportunity to relive his or
worked subsequently, adopted an 'ego
her experiences in a more permissive
psychology' approach that stressed the
and supportive atmosphere. As
function of the ego in dealing with the
Melanie Klein's analyst he influenced
outside world over the internal struggle
with instinctual drives which was centhe OBJECT REUTIONS SCHOOL and he may
have been an influence on Berne as
tral to classical DRIVE THEORY psychotransactional analysis is one of the few
analysis. Both the ego psychology
two-person approaches to psychotherapproach and Fedem's concept of the
ego-state were important influences
apy and is practised in an involved and
supportive style.
on Berne.
feeling also called emotion or affect. first-order diagram a diagram of the ego
that shows it divided into Parent, Adult
Transactional analysis distinguishes
and Child ego-states but is not further
between AUTHENTIC FEEUNGS, which lead
subdivided. It is sometimes called the
to engagement with current life issues,
and RACKET FEELINGS, which involve
PAC diagram.
replaying past issues and adaptations.
It recognises FOUR AUTHENTIC FEEUNGS.
feeling loop a system developed by
Moiso (1984) for analysing the processing of feeling that integrates many
ideas including rackets, games, instinctual processes, neurological systems
and the tendency to seek closed
Parent ego-state
Adult ego-state
GESTALTEN.
40
Fedem, Paul
therapist in which each gives somedanger. Unlike anxiety, fear is valuable.1
It differs in being focused on to specifthing of value to the other. See CONTRACT.
ic dangers, thus motivating present
action to avoid future harm. Anxiety is
an unfocused state of arousal that Ferenczi, Sandor
psychoanalyst.
Although close to Freud he advocated
seeks unspecified threats. Appropriate
a much more involved style of working
arousal in dangerous environments is
which took account of the fuct that the
useful but anxiety is often disabling
therapy situation is a two-person sysand may not relate to current dangers.
tem in which both TRANSFERENCE and
By focusing on specific dangers, fear
COUNTERTRANSFERENCE are significant. He
leads to problem solving but anxiety
believed that the client reacted to the
does not.
real personality of the analyst
(Freudian psychoanalysis advocated
Federn, Paul American psychoanalyst
that the analyst be distant and serve as
with whom Berne trained from 1941
a 'blank screen' to receive projecto 1943. Both he and Erik Erikson, the
tions). He saw therapy as giving the
training analyst with whom Berne
client the opportunity to relive his or
worked subsequently, adopted an 'ego
her experiences in a more permissive
psychology' approach that stressed the
and supportive atmosphere. As
function of the ego in dealing with the
Melanie Klein's analyst he influenced
outside world over the internal struggle
with instinctual drives which was centhe OBJECT REUTIONS SCHOOL and he may
have been an influence on Berne as
tral to classical DRIVE THEORY psychotransactional analysis is one of the few
analysis. Both the ego psychology
two-person approaches to psychotherapproach and Fedem's concept of the
ego-state were important influences
apy and is practised in an involved and
supportive style.
on Berne.
feeling also called emotion or affect. first-order diagram a diagram of the ego
that shows it divided into Parent, Adult
Transactional analysis distinguishes
and Child ego-states but is not further
between AUTHENTIC FEEUNGS, which lead
subdivided. It is sometimes called the
to engagement with current life issues,
and RACKET FEELINGS, which involve
PAC diagram.
replaying past issues and adaptations.
It recognises FOUR AUTHENTIC FEEUNGS.
feeling loop a system developed by
Moiso (1984) for analysing the processing of feeling that integrates many
ideas including rackets, games, instinctual processes, neurological systems
and the tendency to seek closed
Parent ego-state
Adult ego-state
GESTALTEN.
40
formulaS
refined his definition of a game. As the
concept became more clearly specified, behaviour patterns previously
classified as games were excluded .
.Many of the games described in Games
People Play are in this category.
Formula G was Berne's final definition
of a game and appears in his last book,
What Do You Say After You Say Hello?
(Berne, 1972). Formula G states that in
a game the following sequence of
events will be observable:
CON + GIMMICK = RESPONSE _,.
SWITCH_,. CROSSUP _,.PAYOFF
or expressed as a formula
C+G=R-o-S...,.X-P
The con is the invitation given by the
person who makes the first move. The
gimmick is the aspect of the other
party that makes him or her vulnerable to the con. The response is the
social process that ensues, most of
which is ostensibly Adult although
involving ULTERIOR TRANSACTIONS. This
may continue for seconds, hours, days
or years but if the sequence is a rrue
game at some stage there will be a
series of rapid changes. At the switch
each player (there may be more than
two) changes ego-state and drama :triangle position, e.g. the Rescuer may
start to persecute, there will be a
moment of confusion (the crossup)
and each participant will experience
RACKET FEELINGS (the payoff). The last
three stages may be, in effect, simultaneous.
formula S a formula suggested by Berne
to outline the main features of SCRIPT.
It has been largely superseded by later
developments in script theory.
four myths Taibi Kahler (1978) suggested that four myths underlie DRIVERS and
RACKETS. These comprise two pairs of a
formulaS
refined his definition of a game. As the
concept became more clearly specified, behaviour patterns previously
classified as games were excluded .
.Many of the games described in Games
People Play are in this category.
Formula G was Berne's final definition
of a game and appears in his last book,
What Do You Say After You Say Hello?
(Berne, 1972). Formula G states that in
a game the following sequence of
events will be observable:
CON + GIMMICK = RESPONSE _,.
SWITCH_,. CROSSUP _,.PAYOFF
or expressed as a formula
C+G=R-o-S...,.X-P
The con is the invitation given by the
person who makes the first move. The
gimmick is the aspect of the other
party that makes him or her vulnerable to the con. The response is the
social process that ensues, most of
which is ostensibly Adult although
involving ULTERIOR TRANSACTIONS. This
may continue for seconds, hours, days
or years but if the sequence is a rrue
game at some stage there will be a
series of rapid changes. At the switch
each player (there may be more than
two) changes ego-state and drama :triangle position, e.g. the Rescuer may
start to persecute, there will be a
moment of confusion (the crossup)
and each participant will experience
RACKET FEELINGS (the payoff). The last
three stages may be, in effect, simultaneous.
formula S a formula suggested by Berne
to outline the main features of SCRIPT.
It has been largely superseded by later
developments in script theory.
four myths Taibi Kahler (1978) suggested that four myths underlie DRIVERS and
RACKETS. These comprise two pairs of a
44
44
o
gallows laugh laughing when making a
statement about something unpleasant.
o
The laugh is incongruent with the content of the words and invites the listenExploration of eacl1 of these issues leads
er to reinforce a script belief by joining
to identification of DRAMA TRIANGLE switchin the laugh. For example a person who
es and FORMUlA G stages of the game.
tells the story of a mistake he or she
made and ends by saying with a laugh games Repetitive patterns of social behav'that's just like me, 1 never get things
iour which are characterised by ULTERIOR
right'. He or she is inviting the listeners
TRANSACTIONS (transactions operating at
to join in the amusement and confirm
two levels, an acknowledged social
his or her script belief: 'I can't think'.
level and an unacknowledged psychoAlso gallows smile and gallows translogical level) and ending with the paraction. These terms are often abbreviatties feeling 'bad' (i.e. experiencing RACKed to gallows. Gallows is indicativ~ of
ET FEEUNGS) (Berne, 1964). ln psychodyDiscouNTING. The origin of the term is
namic terms they involve TRANSFERENCE
the highwayman who dies laughing at
and the ACTING OUT of unresolved archahis own misfortune and is in effect sayic issues. The concept of games evolved
ing internally: 'Well, mother, you preover time and this is reflected in a varidicted I would end up on the gallows
ety of definitions in the literature
and here I am!' See also LAUGHTER.
although all fall within the criteria given
above. In Berne's writings the definioame formula a formula that sets out
tion increased in detail and precision so
"' the characteristic sequence of events in
that his final definition (a sequence that
a GAME. See FORMUL'- G.
includes all the stages of FORMULA G)
excludes many of the patterns labelled
game plan a systematic procedure for
as games in Games People Play. Some
elucidating games developed by John
contemporary transactional analysts
James (1973). In outline it consists in
prefer a more general definition of
finding answers to the following quesgames than this version; however,
tions:
Berne's early definition did not include
the switch and therefore failed to distinWhat keeps happening over and
guish game playing from RACKETEERING.
over again?
.f.
.,_
o
gallows laugh laughing when making a
statement about something unpleasant.
o
The laugh is incongruent with the content of the words and invites the listenExploration of eacl1 of these issues leads
er to reinforce a script belief by joining
to identification of DRAMA TRIANGLE switchin the laugh. For example a person who
es and FORMUlA G stages of the game.
tells the story of a mistake he or she
made and ends by saying with a laugh games Repetitive patterns of social behav'that's just like me, 1 never get things
iour which are characterised by ULTERIOR
right'. He or she is inviting the listeners
TRANSACTIONS (transactions operating at
to join in the amusement and confirm
two levels, an acknowledged social
his or her script belief: 'I can't think'.
level and an unacknowledged psychoAlso gallows smile and gallows translogical level) and ending with the paraction. These terms are often abbreviatties feeling 'bad' (i.e. experiencing RACKed to gallows. Gallows is indicativ~ of
ET FEEUNGS) (Berne, 1964). ln psychodyDiscouNTING. The origin of the term is
namic terms they involve TRANSFERENCE
the highwayman who dies laughing at
and the ACTING OUT of unresolved archahis own misfortune and is in effect sayic issues. The concept of games evolved
ing internally: 'Well, mother, you preover time and this is reflected in a varidicted I would end up on the gallows
ety of definitions in the literature
and here I am!' See also LAUGHTER.
although all fall within the criteria given
above. In Berne's writings the definioame formula a formula that sets out
tion increased in detail and precision so
"' the characteristic sequence of events in
that his final definition (a sequence that
a GAME. See FORMUL'- G.
includes all the stages of FORMULA G)
excludes many of the patterns labelled
game plan a systematic procedure for
as games in Games People Play. Some
elucidating games developed by John
contemporary transactional analysts
James (1973). In outline it consists in
prefer a more general definition of
finding answers to the following quesgames than this version; however,
tions:
Berne's early definition did not include
the switch and therefore failed to distinWhat keeps happening over and
guish game playing from RACKETEERING.
over again?
.f.
.,_
48
48
52
52
hypomania
Its use in these circumstances is
little interest in the therapeutic use of
to be counter-therapeutic.
hypnosis by transactional analysts
although it can have a positive role in
facilitating the achievement of autono- hypomania an energised u"n'u'""
state resembling
my. There is currently increasing interintense.
est among transactional analysts in
integrating NLP techniques. Hypnosis is
sometimes sought by clients who seek hysteric personality adaptation
formerly used for the HISTRIONIC
change without addressing the issues
TION.
of personal responsibility for actions.
56
hypomania
Its use in these circumstances is
little interest in the therapeutic use of
to be counter-therapeutic.
hypnosis by transactional analysts
although it can have a positive role in
facilitating the achievement of autono- hypomania an energised u"n'u'""
state resembling
my. There is currently increasing interintense.
est among transactional analysts in
integrating NLP techniques. Hypnosis is
sometimes sought by clients who seek hysteric personality adaptation
formerly used for the HISTRIONIC
change without addressing the issues
TION.
of personal responsibility for actions.
56
identity
Primary identification occurs in infants
who do not yet have a sense of the
other; secondary identification occurs
as a defence and the identity confusion
is with someone who has been perceived as an other. Transactional analysis has not developed a unique vocabulary in this area and may employ psychoanalytic terms. See also PROJECTIVE
IDEl'i-riFICATION.
"EI
oi?4
identity
Primary identification occurs in infants
who do not yet have a sense of the
other; secondary identification occurs
as a defence and the identity confusion
is with someone who has been perceived as an other. Transactional analysis has not developed a unique vocabulary in this area and may employ psychoanalytic terms. See also PROJECTIVE
IDEl'i-riFICATION.
"EI
oi?4
60
60
internal dialogue
internal dialogue internal communica- '
subjectivity with a unique view of the
tion between ego-states. This may be
world, a fruitful_ dialogue is possible
experienced as thoughts; for example,
between our two subjectivities. This
self-critical thoughts are probably Parent
concept is inherent in the transactionmessages to Child (although if the critial analysis concept of the 'I'm OK,
cisms are valid and appropriate they
You're OK' UFE POsrnoN. See EMPATHY.
may be within the Adult) in response to
which the Child may assent ('yes I am intervention an action by the therapist
hopeless') or rebel ('I'll show you I'm
designed to promote change. In Eric
not'). likewise self-pitying thoughts are
Berne's THERAPEUTIC OPERATIONS he disdirected from Child to Parent.
tinguishes between interventions that
Sometimes people can hear their parimpinge directly on ego-states and
ents' voices in their imagination giving
INTERPOSITIONS, which intervene
support, criticism or infonnation.
between the client's Adult and his or
her other ego-states.
internal object (psychoanalysis) see
OBJECT, INTERNAL.
intimacy close involvement with others
from authentic positions, communicatinterpersonal between people as opposed
ing needs and wants to each other
to INTRAPSYCHIC (within the person's
, openly. This is one of the six types of
mind).
TIME STRUCTURING described by Eric
Berne (1964). People may be intimately
interposition Eric Berne (1966) described
loving but they may also be intimately
eight THERAPEUTIC OPERATIONS that he
angry if they are straight and open with
divided into two categories: interveneach other about their anger and comtions and interpositions. Interpositions
municate clearly from 'I'm OK, You're
are operations such as illustration in
OK' positions. Berne (1964) defined
which the therapist tells a story that
intimacy as 'the spontaneous game-free
interposes something between the
candidness of an aware person, the libclient's Adult and his or her other egoeration of the eidetically perceptive
states to prevent them slipping back.
(seeing things as they are), uncorrupted
Child in all its nai"vete, living in the here
and now'.
interpretation see THERAPEUTIC OPERATIONS.
interrogation See THERAPEUTIC OPERATIONS.
internal dialogue
internal dialogue internal communica- '
subjectivity with a unique view of the
tion between ego-states. This may be
world, a fruitful_ dialogue is possible
experienced as thoughts; for example,
between our two subjectivities. This
self-critical thoughts are probably Parent
concept is inherent in the transactionmessages to Child (although if the critial analysis concept of the 'I'm OK,
cisms are valid and appropriate they
You're OK' UFE POsrnoN. See EMPATHY.
may be within the Adult) in response to
which the Child may assent ('yes I am intervention an action by the therapist
hopeless') or rebel ('I'll show you I'm
designed to promote change. In Eric
not'). likewise self-pitying thoughts are
Berne's THERAPEUTIC OPERATIONS he disdirected from Child to Parent.
tinguishes between interventions that
Sometimes people can hear their parimpinge directly on ego-states and
ents' voices in their imagination giving
INTERPOSITIONS, which intervene
support, criticism or infonnation.
between the client's Adult and his or
her other ego-states.
internal object (psychoanalysis) see
OBJECT, INTERNAL.
intimacy close involvement with others
from authentic positions, communicatinterpersonal between people as opposed
ing needs and wants to each other
to INTRAPSYCHIC (within the person's
, openly. This is one of the six types of
mind).
TIME STRUCTURING described by Eric
Berne (1964). People may be intimately
interposition Eric Berne (1966) described
loving but they may also be intimately
eight THERAPEUTIC OPERATIONS that he
angry if they are straight and open with
divided into two categories: interveneach other about their anger and comtions and interpositions. Interpositions
municate clearly from 'I'm OK, You're
are operations such as illustration in
OK' positions. Berne (1964) defined
which the therapist tells a story that
intimacy as 'the spontaneous game-free
interposes something between the
candidness of an aware person, the libclient's Adult and his or her other egoeration of the eidetically perceptive
states to prevent them slipping back.
(seeing things as they are), uncorrupted
Child in all its nai"vete, living in the here
and now'.
interpretation see THERAPEUTIC OPERATIONS.
interrogation See THERAPEUTIC OPERATIONS.
'l
ANALYSIS.
James, Muriel transactional analyst.
Awarded the Eric Berne Memorial
Scientific Award for developing SELF Joines, Vann received the Eric Berne
Memorial Award in Transactional
REPARENTING Games, 1974) and coAnalysis (joint award) in 1994 for
authored with Dorothy Jongeward one
his work on using redecision therapy
of the most successful introductions to
transactional analysis, Born to Win
with different personality adaptations
Goines, 1986) and diagnosis and treatGames andJongeward, 1971).
ment planning using a transactional
jargon a derogatory term for specialised
analysis framework Goines, 1988). He
is joint author (with Ian Stewart) of a
language. By implication, jargon
popular introduction to transactional
serves to mystify and exclude those
outside a small group from underanalysis (TA Today, Stewart and Joines,
1987).
standing what is being discussed.
However, every speciality has unique
language needs. In the development Jung, Carl analyst. Jung was at flrst closely
associated with Freud but later left psyof transactional analysis the aim has
choanalysis to found his own school
been to create an open language system that can be widely shared- i.e. to
which he called 'analytical psychology'.
avoid creating jargon. Most of its terJung's thought ranged widely and he
minology draws on everyday and
was deeply interested in myth and
even colloquial expressions. To a
symbolism. He aimed to create a syslarge extent the aim of an open lantem that was more open and broader
guage system has been achieved but
than Freud's psychoanalysis but his
there has been a cost. Inappropriate
approach lacks Freud's clarity and
meanings are carried over from the
consistency. Eric Berne trained as a
everyday use of words; for example, a
psychoanalyst so the underlying
64
'l
ANALYSIS.
James, Muriel transactional analyst.
Awarded the Eric Berne Memorial
Scientific Award for developing SELF Joines, Vann received the Eric Berne
Memorial Award in Transactional
REPARENTING Games, 1974) and coAnalysis (joint award) in 1994 for
authored with Dorothy Jongeward one
his work on using redecision therapy
of the most successful introductions to
transactional analysis, Born to Win
with different personality adaptations
Goines, 1986) and diagnosis and treatGames andJongeward, 1971).
ment planning using a transactional
jargon a derogatory term for specialised
analysis framework Goines, 1988). He
is joint author (with Ian Stewart) of a
language. By implication, jargon
popular introduction to transactional
serves to mystify and exclude those
outside a small group from underanalysis (TA Today, Stewart and Joines,
1987).
standing what is being discussed.
However, every speciality has unique
language needs. In the development Jung, Carl analyst. Jung was at flrst closely
associated with Freud but later left psyof transactional analysis the aim has
choanalysis to found his own school
been to create an open language system that can be widely shared- i.e. to
which he called 'analytical psychology'.
avoid creating jargon. Most of its terJung's thought ranged widely and he
minology draws on everyday and
was deeply interested in myth and
even colloquial expressions. To a
symbolism. He aimed to create a syslarge extent the aim of an open lantem that was more open and broader
guage system has been achieved but
than Freud's psychoanalysis but his
there has been a cost. Inappropriate
approach lacks Freud's clarity and
meanings are carried over from the
consistency. Eric Berne trained as a
everyday use of words; for example, a
psychoanalyst so the underlying
64
:.-.'
:.-.'
.. - -~
:'I
leadership hunger
opmental issues by life events, for life positions also known as ~~"-'na
example activation of oral (first year)
positions or basic positions
issues often follows a new beginning.
1962, 1966, 1972). Each TPrrP,Pnt~
She also suggests that recycling though
outlook on life that has a
all the stages of child developmen t
effect on the way the world is
continue throughout the life cycle and
strued and life is lived. There are
she identifies ages at which specific
life positions:
stage issues are likely to become
1. 'I'm OK, you're OK' (I+U+).
salient.
accept myself unconditiona lly as
am and I accept you un_condlitionaUv
leadership hunger Berne (1966) the
as you are.' This is the healthy
need of a group for a leader to provide
tion enabling the person to
time structuring. This is a derivative of
autonomous and to form relation .
STRUCTURE HUNGER.
ships that are balanced and reward. .
ing. 'You're OK' does not mean that
libido (psychoana lysis) originally a
approve of everything that you do
form of mental energy deriving from
but that I unconditiona lly accept
the ID (from the instinctual level of the
your
value as a person. c.f. UNCONDI
psyche) and associated with sexuality.
TIONAL POSITIVE REGARD.
Later Freud used it as a more general
2. 'I'm not OK, you're OK' (I-U+).
term for mental energy, for example
Individuals in this position constantthe EGO was assumed to possess egoly look to others for approval, underlibido. In later psychoanalyti c instinct
value themselves and are subject to
theory libido is the energy of the life
depression.
instinct (love). Berne uses the term
3.
I'm OK, you're not OK (I+U-). The
cathexis or enetgv but po:>tc!lat<.>s that
person in this position is critical and
it can exist in three states: bound,
mistrustful of others but lacks
unbound and free. See E:-iER<YY. The
insight into what they are doing.
opposite of libido, the energy of the
This is characteristic of paranoid disdeath instinct (Thanatos) is a concept
orders although many people enter
which is little used. However it has
this state from time to time.
been given the name Mortido. An alter4. I'm not OK, you're not OK (I-U-).
native name which is sometimes used
This is a despairing position that
is Destrudo.
often underlies serious psychological
disorders.
life events the individual's life will
have been shaped by life events, each
All four positions occur from time to
of which may have encouraged or
time in relatively healthy ('normal')
reinforced script beliefs and led to
people but they are quickly able to
early decisions. The early stages of
move back into the healthy position. It
therapy usually include exploration of
is fixedness in one of the unhealthy
significant past life events. These
positions that constitutes a problem
may be both the cause and the result
The concept was originated by Melanie
of scripting since, as script is formed,
KLEIN. See also OK CORRAL, DEPRESSIVE POSI
it influences subsequent events.
TION, PA.'(ANOIDSCHJZOID POSITION.
Events occurring during therapy
are often closely related to script life script the unconscious life plan
issues being addressed and may consti
derived from early experiences that
tute manifestation s of GA.\fES or ACTING
governs the way life is lived out.
OUT.
Usually referred to simply as SCRIPT.
68
.. - -~
:'I
leadership hunger
opmental issues by life events, for life positions also known as ~~"-'na
example activation of oral (first year)
positions or basic positions
issues often follows a new beginning.
1962, 1966, 1972). Each TPrrP,Pnt~
She also suggests that recycling though
outlook on life that has a
all the stages of child developmen t
effect on the way the world is
continue throughout the life cycle and
strued and life is lived. There are
she identifies ages at which specific
life positions:
stage issues are likely to become
1. 'I'm OK, you're OK' (I+U+).
salient.
accept myself unconditiona lly as
am and I accept you un_condlitionaUv
leadership hunger Berne (1966) the
as you are.' This is the healthy
need of a group for a leader to provide
tion enabling the person to
time structuring. This is a derivative of
autonomous and to form relation .
STRUCTURE HUNGER.
ships that are balanced and reward. .
ing. 'You're OK' does not mean that
libido (psychoana lysis) originally a
approve of everything that you do
form of mental energy deriving from
but that I unconditiona lly accept
the ID (from the instinctual level of the
your
value as a person. c.f. UNCONDI
psyche) and associated with sexuality.
TIONAL POSITIVE REGARD.
Later Freud used it as a more general
2. 'I'm not OK, you're OK' (I-U+).
term for mental energy, for example
Individuals in this position constantthe EGO was assumed to possess egoly look to others for approval, underlibido. In later psychoanalyti c instinct
value themselves and are subject to
theory libido is the energy of the life
depression.
instinct (love). Berne uses the term
3.
I'm OK, you're not OK (I+U-). The
cathexis or enetgv but po:>tc!lat<.>s that
person in this position is critical and
it can exist in three states: bound,
mistrustful of others but lacks
unbound and free. See E:-iER<YY. The
insight into what they are doing.
opposite of libido, the energy of the
This is characteristic of paranoid disdeath instinct (Thanatos) is a concept
orders although many people enter
which is little used. However it has
this state from time to time.
been given the name Mortido. An alter4. I'm not OK, you're not OK (I-U-).
native name which is sometimes used
This is a despairing position that
is Destrudo.
often underlies serious psychological
disorders.
life events the individual's life will
have been shaped by life events, each
All four positions occur from time to
of which may have encouraged or
time in relatively healthy ('normal')
reinforced script beliefs and led to
people but they are quickly able to
early decisions. The early stages of
move back into the healthy position. It
therapy usually include exploration of
is fixedness in one of the unhealthy
significant past life events. These
positions that constitutes a problem
may be both the cause and the result
The concept was originated by Melanie
of scripting since, as script is formed,
KLEIN. See also OK CORRAL, DEPRESSIVE POSI
it influences subsequent events.
TION, PA.'(ANOIDSCHJZOID POSITION.
Events occurring during therapy
are often closely related to script life script the unconscious life plan
issues being addressed and may consti
derived from early experiences that
tute manifestation s of GA.\fES or ACTING
governs the way life is lived out.
OUT.
Usually referred to simply as SCRIPT.
68
~:
:-.
''
~:
:-.
''
mental illness
use the valuable material from the
while the client remains in this situation. This raises complex ethical issues
Child and Parent ego-states but is no
longer influenced by the negative
for the therapist. These gave rise to the
controversy regarding the Schiffs' work
material. This would mean that the
with schizophrenics. See also CURE.
individual would be truly autonomous.
Berne (1957, 1972) writes of a drive
towards wholeness and fulfilment that mental organs see PSYCHIC ORGANS.
he calls PHYSIS and represents by an
upward arrow passing through all message format transactional analysts
frequently refer to 'messages' influencthree ego-states (thus formulating the
ing the client and may use imagery
principles of humanistic therapy in
drive terms). Health must also involve
such as 'the Parent whispering in the
Child's ear' or 'Parent tapes playing in
the free flow of physis.
the head'. Verbal labels in message formental illness a state of prolonged psymat such as a Don't Be Close injunction or a Try Hard driver are convechological distress or a state in which
the community does not accept behavnient to use and give a vivid sense of
iours. Thomas Szasz (1961) pointed
the essence of the concept and how it
functions intrapsychically, but it should
out the very large social component in
not be concluded that they imply that
mental illness. The term isolates the
problem within the client but it exists
the intrapsychic features which they
not only within the client but also
name exist solely as verbal messages
held within the personality. Powerful
wit.'1in his or her relationships. including those with the externJ.l society.
injunctions (such as Don't Exist) are
often received before the child is
Pressures of the socier-y or rhe iamily
capabie cf speech. The injunction and
or group in which the client !Jyes m;J.y
other script elements involve cognitive
make it very difficult for them not to
(thoughts), affective (feelings), behavexperience distress or behave in ways
ioural and physical (body states) comthat are not acceptable to others.
ponents. The message format for repreTransactional analysis starts from the
position 'I'm OK, You're OK', that is 'I
senting intrapsychic elements is characaccept you as you are and I accept
teristic of the metaphor used in transacmyself as I am, although I may not
tional analysis; it is one of the features
that give it its vividness, accessibility,
accept what you are doing'. Transactional analysts do not tell people
precision and brevity. However, when
not understood it can lead to transacwhat is wrong with them but invite
tional analysis being misperceived as a
them to make a contract for change:
this contract must be acceptable to
simplistic approach. By contrast, the
object relations theorist Wilfred BiDn
both the client and the therapist. 'To
aimed to create a terminology that
make such a contract the client must
opened up a space into which the indihave functional Adult available.
Transactional analysis takes the posividual's own, experientially derived
meaning might enter. He wrote: 'the
tion that most people including chil
dren have this and that it is important
advantage of employing a sign ... is
to empower clients to use their Adult
that it at lea..~t indicates that the reader's
resources and not to rescue them when
comprehension of my meaning should
this would be inappropriate because
contain an element that will remain
they have the resources to help themunsatisfied until he meets the appropriselves. In some cases, such as psy- .
ate realisation'. There is the risk that
chosis, Adult is not available and a con
the metaphor of transactional analysis
tractual approach is not appropriate
leads to the meaning being perceived as
72
mental illness
use the valuable material from the
while the client remains in this situation. This raises complex ethical issues
Child and Parent ego-states but is no
longer influenced by the negative
for the therapist. These gave rise to the
controversy regarding the Schiffs' work
material. This would mean that the
with schizophrenics. See also CURE.
individual would be truly autonomous.
Berne (1957, 1972) writes of a drive
towards wholeness and fulfilment that mental organs see PSYCHIC ORGANS.
he calls PHYSIS and represents by an
upward arrow passing through all message format transactional analysts
frequently refer to 'messages' influencthree ego-states (thus formulating the
ing the client and may use imagery
principles of humanistic therapy in
drive terms). Health must also involve
such as 'the Parent whispering in the
Child's ear' or 'Parent tapes playing in
the free flow of physis.
the head'. Verbal labels in message formental illness a state of prolonged psymat such as a Don't Be Close injunction or a Try Hard driver are convechological distress or a state in which
the community does not accept behavnient to use and give a vivid sense of
iours. Thomas Szasz (1961) pointed
the essence of the concept and how it
functions intrapsychically, but it should
out the very large social component in
not be concluded that they imply that
mental illness. The term isolates the
problem within the client but it exists
the intrapsychic features which they
not only within the client but also
name exist solely as verbal messages
held within the personality. Powerful
wit.'1in his or her relationships. including those with the externJ.l society.
injunctions (such as Don't Exist) are
often received before the child is
Pressures of the socier-y or rhe iamily
capabie cf speech. The injunction and
or group in which the client !Jyes m;J.y
other script elements involve cognitive
make it very difficult for them not to
(thoughts), affective (feelings), behavexperience distress or behave in ways
ioural and physical (body states) comthat are not acceptable to others.
ponents. The message format for repreTransactional analysis starts from the
position 'I'm OK, You're OK', that is 'I
senting intrapsychic elements is characaccept you as you are and I accept
teristic of the metaphor used in transacmyself as I am, although I may not
tional analysis; it is one of the features
that give it its vividness, accessibility,
accept what you are doing'. Transactional analysts do not tell people
precision and brevity. However, when
not understood it can lead to transacwhat is wrong with them but invite
tional analysis being misperceived as a
them to make a contract for change:
this contract must be acceptable to
simplistic approach. By contrast, the
object relations theorist Wilfred BiDn
both the client and the therapist. 'To
aimed to create a terminology that
make such a contract the client must
opened up a space into which the indihave functional Adult available.
Transactional analysis takes the posividual's own, experientially derived
meaning might enter. He wrote: 'the
tion that most people including chil
dren have this and that it is important
advantage of employing a sign ... is
to empower clients to use their Adult
that it at lea..~t indicates that the reader's
resources and not to rescue them when
comprehension of my meaning should
this would be inappropriate because
contain an element that will remain
they have the resources to help themunsatisfied until he meets the appropriselves. In some cases, such as psy- .
ate realisation'. There is the risk that
chosis, Adult is not available and a con
the metaphor of transactional analysis
tractual approach is not appropriate
leads to the meaning being perceived as
72
missed sessions
client and his or her experiences SO' Moiso, Carlo received the Eric
that they are able to become aware of
Memorial Award in
themselves through the therapist. This
Analysis in 1981 for his work on
is a way of giving PERMISSIONS, tO e."tist,
states and transference (Moiso,
to feel and to be oneself.
mortido (psychoanalysis) the
missed sessions the business contract
associated with the death instinct;
(see CONTRACT) needs to deal with what
usmo referred to by Berne
will happen if the Client misses a sesThere is no corresponding concept
transactional analysis ENERGY
sion. Missing or being late for sessions
is a common way in which Clients show
although the concept of the script
resistance to therapy and is very often a
OFF bears some resemblance to Freud's
move to invite the therapist into a GAME.
thinking about the death instinct.
model (noun) A representation of a sys- mother a female parent or anyone who
tem or process in other terms, for
fulfils the main role in providing the
example the ego-state model of the
care and support needed by the develpersonality. This can be expressed diaoping child (sets up and maintains
grammatically or verbally and is an
healthy SYMBIOSIS). Good mothering
can be given by people who are not
effective way of displaying information
about the structure and function of the
biologically related to the child (or
even not female).
ego. A model is a metaphor designed
to be isomorphous with some aspect
of reality (it provides a 'map' of some motivation that which tends to bring
aspect or aspects of experience).
about action. An important aspect is
the meaning attached to the action by
Psychological disturbances (which
the individual; this will depend on the
will often be linked to physiological disturbances) can be explained in terms of
content of their FRA.\1E OF REFERENCE. Out
of awareness factors are often involved
three models (Clarkson, 1992). In the
confusion model there is interference in
in motivation so that people find
the functioning of the Adult ego-state in
themselves unwilling to do the things
they 'ought' to do (that is, the things
an integrated way with other ego-states.
their Parent ego-state tells them to do)
This can be represented as CONTA.vlJX<~
but find themselves doing things they
TION. In the conj?ict model there is conthink they ought not to do (things that
flict between ego-states as represented
in the IMPASSE COncept of REDECJSIO:-\ thermay be EGO DYSTONIC with Adult or
apy. The deficit model describes how
Parent). Transactional analysis explains
disturbances result from develoon~enra!
this in terms of the distribution of
deficits (missed experiences ne~ded fer
energy across ego-states. See ENERGY.
development) and inadequate parenting for extended periods at the time of mourning the process of letting go of an
trauma ..A..nother way of representing
attachment (usually an attachment to a
these ideas is Lee's (1988b) concept of
person) on separation, death etc.
the PR!-"'AL WOUND.
Kubler-Ross (1969) identified a fivestage sequence: denial, anger, bargaining, depression and acceptance.
model (verb) To give a message, for
example a permission, through beha,rLacousiere identified mourning as a
iour. A parent might give a pennission
final stage in group development in
to express sadness to a child by showwhich the group focuses on its termiing his own sadness, thus modelling
nation. See GROUPS, STAGES OF DEVELOP
MENT.
the permission 'it is OK to be sad'.
missed sessions
client and his or her experiences SO' Moiso, Carlo received the Eric
that they are able to become aware of
Memorial Award in
themselves through the therapist. This
Analysis in 1981 for his work on
is a way of giving PERMISSIONS, tO e."tist,
states and transference (Moiso,
to feel and to be oneself.
mortido (psychoanalysis) the
missed sessions the business contract
associated with the death instinct;
(see CONTRACT) needs to deal with what
usmo referred to by Berne
will happen if the Client misses a sesThere is no corresponding concept
transactional analysis ENERGY
sion. Missing or being late for sessions
is a common way in which Clients show
although the concept of the script
resistance to therapy and is very often a
OFF bears some resemblance to Freud's
move to invite the therapist into a GAME.
thinking about the death instinct.
model (noun) A representation of a sys- mother a female parent or anyone who
tem or process in other terms, for
fulfils the main role in providing the
example the ego-state model of the
care and support needed by the develpersonality. This can be expressed diaoping child (sets up and maintains
grammatically or verbally and is an
healthy SYMBIOSIS). Good mothering
can be given by people who are not
effective way of displaying information
about the structure and function of the
biologically related to the child (or
even not female).
ego. A model is a metaphor designed
to be isomorphous with some aspect
of reality (it provides a 'map' of some motivation that which tends to bring
aspect or aspects of experience).
about action. An important aspect is
the meaning attached to the action by
Psychological disturbances (which
the individual; this will depend on the
will often be linked to physiological disturbances) can be explained in terms of
content of their FRA.\1E OF REFERENCE. Out
of awareness factors are often involved
three models (Clarkson, 1992). In the
confusion model there is interference in
in motivation so that people find
the functioning of the Adult ego-state in
themselves unwilling to do the things
they 'ought' to do (that is, the things
an integrated way with other ego-states.
their Parent ego-state tells them to do)
This can be represented as CONTA.vlJX<~
but find themselves doing things they
TION. In the conj?ict model there is conthink they ought not to do (things that
flict between ego-states as represented
in the IMPASSE COncept of REDECJSIO:-\ thermay be EGO DYSTONIC with Adult or
apy. The deficit model describes how
Parent). Transactional analysis explains
disturbances result from develoon~enra!
this in terms of the distribution of
deficits (missed experiences ne~ded fer
energy across ego-states. See ENERGY.
development) and inadequate parenting for extended periods at the time of mourning the process of letting go of an
trauma ..A..nother way of representing
attachment (usually an attachment to a
these ideas is Lee's (1988b) concept of
person) on separation, death etc.
the PR!-"'AL WOUND.
Kubler-Ross (1969) identified a fivestage sequence: denial, anger, bargaining, depression and acceptance.
model (verb) To give a message, for
example a permission, through beha,rLacousiere identified mourning as a
iour. A parent might give a pennission
final stage in group development in
to express sadness to a child by showwhich the group focuses on its termiing his own sadness, thus modelling
nation. See GROUPS, STAGES OF DEVELOP
MENT.
the permission 'it is OK to be sad'.
!h::n
pr~cedes
lo-.i!"1g
spcondary narci.ssisn-?.
INTROJECTI:'"~G
--~ther5_, ?_~!.'.i
rjJclt in\oi'.':.~;
~' ..::.
~Ic-t.:"d
EGO-STATES.
nor~
!h::n
pr~cedes
lo-.i!"1g
spcondary narci.ssisn-?.
INTROJECTI:'"~G
--~ther5_, ?_~!.'.i
rjJclt in\oi'.':.~;
~' ..::.
~Ic-t.:"d
EGO-STATES.
nor~
NLP
NLP see
~~=;.~::;~:~::~al
occurs even if it is not culturally~~'\}\~
NLP
NLP see
~~=;.~::;~:~::~al
occurs even if it is not culturally~~'\}\~
object (psychoana lysis) this word has a object relations school (psychoan alysis) a therapeut ic approach that
meaning that is different from its everystresses the psychologic al importance
day usage. It means not a material
of relationshi p to both external and
subject
a
which
to
something
but
thing
internal OBJECTS. This contrasts with
relates. In practice this usually means a
Freudian drive theory, which
classical
the
(e.g.
person
a
person, a part of
focused on the need to reduce internal
mother's breast) or something that reptension caused by instinctual demands
resents a person. See also TRA."'iSITIONAL
emerging from the ID. Object relations
OBjECT
IO:-IAI.
TRANSFOR.\1AT
OBJECT,
theory ';vas an influence on transactional analysis; the Parent ego-state is
psycho(Kleinian
object constancy
in essence a group of internal objects
analysis) the ability to accept the
(introjecte d parent figures). Recent
ambivalen ce of others (the child's
nts in transactiona l analysis
developme
level
deepest
the
at
recognise
to
ability
have been characterise d by a renewed
that the mother who frustrates is also
interest in psychoanaly sis, in particular
the mother who nurtures). Seealso
object re!ations and self psychology .
PARANOID-SC HIZOID POSITI0:-1, OB}ECT PER.\1A
(1996a) refers to this as 'the
Stewart
NENCE.
psychoanal ytic renaissance '.
object, inte:rnal (psychoan alysis) an
internal representat ion of an external obsessive- compulsiv e personality adaptation an adaptation (that is a characobject (e.g. person) that one relates to
teristic way of reacting compatibl e
repThe
as if it were an external object
with normal life) which shows some of
resentation s of the parents \vithin the
the features of obsessive-c ompulsive
Parent ego-state can be regarded as
(Ware, 1983). It is characdisorder
central
is
concept
This
objects.
internal
terised by a methodica l and orderly
to the thinking of the OBjECT RELATIONS
approach and a need to get things
SCHOOL, which has had a significant
right and gain approval. The person
influence on transaction al analysis.
has a need for information and seeks
to stay in control by understand ing
object permanen ce (Piaget) the stage in
and thinking and has difficulty accesschild developm ent where the child
ing feeling. He or she also has difficulshows signs of recognising the cont!nin making decisions and changing
ty
is
it
when
object
an
of
existence
uing
behaviour patterns. The underlying
not visible.
Of\
object (psychoana lysis) this word has a object relations school (psychoan alysis) a therapeut ic approach that
meaning that is different from its everystresses the psychologic al importance
day usage. It means not a material
of relationshi p to both external and
subject
a
which
to
something
but
thing
internal OBJECTS. This contrasts with
relates. In practice this usually means a
Freudian drive theory, which
classical
the
(e.g.
person
a
person, a part of
focused on the need to reduce internal
mother's breast) or something that reptension caused by instinctual demands
resents a person. See also TRA."'iSITIONAL
emerging from the ID. Object relations
OBjECT
IO:-IAI.
TRANSFOR.\1AT
OBJECT,
theory ';vas an influence on transactional analysis; the Parent ego-state is
psycho(Kleinian
object constancy
in essence a group of internal objects
analysis) the ability to accept the
(introjecte d parent figures). Recent
ambivalen ce of others (the child's
nts in transactiona l analysis
developme
level
deepest
the
at
recognise
to
ability
have been characterise d by a renewed
that the mother who frustrates is also
interest in psychoanaly sis, in particular
the mother who nurtures). Seealso
object re!ations and self psychology .
PARANOID-SC HIZOID POSITI0:-1, OB}ECT PER.\1A
(1996a) refers to this as 'the
Stewart
NENCE.
psychoanal ytic renaissance '.
object, inte:rnal (psychoan alysis) an
internal representat ion of an external obsessive- compulsiv e personality adaptation an adaptation (that is a characobject (e.g. person) that one relates to
teristic way of reacting compatibl e
repThe
as if it were an external object
with normal life) which shows some of
resentation s of the parents \vithin the
the features of obsessive-c ompulsive
Parent ego-state can be regarded as
(Ware, 1983). It is characdisorder
central
is
concept
This
objects.
internal
terised by a methodica l and orderly
to the thinking of the OBjECT RELATIONS
approach and a need to get things
SCHOOL, which has had a significant
right and gain approval. The person
influence on transaction al analysis.
has a need for information and seeks
to stay in control by understand ing
object permanen ce (Piaget) the stage in
and thinking and has difficulty accesschild developm ent where the child
ing feeling. He or she also has difficulshows signs of recognising the cont!nin making decisions and changing
ty
is
it
when
object
an
of
existence
uing
behaviour patterns. The underlying
not visible.
Of\
OKness
In a few situations openness
quadrant also has a name for the state
that it represents. The 'I'm not OK,
risks that must be balanced
You're not OK' is the futility (also called
potential gains; the aim is to
despairing or schizoid) position. We all
open while keeping oneself s
Openness or genuineness (in TA
visit all the quadrants from time to time
but everyone has a favoured life posinology, being in the OK;OK position,
tion in which they spend most of their
Rogers' language being congruent
time. We move through the quadrants
real) involves authenticity,
over the short term as our mood
ness and awareness of the other and
the process in which both are 1mJr>ln~.~
changes and over the long term as we
change because oflue experience or
from a non-judgemental and ac<:el='tirtg)/5
therapy. It is not possible to move
position. This awareness needs to
directly from the paranoid to the
shared but openness is compatible
healthy position. This change involves
maintaining some boundaries.
visiting the depressive (I-U +) and perhaps also the futility (I-U-) positions. operationalise to put into action.
This corresponds to Melanie Klein's
transactional analysis there are
view of the depressive position as repclose links between theoretical conresenting an advance in functioning
cepts and therapeutic behaviours.
over the paranoid-schizoid position
derives from the clarity of its theory
(achievement of OBJECT CONSTANCY). See
and its incorporation of a behavioural
LIFE POSlTIONS, PARANOID-SCHJZOID POSITION,
perspective. It is therefore a system
DEPRESSJVE POSITION.
that can readily be operationalised.
OKness the state of being in an 'I'm OK,
You're OK' LIFE POSITION. See T.\1 OK.
YOU'RE OK'. OK CORR>\L, OPENNESS.
OKness
In a few situations openness
quadrant also has a name for the state
that it represents. The 'I'm not OK,
risks that must be balanced
You're not OK' is the futility (also called
potential gains; the aim is to
despairing or schizoid) position. We all
open while keeping oneself s
Openness or genuineness (in TA
visit all the quadrants from time to time
but everyone has a favoured life posinology, being in the OK;OK position,
tion in which they spend most of their
Rogers' language being congruent
time. We move through the quadrants
real) involves authenticity,
over the short term as our mood
ness and awareness of the other and
the process in which both are 1mJr>ln~.~
changes and over the long term as we
change because oflue experience or
from a non-judgemental and ac<:el='tirtg)/5
therapy. It is not possible to move
position. This awareness needs to
directly from the paranoid to the
shared but openness is compatible
healthy position. This change involves
maintaining some boundaries.
visiting the depressive (I-U +) and perhaps also the futility (I-U-) positions. operationalise to put into action.
This corresponds to Melanie Klein's
transactional analysis there are
view of the depressive position as repclose links between theoretical conresenting an advance in functioning
cepts and therapeutic behaviours.
over the paranoid-schizoid position
derives from the clarity of its theory
(achievement of OBJECT CONSTANCY). See
and its incorporation of a behavioural
LIFE POSlTIONS, PARANOID-SCHJZOID POSITION,
perspective. It is therefore a system
DEPRESSJVE POSITION.
that can readily be operationalised.
OKness the state of being in an 'I'm OK,
You're OK' LIFE POSITION. See T.\1 OK.
YOU'RE OK'. OK CORR>\L, OPENNESS.
Adult ego-state
Parent in
t.~e
84
Adult ego-state
Parent in
t.~e
84
can mitigate hate (the mother is loved Parent resolution a therapeutic techeven when the child experiences her
nique developed by Dashiel (1978) in
behaviour as frustrating). The child has
which, after making an Adult:Adult
contract with the client the therapist
achieved OBJECf CONSTANCY (understanding that the mother is one OBJECf and
uses Gestalt technique (see cusHION
woRK) to separate ego-states. The
not twO) and entered the DEPRESSIVE POSITION. The child now understands that
Parent is then opened up and given
new information, PERMISSIONS and
his or her hate has been directed to the
opportunities or resolutions.
loved mother and feels remorse and the
desire to make reparation. The resolution of the paranoid-schizoid position passive-aggressive personality adaptamay not be completed in infancy so
tion a personality pattern characterised by rebelliousness coupled with
that it may contribute to later pathology. McDevitt and Mahler (1980) place
a reluctance to initiate. The rebelliousthis resolution as usually occurring at
ness is usually expressed covertly by
age three (associated with the individustubborn, resentful or manipulative
ation-separation crisis) although other
behaviour. People with this pattern
Kleinians believe it can occur much earhave not found it safe to ask openly
and directly for their needs and wants
lier. Klein influenced Berne's thinking
as children. See PERSONALJ'IY ADAPTATIONS,
about life positions and offers an explaWARE SEQUENCE.
nation of the observation that clients in
therapy do not move directly from
either the I+ U- (paranoid) or 1-U- passive behavioms four behaviours
(schizoid) life positions to the healthy
identified by the Cathexis School
(Schiff eta!., 1975) as often resorted to
position I+ U + without visiting the
under stress but nor leading to prob1-U+ (depressive) life position. See LIFE
!'OSITIONS, OK CORRAL.
lem resolution because of the DIScouNTING of important aspects of realiParent ego-state usually written 'Parent'.
ty. See FOUR PASSIVE BEHAVIOURS.
The ego-state that contains behaviours,
thoughts and feeling patterns of par- passivity unassertiveness, responding to
ent figures experienced in the past in
a challenge by behaviours that do not
the form of INTROJECTS of these individgive rise to problem solving because of
DISCOUNTING of important aspects of
uals. In the PAC diagram it is shovvn by
a circle containing the letter P. In secreality. For example, in doing nothing
ond-order analysis of ego-states this
the individual's power to effect change
main Parent ego-srate is designated P,.
is being discounted probably rogether
with other aspects of the situation
Pa>ent interview a therapeutic tech(such as availability of options or
resources). See FOUR PASSIVE BEHAVIOURS
nique developed by McNeel (1976).
and DISCOUNT MAnnx.
The diem is invited to project a Parent
figure (introject) on to a chair. The
client then sits on the chair and pastimes a form of TIME STRCCTURING in
'becomes' the introject, which is interwhich there is talk about a topic but
viewed by the ther;cpist. \Vhat happens
no action is t:1ken concerning it.
Pastimes are not rigid, like RITUALS, but
is that, in effect, the therapist gives
give considerable freedom without
therapy to the introject. This has
having to undertake the commitment
proved to be a very powerful technique that, in skilled hands, can facilito action involved in an ACTIVJ'IY or the
tate profound changes. See also REPARemotional involvement of GAMES. They
ENTING TiiE PARENT.
constitute a large part of social activity
can mitigate hate (the mother is loved Parent resolution a therapeutic techeven when the child experiences her
nique developed by Dashiel (1978) in
behaviour as frustrating). The child has
which, after making an Adult:Adult
contract with the client the therapist
achieved OBJECf CONSTANCY (understanding that the mother is one OBJECf and
uses Gestalt technique (see cusHION
woRK) to separate ego-states. The
not twO) and entered the DEPRESSIVE POSITION. The child now understands that
Parent is then opened up and given
new information, PERMISSIONS and
his or her hate has been directed to the
opportunities or resolutions.
loved mother and feels remorse and the
desire to make reparation. The resolution of the paranoid-schizoid position passive-aggressive personality adaptamay not be completed in infancy so
tion a personality pattern characterised by rebelliousness coupled with
that it may contribute to later pathology. McDevitt and Mahler (1980) place
a reluctance to initiate. The rebelliousthis resolution as usually occurring at
ness is usually expressed covertly by
age three (associated with the individustubborn, resentful or manipulative
ation-separation crisis) although other
behaviour. People with this pattern
Kleinians believe it can occur much earhave not found it safe to ask openly
and directly for their needs and wants
lier. Klein influenced Berne's thinking
as children. See PERSONALJ'IY ADAPTATIONS,
about life positions and offers an explaWARE SEQUENCE.
nation of the observation that clients in
therapy do not move directly from
either the I+ U- (paranoid) or 1-U- passive behavioms four behaviours
(schizoid) life positions to the healthy
identified by the Cathexis School
(Schiff eta!., 1975) as often resorted to
position I+ U + without visiting the
under stress but nor leading to prob1-U+ (depressive) life position. See LIFE
!'OSITIONS, OK CORRAL.
lem resolution because of the DIScouNTING of important aspects of realiParent ego-state usually written 'Parent'.
ty. See FOUR PASSIVE BEHAVIOURS.
The ego-state that contains behaviours,
thoughts and feeling patterns of par- passivity unassertiveness, responding to
ent figures experienced in the past in
a challenge by behaviours that do not
the form of INTROJECTS of these individgive rise to problem solving because of
DISCOUNTING of important aspects of
uals. In the PAC diagram it is shovvn by
a circle containing the letter P. In secreality. For example, in doing nothing
ond-order analysis of ego-states this
the individual's power to effect change
main Parent ego-srate is designated P,.
is being discounted probably rogether
with other aspects of the situation
Pa>ent interview a therapeutic tech(such as availability of options or
resources). See FOUR PASSIVE BEHAVIOURS
nique developed by McNeel (1976).
and DISCOUNT MAnnx.
The diem is invited to project a Parent
figure (introject) on to a chair. The
client then sits on the chair and pastimes a form of TIME STRCCTURING in
'becomes' the introject, which is interwhich there is talk about a topic but
viewed by the ther;cpist. \Vhat happens
no action is t:1ken concerning it.
Pastimes are not rigid, like RITUALS, but
is that, in effect, the therapist gives
give considerable freedom without
therapy to the introject. This has
having to undertake the commitment
proved to be a very powerful technique that, in skilled hands, can facilito action involved in an ACTIVJ'IY or the
tate profound changes. See also REPARemotional involvement of GAMES. They
ENTING TiiE PARENT.
constitute a large part of social activity
:i't
Jiir
~;~~~~:~~~o~; ;~~~~~e~ ii
.):':?:
00
,,
i~
,,,
'/i
'~,:
;;;
(:i
,,,
;;
:i't
Jiir
~;~~~~:~~~o~; ;~~~~~e~ ii
.):':?:
00
,,
i~
,,,
'/i
'~,:
;;;
(:i
,,,
;;
plastic strokes
r (PTSD) .
This enables them to become familiar 'post-tra umatic stress disorde
follows":
that
disorder
gical
psycholo
a
disgical
psycholo
with severe forms of
exposur e to unavoida ble major damag,
turbanc e and to learn how to work
ing or life-thre atening events. It may
alongsid e other mental health profesimmedia tely after the events or~
occur
sionals.
its onset may be delayed, sometimes'".
for long periods. It is characte rised by
plastic strokes positive gestures towards
repeate d intrusiv e memori es of the
others (acts of recognit ion) that are
event (flashba cks and nightma res).
flattery.
example
clearly insincere , for
Flashba cks and anxiety (which may
See STROKE.
reach the level of panic attacks) may
be triggered by similar circumst ances
Please the PLEASE DRNER is often referred
to those that accompa nied or preced- :
to as Please.
ed the traumat ic events, so there is
common ly avoidan ce of such situaPlease driver a behaviou ral pattern that
There may be persisten t anxiety
tions.
may
This
others.
seeks approval from
and sleep disturba nces. Defence s
show through a variety of behaviou rs,
against this may produce flattenin g
e.g. smiling (usually tensely), checldng
(numbin g).
affect
highyou?',
by
right
'all
others
with
Psychot herapeu tic interven tions
pitched voice rising at the end of the
include re-exper iencing the event irr
sentence , etc. The driver is a behavfantasy in a supporti ve environm ent.
ioural manifest ation of a DRIVER :11ESSAGE,
Because of the profoun d effects of arr
so
script,
of
ent
which is a compon
unsuppo rted experien ce of trauma it
when driver behaviou r is being shown
may have a wide range of psycholo gical
~IE
the individua l is in script. See PLEASE
ences calling for a broad
consequ
OTHER~.
and PLEASE
approac h in which many of the therapeutic techniqu es of transact ional
Please me the Parent form of the PLEASE
arralysis may need to be deployed . TherDRNER. Drivers are most often encounapy may also irrvolve addressi ng earlier
tered in their Child form. that is the
unresolv ed issues that have been reactito
messago:
Parent
a
replays
l
individua
by the traumati c event. The stress
vated
himself or herself and resporrd s from
d by the trauma can lead to
generate
the
to
conform
Child by seeking to
regressi on so that the traumati sation
message . Howeve r, the person may
be recorded in a Child ego-state
may
::md
identify with the Parent ego-state
an earlier develop mental stage
at
and
The
else.
son":cme
to
message
give the
at which it occurred . Much
that
than
Child form of the driver is (I ~vlust)
abuse survivor s is in effect
with
work
(fou
is
fo:n1
Parent
The
Please (You).
post-trau matic stress diswith
working
Must) Please (Me).
order.
Please others a way of specifyi ng the
potency the power of the therapis t, as
Child form of the PLEASE DRIVER.
perceive d by the client, to give permissions to overrule negative message s
Poor Me a game initiated fzom the Victim
from the client's Parent ego-state . See
to
irwited
are
position irr which others
THREE PS.
be sympath etic so that they can be
manipul ated.
potentia l that which is capable of being
but is not yet realised . Humani stic
positive stroke a positive act of recognicourrsel ling lays great emphas is
phrase
a
tion such as a smile, a touch,
human potential . Transact ional analySTROKE.
See
you'.
like
-'I
plastic strokes
r (PTSD) .
This enables them to become familiar 'post-tra umatic stress disorde
follows":
that
disorder
gical
psycholo
a
disgical
psycholo
with severe forms of
exposur e to unavoida ble major damag,
turbanc e and to learn how to work
ing or life-thre atening events. It may
alongsid e other mental health profesimmedia tely after the events or~
occur
sionals.
its onset may be delayed, sometimes'".
for long periods. It is characte rised by
plastic strokes positive gestures towards
repeate d intrusiv e memori es of the
others (acts of recognit ion) that are
event (flashba cks and nightma res).
flattery.
example
clearly insincere , for
Flashba cks and anxiety (which may
See STROKE.
reach the level of panic attacks) may
be triggered by similar circumst ances
Please the PLEASE DRNER is often referred
to those that accompa nied or preced- :
to as Please.
ed the traumat ic events, so there is
common ly avoidan ce of such situaPlease driver a behaviou ral pattern that
There may be persisten t anxiety
tions.
may
This
others.
seeks approval from
and sleep disturba nces. Defence s
show through a variety of behaviou rs,
against this may produce flattenin g
e.g. smiling (usually tensely), checldng
(numbin g).
affect
highyou?',
by
right
'all
others
with
Psychot herapeu tic interven tions
pitched voice rising at the end of the
include re-exper iencing the event irr
sentence , etc. The driver is a behavfantasy in a supporti ve environm ent.
ioural manifest ation of a DRIVER :11ESSAGE,
Because of the profoun d effects of arr
so
script,
of
ent
which is a compon
unsuppo rted experien ce of trauma it
when driver behaviou r is being shown
may have a wide range of psycholo gical
~IE
the individua l is in script. See PLEASE
ences calling for a broad
consequ
OTHER~.
and PLEASE
approac h in which many of the therapeutic techniqu es of transact ional
Please me the Parent form of the PLEASE
arralysis may need to be deployed . TherDRNER. Drivers are most often encounapy may also irrvolve addressi ng earlier
tered in their Child form. that is the
unresolv ed issues that have been reactito
messago:
Parent
a
replays
l
individua
by the traumati c event. The stress
vated
himself or herself and resporrd s from
d by the trauma can lead to
generate
the
to
conform
Child by seeking to
regressi on so that the traumati sation
message . Howeve r, the person may
be recorded in a Child ego-state
may
::md
identify with the Parent ego-state
an earlier develop mental stage
at
and
The
else.
son":cme
to
message
give the
at which it occurred . Much
that
than
Child form of the driver is (I ~vlust)
abuse survivor s is in effect
with
work
(fou
is
fo:n1
Parent
The
Please (You).
post-trau matic stress diswith
working
Must) Please (Me).
order.
Please others a way of specifyi ng the
potency the power of the therapis t, as
Child form of the PLEASE DRIVER.
perceive d by the client, to give permissions to overrule negative message s
Poor Me a game initiated fzom the Victim
from the client's Parent ego-state . See
to
irwited
are
position irr which others
THREE PS.
be sympath etic so that they can be
manipul ated.
potentia l that which is capable of being
but is not yet realised . Humani stic
positive stroke a positive act of recognicourrsel ling lays great emphas is
phrase
a
tion such as a smile, a touch,
human potential . Transact ional analySTROKE.
See
you'.
like
-'I
(1963).
~1UNiCATJON.
Ctpn~~,.r
11 QO{.:;h)
(1963).
~1UNiCATJON.
Ctpn~~,.r
11 QO{.:;h)
psyche
psyche the mental apparatus.
psyche
psyche the mental apparatus.
psychotherapy
ANALYSis) is referred to as the somatic
child. At the stage when this early egostate develops existence is more centred on the body than it is in later
stages of childhood. Transactional
analysis regards psychosomatic illness
as indicative of damage at this level. If
conditions involve mind and body then
they can be treated via either route and
perhaps best by both. Speculation on
the psychosomatic origin of disease
should not therefore preclude the use
of physical methods of treatment. See
BODY SCRIPTING.
psychotherapy treatment of psychological problems by talking to the client. psychotropic drugs medical drugs
There are many schools of psychogive rise to change of mood.
therapy but these fall into a relatively
include antipsychotic drugs or
small number of types and despite the
tranquillisers such as chlorpromazine,
disagreement in which theorists somealso anxiolytics such as the benzodiaptimes engage, there is widespread
ines (commonly referred to as tranagreement about general principles. In
quillisers) which reduce anxiety
the UK there is a go1erning body to
antidepressants, which affect mood
which most major psychotherapy trainonly. Drugs are useful for handing crisi5
ing organisations belong: the United
situations or the seriously disturbed
.Y-.ingdom Council for Psychother~!py.
cUent but they may interfere with psyTrainees ,vho satisfY the standards of
chotherapy hy making Adult less availany body that is a full member are
able and by blocking feelings thus lowplaced on the Natii~nal Register of
ering the motivation to change and
Psychother2pists. The CK transactional
obstructing access to Child.
analysis org:omisation, the Jnstitcote of
Transactional Analysis, is a full mem- PT5D see POST-Ti{At;M,.\TIC STRESS DISORDER.
ber of the UKCP so cenified tP.Dsactional analysts with a clinical speciaiity PTSTA
ProYisional Teaching and
become 'UKCP registcT~ci psychor.heraSupervising Transactional Analyst. A
pists when they qualif)'.
certified trans:JCtional analyst who has
Each discipline hc.s a theory of the
bc;'~n endorsed as able to give officially
z;tructure of mind and ~)f the natu r:: of
recognised transactional analysis train~
n1ental processes, ;Ir:-~ :TJ.ost of tht:-;e
ir;g and sup~rvision at a TE'X' (training
er:.ciorsemcr:t workshop). A PTSTA is
derive from, or bav~ been stron~?!y
influenced by the ,.\'o~-k of, Sig!:<<.:itd
reqclired to have regular supervision
Lorn a TSTA (te;:tching ::md superiising
Freud. The splitting into disci!:oth:::s
has not been unproductive - i; h~;s
mtnsaction~l analyst).
psychotherapy
ANALYSis) is referred to as the somatic
child. At the stage when this early egostate develops existence is more centred on the body than it is in later
stages of childhood. Transactional
analysis regards psychosomatic illness
as indicative of damage at this level. If
conditions involve mind and body then
they can be treated via either route and
perhaps best by both. Speculation on
the psychosomatic origin of disease
should not therefore preclude the use
of physical methods of treatment. See
BODY SCRIPTING.
psychotherapy treatment of psychological problems by talking to the client. psychotropic drugs medical drugs
There are many schools of psychogive rise to change of mood.
therapy but these fall into a relatively
include antipsychotic drugs or
small number of types and despite the
tranquillisers such as chlorpromazine,
disagreement in which theorists somealso anxiolytics such as the benzodiaptimes engage, there is widespread
ines (commonly referred to as tranagreement about general principles. In
quillisers) which reduce anxiety
the UK there is a go1erning body to
antidepressants, which affect mood
which most major psychotherapy trainonly. Drugs are useful for handing crisi5
ing organisations belong: the United
situations or the seriously disturbed
.Y-.ingdom Council for Psychother~!py.
cUent but they may interfere with psyTrainees ,vho satisfY the standards of
chotherapy hy making Adult less availany body that is a full member are
able and by blocking feelings thus lowplaced on the Natii~nal Register of
ering the motivation to change and
Psychother2pists. The CK transactional
obstructing access to Child.
analysis org:omisation, the Jnstitcote of
Transactional Analysis, is a full mem- PT5D see POST-Ti{At;M,.\TIC STRESS DISORDER.
ber of the UKCP so cenified tP.Dsactional analysts with a clinical speciaiity PTSTA
ProYisional Teaching and
become 'UKCP registcT~ci psychor.heraSupervising Transactional Analyst. A
pists when they qualif)'.
certified trans:JCtional analyst who has
Each discipline hc.s a theory of the
bc;'~n endorsed as able to give officially
z;tructure of mind and ~)f the natu r:: of
recognised transactional analysis train~
n1ental processes, ;Ir:-~ :TJ.ost of tht:-;e
ir;g and sup~rvision at a TE'X' (training
er:.ciorsemcr:t workshop). A PTSTA is
derive from, or bav~ been stron~?!y
influenced by the ,.\'o~-k of, Sig!:<<.:itd
reqclired to have regular supervision
Lorn a TSTA (te;:tching ::md superiising
Freud. The splitting into disci!:oth:::s
has not been unproductive - i; h~;s
mtnsaction~l analyst).
racket system
""'
REINFORCING EXPERIENCES
about self
observable td1aviour
current events
about others
!"ef<>rted. internal
SCRIPT BELIEFS
expenences
fantnsic.s
REPRESSED NEEDS
AND FEELINGS
racket system
""'
REINFORCING EXPERIENCES
about self
observable td1aviour
current events
about others
!"ef<>rted. internal
SCRIPT BELIEFS
expenences
fantnsic.s
REPRESSED NEEDS
AND FEELINGS
:-
rechilding
trauma, providing an opportunity to
give permissions and affirmations that
were absent in the original experience
and also to provide the sense of a new
beginning and therefore the potentiality
to choose new paths through life, see
Grof1985.
~~i~~~~f~;li~;; ~
~7i~~~i~~~n~h~~r~;~~~~n a:da~~~
:;:;]
;;
: \1
:-
rechilding
trauma, providing an opportunity to
give permissions and affirmations that
were absent in the original experience
and also to provide the sense of a new
beginning and therefore the potentiality
to choose new paths through life, see
Grof1985.
~~i~~~~f~;li~;; ~
~7i~~~i~~~n~h~~r~;~~~~n a:da~~~
:;:;]
;;
: \1
Reichian
in which they appear to have been
an INTEGRATED ADULT. A similar process
and will acquire a large collecrejected
may occur with Parent ego-state matertion of such memories which will reinial. There are a variety of views among
force their script belief, while they are
transactiona l analysts about how to
likely tO find ways of DISCOUNTING disbe
may
It
ego-state.
Child
the
regard
confirming experiences ('they did not
seen less as a residue of a superseded
really mean it, they were just being
level of developmen t and more as a
polite'). See RACKET SYST&\ol.
repository of valuable qualities that
have been lost in later development (a
Wordsworth ian view: 'the child is reinforceme nt (behaviouris m) associating a reward with a specific behaviour
father of the man').
and thus making it more probable that
Regression may be facilitated as a
the behaviour will be repeated. This is
therapeutic technique. This must be
basis of operant conditioning and
the
within
and
CONTRACT
done within a clear
is one of the psychologica l principles
a structure that provides for adequate
underlying the transactional analysis
physical and emotional safety. Theraconcept of STROKING.
peutic interventions while in the
regressed state may give access to early
issues that would be difficult to work rejection the experience of not being
accepted, invited to feel that one is not
with in other ways, but this type of work
or unacceptable (unlovable).
wanted
issues
ethical
raises professional and
Life will inevitably include such experithat must be carefully addressed. See
ences but they are particularly damagREPARENTING.
ing in early childhood where ti1ey may
set up lifelong patterns of expected
Reichian based on the work of the postrejection (which may become a self-fulFreudian analyst Wilhelm Reich.
filling prophecy) and lo\v self-esteem.
Reich's main theoretical contribution
Experiences of rejection in childhood
was to the theory of character analysis
are likely to lead to a Don't Exist
but the aspect of his work that now
INJUNCTION.
receives most attention is the connections that he traced between body
states and psychological problems (for relationship the pattern of attachment
and interaction between two people.
example, body armouring) and which
From birth onwards human beings
he explained in terms of an energy
exist in relationship s and healthy
theory (orgone energy). Modern post
development cannot occur unless the
Reichian therapies include BIOE>'ERGFT
individual is supported, challenged
JCS and Radix. Reich's approach b;Js
and socialised within a suitable relabeen introduced into transactiona l
tionship system. Through its power to
analysis; see BODY SCRIPT!.'\G and BOlW
analyse transaction s and map
WORK.
stroking, transactional analysis is able
to. map relationship processes.
reinforcing memories a memc)ry of a
Psychological problems are frequently
past negative experience thar is used
initially failures of relationships . The
to reinforce a SCRIPT BELJEF. Tber<: is a
relationship between the client and
tendency to give weight to, and there
the therapist is an important factor in
that
ev::nts
memory,
fore to keep in
all psychotherap ies, including those
seem to confirm script beliefs, while
that accord it little significance (e.g.
events that disconfirm them may be
classical behaviourism ). The classical
easily forgotten. Someone who has a
psychodynam ic approach sees relascript belief 'I am unlovable' will pay
as important but also threattionship
s
circumstance
particular attention to
1fl4
Reichian
in which they appear to have been
an INTEGRATED ADULT. A similar process
and will acquire a large collecrejected
may occur with Parent ego-state matertion of such memories which will reinial. There are a variety of views among
force their script belief, while they are
transactiona l analysts about how to
likely tO find ways of DISCOUNTING disbe
may
It
ego-state.
Child
the
regard
confirming experiences ('they did not
seen less as a residue of a superseded
really mean it, they were just being
level of developmen t and more as a
polite'). See RACKET SYST&\ol.
repository of valuable qualities that
have been lost in later development (a
Wordsworth ian view: 'the child is reinforceme nt (behaviouris m) associating a reward with a specific behaviour
father of the man').
and thus making it more probable that
Regression may be facilitated as a
the behaviour will be repeated. This is
therapeutic technique. This must be
basis of operant conditioning and
the
within
and
CONTRACT
done within a clear
is one of the psychologica l principles
a structure that provides for adequate
underlying the transactional analysis
physical and emotional safety. Theraconcept of STROKING.
peutic interventions while in the
regressed state may give access to early
issues that would be difficult to work rejection the experience of not being
accepted, invited to feel that one is not
with in other ways, but this type of work
or unacceptable (unlovable).
wanted
issues
ethical
raises professional and
Life will inevitably include such experithat must be carefully addressed. See
ences but they are particularly damagREPARENTING.
ing in early childhood where ti1ey may
set up lifelong patterns of expected
Reichian based on the work of the postrejection (which may become a self-fulFreudian analyst Wilhelm Reich.
filling prophecy) and lo\v self-esteem.
Reich's main theoretical contribution
Experiences of rejection in childhood
was to the theory of character analysis
are likely to lead to a Don't Exist
but the aspect of his work that now
INJUNCTION.
receives most attention is the connections that he traced between body
states and psychological problems (for relationship the pattern of attachment
and interaction between two people.
example, body armouring) and which
From birth onwards human beings
he explained in terms of an energy
exist in relationship s and healthy
theory (orgone energy). Modern post
development cannot occur unless the
Reichian therapies include BIOE>'ERGFT
individual is supported, challenged
JCS and Radix. Reich's approach b;Js
and socialised within a suitable relabeen introduced into transactiona l
tionship system. Through its power to
analysis; see BODY SCRIPT!.'\G and BOlW
analyse transaction s and map
WORK.
stroking, transactional analysis is able
to. map relationship processes.
reinforcing memories a memc)ry of a
Psychological problems are frequently
past negative experience thar is used
initially failures of relationships . The
to reinforce a SCRIPT BELJEF. Tber<: is a
relationship between the client and
tendency to give weight to, and there
the therapist is an important factor in
that
ev::nts
memory,
fore to keep in
all psychotherap ies, including those
seem to confirm script beliefs, while
that accord it little significance (e.g.
events that disconfirm them may be
classical behaviourism ). The classical
easily forgotten. Someone who has a
psychodynam ic approach sees relascript belief 'I am unlovable' will pay
as important but also threattionship
s
circumstance
particular attention to
1fl4
Re scu e
ree me nt pla ce
' wh o are pla ce d (o r by ag
rtpa
t
en
ol
vi
th
wi
ca re su ch as ch ilup re lat io ns hi ps
the ms elv es) in ou r
cs tha t
mi
na
dy
the
of
e
on
if we ac ce pt so me
ne rs) . Th is is
dren or cli en ts. Ev en
of GAMES.
g
yin
pla
ed to en co ur ag e
ne
the
d
we
hin
lie be
res po ns ibi lit y,
r ca re to be as
th e pe rs on in ou
so me on e
r
fo
g
in
th
sh e ca n wi thi n
me
so
or
Re sc ue to do
au ton om ou s as he
eir
th
s
ine
rm
de
un
to sh ift res po ns iels e in a wa y ch at
the co nte xt. At tem pts
m is dister
the
of
e
us
is
nip ula tiv e. 'I on ly
au ton om y. Th
bil ity are us ua lly ma
ac ts of resate
itim
leg
m
u' ma y be acc ep tfro
yo
ed
of
tin gu ish
)
did it be ca us e
ed
ed
ne
lly
rea
is
lp
ar pr ior ag ree me nt
cu e (w he re the he
ab le if the re was cle
al let ter .
pit
ca
a
th
wi
'Y ou ma de me
it
g
by sp ell in
t no t ot he rw ise .
bu
G th e
TIN
UN
CO
DIS
re sp on sib ili ty fo r
Re sc ui ng in vo lv es
an gr y' im pl ies a
effect
ac
to
n
rso
pe
er
gs, ho we ve r 'I fel t
po we r of the oth
oth er pe op le' s feelin
the ir ow n life
of
e
arg
ch
e
u sai d' is lik ely to
yo
tak
d
at
tively an
an gry ab ou t wh
UI+
an
m
fro
s
me
t. Se e I STATEMENTs.
an d the Re scu er co
be a sta tem en t of .fuc
S). Re scu ing
ION
SIT
PO
E
UF
e
po sit ion (se
ss
n int o SYMBIOSIS.
of the the rap y pro ce
involves an inv ita tio
rev iew dis cu ssi on
RTHE
e
Th
.
ed
iev
ach
an d wh at ha s be en
fo r
r) the DRAMA
on
ue
isi
sc
ov
Re
pr
so
ke
(al
ma
le
y
ma
Re sc ue r ro
APY CO NT RA CT
iti ng
tio na l
wh ich inv olv es inv
iew ses sio ns . Tr an sac
rev
TRIANGLE rol e,
r
ula
reg
al
pit
ca
l
tia
ini
s an d
e
es
oc
(th
e
pr
l
scu
tua
Re
oth ers int o
aly sis is a co ntr ac
is
an
e
rol
gle
lar
an
gu
tri
re
ma
isi on fo r
ind ica tes tha t a dra
wi ll in clu de pr ov
ma te
iti
leg
t
no
s.
d
act
an
ntr
to
co
g
be ing ref err ed
rev iew of ou tst an din
ue r is dis co un tin g
res cu e). Th e Re sc
al
TU RIN G in m' s ab ili ty to de
fo rm of TIM E STR UC
the su pp os ed Vi cti
or he rse lf rit ua ls a
lf
se
llo w an
fo
him
n
ns
tio
tio
ua
ac
wi th the sit
ich th e tra ns
t
wh
ou
ab
e
ios
hig hly
nd
gra
are
t the y
an d is pro ba bly be ing
ag ree d pa tte rn so tha
ble m.
pro
eti ng
the
gre
ve
sol
the
to
is
y
ple
his or he r abilit
pre dic tab le. An ex am
' 'O K
u?
yo
e
ar
w
ho
rit ua l 'H ell o,
a
int en tio n to ac t in
saf e bu t yie ld few
re so lu tio n (1 ) an
w
tha nk s'. Ri tua ls are
Ne
a
,
ple
am
ex
r
(fo
y
wa
pa rti cu lar
str ok es.
. Th e ou tco me is
Ye ar' s res olu tio n)
in
s:
the eg o-s tat
oa ch of the
rel ati ng to the ap pr
lik ely to de pe nd on
n is ma de . Ro ge ria n
tio
ge rs.
lu
Ro
so
rl
re
Ca
e
ist
th
wh ich
Am eri ca n the rap
ma de in Child in
all y
en
usu
oft
is
d
are
s
tho
on
me
uti
sol
tic
Re
the rap eu
al pr es su re fro m
or o~rsc,n-.cetztnE>a
re sp on se to int ern
ly
to as cli en t-c en tre d
ick
qu
ll
wi
ild
Ch
the
lly
m, non-direcltiv4
ua
ter
Us
l
t.
na
Pa ren
Ro ge rs' or igi
this an d
of
t
ou
g
lin
igg
er us ed . Fr om
wr
find a way of
the rap y, is no lo ng
be ha vio ura l
erm
g-t
lon
iti on al po si
no
nd
be
co
ll
the re wi
po sit io n of un
'
ist fac ili tat es
ch an ge .
re ga rd th e th er ap
or he r ow n
his
cli en t in ma kin g
ving of a pro ble m
sol
n an d life
the
tio
ua
(2)
sit
n
ir
tio
res olu
tio n of the
fro m a
e
eas
rel
or
ms
tic ba se
ble
nis
or gro up of pro
Be ca us e of its hu ma
ict, for ex am ple
nll
co
ny va lue s
al
ma
s
ern
are
int
sh
of
sta te
tiona! analysis
E.
ASS
oa ch
IMP
pr
an
ap
the res olu tio n of
the pe rso n- ce ntr ed
re
mo
e
lis
uti
pr ep ar ed to
ns ac tio na l an aly sis
SON -CE NT RED
re sp on sib ili ty tra
ap pr oa ch es . Se e PER
t
tha
ion
sit
po
l
ica
ph
so
ilo
tak es the ph
SELUNG.
ibl e for the ir ow n
pe op le are res po ns
ur.
vio
to
gs an d be ha
sit io n in re lat io n
lives, thinking, feelin
d res po ns i- ro le a po
ite
lim
in
pt
ce
or
ac
ily
to
rar
We ne ed
ad op ted tem po
o are vu lne rab le or
hil itv for tho se wh
Re scu e
ree me nt pla ce
' wh o are pla ce d (o r by ag
rtpa
t
en
ol
vi
th
wi
ca re su ch as ch ilup re lat io ns hi ps
the ms elv es) in ou r
cs tha t
mi
na
dy
the
of
e
on
if we ac ce pt so me
ne rs) . Th is is
dren or cli en ts. Ev en
of GAMES.
g
yin
pla
ed to en co ur ag e
ne
the
d
we
hin
lie be
res po ns ibi lit y,
r ca re to be as
th e pe rs on in ou
so me on e
r
fo
g
in
th
sh e ca n wi thi n
me
so
or
Re sc ue to do
au ton om ou s as he
eir
th
s
ine
rm
de
un
to sh ift res po ns iels e in a wa y ch at
the co nte xt. At tem pts
m is dister
the
of
e
us
is
nip ula tiv e. 'I on ly
au ton om y. Th
bil ity are us ua lly ma
ac ts of resate
itim
leg
m
u' ma y be acc ep tfro
yo
ed
of
tin gu ish
)
did it be ca us e
ed
ed
ne
lly
rea
is
lp
ar pr ior ag ree me nt
cu e (w he re the he
ab le if the re was cle
al let ter .
pit
ca
a
th
wi
'Y ou ma de me
it
g
by sp ell in
t no t ot he rw ise .
bu
G th e
TIN
UN
CO
DIS
re sp on sib ili ty fo r
Re sc ui ng in vo lv es
an gr y' im pl ies a
effect
ac
to
n
rso
pe
er
gs, ho we ve r 'I fel t
po we r of the oth
oth er pe op le' s feelin
the ir ow n life
of
e
arg
ch
e
u sai d' is lik ely to
yo
tak
d
at
tively an
an gry ab ou t wh
UI+
an
m
fro
s
me
t. Se e I STATEMENTs.
an d the Re scu er co
be a sta tem en t of .fuc
S). Re scu ing
ION
SIT
PO
E
UF
e
po sit ion (se
ss
n int o SYMBIOSIS.
of the the rap y pro ce
involves an inv ita tio
rev iew dis cu ssi on
RTHE
e
Th
.
ed
iev
ach
an d wh at ha s be en
fo r
r) the DRAMA
on
ue
isi
sc
ov
Re
pr
so
ke
(al
ma
le
y
ma
Re sc ue r ro
APY CO NT RA CT
iti ng
tio na l
wh ich inv olv es inv
iew ses sio ns . Tr an sac
rev
TRIANGLE rol e,
r
ula
reg
al
pit
ca
l
tia
ini
s an d
e
es
oc
(th
e
pr
l
scu
tua
Re
oth ers int o
aly sis is a co ntr ac
is
an
e
rol
gle
lar
an
gu
tri
re
ma
isi on fo r
ind ica tes tha t a dra
wi ll in clu de pr ov
ma te
iti
leg
t
no
s.
d
act
an
ntr
to
co
g
be ing ref err ed
rev iew of ou tst an din
ue r is dis co un tin g
res cu e). Th e Re sc
al
TU RIN G in m' s ab ili ty to de
fo rm of TIM E STR UC
the su pp os ed Vi cti
or he rse lf rit ua ls a
lf
se
llo w an
fo
him
n
ns
tio
tio
ua
ac
wi th the sit
ich th e tra ns
t
wh
ou
ab
e
ios
hig hly
nd
gra
are
t the y
an d is pro ba bly be ing
ag ree d pa tte rn so tha
ble m.
pro
eti ng
the
gre
ve
sol
the
to
is
y
ple
his or he r abilit
pre dic tab le. An ex am
' 'O K
u?
yo
e
ar
w
ho
rit ua l 'H ell o,
a
int en tio n to ac t in
saf e bu t yie ld few
re so lu tio n (1 ) an
w
tha nk s'. Ri tua ls are
Ne
a
,
ple
am
ex
r
(fo
y
wa
pa rti cu lar
str ok es.
. Th e ou tco me is
Ye ar' s res olu tio n)
in
s:
the eg o-s tat
oa ch of the
rel ati ng to the ap pr
lik ely to de pe nd on
n is ma de . Ro ge ria n
tio
ge rs.
lu
Ro
so
rl
re
Ca
e
ist
th
wh ich
Am eri ca n the rap
ma de in Child in
all y
en
usu
oft
is
d
are
s
tho
on
me
uti
sol
tic
Re
the rap eu
al pr es su re fro m
or o~rsc,n-.cetztnE>a
re sp on se to int ern
ly
to as cli en t-c en tre d
ick
qu
ll
wi
ild
Ch
the
lly
m, non-direcltiv4
ua
ter
Us
l
t.
na
Pa ren
Ro ge rs' or igi
this an d
of
t
ou
g
lin
igg
er us ed . Fr om
wr
find a way of
the rap y, is no lo ng
be ha vio ura l
erm
g-t
lon
iti on al po si
no
nd
be
co
ll
the re wi
po sit io n of un
'
ist fac ili tat es
ch an ge .
re ga rd th e th er ap
or he r ow n
his
cli en t in ma kin g
ving of a pro ble m
sol
n an d life
the
tio
ua
(2)
sit
n
ir
tio
res olu
tio n of the
fro m a
e
eas
rel
or
ms
tic ba se
ble
nis
or gro up of pro
Be ca us e of its hu ma
ict, for ex am ple
nll
co
ny va lue s
al
ma
s
ern
are
int
sh
of
sta te
tiona! analysis
E.
ASS
oa ch
IMP
pr
an
ap
the res olu tio n of
the pe rso n- ce ntr ed
re
mo
e
lis
uti
pr ep ar ed to
ns ac tio na l an aly sis
SON -CE NT RED
re sp on sib ili ty tra
ap pr oa ch es . Se e PER
t
tha
ion
sit
po
l
ica
ph
so
ilo
tak es the ph
SELUNG.
ibl e for the ir ow n
pe op le are res po ns
ur.
vio
to
gs an d be ha
sit io n in re lat io n
lives, thinking, feelin
d res po ns i- ro le a po
ite
lim
in
pt
ce
or
ac
ily
to
rar
We ne ed
ad op ted tem po
o are vu lne rab le or
hil itv for tho se wh
script apparatus
results in a replay of the original out scnipt belief a belief about self, others
or the world arrived at in childhood
come thus reinforcing script.
in an attempt to deal with unfinished
There bas been debate as to whether
business (usually feelings that have
there can be a positive script. Unconnot been appropriately responded to)
scious patterns may be useful but will
by 'explaining away' (making cognialways suffer the disadvantage that they
tive closure). Script beliefs are an
cannot readily be changed to adjust to
important element in the SCRIPT
current reality. Essentially all script
(RACKET) system of Erskine and
behaviours involve discounting. Stewart
Zalcman (1979).
and Joines (1987) define script as that
part of the FRAME OF REFERENCE that
involves discounting. See SCRIPT APPARA- script diagrams the two main ways of
illustrating the script are Steiner's
TUS, SCRIPT MATRIX, SCRIPT SYSTEM, PROCESS
SCRIPT MATRIX and the RACKET SYSTEM
SCRIPT,EARLYilFEDECISION.
(sometimes called the SCRIPT SYSTEM) of
Erskine and Zalcman (1979).
script apparatus the elements which
make up the script. These include
INJUNCTIONS, COUNTERINJUNCTIONS, PRO- script matrix a diagram showing how a
client received his or her INJUNCTIONS,
GRAM, PERMISSIONS AND EARLY UFE DECISIONS.
COUNTERINJUNCTIONS and PROGRAM MESSAGES from parents' ego-states. In
script backlash after a movement out
Steiner's (1966) original model the
of script the client may experience a
script is shown as held in all three egosevere reaction of anxiety, guilt etc.
states of the client. Woollams and
This may be seen in terms of the
Brown (1978) hold that the script is
Parent punishing the Child for its
held in the Child and is distributed
transgression. It is important that sufbetween the three second-order egoficient PROTECTION is available from the
states P., A, and C,.
therapist to deal with this if it occurs.
person
script apparatus
results in a replay of the original out scnipt belief a belief about self, others
or the world arrived at in childhood
come thus reinforcing script.
in an attempt to deal with unfinished
There bas been debate as to whether
business (usually feelings that have
there can be a positive script. Unconnot been appropriately responded to)
scious patterns may be useful but will
by 'explaining away' (making cognialways suffer the disadvantage that they
tive closure). Script beliefs are an
cannot readily be changed to adjust to
important element in the SCRIPT
current reality. Essentially all script
(RACKET) system of Erskine and
behaviours involve discounting. Stewart
Zalcman (1979).
and Joines (1987) define script as that
part of the FRAME OF REFERENCE that
involves discounting. See SCRIPT APPARA- script diagrams the two main ways of
illustrating the script are Steiner's
TUS, SCRIPT MATRIX, SCRIPT SYSTEM, PROCESS
SCRIPT MATRIX and the RACKET SYSTEM
SCRIPT,EARLYilFEDECISION.
(sometimes called the SCRIPT SYSTEM) of
Erskine and Zalcman (1979).
script apparatus the elements which
make up the script. These include
INJUNCTIONS, COUNTERINJUNCTIONS, PRO- script matrix a diagram showing how a
client received his or her INJUNCTIONS,
GRAM, PERMISSIONS AND EARLY UFE DECISIONS.
COUNTERINJUNCTIONS and PROGRAM MESSAGES from parents' ego-states. In
script backlash after a movement out
Steiner's (1966) original model the
of script the client may experience a
script is shown as held in all three egosevere reaction of anxiety, guilt etc.
states of the client. Woollams and
This may be seen in terms of the
Brown (1978) hold that the script is
Parent punishing the Child for its
held in the Child and is distributed
transgression. It is important that sufbetween the three second-order egoficient PROTECTION is available from the
states P., A, and C,.
therapist to deal with this if it occurs.
person
SY.'>!BJo:;l:<.
SY.'>!BJo:;l:<.
separation anxiety
separation anxiety anxiety derived origi- social control a stage early in therapy in
nally from interruption in the carewhich sufficient insight has been
giver's contact with the child, which
achieved for inappropriate behaviours
to be identified and avoided and more
interfered with the baby's attachment to
the mother or caregiver and conseappropriate behaviours chosen. This
will occur when substantial DECONTAMIquently its sense of security. ln Bowlby's
NATION of Adult has been achieved,
(1969) view this forms the basis for all
later anxieties relating to separations.
however no changes will have
occurred in Child or Parent so sympSex in Human Loving this book by Eric
toms will not have been relieved. See
STAGES OF 'J'HEMPY.
Berne was published in the. year of his
death (1970). In his characteristic
lucid, humorous and incisive style he social level . the manifest message of an
looks at human sexual relationships in
ulterior transaction (what appears to
be being said) is the social level mesterms of transactional analysis theory.
sage. A second message is being transshame self-judgement for some public
mitted at the psychological level and it
is this that decides the outcome of the
display of inadequacy or immorality
and the emotional state that accompatransaction. See 1llANSACI10N, Ul.TElUOR.
nies this. There is a social dimension
to shame that may be lacking in guilt; social psychiatry Eric Berne chose the
it involves the imagined condemnation
title San Francisco Social Psychiatry
Seminars for. the meeting of profesof an audience. Shaming is often used
sionals that took place at his home
by parents to control children and in
the experience of shame the Parent
every Tuesday evening from 1958.
Here many of the ideas of transactional
ego-state is attacking the Child in the
analysis were burnished and develINTERNAL DIALOGUE in a way that often
oped. The term 'social psychiatry'
closely parallels the .original family
process. In accepting shaming the
derives from Harry Stack Sullivan
child is colluding in the parents'
(1953) who was one of the first people
process of negative projection in an
to place psychiatric problems in a
attempt to obtain love. Shame undersocial psychological framework, as
being located not solely in the individmines the individual and does not support positive change, so it is regarded
ual but also in his or her relationship
with society. A one-person psychology
as a RACKET FEEI.lNG. See Erskine (1994),
such as drive theory psychoanalysis
English (1994) and Cornell (1994).
ignores an important part of the system. Transactional analysis, with its
'should' statements a statement implyability to conceptualise and analyse
ing a moral imperative to act in a certransactions between individuals is
tain way. This usually indicates that the
ideally equipped to develop this
Parent ego-state is active.
approach.
Sigmund, Eric received an Eric Berne
Memorial Scientific Award jointly with soft closure see ESCAPE HATCHES.
Ken Mellor in 1980 for his work on DISCOUNTING and REDEFINING (Mellor and somatic relating to the body. See also PSY
CHOSOMATIC.
Sigmund 1975a, 1975b).
social anxiety anxiety experienced in somatic Child the Child in the Child egostate or C,. So called because the young
social situations associated with feelchild experiences the world mainly
ings of shyness and embarrassment.
separation anxiety
separation anxiety anxiety derived origi- social control a stage early in therapy in
nally from interruption in the carewhich sufficient insight has been
giver's contact with the child, which
achieved for inappropriate behaviours
to be identified and avoided and more
interfered with the baby's attachment to
the mother or caregiver and conseappropriate behaviours chosen. This
will occur when substantial DECONTAMIquently its sense of security. ln Bowlby's
NATION of Adult has been achieved,
(1969) view this forms the basis for all
later anxieties relating to separations.
however no changes will have
occurred in Child or Parent so sympSex in Human Loving this book by Eric
toms will not have been relieved. See
STAGES OF 'J'HEMPY.
Berne was published in the. year of his
death (1970). In his characteristic
lucid, humorous and incisive style he social level . the manifest message of an
looks at human sexual relationships in
ulterior transaction (what appears to
be being said) is the social level mesterms of transactional analysis theory.
sage. A second message is being transshame self-judgement for some public
mitted at the psychological level and it
is this that decides the outcome of the
display of inadequacy or immorality
and the emotional state that accompatransaction. See 1llANSACI10N, Ul.TElUOR.
nies this. There is a social dimension
to shame that may be lacking in guilt; social psychiatry Eric Berne chose the
it involves the imagined condemnation
title San Francisco Social Psychiatry
Seminars for. the meeting of profesof an audience. Shaming is often used
sionals that took place at his home
by parents to control children and in
the experience of shame the Parent
every Tuesday evening from 1958.
Here many of the ideas of transactional
ego-state is attacking the Child in the
analysis were burnished and develINTERNAL DIALOGUE in a way that often
oped. The term 'social psychiatry'
closely parallels the .original family
process. In accepting shaming the
derives from Harry Stack Sullivan
child is colluding in the parents'
(1953) who was one of the first people
process of negative projection in an
to place psychiatric problems in a
attempt to obtain love. Shame undersocial psychological framework, as
being located not solely in the individmines the individual and does not support positive change, so it is regarded
ual but also in his or her relationship
with society. A one-person psychology
as a RACKET FEEI.lNG. See Erskine (1994),
such as drive theory psychoanalysis
English (1994) and Cornell (1994).
ignores an important part of the system. Transactional analysis, with its
'should' statements a statement implyability to conceptualise and analyse
ing a moral imperative to act in a certransactions between individuals is
tain way. This usually indicates that the
ideally equipped to develop this
Parent ego-state is active.
approach.
Sigmund, Eric received an Eric Berne
Memorial Scientific Award jointly with soft closure see ESCAPE HATCHES.
Ken Mellor in 1980 for his work on DISCOUNTING and REDEFINING (Mellor and somatic relating to the body. See also PSY
CHOSOMATIC.
Sigmund 1975a, 1975b).
social anxiety anxiety experienced in somatic Child the Child in the Child egostate or C,. So called because the young
social situations associated with feelchild experiences the world mainly
ings of shyness and embarrassment.
116
116
stroke filter
Don't ask for strokes when you need
them.
Don't accept strokes if you want
them.
Don't reject strokes when you don't
want them.
Don't give yoursel f strokes.
Steiner (1974) express es this messag e structu ral model of ego-st ates see
imagina tively through a fairy story 'A
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS.
Fuzzy Tale'. See WARM FUZZIES, cow PRJCK
llES.
structu re the way in which someth ing is
constru cted. The ego-stat e theory posstroke filter the elimina tion or distor
tulates intraps ychic structu res and
tion of strokes that are 'surplu s to
relates these to observa ble behavio urs.
require ments' becaus e they exceed
Psychoa nalytic theory with its concept s
those allowed by the STROKE QUOTIEN T.
of mental organs (id, ego and superego) and zones of differen tial awarestroke quotien t early experie nces result
ness and accessibility (conscio us, prein an expecte d ratio betwee n positive
us and unconsc ious) is likewise
conscio
and negativ e strokes receive d. For
al theory.
structur
a
exampl e, this might be four negativ e
the
is
ratio
This
.
strokes to one positive
structu re hunger Beme (1964) conclud stroke quotien t. Any disturba nce in the
ed that there is a basic need for the
stroke quotien t is likely to be resisted .
structu ring of time that manifes ts as
Surplus strokes may be elimina ted (ms..
re hunger . This is one of the
structu
COUNTED ) or even changed from positive
factors motivat ing interper sonal transto negativ e: 'she did not really mean
and results in the develop ment
actions
those nice things, she was just being
ristic pattern s of structur ing
characte
of
me'.
s
patronis ing because she despise
d six patterns of time
identifie
time. He
This is called using the STROKE FILTER.
structur ing:
strokin g giving strokes (units of recogni - s withdra wal
tion). See STROKE.
rituals.
pastime s
of
form
the
in
diagram
strokin g profile a
activities
a bar chart that illustrat es an individgames
with
dealing
ual's habitua l pattem s for
intimac y
strokes , i.e. the tendenc y for positive ,
See individu al entries.
'
conand negative , uncond itional and
for,
asked
be
to
strokes
ditiona l
Stuntz multip le chair work (five chair
accepte d or refused .
work) Stuntz (1973) describ ed a multiple chair techniq ue. Each of the five
structu ral analys is analysi s of ego in
FUNCTIO NAL EGO-STA TES (contro lling
terms of intrapsy chic structur es. FirstParent, nurrura nt Parent, Adult, adaptthree
order structur al analysis shows
ed Child, free Child) is allocat ed a
Parent,
the
res:
structu
ychic
intraps
chair. The client is invited to move
Adult and Child ego-sta tes. Second n the chairs speakin g from the
betwee
the
shows
s
order structu ral analysi
relevan t ego-stat e. This sets up a diapresenc e of subsidia ry, historic ally earlogue betwee n ego-stat es to elucida te
and
lier, ego-sta tes within the Parent
and resolve internal conflict.
analysis
nal
Functio
tes.
Child ego-sta
stroke filter
Don't ask for strokes when you need
them.
Don't accept strokes if you want
them.
Don't reject strokes when you don't
want them.
Don't give yoursel f strokes.
Steiner (1974) express es this messag e structu ral model of ego-st ates see
imagina tively through a fairy story 'A
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS.
Fuzzy Tale'. See WARM FUZZIES, cow PRJCK
llES.
structu re the way in which someth ing is
constru cted. The ego-stat e theory posstroke filter the elimina tion or distor
tulates intraps ychic structu res and
tion of strokes that are 'surplu s to
relates these to observa ble behavio urs.
require ments' becaus e they exceed
Psychoa nalytic theory with its concept s
those allowed by the STROKE QUOTIEN T.
of mental organs (id, ego and superego) and zones of differen tial awarestroke quotien t early experie nces result
ness and accessibility (conscio us, prein an expecte d ratio betwee n positive
us and unconsc ious) is likewise
conscio
and negativ e strokes receive d. For
al theory.
structur
a
exampl e, this might be four negativ e
the
is
ratio
This
.
strokes to one positive
structu re hunger Beme (1964) conclud stroke quotien t. Any disturba nce in the
ed that there is a basic need for the
stroke quotien t is likely to be resisted .
structu ring of time that manifes ts as
Surplus strokes may be elimina ted (ms..
re hunger . This is one of the
structu
COUNTED ) or even changed from positive
factors motivat ing interper sonal transto negativ e: 'she did not really mean
and results in the develop ment
actions
those nice things, she was just being
ristic pattern s of structur ing
characte
of
me'.
s
patronis ing because she despise
d six patterns of time
identifie
time. He
This is called using the STROKE FILTER.
structur ing:
strokin g giving strokes (units of recogni - s withdra wal
tion). See STROKE.
rituals.
pastime s
of
form
the
in
diagram
strokin g profile a
activities
a bar chart that illustrat es an individgames
with
dealing
ual's habitua l pattem s for
intimac y
strokes , i.e. the tendenc y for positive ,
See individu al entries.
'
conand negative , uncond itional and
for,
asked
be
to
strokes
ditiona l
Stuntz multip le chair work (five chair
accepte d or refused .
work) Stuntz (1973) describ ed a multiple chair techniq ue. Each of the five
structu ral analys is analysi s of ego in
FUNCTIO NAL EGO-STA TES (contro lling
terms of intrapsy chic structur es. FirstParent, nurrura nt Parent, Adult, adaptthree
order structur al analysis shows
ed Child, free Child) is allocat ed a
Parent,
the
res:
structu
ychic
intraps
chair. The client is invited to move
Adult and Child ego-sta tes. Second n the chairs speakin g from the
betwee
the
shows
s
order structu ral analysi
relevan t ego-stat e. This sets up a diapresenc e of subsidia ry, historic ally earlogue betwee n ego-stat es to elucida te
and
lier, ego-sta tes within the Parent
and resolve internal conflict.
analysis
nal
Functio
tes.
Child ego-sta
supervision
ulates and criticises the ego. In Freud's
sor will also be_ concerned with the
effectiveness of the therapist's work,
original formulation the ego is in the
use of theory and specific difficulties
unenviable position of havi.Og to satisfy
he or she has encountered, as well as
the demands of the m, placate the
his or her professional development.
superego and also deal with the conThe process provides protection for
straints of exterior reality. Tranthe client and also for the professional.
sactional analysis sees the functions of
the superego as manifesting through
position of the therapist.
the Parent ego-state. This contains
introjects of specific parent figures that sweatshirt self presentation. People
behave as if they were wearing sweathave been experienced by the client. An
shirts with messages on the front and
objection to this view is that the interback. The message on the front is the
nal Parent sometimes manifests as more
way the person habitually presents himcritical and punishing than any historiself or herself while on the bade is the
cal parent figure. This is explained in
underlying psychological message. Thus
terms of two Parent ego-states. An earlisomeone who avoids longed for contact
er version is within the Child ego-state
because they fear rejection might have
(P,) and is largely the creation of child
PHANTASY and also incorporates early
on the front 'keep your distance' and on
experiences in which the child saw the
the back 'but don't leave me'.
parent as enormously powerful (magical Parent) and potentially threatening. switch the point in a GAME at which DRAMA
TRIANGLE positions are switched. See
This early Parent may be split into ideFOfu'I!Ul.A G.
alised and negative forms, sometimes
referred to as the Fairy Godmother and
the Pig or Witch Parents. This theoreti- symbiosis (Cathexis school) Symbiosis
cal position is reminiscent of the
occurs when two individuals behave as
through they constituted a single perKleinian view. Unlike the superego, the
Parent ego-state may contain positive
son. Each person in a symbiosis is DIScouNTING certain ego-states so that only
and supportive as well as critical
aspects of the historical parent. See also
one Parent, Adult and Child ego state
SPIJTTING.
is functioning in the combination.
supervision it is important for both the
counsellor or therapist and the client
that the professional regularly takes his
or her work to supervision and this is a
requirement for trainees preparing for
the Certified Transactional Analysis
examination. This may be with someone of a similar level of training and
experience or, more usually, with a
more experienced colleague. PEER
SUPERV1SION cannot be counted towards
trainees' supervision requirements.
Supervision involves discussion of the
therapist's work, possibly illustrated by Figure 26 Symbiosis - dotted circles show distapes, to monitor professional and eth- counted ego-state.
ical issues as well as personal issues
affecting the therapist, which may be symbiosis, healthy the normal situation
influencing the process. The superviin child care in which the child is able
,..,"
supervision
ulates and criticises the ego. In Freud's
sor will also be_ concerned with the
effectiveness of the therapist's work,
original formulation the ego is in the
use of theory and specific difficulties
unenviable position of havi.Og to satisfy
he or she has encountered, as well as
the demands of the m, placate the
his or her professional development.
superego and also deal with the conThe process provides protection for
straints of exterior reality. Tranthe client and also for the professional.
sactional analysis sees the functions of
the superego as manifesting through
position of the therapist.
the Parent ego-state. This contains
introjects of specific parent figures that sweatshirt self presentation. People
behave as if they were wearing sweathave been experienced by the client. An
shirts with messages on the front and
objection to this view is that the interback. The message on the front is the
nal Parent sometimes manifests as more
way the person habitually presents himcritical and punishing than any historiself or herself while on the bade is the
cal parent figure. This is explained in
underlying psychological message. Thus
terms of two Parent ego-states. An earlisomeone who avoids longed for contact
er version is within the Child ego-state
because they fear rejection might have
(P,) and is largely the creation of child
PHANTASY and also incorporates early
on the front 'keep your distance' and on
experiences in which the child saw the
the back 'but don't leave me'.
parent as enormously powerful (magical Parent) and potentially threatening. switch the point in a GAME at which DRAMA
TRIANGLE positions are switched. See
This early Parent may be split into ideFOfu'I!Ul.A G.
alised and negative forms, sometimes
referred to as the Fairy Godmother and
the Pig or Witch Parents. This theoreti- symbiosis (Cathexis school) Symbiosis
cal position is reminiscent of the
occurs when two individuals behave as
through they constituted a single perKleinian view. Unlike the superego, the
Parent ego-state may contain positive
son. Each person in a symbiosis is DIScouNTING certain ego-states so that only
and supportive as well as critical
aspects of the historical parent. See also
one Parent, Adult and Child ego state
SPIJTTING.
is functioning in the combination.
supervision it is important for both the
counsellor or therapist and the client
that the professional regularly takes his
or her work to supervision and this is a
requirement for trainees preparing for
the Certified Transactional Analysis
examination. This may be with someone of a similar level of training and
experience or, more usually, with a
more experienced colleague. PEER
SUPERV1SION cannot be counted towards
trainees' supervision requirements.
Supervision involves discussion of the
therapist's work, possibly illustrated by Figure 26 Symbiosis - dotted circles show distapes, to monitor professional and eth- counted ego-state.
ical issues as well as personal issues
affecting the therapist, which may be symbiosis, healthy the normal situation
influencing the process. The superviin child care in which the child is able
,..,"
TRANSACTION,
TANGENTIAL.
TRANSACTION,
TANGENTIAL.
therapy
3. Confrontation. This involves using
information previously obtained to
cross-transact and point out inconsistencies. This stirs up the client and
causes a redistribution of cathexis
between ego-states. However, this
redistribution may reinforce the inappropriate ego-state that is in command if the confrontation is badly
timed or badly worded. In Berne's
words: 'The therapeutic object is
always to cathect the uncontaminat
ed segment of the patient's Adult and
its attainment will be signalled by a
thoughtful silence or an insightful
laugh.'
4. Explanation. The therapist says
what he or she thinks is going on.
This aims to strengthen, decontaminate or reorient the client's Adult.
5. Illustration. The therapist tells a story to make a point. Illustration is significantly different to the other
interventions. The therapist is inter
posing something between the
client's Adult and his or her other
ego-states in order to stabilise the
Adult and make it more difficult for
him or her to slide back into Child or
Parent. Berne classified the other
therapeutic' operations as interventions but illustration he describes as
an interposition.
6. Confirmation. The therapist reinforces a point that emerged earlier as
the client offers more information~
Confirmation may be heard by the
client's Parent as confirmation that
the Child cannot be trusted. If so the
Child will feel trapped by the therapist. Confmnation is strengthening
to the Adult because of its logical
force and reassuring to the Child
because it demonstrates the therapist's strength and alertness.
The next two interventions go
beyond decontamination into
deconfusing the Child.
7. Interpretation. This is an attempt to
deconfuse the client's Child by
decoding, detoxifying, correcting
(
Fi:
therapy
3. Confrontation. This involves using
information previously obtained to
cross-transact and point out inconsistencies. This stirs up the client and
causes a redistribution of cathexis
between ego-states. However, this
redistribution may reinforce the inappropriate ego-state that is in command if the confrontation is badly
timed or badly worded. In Berne's
words: 'The therapeutic object is
always to cathect the uncontaminat
ed segment of the patient's Adult and
its attainment will be signalled by a
thoughtful silence or an insightful
laugh.'
4. Explanation. The therapist says
what he or she thinks is going on.
This aims to strengthen, decontaminate or reorient the client's Adult.
5. Illustration. The therapist tells a story to make a point. Illustration is significantly different to the other
interventions. The therapist is inter
posing something between the
client's Adult and his or her other
ego-states in order to stabilise the
Adult and make it more difficult for
him or her to slide back into Child or
Parent. Berne classified the other
therapeutic' operations as interventions but illustration he describes as
an interposition.
6. Confirmation. The therapist reinforces a point that emerged earlier as
the client offers more information~
Confirmation may be heard by the
client's Parent as confirmation that
the Child cannot be trusted. If so the
Child will feel trapped by the therapist. Confmnation is strengthening
to the Adult because of its logical
force and reassuring to the Child
because it demonstrates the therapist's strength and alertness.
The next two interventions go
beyond decontamination into
deconfusing the Child.
7. Interpretation. This is an attempt to
deconfuse the client's Child by
decoding, detoxifying, correcting
(
Fi:
tracking
use of touching in psychotherapy.
PTSTA can provide officially recognised
Some approaches use it extensively
transactional analysis training and
(e.g. Neo-Reichian body work) wheresupervision (provided he or she is
as others forbid it entirely (psychosupervised by a TSTA).
analysis). Berne trained as a psychoanalyst and his initial attitude was to min- ttansactional analysis Eric Berne (1961)
imise touching (even shaking hands,
defined transactional analysis as '. . . a
which he did not do until he felt he
systematic consistent theory of personknew the client). Humanistic influality and social dynamics derived from
ences have shifted attitudes in the
clinical experience and an actionistic,
direction of using contact more freely,
rational form of therapy which is suitwhile always noting carefully its signifiable for, easily understood by, and natcance within the current therapeutic
urally adapted to the great majority of
relationship and in the light of what is
psychiatric patients'.
known of the client's history. Contact
Since Berne wrote this, transactional
analysis has found many applications
that is highly supportive to one client
my seem threatening and invasive to
outside of hospital psychotherapy but
another (or even to the same client at
the elements of his definition - an
a different time) c.f. PRIMAL WOUNDS.
approach which is rooted in experience,
Transactional analysis does not have a
and seeks to be both rational and accesfmn position on this issue and there
sible and points towards clear courses
are wide variations in practice.
of action- continue to be relevant in all
However there is general agreement
the diverse applications of transactional
analysis.
among transactional analysts that physical contact is a very significant issue
therapeutically and this significance transactional analysis, applications of
attaches both to the withholding and
transactional analysis was originally
the giving of contact. However, transacdeveloped by Eric Berne, a psychiational analysis is a contractual process
trist, to work with his patients. The
so any use of touch must be agreed
success of Games People Play brought
his work to the attention of a wide
between client and therapist.
public. Its clarity, accessibility and reletracking the careful following of the
vance to a wide spectrum of human
client's process, moment by moment,
behaviour led to its being enthusiastically adopted in many fields other than
by the therapist or counsellor using
intent listening, careful observation
mental health. It is now used in educaand an empathic understanding illumition, management, staff training and
indeed wherever people need to deal
nated by a grasp of relevant theory.
with people. Some people also study
trading stamps see STAMPS.
transactional analysis to develop
insight and achieve personal developTraining Endorsement Workshop
ment.
(TEW) a workshop in which certified
transactional analysts are trained and Transactional Analysis in Psychotherapy
endorsed to commence work as trainBerne's major work on transactional
ers of transactional analysis. Those
analysis, published in 1961. Here is a
clear, detailed and comprehensive
who are successful and go on w train
further with a training and supervising
exposition of his theories. None of his
other works deals with the theories of
transactional analyst (TSTA) have the
title 'provisional teaching and supertransactional analysis so thoroughly.
The style is demanding and clearly
vising transactional analyst' (PTSTA). A
tracking
use of touching in psychotherapy.
PTSTA can provide officially recognised
Some approaches use it extensively
transactional analysis training and
(e.g. Neo-Reichian body work) wheresupervision (provided he or she is
as others forbid it entirely (psychosupervised by a TSTA).
analysis). Berne trained as a psychoanalyst and his initial attitude was to min- ttansactional analysis Eric Berne (1961)
imise touching (even shaking hands,
defined transactional analysis as '. . . a
which he did not do until he felt he
systematic consistent theory of personknew the client). Humanistic influality and social dynamics derived from
ences have shifted attitudes in the
clinical experience and an actionistic,
direction of using contact more freely,
rational form of therapy which is suitwhile always noting carefully its signifiable for, easily understood by, and natcance within the current therapeutic
urally adapted to the great majority of
relationship and in the light of what is
psychiatric patients'.
known of the client's history. Contact
Since Berne wrote this, transactional
analysis has found many applications
that is highly supportive to one client
my seem threatening and invasive to
outside of hospital psychotherapy but
another (or even to the same client at
the elements of his definition - an
a different time) c.f. PRIMAL WOUNDS.
approach which is rooted in experience,
Transactional analysis does not have a
and seeks to be both rational and accesfmn position on this issue and there
sible and points towards clear courses
are wide variations in practice.
of action- continue to be relevant in all
However there is general agreement
the diverse applications of transactional
analysis.
among transactional analysts that physical contact is a very significant issue
therapeutically and this significance transactional analysis, applications of
attaches both to the withholding and
transactional analysis was originally
the giving of contact. However, transacdeveloped by Eric Berne, a psychiational analysis is a contractual process
trist, to work with his patients. The
so any use of touch must be agreed
success of Games People Play brought
his work to the attention of a wide
between client and therapist.
public. Its clarity, accessibility and reletracking the careful following of the
vance to a wide spectrum of human
client's process, moment by moment,
behaviour led to its being enthusiastically adopted in many fields other than
by the therapist or counsellor using
intent listening, careful observation
mental health. It is now used in educaand an empathic understanding illumition, management, staff training and
indeed wherever people need to deal
nated by a grasp of relevant theory.
with people. Some people also study
trading stamps see STAMPS.
transactional analysis to develop
insight and achieve personal developTraining Endorsement Workshop
ment.
(TEW) a workshop in which certified
transactional analysts are trained and Transactional Analysis in Psychotherapy
endorsed to commence work as trainBerne's major work on transactional
ers of transactional analysis. Those
analysis, published in 1961. Here is a
clear, detailed and comprehensive
who are successful and go on w train
further with a training and supervising
exposition of his theories. None of his
other works deals with the theories of
transactional analyst (TSTA) have the
title 'provisional teaching and supertransactional analysis so thoroughly.
The style is demanding and clearly
vising transactional analyst' (PTSTA). A
transactions, complementary
transactions, complementary a transac- transference unawarely transferring attitudes, beliefs and feelings relating to a
tion in which the vectors run parallel,
significant person in the past on to a
indicating consensus about who
person in the present such as a therashould be in which ego-state. See FIRST
pist. This is sometimes referred to as
RULE OF COMMUNICATION.
'putting a face' on to them. More generally transferring feelings, attitudes
transactions, crossed a transaction in
which the vectors are not parallel and
and beliefs relevant to some situation
in the past on to an analogous situain most cases cross. The response is
not from the ego-state that was
tion in the present. This psychoanalytic term was little used in classical
addressed and is not directed to the
transactional analysis, although it is
ego-state that originated the stimulus.
implicit in many transactional analysis
See SECOND RULE OF COMMUNICATION.
concepts. A person in his or her Child
or Parent ego-states is not perceiving
transactions, duplex the type of ULTERIOR
the world as it now is and so is in
transaction in which the psychological
transference. Rubberbanding vividly
and social level messages pass
describes what transference feels like
between different ego-states. See TiliRD
RULE OF COMMUNICATION, ANGUlAR TRANSACfrom the inside and symbiosis repreTION.
sents a couple bound together in a
mutually transferential relationship as
seen from the viewpoint of an external
transactions, empathic see EMPATHIC
observer. Driver behaviour is transferTRANSACTIONS.
entia! and discounting is often indicatransactions, parallel a COMPLEMENTARY
tive of transference. The underlying
transaction.
mechanisms of games and script clearly
involve transference. In effect transactional analysis tended to substitute
transaction, tangential a TRANSACTION in
operational definitions of how transwhich the response is not congruent
with the stimulus but addresses a dif
ference manifests itself for the term
itself. This suited the behavioural
ferent issue. For example, if the stimulus is a question then the response is
emphasis of transactional analysis in
an answer to a different question.
the 1960s and 1970s but was a loss to
theory. Modern transactional analysis
transactions, ulterior a transaction in
theorists (e.g. Novellino, 1984, Moiso,
1985) have written extensively on the
which there are two messages being
passed simultaneously, one at the
theory of transference while retaining
overt or social level and another at the
their rich and unique vocabulary for
covert or psychological level. See TRANSdescribing how transference is acted
ACTIONS, ANGULAR, TRANSACTIONS, DUPLEX,
out in behaviour. Clarkson (1992) has
TiliRD RULE OF COMMUNICATION.
developed a classification of types of
transference and COUNTERTRANSFERENCE
transcript an accurate written record of
and offers an integrative overview of
spoken words. Transcripts of psythe use of the concept in modern
chotherapy sessions are used in the
transactional analysis.
training of transactional analysts to
analyse the processes occurring in transformational object term used by
therapy. The use of such material
the psychoanalyst Christopher Bollas
needs to be agreed in the confidential(1987). He suggests that the baby's
ity CONTRACT made between therapist
first experience of its mother is of
or counsellor and his or her client.
someone or something (perhaps not
128
transactions, complementary
transactions, complementary a transac- transference unawarely transferring attitudes, beliefs and feelings relating to a
tion in which the vectors run parallel,
significant person in the past on to a
indicating consensus about who
person in the present such as a therashould be in which ego-state. See FIRST
pist. This is sometimes referred to as
RULE OF COMMUNICATION.
'putting a face' on to them. More generally transferring feelings, attitudes
transactions, crossed a transaction in
which the vectors are not parallel and
and beliefs relevant to some situation
in the past on to an analogous situain most cases cross. The response is
not from the ego-state that was
tion in the present. This psychoanalytic term was little used in classical
addressed and is not directed to the
transactional analysis, although it is
ego-state that originated the stimulus.
implicit in many transactional analysis
See SECOND RULE OF COMMUNICATION.
concepts. A person in his or her Child
or Parent ego-states is not perceiving
transactions, duplex the type of ULTERIOR
the world as it now is and so is in
transaction in which the psychological
transference. Rubberbanding vividly
and social level messages pass
describes what transference feels like
between different ego-states. See TiliRD
RULE OF COMMUNICATION, ANGUlAR TRANSACfrom the inside and symbiosis repreTION.
sents a couple bound together in a
mutually transferential relationship as
seen from the viewpoint of an external
transactions, empathic see EMPATHIC
observer. Driver behaviour is transferTRANSACTIONS.
entia! and discounting is often indicatransactions, parallel a COMPLEMENTARY
tive of transference. The underlying
transaction.
mechanisms of games and script clearly
involve transference. In effect transactional analysis tended to substitute
transaction, tangential a TRANSACTION in
operational definitions of how transwhich the response is not congruent
with the stimulus but addresses a dif
ference manifests itself for the term
itself. This suited the behavioural
ferent issue. For example, if the stimulus is a question then the response is
emphasis of transactional analysis in
an answer to a different question.
the 1960s and 1970s but was a loss to
theory. Modern transactional analysis
transactions, ulterior a transaction in
theorists (e.g. Novellino, 1984, Moiso,
1985) have written extensively on the
which there are two messages being
passed simultaneously, one at the
theory of transference while retaining
overt or social level and another at the
their rich and unique vocabulary for
covert or psychological level. See TRANSdescribing how transference is acted
ACTIONS, ANGULAR, TRANSACTIONS, DUPLEX,
out in behaviour. Clarkson (1992) has
TiliRD RULE OF COMMUNICATION.
developed a classification of types of
transference and COUNTERTRANSFERENCE
transcript an accurate written record of
and offers an integrative overview of
spoken words. Transcripts of psythe use of the concept in modern
chotherapy sessions are used in the
transactional analysis.
training of transactional analysts to
analyse the processes occurring in transformational object term used by
therapy. The use of such material
the psychoanalyst Christopher Bollas
needs to be agreed in the confidential(1987). He suggests that the baby's
ity CONTRACT made between therapist
first experience of its mother is of
or counsellor and his or her client.
someone or something (perhaps not
128
psychological level
UKCP (United Kingdom Council for
stimulus
Psychotherapy) the major governing
body for psychotherapy in the UK,
which operates a voluntary system of
registration for psychotherapists.
'\
Training bodies are assessed by a
'\
process of peer review and if they
social'lovel,_stimu!us
'
reach the standards laid down by the
' ' response
social !eve)
UKCP they are granted full membership.
\ '
Trainees of member organisations
\ '
\ '
are placed on the register when they
qualifY. The UK transactional analysis
organisation, the Institute of
Transactional Analysis, is a full mempsychological level
ber of UKCP. As a result clinical certified
response
,
transactional analysts become UKCP reg Figure 31 An ulterior transaction (duplex).
istered psychotherapists.
psychological level
UKCP (United Kingdom Council for
stimulus
Psychotherapy) the major governing
body for psychotherapy in the UK,
which operates a voluntary system of
registration for psychotherapists.
'\
Training bodies are assessed by a
'\
process of peer review and if they
social'lovel,_stimu!us
'
reach the standards laid down by the
' ' response
social !eve)
UKCP they are granted full membership.
\ '
Trainees of member organisations
\ '
\ '
are placed on the register when they
qualifY. The UK transactional analysis
organisation, the Institute of
Transactional Analysis, is a full mempsychological level
ber of UKCP. As a result clinical certified
response
,
transactional analysts become UKCP reg Figure 31 An ulterior transaction (duplex).
istered psychotherapists.
PHI-
IOURS.
132
PHI-
IOURS.
132
Yes But also known as Why Don't You 'you' statements 'you' statements often
seek to place responsibility for feelings
(Yes But). A GAME in which help (usually advice) is sought but everything that
etc. on the other party (for example,
'you made me angry'). Shifting to 'I'
is offered is rejected as unsuitable so
statements clarifies the process. 'I feel
that the other party who takes the
angry about what you said' owns the
Rescuer role is invited into Victim. The
feeling and opens up the questions of
game that usually pairs with this is rM
ONLY TRYING TO HEll' YOU.
whether anger is an appropriate
response to what has occurred and
You Can't Make Me a GAME initiated
what is wanted from the other person.
'You' statements are often indicative of
from a rebellious Victim position and
inviting persecution.
Be Strong DRIVER BEHAYIOUR.
Yes But also known as Why Don't You 'you' statements 'you' statements often
seek to place responsibility for feelings
(Yes But). A GAME in which help (usually advice) is sought but everything that
etc. on the other party (for example,
'you made me angry'). Shifting to 'I'
is offered is rejected as unsuitable so
statements clarifies the process. 'I feel
that the other party who takes the
angry about what you said' owns the
Rescuer role is invited into Victim. The
feeling and opens up the questions of
game that usually pairs with this is rM
ONLY TRYING TO HEll' YOU.
whether anger is an appropriate
response to what has occurred and
You Can't Make Me a GAME initiated
what is wanted from the other person.
'You' statements are often indicative of
from a rebellious Victim position and
inviting persecution.
Be Strong DRIVER BEHAYIOUR.
Appendix 1
Intuition and Ego States (1977). A compilation of Berne's professional papers published between 1949 and 1962 as he developed transactional analysis.
The Cathexis Reader (1975) Jacqui Lee Schiff et al. A major work of the cathexis
school.
Appendix 1
Intuition and Ego States (1977). A compilation of Berne's professional papers published between 1949 and 1962 as he developed transactional analysis.
The Cathexis Reader (1975) Jacqui Lee Schiff et al. A major work of the cathexis
school.
Appendix2
1976
1977
Taibi Kahler, MINISCRIPT AND FIVE DRIVERS. Kahler, T. (1974) The miniscript. Transactional
Analysis journal 4(1), 26-42.
1978
Fanita English, RACKETS AND REAL FEEUNGS: THE SUBSTITimON FACTOR. English, F. (1971) The
substitution factor: rackets and real feelings. Transactional Analysis]ourna/1(4),
225-30; and (1972) Rackets and real feelings, Part II. Transactional Analysis
]ournal2(1), 23-5.
1979
Stephen Karpman, OPTIONS. Karpman, S. (1971) Options. Transactional Analysis
]ourna/1(1), 79--87.
1980 (joint award)
Claude Steiner, THE STROKE ECONOMY. Steiner, C. (1971) The stroke economy.
TransactionalAnalysis]ourna/1(3), 9-15.
Ken Mellor and Eric Sigmund, DISCOUNTING AND REDEFINING. Mellor, K. and Sigmund, E.
(1975) Discounting. Transactional.4nalysis]ournal 5(3), 295-302; and Mellor, K
and Sigmund, E. (1975) Redefining. Transactional Analysis]ournal5(3), 303-11.
1981
Franklin H. Emst, Jr., THE OK coRRAL. Emst, F. (1971) The OK corral: the grid for get-onwith. TransactionalAnalysis]ournall(4), 231-40.
1982
Richard Erskine and Marilyn Zalcman, RACKET SYSTEM AND RACKET Al'lALYSIS. Erskine, R. and
Zalcman, M. (1979) The racket system: a model for racket analysis. Transactional
1
Analysis]ournal9(l), 51-9.
1983
\1uriel james, SELF-REPARENTING. james, M. (1974) Self-reparenting: theory and process.
Transactiona!Analysis]ournal4(3), 32-9.
1984
Pam Levin, DEVELOPMENT CYCLE. Levin, P. (1982) The cycle of development.
TransactionalAnalysis]ourna/12(2), 129-39.
1985, 1986
'lot awarded.
1987
:arlo Moiso, EGO STATES AND TRANSFERENCE. Moiso, C. (1985) Ego states and transference.
Transactional Analysis]ournal15(3), 194-201.
1988 to 1993
'lot awarded.
140
Appendix2
1976
1977
Taibi Kahler, MINISCRIPT AND FIVE DRIVERS. Kahler, T. (1974) The miniscript. Transactional
Analysis journal 4(1), 26-42.
1978
Fanita English, RACKETS AND REAL FEEUNGS: THE SUBSTITimON FACTOR. English, F. (1971) The
substitution factor: rackets and real feelings. Transactional Analysis]ourna/1(4),
225-30; and (1972) Rackets and real feelings, Part II. Transactional Analysis
]ournal2(1), 23-5.
1979
Stephen Karpman, OPTIONS. Karpman, S. (1971) Options. Transactional Analysis
]ourna/1(1), 79--87.
1980 (joint award)
Claude Steiner, THE STROKE ECONOMY. Steiner, C. (1971) The stroke economy.
TransactionalAnalysis]ourna/1(3), 9-15.
Ken Mellor and Eric Sigmund, DISCOUNTING AND REDEFINING. Mellor, K. and Sigmund, E.
(1975) Discounting. Transactional.4nalysis]ournal 5(3), 295-302; and Mellor, K
and Sigmund, E. (1975) Redefining. Transactional Analysis]ournal5(3), 303-11.
1981
Franklin H. Emst, Jr., THE OK coRRAL. Emst, F. (1971) The OK corral: the grid for get-onwith. TransactionalAnalysis]ournall(4), 231-40.
1982
Richard Erskine and Marilyn Zalcman, RACKET SYSTEM AND RACKET Al'lALYSIS. Erskine, R. and
Zalcman, M. (1979) The racket system: a model for racket analysis. Transactional
1
Analysis]ournal9(l), 51-9.
1983
\1uriel james, SELF-REPARENTING. james, M. (1974) Self-reparenting: theory and process.
Transactiona!Analysis]ournal4(3), 32-9.
1984
Pam Levin, DEVELOPMENT CYCLE. Levin, P. (1982) The cycle of development.
TransactionalAnalysis]ourna/12(2), 129-39.
1985, 1986
'lot awarded.
1987
:arlo Moiso, EGO STATES AND TRANSFERENCE. Moiso, C. (1985) Ego states and transference.
Transactional Analysis]ournal15(3), 194-201.
1988 to 1993
'lot awarded.
140
Appendix 3:
Codes of ethics
Appendix 3 contains the codes of ethics of the Institute of Transactional Analysis (ITA),
the European Association for Transactional Analysis (EATA) and the International
Association for Transactional Analysis (ITAA).
1-
Appendix 3:
Codes of ethics
Appendix 3 contains the codes of ethics of the Institute of Transactional Analysis (ITA),
the European Association for Transactional Analysis (EATA) and the International
Association for Transactional Analysis (ITAA).
1-
Appendix3
should have the competence and intent to fulfil.1When a client is-. unable or unwilling
to function autonomously and responsibly within this contractual relationship, the
member of the ITM must resolve this relationship in such a way as to bring no harm
to the client.
5. A member of the ITM will not exploit a client in any manner, including, but not limited to, financial and sexual matters. Sexual relations between an ITM member and a
client are prohibited.
i.
Members of the ITM will not enter into or maintain a professional contract where
other activities or relationships between an ITM member and a client might jeopardise the professional contract.
t
The professional relationship between a member of the ITAA and the client is
defined by the contract, and that professional relationship ends with the termination
of the contract. However, certain professional responsibilities continue beyond the
termination of the contract. They include, but are not limited to, the following: a)
maintenance of agreed-upon confidentiality; b) avoidance of any exploitation of the
former relationship; c) provision for any needed follow-up care.
I.
Members of the ITAA will operate and conduct services to clients with full responsibility to existing laws of the state and/or country in which they reside.
:0. In establishing a professional relationship, members of the ITAA assume responsibility for providing a suitable environment, including such things as specifying the
nature of confidentiality observed, providing for physical safety appropriate to the
form of activity involved, and obtaining informed consent for high-risk procedures.
1. If members of the ITM become aware that personal conflicts or medical problems
might interfere with their ability to carry out a contractual relationship, they must
either terminate the contract in a professionally responsible manner, or ensure that
the client has the full information needed to make a decision about remaining in the
contractual relationship.
2. Members of the ITAA accept responsibility to confront a colleague whom they have
reasonable cause to believe is acting in an unethical manner, and, failing resolution,
to report that colleague to the appropriate professional body.
'le affirm these principles as common to the, practice of those certified by the ITM
nless a member of ITAA explicitly states in welting his/her differences from these posi.ons. In such an instance, the client's attention to any such differences must also be
oted in writing as part of their contract-setting process.
,,
J.
'
Appendix3
should have the competence and intent to fulfil.1When a client is-. unable or unwilling
to function autonomously and responsibly within this contractual relationship, the
member of the ITM must resolve this relationship in such a way as to bring no harm
to the client.
5. A member of the ITM will not exploit a client in any manner, including, but not limited to, financial and sexual matters. Sexual relations between an ITM member and a
client are prohibited.
i.
Members of the ITM will not enter into or maintain a professional contract where
other activities or relationships between an ITM member and a client might jeopardise the professional contract.
t
The professional relationship between a member of the ITAA and the client is
defined by the contract, and that professional relationship ends with the termination
of the contract. However, certain professional responsibilities continue beyond the
termination of the contract. They include, but are not limited to, the following: a)
maintenance of agreed-upon confidentiality; b) avoidance of any exploitation of the
former relationship; c) provision for any needed follow-up care.
I.
Members of the ITAA will operate and conduct services to clients with full responsibility to existing laws of the state and/or country in which they reside.
:0. In establishing a professional relationship, members of the ITAA assume responsibility for providing a suitable environment, including such things as specifying the
nature of confidentiality observed, providing for physical safety appropriate to the
form of activity involved, and obtaining informed consent for high-risk procedures.
1. If members of the ITM become aware that personal conflicts or medical problems
might interfere with their ability to carry out a contractual relationship, they must
either terminate the contract in a professionally responsible manner, or ensure that
the client has the full information needed to make a decision about remaining in the
contractual relationship.
2. Members of the ITAA accept responsibility to confront a colleague whom they have
reasonable cause to believe is acting in an unethical manner, and, failing resolution,
to report that colleague to the appropriate professional body.
'le affirm these principles as common to the, practice of those certified by the ITM
nless a member of ITAA explicitly states in welting his/her differences from these posi.ons. In such an instance, the client's attention to any such differences must also be
oted in writing as part of their contract-setting process.
,,
J.
'
Appendix 3
as further training, conferenc es and seminars, I profession al writing and reading,
and by being informed of, and promotin g the interest ofTA.
confi16. All communic ation between the member and the client shall be regarded as
relewith
e
complianc
in
or
contract
the
in
for
provided
explicitly
dential except as
vant law. All members shall maintain records of sessions and these shall be kept confidential in a secure place. Except as agreed in the contract or in complianc e with the
law, informatio n can be disclosed only with client's consent, unless the practition er
if
believes that there is convincin g evidence of serious danger to the client or others
dismay
ers
practition
that
informed
be
must
Clients
withheld.
is
n
such informatio
n
cuss their work with their superviso rs. Superviso rs and members of a supervisio
providas
ality
confidenti
and
care
same
the
with
group shall treat material presented
ed for in the original contract. Particular care will be taken when presentin g case
material outside of the usual boundarie s of supervisio n, e.g. for training or teaching
purposes. In such cases where case material records are present - whether printed,
verbal, on tape, finn, or video, or retrieved from electronic media- the client's consent in writing shall be obtained.
Appendix 3
as further training, conferenc es and seminars, I profession al writing and reading,
and by being informed of, and promotin g the interest ofTA.
confi16. All communic ation between the member and the client shall be regarded as
relewith
e
complianc
in
or
contract
the
in
for
provided
explicitly
dential except as
vant law. All members shall maintain records of sessions and these shall be kept confidential in a secure place. Except as agreed in the contract or in complianc e with the
law, informatio n can be disclosed only with client's consent, unless the practition er
if
believes that there is convincin g evidence of serious danger to the client or others
dismay
ers
practition
that
informed
be
must
Clients
withheld.
is
n
such informatio
n
cuss their work with their superviso rs. Superviso rs and members of a supervisio
providas
ality
confidenti
and
care
same
the
with
group shall treat material presented
ed for in the original contract. Particular care will be taken when presentin g case
material outside of the usual boundarie s of supervisio n, e.g. for training or teaching
purposes. In such cases where case material records are present - whether printed,
verbal, on tape, finn, or video, or retrieved from electronic media- the client's consent in writing shall be obtained.
References
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Affair. Minneapolis: Wmston Press.
Clarkson, P. (1987) The bystander role.
T4Jl7(3), 82-7.
Clarkson, P. (1992) Transactional
Analysis Psychotherapy, An Integrated
Approach. London: Tavistock/Routledge.
Clarkson, P. (1996) The eclectic and integrative paradigm, between the Scylla
of confluence and the Charybdis of
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W. Handbook of Counselling
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Clarkson, P. (1997) The Bystander (An
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Clarkson, P. and Fish, S. (1988) Rechllding:
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Cornell, W. (1994) Shame, binding affect,
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Cowles-Boyd, L. (1980) Psychosomatic
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TAJ 10(3), 230-1.
Crossman, P. (1966) Permission and protection. TAl> 'i(l9), 152-4.
Dashiel, S.H. ( 1 'J78) The Parent resolution
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Dusay, ]. (1972) Egograms and the constancy hypothesis. TAJ 2(3), 37-42.
English, F. (1969) Episcript and the 'hot
potato' game. TAB 8(32), 77-82.
English, F. (1971) The substitution factor,
rackets and real feelings. TA} 1(4),
225-30.
English, F. (1972) Rackets and real feelings. Part II. TAj 2(1), 23-5.
English, F. (1975) The three cornered
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English, F. (1994) Shame and social control revisited. TAJ 24(2), 109-20.
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lAQ
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Clarkson, P. (1987) The bystander role.
T4Jl7(3), 82-7.
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W. Handbook of Counselling
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End to Innocence in Human
Relationships?) London: Whurr.
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creating a new past in the present as a
support for the future. TAJ 18(1), 51-9.
Cornell, W. (1994) Shame, binding affect,
ego-state contamination and relational
repair. TAJ 24(2), 139-46.
Cowles-Boyd, L. (1980) Psychosomatic
disturbances and tragic script payoffs.
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Crossman, P. (1966) Permission and protection. TAl> 'i(l9), 152-4.
Dashiel, S.H. ( 1 'J78) The Parent resolution
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English, F. (1971) The substitution factor,
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225-30.
English, F. (1972) Rackets and real feelings. Part II. TAj 2(1), 23-5.
English, F. (1975) The three cornered
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Steiner, C. (1971) Games Alcoholics Play.
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""'