PSYCHOLOGY

Scientific study of behavior and mental process

- Cognitive how you think
- Affective your feelings, values and attitude
- Psychomotor skills
Four goals:
1. Description tells what occurred
2. Explanation why
3. Prediction identifies likely occurring future behavior or mental process
4. Applies psychological knowledge to prevent unwanted behavior or reach desired goal
ORIGINS OF PSYCHOLOGY
Introspection Wilhelm Wundt (Father of Psychology); examination of one's own conscious
thoughts and feelings.
Structuralism- Edward Titchener; identify the building blocks or structure of the mind through
introspection.
Functionalism William James; how the mind functions to adapt organisms to their
environment)
Psychoanalytic/ Psychodynamic Perspective Sigmund Freud; unconscious processes &
unresolved past conflicts
Behavioral Perspective John B. Watson, Ivan Pavlov, B.F Skinner; objective, observable
environmental influences on overt behavior
Humanistic Perspective Carl Rogers, Abraham Maslow; free will, self-actualization & a
positive, growth-seeking human nature.
Cognitive Perspective thinking, perceiving, problem-solving, memory language & info
processing.
Neuroscience genetics, other biological processes in the brain and parts of the nervous
system.
Evolutionary Perspective natural selection, adaptation & evolution
Sociocultural Perspective social interaction and cultural determinants
Biopsychosocial Model; All seven Perspectives (Psychoanalytic to Sociocultural Perspective)
Basic Research conducted to advance scientific knowledge
Applied Research designed to solve practical problems
Four Key Research Methods:
1. Experimental scientific procedure that manipulates variables to determine cause & effect
i.
Independent Variable Factor that is manipulated
Dependent Variable Factor that is measured
ii.
Experimental Group receives treatment
Control Group no treatment
Researcher Problems:
- Experiment bias researcher influences the results in expected direction
- Ethnocentrism believing ones culture is typical of all cultures
Participant Problems:
Sample Bias participants are unrepresentative of the larger population
Participant Bias participants influenced by researcher or experimental conditions.
2. Descriptive observes, records behavior without producing explanation
a. Naturalistic Observation recording of behavior in natural state
b. Survey assessment of sample or population
c. Case study in-depth study of one participant
3. Correlational observes two or more variables to find their relations
a. Positive Correlation variables move to the same direction (up or down)
b. Negative opposite directions
c. Zero no relationship
4. Biological- scientific study of the brain and parts of the nervous system

NEUROSCIENCE
Deals with structure and functions of the neurons, nerves and nervous tissue.
Nervous System extensive network of specialized cells that carry information to and from
parts of the body

Central Nervous
System
brain & spinal Cord
Brain
interprets and stores
information and
sends orders to
muscles and glands

Nervous
System

Peripheral Nervous
System
transmits information to
and from the central
nervous system

Spinal Cord
Autonomic Nervous System
pathway
connecting the Automatically regulates glands,
internal organs, blood vessels,
brain and
pupil dilation, digestion and
peripheral
blood pressure
nervous system

Somatic Nervous
System
Carries sensory
information and
controls movement of
skeletal muscles

Parasympathetic Division
Sympathetic Division
maintains body functions
to that
reactsystem
Neurons basic cell, makes up the nervous
system; receives
and sendsprepares
messagesbody
within
under ordinary
conditions;
and expend energy in
Parts of the neuron:
saves energy
Dendrites branch-like, receives messages from other neurons
times of stress
Soma cell body of the neuron; maintains life of cell
Axon tube-like, carries neural messages to other cells
Other types of Brain Cells:
Glial Cells grey fatty cells that:
- Provide support for the neurons to grow on and around;
- Deliver nutrients
- Clean up waste products and dead neurons
- Produce myelin to coat axons
Neurons in the Body
- Nerves bundles of axons in the body that travel through the body
- Neurilemma Schwanns membrane; tunnel where damaged nerve fiber repair
themselves
Generating the Message: Neural Impulse
Ions charged particles
o Inside Neuron negative charge
o Outside Neuron positive charge
Resting Potential state of the neuron when not firing a neural impulse
Action potential release of neural impulse consisting of several electrical charge in the
axon; allows positive sodium ions to enter the cell
All or none referring to the fact that a neuron either fires completely or not at all.
Return to resting potential.
Sending Message to other Cells
Axon Terminals branches at the end of the axon
Synaptic Knob rounded areas on the end of axon terminals
Synaptic Vesicles sack structures, found inside synaptic knob containing chemicals
Neurotransmitters chemicals found in the synaptic vesicles, when released, affects next cell

 Synapse/ synaptic gap microscopic fluid-filled space between the rounded areas on the end
of the axon terminals of one cell and the dendrites or surface of the next cell.
Receptor sites holes in the surface of the dendrites or certain cells of the muscles and
glands, shaped to fit certain neurotransmitters.
Neuron Communication - Neurons must be turned on and off
- Excitatory neurotransmitter causes the receiving cell to fire
- Inhibitory neurotransmitter causes the receiving cell to stop firing
Chemical substances can affect neuronal communication
- Agonists mimic or enhance the effects of a neurotransmitter on the receptor sites of the next
cell, increasing or decreasing the activity of that cell.
- Antagonist block or reduce cells response to action or chemicals or neurotransmitters.
Types of Neurotransmitters
- Acetylcholine memory and stimulate movement
- Serotonin mood, sleep, appetite
- GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid) sleep ad inhibits movement
- Glutamate memory formation
- Norepinephrine arousal and mood
- Dopamine control of movement and sensations of pleasure
- Endorphins pain relief
Cleaning the Synapse
- Reuptake process where neurotransmitters are taken back into the synaptic vesicles
- Enzyme complex protein manufactured by cells
- One type specifically breaks up acetylcholine because muscle activity needs to
happen rapidly, so reuptake would be too slow.
Central Nervous System (CNS)
Part of the nervous system; brain and spinal cord
- Spinal Cord - long bundle of neurons, carrying messages to and from the body to brain;
lifesaving reflexes
Reflexes: 3 types of Neurons
1. Sensory/Afferent Neuron carries information from senses to CNS
2. Motor/Efferent Neuron carries messages from CNS to muscles
3. Interneuron center of spinal cord; receives information from sensory neurons and sends
commands to muscles; makes up the bulk of neurons in the brain.
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) - All nerves and neurons not in the brain and spinal cord; runs
through the body.
Somatic Nervous System
- Consisting of nerves carrying information from senses to the CNS and from the
CNS to the voluntary muscles
- Soma = body
- Sensory pathway nerves from sensory organs to CNS consisting of sensory
neurons
- Motor Pathway from CNS to voluntary muscles, consisting of motor neurons
Autonomic Nervous System
- Nerves that control involuntary muscles, organs and glands sensory pathway
nerves from the sensory organs to CNS consisting of sensory neurons
- Sympathetic Division (fight or flight system) responsible to reacting to stressful
events and bodily arousal
- Parasympathetic Division restores body to normal functioning after arousal and
is responsible for the day-to-day functioning of organs and glands.
Clinical Studies
- Deep Lessioning - insertion of a thin, insulated wire in the brain, electrical current destroys
brains cells at the tip of the wire

Electrical Simulation of the Brain milder electrical current causing neurons to react as if
they had receive a message.
Electroencephalograph (EEG) machine records the brain wave patterns produced by
electrical activity of the surface of the brain.
o Alpha waves waves indicate state of light sleep/relaxation
o Theta waves indicates early stages of sleep
o Delta waves long, slow waves; indicates deep stage of sleep
Computed Tomography (CT) brain-imaging method using computer controlled X-rays of
the brain
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) brain-imaging method using radio waves and magnetic
fields of the body to produce detailed images of the brain.
o Functional MRI (fMRI) makes movie of changes in the acitivity of the brain using
images from different time periods.
Positron emission tomography (PET) brain-imaging method, radioactive sugar is injected
into the subject, a computer compiles a color-coded image of the activity of the brain; lighter
colors indicating more activity.

Brain Stem
- Medulla large swelling at the top of the spinal cord, lowest part of the brain; responsible for
life-sustaining functions (breathing, swallowing and heart rate)
- Pons larger swelling above medulla, connects top of brain to the bottom; plays a part in
sleep, dreaming, left-right coordination and arousal
- Reticular Formation (RF) an area of neurons running through the middle of the medulla and
the pons and slightly beyond that is responsible for selective attention
- Cerebellum located behind pons; controls involuntary, rapid, fine motor movement.
Cortex - Covering of brain, consists of packed neurons, responsible for higher thought processes and
interpretation of sensory input.
- Corticalization wrinkling of cortex; allows large area of cortical cells to exist in small
spaces.
Structures under Cortex
- Limbic System group of brain structures; memory, learning, emotion and motivation.
Thamalus center of the brain; relays sensory information from lower part of brain to
proper areas of the cortex, processes sensory information before sending it
Olfactory Bulbs two projections uder from of brain; receive information from receptors
in the nose.
Hypothamalus small structure located below thamalus, above pituitary glances;
responsible for motivational behavior (sleep, hunger, thirst and sex)
Hippocampus- curved structure located within temporal lobes; forms long-term memories
and the storage of memory for location of objects
Amygdala near hippocampus; fear responses and memory of fear.
Cerebral Hemispheres - Sections of the cortex on the left and right sides of the brain.
- Corpus Calosum thick band of neurons, connects right and left cerebral hemispheres.
Four Lobes of the Brain
1. Occipital Lobe rear and bottom of cerebral hemisphere; visual centers of brain
a. Primary visual cortex processes visual information
b. Visual Association cortex identifies and makes sense of visual information
2. Parietal Lobes top and back of cerebral hemisphere; centers for touch, taste and sensations.
a. Somatosensory Cortex neurons running down the pront of parietal lobes; processes
information from skin and internal body receptors.
3. Temporal Lobes behind the temples; sense of hearing and speech
a. Primary Auditory cortex processes auditory information
b. Auditory Association cortex identifies and makes sense of information

4. Frontal lobes front and top of brain; responsible for higher mental processes and decision
making as well as production of fluent speech
a. Motor cortex section of the frontal lobe located at the back; sending motor
commands to the muscles or somatic nervous system
Association Areas of Cortex
- Association Areas within lobes of the cortex; coordinates and interprets information & high
processing
- Brocas aphasia damage of Brocas area (left frontal lobe); unable to speak fluently,
mispronounce words, speak haltingly
- Wernickes Aphasia damage of Wernickes area (left temporal lobe); unable to understand or
produce meaningful language
- Spatial Neglect damage to association areas of right hemisphere; the inability to recognize
objects or body parts in the left visual field.
Split Brain Research
- Cerebrum upper part of brain; consists of two hemispheres and structure connecting them
- Split Brain Research study of patients with severed corpus callosum; sending messages to
only one side of the brain; demonstrates right and left brain specialization
- Left side of brain
o controls language, writing, logical thought, analysis and mathematical abilities
o processes information sequentially
o can speak
- Right side of brain
o Expressions, spatial perception, face recognition, patterns, melodies, emotions
o Processes information globally
o Cannot speak
The Endocrine Glands - Glands that secrete chemicals called hormones directly to bloodstream
- Pituitary gland secretes human growth hormone and influences hormone-secreting glands
(aka master gland)
- Pineal gland secretes melatonin; near the base of the cerebrum
- Thyroid gland regulates metabolism; in the neck
- Pancreas controls sugar in blood
- Gonads sex glands secretes hormones that regulate sexual development and behavior as
well as reproduction. Ovaries (female gonads) & Testes (male gonads)
- Adrenal Glands located on top of kidneys, secrets different hormones; deals with stress,
regulate salt intake, provide secondary sex hormones affecting sexual changes in adolescence
SENSATION AND PERCEPTION
Sensation - Activation of receptors in various sense organs
- Sensory receptors specialized forms of neurons
- Sense organs eyes, ears, nose, skin & taste buds
Sensory thresholds
- Just noticeable difference (jnd or the difference threshold) smallest difference between two
stimuli that is detectable 50% of the time
- Absolute threshold smallest amount of energy for a person to consciously detect a stimulus
50% of the time it is present.
Subliminal sensation
Subliminal stimuli- Stimuli that are below the level of conscious awareness
o Strong enough to activate sensory receptors but not strong for people to be aware
o Limin threshold
o Sublimin below the threshold'
Subliminal perception why stimuli act upon unconscious mind; influencing behavior

Habituation
- Tendency of brain to stop attending to constant, unchanging information
Sensory adaptation
- Tendency of sensory receptors cells to become less responsive to unchanging stimulus.
Saccades
- movement of eyes: unnoticeable vibrations; prevents sensory adaptation to visual stimulus.
Psychological Aspects to light
Brightness determine b the amplitude of the wave how high or low the wave is. Higher
wave = brighter lights
Color length of wave.
o Visible spectrum - Long wavelengths = red end, short = blue end; portion of whole
spectrum of light visible to human eye.
Saturation refers to purity of color people see; mixing in black or grey lessens saturation
Structure of eye
Cornea cleared membrane that covers surface of the eye; protect the eye and structure that
focuses most of the light coming to the eye.
Radial kerototomy- vision- improving technique, making small incisions in the cornea to
change the focus in the eye
Aqueous humor next visual layer; clear, watery fluid replenished and supplies nourishment
to the eye
Pupil where light from visual image enters the interior of eye.
Iris round muscle where pupil is located; focuses images; lets more or less light; can change
size of pupil
Lens clear structure behind iris; finished focusing process begun by cornea
Visual accommodations change in thickness of lens as the eye focuses on near or far objects
Vitreous humor- jelly- like fluid; nourishes the eye and gives its shape.
Retina stop for light in the eye, contains 3 layers
o Ganglion cells, bipolar cells, photoreceptors that respond to various light waves
Rods responsible for noncolor sensitivity to low levels of light; visual sensory receptors
Cones responsible for color vision and sharpness of vision
Blind spot area in the retina where axons of the 3 layers of retinal cells exit the eye to form
optic nerve, insensitivity to light.
How the eyes work
Dark adaptation recovery of eyes sensitivity to visual stimuli in darkness after exposure
to light
Light adaptation darkness to bright light
Trichromatic theory three types of cones: red, blue and green
Afterimages images that occur when a visual sensation persists for a brief time even after the
original stimulus is removed.
Opponent- process theory theory of color vision that proposes four primary colors with cones
arranges in pairs : red and green, blue and yellow. Lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) of thalamus
Color blindness
Monochrome blindness- no cones or cones that are not working
Red-green color blindness- red or green cones not working
Sex-linked inheritance
Psychological properties of sound
Wavelength frequency or pitch (high, medium, low)
Amplitude- volume (softness, loudness)
Purity timbre (tone of sound)
Hertz (Hz) waves per second, measurement of frequency

Structure of ear
Auditory canal short tunnel that runs from pinna to the eardrum (tympanic membrane)
Eardrum thin skin that tightly covers opening into middle part of the ear; when sound waves
hit, the eardrum vibrates along with three bones; hammer, anvil and stirrup.
Cochlea snail- shaped; in the inner ear filled with fluid.
Organ of corti in basilar membrane; has receptor cells for hearing.
Auditory nerve axons from hair cells in inner ear; receives neural message from organ of
corti.
Theories of pitch
Pitch corresponds to frequency of sound waves; higher frequency=higher pitch
Place theory different pitches are experience by stimulation of hair cells in locations on the
organ of corti
Frequency theory pitch is related to vibrations speed in basilar membrane.
Volley principle frequencies above 100 Hz cause hair cells (auditory neurons) to fire in a
volley pattern.
Types of hearing impairments
Conduction hearing impairment:
o Damaged eardrum prevent sound waves from middle ear
o Damaged middle ear bones sounds from eardrum cannot go to the cochlea.
Nerve-hearing impairment:
o Damage in inner ear
o Damage in auditory pathways and cortical areas of brain.
Taste
taste buds receptors in mouth; sense of taste
Gustation sensation of taste
Five basic tastes sweet, sour, salty, bitter and brothy
Smell
Olfaction (olfactory sense)- sense of smell
Olfactory bulbs above sinus cavity, below frontal lobes; receive information from receptor
cells
There are 1000 olfactory receptors
Somesthetic senses
Senses consisting of skin senses, kinesthetic sense and vestibular senses
o Soma body
o Esthetic feeling
1. Skin senses touch, pressure, temperature and pain
a. Sensory receptors in skin
b. Gate-control theory pain signals must pass through a gate in the spinal cord.
2. Kinesthetic sense sense of location of body parts in relation to the ground and each other.
3. Vestibular senses movement, balance, body position
Perception and constancies
Perception- methods - where sensations experiences are interpreted and organized in some
meaningful fashion
Size constancy interpret an objects size being the same, regardless the distance
Shape constancy interpret shape of an object as being constant, even if changed in the retina
brightness constancy perceiving objects brightness as the same when light condition change
Gestalt principles
Figure-ground perceive objects as existing on background
Reversible figures visual illusions where figure and ground can be reversed
Similarity perceive objects that look similar as being part of same group

Proximity perceive objects close to each other as part of same group

Closure complete figures that are incomplete
Continuity perceive things simple as possible w/ continuous patters than broken-up patterns
Contiguity perceive things that happen close together in time as being related

Depth perception
Ability to perceive the world in three dimensions
Studies include visual cliff experiment

Monocular cues
Cues for perceiving depth based on one eye only
1. Linear perspective parallel lines to appear converge on each other
2. Relative size occurs when objects appears smaller than expected, thus assumed farther away
3. Interposition (overlap) an object appears to be blocking part of another object is in front of
the second object and closer to the viewer.
4. Aerial perspective haziness surrounds far objects causing distance to be perceived greater
5. Texture gradient textured surfaces to appear to become small and finer as distance increases
6. Motion parallax close objects appear to move faster than objects farther away.
7. Accommodation changing thickness of lens of the eye in response to looking at objects
close or far.
Binocular cues
Perceiving depth on both eyes
1. Convergence rotation of eyes to focus on an object; greater convergence for closer objects
2. Binocular disparity difference in images between two eyes; greater for close objects
Perceptual illusions
Mller-Lyer illusion illusion of line length with inward-turning or outward-turning corners
on the ends of the lines, causing lines of equal length to appear different
Moon illusion moon on horizon larger than moon in sky
Illusions of Motions:
o Autokinetic effect small, stationary nonmoving light appears to be moving because
no surrounding cues.
o Stroboscopic motion still pictures appear to be in motion
o Phi phenomenon lights on in a sequence appear to move
Factors that influence Perception
Perceptual set (perceptual expectancy) perceive things a certain way because previous
experiences or expectations influence those perception
Top-down processing- using preexisting knowledge
Bottom-up processing analysis of small features to a complete perception
Applying Psychology
Extrasensory Perception perceiving without use of sight, hearing, touch, taste and smell
Telepathy mind reading
Clairvoyance see things not present
Precognition knowing in advance or predicting future events
CONSCIOUSNESS
Persons awareness of things around him or her
Waking consciousness thoughts, feelings, sensations are clear; persons alert
Altered state of consciousness shift in quality or pattern of mental activity
Circadian Rhythm body cycle that occurs over 24-hour period

o Circa about; diem Day

Hypothalamus sections of brain that influences glandular system
o Suprachiasmatic nucleus inside hypothalamus; tells when to awaken or sleep; tells
pineal gland to secrete melatonin, which makes people sleepy
Microsleep sleep lasting few seconds
Sleep deprivation loss of sleep, resulting in concentration and irritability problems
Adaptive theory sleep patterns to avoid predators by sleeping when predators most active
Restorative theory sleep is necessary for health, replenishes chemicals and repairs cell
damage

Stages of Sleep
Rapid Eye Movement (REM) eyes moving under eyelids in sleep; experiencing a dream
NREM (non-REM) sleep any sleep without REM
o NREM Stage One light sleep
Hypnagogic images- vivid visual events
Hypnic Jerk body part or whole body jerks
o NREM stage two sleep spindles (brief activity lasting seconds)
o NREM three and four Delta Waves
Deep sleep = 50%+ are delta waves
Stage four disorders Sleep disorder
Sleepwalking (somnambulism) episode of moving or walking around while sleeping
Night Terrors extreme fear and screams around during sleep without waking fully
REM Sleep and Dreaming
REM sleep paradoxical sleep; high level of brain activity
REM rebound increased REM after deprivation of REM sleeps
Nightmares bad dreams during REM
REM Behavior disorder movement of voluntary muscles isnt blocked causing involuntary
movements
Problems during sleep
Insomnia inability to sleep or stay asleep
Sleep apnea persons stops breathing
Narcolepsy falls into REM sleep without warning
Cataplexy loss of muscle tone
Dreams
Freud dreams as wish fulfillment
o Manifest content dream
o Latent content meaning of dream
Activation-synthesis hypothesis dreams created by higher centers of cortex to explain
activation by the brain stem of cortical cells during REM sleep periods
Activation-information-mode model dreams accessed during waking hours have influence
on synthesis dreams.
Hypnosis
State in which person is susceptible to suggestion
Four elements
- Hypnotist tells person to focus on what is said
- Told to relax and feel tired
- Told to let go and accept suggestions easily

- Use vivid imaginations

Hypnotic susceptibility degree to which a person is good hypnotic subject
Theories of hypnosis
o Hypnosis as dissociation hypnosis in a perons immediate consciousness while
observes remains aware
o Social-cognitive theory of hypnosis subject merely playing the role expected
Psychoactive Drugs
Alter thinking, perception and memory
Physical dependence
o Tolerance more drugs is needed to feel same effect
o Withdrawal lack of addictive drug; nausea, pain, tremors, crankiness
Psychological dependence drug is needed to feel emotional or psychological well-being

Stimulants - Drug increases function of nervous system

Amphetamines synthesized drugs
Cocaine- natural; produces euphoria, energy, power and pleasure
Nicotine in tobacco
Caffeine coffee, tea, sodas, chocolates
Depressants decrease functions of nervous system
Barbituates sedative effect
Benzodiazepines lower anxiety and stress
Alcohol from fermentation or distillation of various vegetable matter; depressant
Narcotics opium-related drug; suppresses pain; binds and stimulates receptors for endorphins
Opium all narcotic drugs from opium poppy
Morphine treat pain
Heroin extremely addictive
Psychogenic Drugs
Produce hallucination or feeling of relaxation and intoxication
Hallucinogens alters reality; false sensory messges
Lysergic acid diethylamide synthetic hallucinogen
PCP stimulant, depressant, narcotic; animal tranquilizer
MDMA (ecstasy or X) stimulant and hallucinogen
Stimulatory Hallucinogenic stimulant and hallucinogen
Mescaline natural hallucinogen derived from the peyote cactus buttons
Psilocybin natural hallucinogen from mushrooms
Marijuana (pot/weed) mild hallucinogen from leaves and flowers of a hemp plant
LEARNING
Any relatively permanent change in behavior brought about by experience or practice
- Change in behavior is learning
Ivan Pavlov Russian physiologist (studies workings of body); discovered classical conditioning
through his digestion in dogs work
Classical Conditioning
Reflex response to a stimulus other than natural stimulus normally produces the reflex

 Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) = natural stimulus leads to involuntary response;

unconditioned means unlearned
Unconditioned Response (UCR) involuntary response to natural or unconditioned stimulus
Conditioned stimulus (CS) - stimulus that produces learned reflex response by being paired
with original unconditioned stimulus; conditioned means learned
o a neutral stimulus can become conditioned stimulus when paired with UCS
Conditioned response/reflex (CR) learned reflex response to a conditioned stimulus
EXAMPLE:
1. UCS: loud noise UCR: Startled
CS: Bunny Rabbit UCS: Loud Noise UCR: Startled
CS: Bunny Rabbit CR: Startle
2. UCS: Dog bite UCR: Frightened
CS: Sight of Dog UCS: Dog Bite UCR: Frightened
CS: Sight of Dog CR: Frightened
Classical Conditioning concepts
1. CS is before UCS
2. CS and UCS come close in time; seconds apart
3. Neutral stimulus is paired with UCS several times before conditioning takes place
4. CS stimulus is distinctive and stands out from competing stimuli
Stimulus generalization tendency to respond to a stimulus similar to original conditioned
stimulus with the conditioned response
Stimulus discrimination tendency to stop generalized response to stimulus similar to the
original conditioned stimulus; similar stimulus is never paired with unconditioned stimulus
Extinction weakening of a learned response following absence of UCS or removal of
reinforcer
Reinforcer event or object that increases likelihood of response occurring again.
Spontaneous recovery reappearance of learned response after extinction; learning relatively
permanent change in behavior
Higher-order conditioning strong conditioned stimulus is paired with neutral stimulus,
causing neutral stimulus to become second conditioned stimulus
Conditioned Emotional Response - Emotional response classically conditioned to occur to learned
stimuli, such as fear of dogs or emotional reaction when seeing attractive people
CERs may lead to phobias irrational fear responses
Taste Aversion
Vicarious conditioning classical conditioning of a reflex response or emotion by watching
reactions of others
Conditioned taste aversion development of aversion or nausea to taste because taste was
followed by nausea reaction, occurred after one association
Biological preparedness animals tend to learn associations such as taste with one or few
pairings due to survival value of learning.
Stimulus substitution theory which Pavlov stated classical conditioning occurred because
conditioned stimulus became a substitute for the unconditioned stimulus by being paired close
together.
Cognitive Perspective modern theory; classical conditioning occurs because conditioned stimulus
provides information or expectancy about coming of the unconditioned stimulus
Operant conditioning - Learning voluntary behavior through effects of pleasant and unpleasant
consequences to responses.
Thorndikes Law of Effect states a response is followed by pleasurable consequence, it will
tend to be repeated; if followed by unpleasant consequence, will not be repeated
Skinners Contribution

- Behaviorist studies observable behavior

- Gave operant conditioning its name
- Learning depends after consequence or response
Reinforcement - Event or stimulus increases the probability that the response will occur again
Primary reinforcer meeting basic biological need (hunger, thirst)
Secondary reinforcer becomes reinforcing after being paired with primary reinforcer, like
praise
Positive Reinforcement response by addition or experiencing pleasurable stimulus
Negative Reinforcement response by removal, avoidance of an unpleasant stimulus
Shaping reinforcement of simple steps in behavior that lead to a desired, more complex behavior
Successive approximations small steps in behavior, one after the other, leads to a goal behavior.
Schedules of Reinforcement
Partial reinforcement effect tendency for a response that is reinforced after some correct
responses to be very resistant to extinction
Continuous reinforcement reinforcement of each and every correct response
Fixed ratio schedule or reinforcement number of responses needed for reinforcement is same
Variable ratio schedule of reinforcement number of responses required for reinforcement is
different for each trial
Fixed interval schedule interval of time must pass before reinforcement becomes possible is
always the same
Variable interval schedule of reinforcement interval of time must pass before reinforcement
becomes possible is different each trial or event
Punishment
Any event or object that makes response less likely to happen
Punishment by application response by adding or experiencing unpleasant stimulus
Punishment by removal response by removing pleasurable stimulus.
Make punishment more effective:
1. Given immediately after punishable behavior
2. Should be consistent
3. Wrong behavior Paired with reinforcement of right behavior
Operant stimulus and Stimulus control
Discriminative stimulus fail provides cues for making responses to obtain reinforcement;
like stop signs and doorknobs
Instinctive drift- tendency to revert to genetically controlled pattern
- Instincts differ from each species
Behavior modification - Use of operant conditioning techniques to bring desired change in behavior
- Token Economy behavior is rewarded with tokens
- Time out mild punishment; placed in an area away from the attention of others; essentials,
being removed from positive reinforcement in the form of attention
- Applied Behavior analysis (ABA) modern term for a behavior modification; uses shaping
techniques to mold behavior
Biofeedback use of feedback about conditions to bring involuntary responses like blood pressure
and relaxation under voluntary control
Neurofeedback uses brain-scanners to provide feedback about brain activity to modify behavior
Cognitive Learning Theory
- Early days of learning - focus on behavior
- 1950-1960s cognition shouldnt be ignored

Edward Tolman early cognitive scientist

Latent Learning - Hidden learning until it becomes useful; Tolmans rat and maze experiment:
1. First group; rewarded every day at end of maze; learned maze quickly
2. 2nd ; rewarded on 10th day; demonstrated learning of maze after receiving award
3. 3rd; never rewarded; didnt learn maze well
Learned Helplessness fail to act to escape situation because of repeated failures in the past
Insight perception of relationships among various parts of a problem; solutions comes quick; cannot
be gained through trial or error
Observational learning learning by watching the performance
Learning/performance distinction referring to the observation that learning can happen w/o actual
performance of learned behavior
Four Elements of observational Learning
1. Attention learn through observations
2. Memory retain memory of what was done
3. Imitation reproducing actions of model
4. Motivation desire to perform action

MEMORY
Active system receives information from senses, organizes and alters it as it stores it away then
retrieves information from storage
Processes
o Encoding set of mental operations performed on sensory information to convert that
information into a form that is usable in the brains storage systems
o Storage storing information for some period of time
o Retrieval getting information stored into form that can be used
Models of Memory
Information-processing model models of memory; assumes processing of information for
memory storage is similar to computer processes memory in series of stages
Levels-of-processing model information processed according to its meaning rather than
sound or physical characteristics of the word; will be remembered for longer period of time.
Parallel Distributed processing (PDP) model memory processes proposed to take place at
same time over a large network of neural connections
Sensory Memory
First stage of memory; information enters nervous system through sensory systems
Iconic memory visual sensory memory, lasts a fraction of a second
o Capacity everything seen at one time
o Duration will be pushed out quickly by new information, process called masking
o Eidetic imagery rare ability to acces a visual memory for 30 seconds or more
Echoic memory brief memory of something a person heard
o Capacity heard at any moment and is smaller than capacity of iconic memory
o Duration lasts longer than iconic 2 to 4 secons
Short-term Memory (STM)(Working memory) - Information is held for brief period of time while
being used
Selective attention focus on one stimulus from all sensory input
Digit-span test series of numbers is read to subjects who are then asked to recall numbers in
order

 Chunking bits of information combined to meaningful units or chunks so information is

held in STM
Maintenance rehearsal 0 saying information to be remembered over and over in order to
maintain it in short-term memory
Duration of STM 12-30 seconds without rehearsal
STM is susceptible to interference ( counting is interrupted; have to start again)
Long-term memory (LTM) -Information is placed to be kept permanent
Elaborative rehearsal transferring information from STM by making information
meaningful
Types:
o Procedural memory memory for skills, procedures, habits and responses. Not
conscious but implied to exist because affect conscious behavior; skills people know
- Anterograde amnesia loss of memory from the point of injury or inability to
form new long-term memories. Does not affect procedural LTM
- Procedural Memory aka Implicit memory not easily brought into conscious
awareness
o Declarative memory contains conscious and known information (memory for facts)
- Semantic memory contains general knowledge
- Episodic memory contains personal information not available to others
- Semantic and episodic are forms of explicit memory consciously known
Organization of Memory
Semantic network model assumes information is stored in brain in a connected fashion, with
related concepts stored close together than retrieval cue stimulus for remembering.
Retrieval cue stimulus for remembering
Encoding specificity information improved if related info available when memory is first formed or
retrieved.
State-dependent learning memories formed during particular psychological state will be easier to
recall while in similar state
Recall - Information to be retrieved must be pulled from memory with very few external cues
Retrieval failure recall failed. (tip of tongue)
Serial position effect - the beginning and end of information remembered more accurately
than middle information
o Primacy effect remembering beginning of information
o Recency effect end of body of information remembered
Recognition -Ability to match piece of information to a stored image or fact
False positive error of recognition; recognize stimulus not actually in memory
Automatic encoding enter long-term memory with little or no effortful encoding
Flashbulb memories occurs because unexpected event has emotional association for the person
remembering it
Constructive processing - Retrieval of memories; memories altered or influenced by new information
Hindsight bias tendency to falsely believe, though revision of older memories to include newer
information, that one could have correctly predicted outcome of an event.
Misinformation effect tendency of misleading information presented after an event to alter the
memories of the event itself.

False memory syndrome creation of inaccurate/ false memories through others suggestion, often
person is under hypnosis
Curve of Forgetting graph showing distinct pattern which forgetting is very fast within first hour
after learning a list then tapers of gradually.
Encoding Failure failure to process information to memory
Memory trace
physical change in brain; occurs when memory is formed
Decay loss of memory due to the passage of time, memory trace not used
Disuse assuming memories are not used will eventually decay or disappear
Proactive Interference memory retrieval problem occurs when old information interferes with
retrieval of new information
Retroactive interference new information interferes with retrieval of old information
Formation of LTMS
Engram physical change in brain when memory is formed
Consolidation change of structure and functioning of neurons when engram is formed
Hippocampus responsible of LTMs
Amnesia
Retrograde amnesia loss of memory for the past
Anterograde amnesia - inability to form new long-term memories
Infantile amnesia inability to remember memories before age 3
Autobiographical memory events and facts related to ones personal life story after age 3
Alzheimers Disease
Anterograde amnesia is present, although retrograde can occur.