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Lesson 1
Overview
This is the first lesson on life cycle assessment in this module. In this
lesson, the framework for conducting life-cycle assessments is
described and examples of the ways in which life-cycle assessments
have been applied are provided. The second lesson provides a more
detailed overview of the inventory process in life-cycle assessment,
and the third lesson discusses potential methods for assessing the
impacts of a product life-cycle.
How is life-cycle
assessment used?
By manufacturers:
product development
product improvement
product comparison
Life cycle assessment has been applied in many ways in both the
public and private sectors. This is a list of some of the uses
manufacturers have for LCA. Product comparisons have received the
most attention from the press but according to the Swedish survey the
most important uses for manufacturers are 1) to identify processes,
ingredients, and systems that are major contributors to environmental
impacts, 2) to compare different options within a particular process
with the objective of minimizing environmental impacts, and 3) to
provide guidance in long-term strategic planning concerning trends in
product design and materials.
How is life-cycle
assessment used?
By public policymakers:
environmental labeling
LCA is also used in the public sector. Some of the most visible of the
applications of life-cycle assessments are environmental or eco-labels.
Examples of ecolabels from around the world are shown here. Besides
environmental labeling programs, public sector uses of life-cycle
methodologies include use as a tool for making procurement decisions
and developing regulations. Policymakers report that the most
important uses of LCA are in 1) helping to develop long-term policy
regarding overall material use, resource conservation and reduction of
environmental impacts and risks posed by materials and processes
throughout the product life-cycle, 2) evaluating resource effects
associated with source reduction and alternative waste management
techniques, and 3) providing information to the public about the resource
characteristics of products or materials.
human
activities
products
raw
materials
energy
wastes and
emissions
use
wastes
and
emissions
materials
recycle
product
remanufacture
product
manufacture
product
reuse
raw
materials
transport
material
manufacture
disposal
3 Steps in LCA
1) life-cycle inventory
2) life-cycle impact
assessment
3) life-cycle improvement
analysis
As shown here, the functional unit of soft drink delivery systems (12oz. aluminum cans, 16-oz. glass bottles, or 2-liter polyethylene
terephthalate bottles), could be either a serving of soft drink consisting
of a given amount (e.g. 12 oz.) or a given container. These two
choices illustrate some of the difficulty in choosing a functional unit.
Neither choice of functional unit is entirely satisfactory. Twelve ounce
cans and 16-oz bottles are generally consumed as a single serving and
comparing them on the basis of container count makes sense. It is
only rarely, however, that a 2-liter bottle of soft drink would be
consumed as a single serving.
Notice from this table how influential the choice of functional unit is. If
"one container" is chosen as the functional unit, values obtained for the
life-cycle inventory of 2-liter bottles will be over five times more per
functional unit than values obtained if a 12-oz serving is chosen as the
functional unit.
This example emphasizes that the results of LCA studies are heavily
dependent on the decisions made during the planning phase.
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Product Comparisons
generally sponsored by a
stakeholder (e.g. plastics manufacturers
sponsor a study comparing paper and
plastic products)
uncertainties and assumptions
inherent in life-cycle inventories leave
room for stakeholders in losing
product to criticize results
Perhaps the most widely publicized applications of LCA are those that
were completed for the purpose of comparing products. Examples of
assessments That received a great deal of press attention are one
conducted to compare cloth and disposable diapering systems, one
comparing plastic and paper cups, and one comparing polystyrene
clamshells and paper wrappings for sandwiches. Comparison
assessments are generally sponsored by an industry that has a vested
interest in the results, and because of the open-ended nature of LCA,
there is always room for criticism of the data. Because the results of
these LCAs have generated a great deal of controversy and debate,
these high-profile examples have created a great deal of skepticism
about the value of LCA and diverted attention away from some of the
other less controversial applications, such as LCAs conducted in order
to improve products.
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Fuel Type
Electricity
Oil Fuels
Other
Totals
Fuel
Production
and
Delivery
(MJ)
5.31
0.53
0.47
6.31
Delivered
Energy
(MJ)
2.58
2.05
8.54
13.17
Feedstock
Energy
(MJ)
0.00
32.76
33.59
66.35
Total
Energy
(MJ)
7.89
35.34
42.60
85.83
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% of Life-Cycle Energy
Requirements for a Garment
Transport
Manufacture
28%
72%
Truck
5%
95%
Truck + Rail
1%
99%
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Summary of Lesson 1
LCAs are a tool for assessing and
minimizing the impact of human activities.
Life-cycle stages of a product include raw
material acquisition, manufacturing, use,
and disposal.
LCA techniques have been adopted in
industry and the public sector to serve a
variety of purposes.
Choices made during the planning phase of
an LCA have a profound impact on the
results obtained. The choice of functional
unit, particularly when LCAs are
conducted to compare products, is
especially influential.
This concludes the first lesson on life-cycle assessment in this module.
You have been introduced to the concepts and goals of LCA.
Remember that a complete life-cycle assessment consists of three
steps: 1) a life-cycle inventory of the wastes and emissions, raw
materials, and energy requirements of a product over its life cycle, 2) an
assessment of the impacts caused the wastes and emissions, raw
materials and energy requirements of the product over its life cycle, and
3) an improvement analysis where recommendations for reducing the
impacts are formulated. At this point, you should understand what
factors to consider in choosing a functional unit and also understand how
crucial the system boundaries of a life-cycle assessment are to the
results. You should also be aware of some of the ways in which this
powerful tool has been put into use by industry and by public
policymakers.
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