Application

pp cat o oof Capac

Capacitors
to s in
Distribution Systems

Introduction
Capacitors provide tremendous benefits to distribution
system performance.
performance Most noticeably,
noticeably capacitors
reduce losses, free up capacity, and reduce voltage
drop:
L
Losses; Capacity:
C
i
B providing
By
d
the
h reactive power to motors andd
other loads with low power factor, capacitors decrease the line
current. Reduced current frees up capacity; the same circuit can serve
more load. Reduced current also significantly
g f
y lowers the I2R
line.
Voltage drop: Capacitors provide a voltage boost, which cancels part
of the drop caused by system loads. Switched capacitors can regulate
voltage on a circuit.

Introduction
If applied properly and controlled, capacitors can
significantly improve the performance of distribution
circuits.
But if not properly applied or controlled, the reactive
power from capacitor banks can create losses and high
voltages The greatest danger of over-voltages occurs
voltages.
under light load.

Capacitor Construction

Capacitor elements have

sheets of polypropylene film,
less than one mil thick,
sandwiched between
aluminum foil sheets.
Capacitor dielectrics must
withstand on the order of 78
kV/mm. No other mediumvoltage
g equipment
q p
has such
high voltage stress.

Capacitor Construction

Capacitor units are supplied

with an internal discharge
resistor.
The purpose of the discharge
resistor is to provide a path
for current to flow in the
event that the capacitor is
disconnected from the source.

Capacitor Connection
Capacitors are either fixed or switched banks.
The fixed capacitors exist all time but the switched
capacitors are switched on based on the system need.
A typical switched capacitor bank is shown in the figure
below:

Capacitor use in the Distribution

Network
The application of capacitors in the distribution systems
can be summarized as follows:
60% of capacitors are applied to feeders.
30% of capacitors are applied to substation buses.
10% of capacitors are applied to transmission systems.
Application of capacitors to secondary systems is very rare.

Capacitor use in the Distribution

Network

Capacitor Ratings
Capacitors should not be applied when any of the following
limits are exceeded:
135% of nameplate kvar.
110% off rated
t d RMS voltage.
lt
135% of nominal RMS current based on rated kvar and
rated voltage
voltage.
Capacitors are designed to withstand over-voltages for
short periods of time.

Capacitor Losses
Capacitor losses are typically on the order of 0.07

to 0.15 W/kvar at nominal frequency.

q
y
Losses include resistive losses in the foil,
dielectric losses,
losses and losses in the internal discharge
resistor.
Capacitors must have an internal resistor that
discharges a capacitor to 50 V or less within 5 min
when the capacitor is charged to the peak of its
rated voltage . This resistor is the major component
of losses within a capacitor.
10

Capacitor Connection
a) Delta-connection
F
For ddelta
lt connection,
ti the
th single
i l phase
h
capacitor
it is
i a two
t
bushing capacitor unit.

The required voltage rating of the capacitor unit must be

equal to or greater than the nominal line voltage of the
system.

11

a) Delta-connection
Example-1
Determine the appropriate voltage and kVAR ratings for
the capacitor units used to make a 2400 kVAR delta
connected capacitor bank to be installed on 13.8 kV
feeder.
feeder

12

a) Delta-connection
Example-1-solution
kVAR / phase

2400
800 kVAR / phase
3

The most practical combination would be 2X400 kVAR

units per phase or 1X800 kVAR unit per phase.
The voltage rating of each capacitor is equal to the
nominal line-to-line voltage of the system; i.e. 13.8 kV.

13

Capacitor Connection
b) Y-connection
For Y connection,
connection the single phase capacitor is a single
bushing capacitor unit.

The solidly grounded Y-connection is typically used in

medium voltage distribution feeders.
14

Capacitor Connection
b) Y-connection
The voltage rating of the capacitor unit must be
equal or more than the nominal line-ground
voltage of the feeder.
Additional units may be added in parallel to
increase the rating of the bank.
Group fusing is typically provided by fused
cutouts. However, individual fusing is provided
for larger capacitor banks.

15

b) Y-connection
Example-2
A 4800 kVAR, 12.47 kV, solidly grounded Y-connected
capacitor bank is made of eight 200 kVAR, 7200 V
capacitor
it units
it per phase.
h
A blown
bl
fuse
f
detection
d t ti scheme
h
is to be used to determine the presence of a blown fuse.
Assume that one fuse of phase A is blown, calculate the
current flowing from the neutral of the bank to the
ground.

16

b) Y-connection
Example-2-solution
7200 2
Z B ZC j
j 32.4
8 200,000

7200 2
ZA j
j 37.0
7 200,000

The source voltage

g references are selected as:
VAN 72000,
IA

IC

VBN 7200 120,

72000
194.690 A
37 90

7200120
222.2210 A
32.4 90

IB

VCN 7200120

7200 120
222.2 30 A
32.4 90

I N I A I B I C 27.690 A

17

a) Power Factor Correction

One of the main advantages of the application of
capacitors is the power factor correction.
This reactive power requirement has three adverse effects
on distribution system:
The reactive power increases the generators kVA and consequently
all system components sizes and rating have to be increased.
The reactive current increases the system voltage drop.
The reactive current increases the system losses.

18

Power Factor Correction Equations

The present power factor (pf) is given by:
pf (present) = P/(P2 + Q12)1/2
When a shunt capacitor
p
is connected to the load , the new
pf is then given by:
pf (new) = P/[P2 + (Q1 - QC)2]1/2

19

Power factor corrections values

Correction factor = Qcap/Pload

20

Example-3
If a 700 kVA load has a 65%
%p
power factor connected
to 4160VGrdY/2400V system, it is required to
improve the power factor to 92%. Using the following
Table determine the following:
Table,
a) The correction factor required.
b) The capacitor size required
c) If the capacitor size calculated in (b) is not the
standard size, use the list standard of capacitors sizes
previous Table to calculate the new p
possible
in the p
improved power factor.

21

Power factor corrections values

Correction factor = Qcap/Pload

22

Solution:
From the previous Table, the correction factor
required
i d is
i 0.74.
0 74
The real power of the 700 kVA load at 0.65 power
factor
= 700 x 0.65
= 455 kW
The capacitor size necessary to improve the power
factor from 65% to 92% can de found as
C
Capacitor
it size
i = P x (correction
(
ti factor)
f t )
= 455 (0.74)
= 336.7 kVAR

23

From the capacitor rating Table the next

higher standard capacitor size is 400 kVAR,
therefore the resulting new correction factor
can be found to be
= 400/455 = 0.879
0 879

24

Power factor corrections values

Correction factor = Qcap/Pload

25

 From power correction Table by

linear interpolation, the resulting
corrected power factor
factor, with an
original power factor of 0.65 and a
correction of 00.879
879 can be found as:
New corrected power factor 0.96 (.97 .96) *

(0.879 0.878)
0.96025 0.96
(0.918 0.878)

26

b) Voltage Support
As mentioned earlier, capacitors are used to
improve the voltage profile for the feeders.
The best location for voltage support depends
on where the voltage
g support
pp is needed.
U
Unlikee a regulator,
egu o , a capacitor
c p c o changes
c ges thee
voltage profile upstream of the bank.

27

b) Voltage Support

28

Approximate Calculation for Voltage

Rise
Ri
K
K Factor:
The Krise is similar to the Kdrop factor except that the
load now is a shunt capacitor. When a leading current
flows through an inductive reactance there will be a
voltage rise instead of voltage drop.

Vrise ZI cap
K rise

Percent voltage rise

kvar . mile
29

Example 4
Example-4
Calculate the Krise
i factor for a feeder
with an impedance of Z=0.25+j0.6 and a
length of 3 miles.
miles
Assuming a load of 7000 kVA and
power factor of 0.9
0 9 lagging and a
nominal line to line voltage = 11 kV
determine the rating of a three phase
capacitor bank to limit the voltage drop
to 1.5%.
1 5%
30

Example-44 Solution
Example
I cap

1kVAR
90 0.052590
3kVL L

Vrise Z I cap (.25 j 0.6) 0.052590 0.034 V

K rise

I load

0.034
0.000537% rise / kVAR.mile
11000 / 3

7000

cos 1 (0.9) 367 25.8

3 11
Vdrop ( Z .I ) 238.6 V

31

Example-44 Solution
Example
%Vdropp

238.6

3.76%
11000 / 3

However, it is required to limit the voltage drop to 1.5%,

so:
Vrise 3.76 1.5 2.26%

Vrise
2.26
kVAR

1403 kVAR
K rise mile 0.000537 3

32

c) Reducing Line Losses

One of the main benefits of applying capacitors
is that they can reduce distribution line losses.
Losses
L
come from
f
currentt through
th
h the
th
resistance of conductors.
Some of that current transmits real power, but
some flows to supply reactive power.
It is desirable to determine the size and
location of capacitors to maximize reduction in
li losses.
line
l
33

c) Reducing Line Losses

The magnitude of the line current can be
expressed as follows:

IL I

1/ 2

Where:
-Ip = magnitude of in-phase component of
line current
- Iq = magnitude of quadrature component of
line current
34

c) Reducing Line Losses

The current absorbed by a capacitor bank will
subtract from the quadrature component of the
line current resultingg in the following:
g

IL I

I q I c

2 1/ 2

Where:
-IIc = magnitude
i d off the
h capacitor
i current

35

c) Reducing Line Losses

Example-5
If the load (700 kVA) in example 3 was
connected
t d to
t the
th source via
i a feeder
f d with
ith the
th
following impedance: Z = 0.5+j1.3, find the line
losses before and after power factor correction.
correction
Also, find the optimum location of the capacitor
for maximum line loss reduction.

36

c) Reducing Line Losses

Example-5-solution:
P 700(.65) 455 kW

Losses 3 I 2 R
I L1

I L2

455
97 A
3 4.16 .65

455

38.2 A
3 4.16 .96

L
Losses
14.16 kW
L
Losses
2.19 kW

Where is the best place for this capacitor?

37

c) Reducing Line Losses

Practical
c c considerations:
co s de
o s:
Determining the size and location of a capacitor
for a uniformly distributed load is more
complicated, why?
The
Th time-varying
i
i nature off the
h loads
l d will
ill also
l be
b
a significant factor in determining capacitor
requirements why?
requirements,

38

c) Reducing Line Losses

Example-6
For the reactive load shown below for a 4.16
f d ddetermine
feeder,
t
i the
th fixed
fi d andd switched
it h d
capacitor to be added to correct the power
factor?

39

c) Reducing Line Losses

Example-6-solution

Solution (b) is better as it delivers better compensation for the

reactive current.
However, solution (b) requires the switching of two capacitors
instead of one for solution (a) which is not desirable in power system.
40

c) Reducing Line Losses

Optimum capacitor size and location:
Consider the following radial system with uniform
reactive current.

kI1 I1
. x I1
i ( x)
L
The active power loss per phase
due to reactive component of load
current is:
PLoss
L

kI1 I1

.x I1 .R.dx
L

0
L

41

c) Reducing Line Losses

Optimum capacitor size and location:

L 2 2
PLoss .I1 . K K 1 .R
3
If the load has only lumped
load, so K = 1 and:

R is the resistance per unit length

PLoss L.I12 .R
If the load has only distributed
load, so K = 0 and:
L 2
PLoss

.I1 .R
L
3
42

c) Reducing Line Losses

Optimum capacitor size and location:
If a single capacitor bank is added to the circuit, the
reactive load profile is modified as shown below:
kI I
i ( x) 1 1 .x I1 I C
L
kI I
i ( x) 1 1 .x I1
L

for 0 x x '

for x ' x L
2

x'

So:

PLoss

kI I

1 1 .x I1 I C .R.dx
L

0
2

kI I
1 1 .x I1 .R.dx
L

x'
L

43

c) Reducing Line Losses

Optimum capacitor size and location:
x '2

L
PLoss ( I1 I C (1 K ) x' ( I C2 2 I1 I C ) I12 ( K 2 K 1) .R
3
L

For
F a given
i
lloadd profile,
fil line
li length,
l th
and resistance, the quantities K, I1, R and
L are constant.
The only two variables are IC and xx.
To determine the optimum capacitor
size and location to minimize losses, the
partial derivatives are taken for these
two variables, IC and x.

PLoss
2 x'
I1I C (1 K ) ( I C2 2 I1I C )
0
x'
L

PLoss
x'
0 I1 (1 K ) 2 I C 2 I1
I C
L

(1)

(2)
44

c) Reducing Line Losses

Optimum capacitor size and location:
Solving equation no.1 will result in:

( I C2 2 I1 I C ) L
x'
I1 I C (1 K ) 2
It is convenient to express the capacitor
current IC as a function of the reactive
current I1

L 2
I C I1 x '
2 1 K

(3)

Substituting equations (3) in (2) will

results in:

2
3
0 1
3
2

45

c) Reducing Line Losses

Optimum capacitor size and location:
So the size of the capacitor is 2/3 of the total reactive current
entering the feeder. If this value is substituted in equation 3, then:

2 1
x' L
3 1 K
So it can be seen from this equation that
the 2/3 capacitor size is only true for K
value is up to 1/3. If K is more than 1/3
th x will
then
ill be
b more than
th L which
hi h is
i nott
logic.
If K exceeds 1/3, the optimum location
is x=L
x =L and the capacitor size will be:

K 1
2

46

c) Reducing Line Losses

Capacitor
C
p c o ssizee and
dp
placement:
ce e :
If K = 0 (only uniformly distributed load), then x = 2/3L

47

c) Reducing Line Losses

Capacitor
C
p c o ssizee and
dp
placement:
ce e :
A generalization of the 2/3 rule for applying n
capacitors to a circuit is to size each one to 2/(2n+1)
of the circuit var requirements.
Apply them equally spaced
spaced, starting at a distance of
2/(2n+1) of the total line length from the substation
and adding
g the rest of the units at intervals of
2/(2n+1) of the total line length.

48

c) Reducing Line Losses

Capacitor
C
p c o ssizee and
dp
placement:
ce e :
The total vars supplied by the capacitors is
2n/(2n+1) of the circuit
circuitss var requirements.
So to apply three capacitors, size each to 2/7 of the
total vars needed
needed, and locate them at per unit
distances of 2/7, 4/7, and 6/7 of the line length from
the substation.

49

Example 7:
A section of a 12.47 kV distribution line has a length of 3
miles. The reactive power loading was measured as 2000
kVAR at the distribution substation line exit. The reactive
power loading at the end of the line section was estimated as
600 kVAR. Determine the optimum
p
capacitor
p
ratingg and
location to minimize line loss of this section.

50

Example 7-solution:
The ratio of reactive power at the end of the line section to the
reactive power at the beginning of the line is:
600
K
0.3
2000
Since K is less than 1/3, the optimum capacitor rating is twothirds time the reactive loading at the beginning of the line
section i.e.
section,
i e kVARCAP = (2/3)*2000=1333.3
(2/3)*2000=1333 3 kVAR

The optimum
p
capacitor
p
location is ggiven by:
y
2 1
x' (3)
2.86 miles
3 1 0.3
51

d) Released Capacity
In addition to reducing losses and improving voltage,
capacitors release capacity.
Improving the power factor increases the amount of realpower load the circuit can supply.

52

d) Released Capacity

53

Example 8:
IIn the
th following
f ll i Figure
Fi
a primary
i
line
li with
ith uniformly
if
l di
distributed
t ib t d load.
l d
The voltage at the distribution substation low-voltage bus is held at 1.03
pu V with bus voltage regulation. When there is no capacitor bank
installed on the feeder,
feeder the per unit voltage at the end of the line at annual
peak load is 0.97. Use the nominal operating voltage of 13.8 KV of the
three-phase as the base voltage. Assume that the off peak load of the
system is about 25% of the on peak load. Also, assume that the line
reactance is 0.80 /(phase.mi) but the line resistance is neglected and
determine the following:
aa- When the shunt capacitor bank is not used,
used find the Vx,
Vx voltages at the
times of peak load and off-peak load.
b- Apply an un-switched capacitor bank and locate it at the point of X = 4
mi on the line, and size the capacitor bank to yield a voltage of 1.05 per
unit at point X=0 at the time of zero load. Find the size of the capacitor in
three phase kilovars.

54

Example 8, solution
The current flowing through any segment along a feeder with
uniformly distributed load can be calculated from the
following equation (no installed capacitors exist):

I x I S 1

The voltage drop across this segment can be calculated from

the
h following
f ll i equation:
i

dVD x I x z dx

55

Example 8, solution
The total voltage drop from the source point to point x along
the feeder is given by:
x

VDx dVDx I x z dx

VDx I S 1

0
x

x
z dx
l

x
x2
VDx I S z x I S z x 1
2l
2l

56

Example 8, solution
The total voltage drop from the source point to the feeder
end-point is given by:

l2
l
VDl I S z l I S z
2
2l

x 1
2l x
VD x % VD x

2
l
VDl
% VDl
l
2

57

Example 8, solution
The total voltage drop from the source point to the feeder
end-point (no installed capacitors exist) at the peak load is
given by:

VDl , ppu 1.03 0.97 0.06 pu 6 %

VD x x
x 2
2 8

2 2 0.888
VDl
l
l 3
3 9
VD x 0.888 x 0.06 0.0533 pu

V x Vo VD x 1.03 0.0533 0.9767 pu

V x 0.9767 x 13.8 13.47846 kV

58

Example 8, solution
The total voltage drop from the source point to the feeder
end-point (no installed capacitors exist) at the no loading
condition is given by:
% VD
D

l , off

% VDl , peak

off

D peak

1
4

Therefore, at off-peak conditions:

1
% VDl , off x 0.06 0.015 pu 1.5 %
4
VD x , off
x
x 2
2 8
2 2 0.888

VDl , offff
l
l 3
3 9
VD x , off 0.888 x 0.015 0.0133 pu

V x Vo VD x 1.03 0.0133 1.0167 pu

V x 1.0167 x 13.8 14.03 kV

59

Example 8, solution
The voltage at point X with no capacitor is 1.03 pu (because
there is no load and the voltage at the bus will equal the
voltage at X), after installing the capacitor bank the voltage at
point X becomes 1.05 pu. Therefore, the per unit voltage rise
att point
i t X is
i 0.02
0 02 pu or 2 %.
%

I cap

1kVAR

90 0.04290
3 *13.8

Vrise [ z * I cap ] 0.0336V

K rise

0.0336

0.000422%rise/kvar.
rise/kvar mile
13.8 / 3

%Vrise
i K rise
i * kVAR * mile

2
KVAR
1185.7
0.000422 * 4
60

Capacitor banks switching control

Several options
p
for controls are available for
capacitor banks. They can be classified to:
a) Simple control: these techniques does not
require
i any electrical
l i l measurements.
Time clock: The simplest scheme: the controller
switches capacitors on and off based on the time of
day. This control is the cheapest but also the most
susceptible to energizing the capacitor at the wrong
time.
Temperature: Another simple control; the
controller switches the capacitor bank on or off
depending on temperature
temperature.
61

Capacitor banks
b) More complicated control: these techniques
require different electrical measurements like:
Voltage:
The capacitor switches on and off, based on voltage
magnitude.
Vo
Voltage
tage co
control
t o iss most
ost app
appropriate
op ate w
when
e tthee pprimary
a y role
oe
of a capacitor is voltage support and regulation.
Voltage-controlled capacitor banks have bandwidths
which should be at least 3 or 4 V ((on a 120-V scale).
)

62

Capacitor banks

Vars:
The capacitor uses var measurements to
determine switching.
This is the most accurate method of ensuring
that the capacitor is on at the appropriate times
for maximum reduction of losses.
losses
Like the voltage control technique, there is a
bandwidth for switching of each capacitor bank
to prevent excessive switching operations in
most cases.

63

Control Methods used for Switched Capacitors

Type of Control

Pole Mounted Banks on

Feeders
Percent

Distribution Substation
Banks
Percent

Voltage

16.6

30.8

Current

4.9

2.4

Time

59.8

16.3

Voltage-Current

7.2

12.6

Voltage-Time

5.1

6.3

Manual*

6.2

28.4

Others

0.2

3.2

Total

100.0

100.0

* Manual includes any switching directly or indirectly caused by the dispatcher

64

Capacitor Switching Consideration

In many cases it is desirable to install
several steps of switched capacitor units.
This is particularly true if the load reactive
power requirements fluctuates during the
day.
day
When a de-energized capacitor is energized,
the
h capacitor
i behaves
b h
as a short
h circuit.
i i
The inductance of the source/line will limit
the current.
65

Capacitor Switching Consideration

The calculation of currents during capacitor
switching is extremely important in capacitor
applications.
Both contactors and circuit breakers used in
capacitor switching are limited in the amount of
momentary current the contacts can safely
withstand.
This current will be also at high frequency
compared to system frequency which will produce
high frequency voltage spikes in the system.
system
66

Switching Single Capacitor Bank

Exact calculations of capacitor switching currents
are extremely difficult manually, so the following
assumptions will be made:
a) The system will be analyzed on a single phase
basis.
b) The source will be modeled as a DC voltage
source.
c) The DC voltage will have a magnitude equal to
the peak line to neutral system voltage.
d) Resistances will be ignored.
67

Switching Single Capacitor Bank

The equivalent circuit is shown below
Vo

2 .V LL
3

The capacitance per phase of the

capacitor bank is:
C

MVAR rated
2 . . f rated .( kV LL _ rated ) 2

Th capacitor
The
i switching
i hi current is:
i
Vo / s
I (s)
sL s (1 / sC )
68

Switching Single Capacitor Bank

I (s)

s2

Vo / Ls
(1 / L s C )

Re-arranging the equation:

C
I (s) Vo

1/2

2 o 2
s o

Where:
o

1
L sC

C
i(t ) V o
L

1/ 2

sin(( o t )

I max

C
Vo
L

1/ 2

69

Example 9:
A 1200-kVAR, 4.16-kV capacitor bank is installed
on a pplant bus. The plant
p
bus is supplied
pp
from a
5000-kVA, 69kV-4.16/2.4 kV transformer having
an impedance of 7%. Neglecting the impedance of
the source and resistance determine the maximum
instantaneous value and the frequency of the
inr sh ccurrent.
inrush
rrent Also
Also, determine the ind
inductance
ctance of
the inductors that must be added to reduce the
inrush current
current.

70

Example 9-solution:
The transformer inductive reactance is:
2

4.16kV
X 0.07.

5MVA

0.242
0.242
L
6.43 10 4 H
2 .60

The transformer inductance is:

The capacitance per phase is equal to:

C

1.2 MVAR
4

1
.
84

10
F
2 .60.(4.16kV ) 2

The peak source voltage is:

Vo

2 .4160
3396V
3

1/ 2

I max

1.84 10 4

3396
4
6.43 10

1817 A
71

Example 9-solution:
The frequency of the transient inrush current is
o

1.84 10

1
4

.6.43 10

4 1/ 2

2909rad 463Hz

The total amount of inductance to limit the

maximum current to 1000 A is:
Vo2
Ls 2 .C 2.12 10 3 H
I max

The inductance to be added will be

equal to:
Ladded 2.12 10 3 6.43 10 4 1.5mH
72