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Objectives:
To determine the causes of failure of a given component by proposing a suitable
mechanical testing and metallographic examination and evaluating the tensile strength , hardness
and fatigue strength of the given component.
Introduction:
Failure analysis is a process where a few trouble-shooting and testing is performed to
collect and analyze the data to determine the cause of a failure. It can also be defined as the
inability of a component, machine or process to function properly. In this experiment, the given
component is steel. The component will undergo a few testing .To do a failure analysis, a stepby-step flow chart must be performed. The flow chart is as follow.
Initial observation
Macroscopic examination
Metallographic examination.
Diameter (cm)
Before
After
5.36
4.98
5.36
4.94
1
2
Length (cm)
Before
2.7
2.7
After
3.2
3.3
Fatigue:
Trial
1
Length (cm)
Before
6.7
After
6.4
Sectioning is the process of cutting the material into smaller pieces, for analysis. It
exposes the internal surface ready for grinding and polishing to be observed under the
mircroscope. A cutting machine is used for sectioning. The water inside acts as a coolant to
prevent rusting of the blade.
Procedure:
1)
2)
3)
4)
3.2 Mounting:
Mounting is the process where the sample of the cut steel is encapsulated in resin. It
serves the purpose to ease handling and to preserve the microstructure of the sample. Epoxy resin
is used to adhere the sample and eliminate shrinkage gap. In addition, it does not react with the
sample and other solvents.
Apparatus:
1) Part Plastic Mould
2) Silicon mould Release
3) Hardener and epoxy resin chemical
Procedure:
1) Apply a thin layer of silicon mold release inside of the Part Plastic Mold and the lid.
2) Place the sample of the cut off steel in the center of the mold.
3) A ratio of 1:10 hardener and epoxy resin was measured by using a beaker and stirred well
before pour into the mounting cup.
4) The mixture was poured slowly and it was left for several days.
Precautions:
Ensure the ratio of the hardener and epoxy resin is poured as accurately as possible. The silicon
mold release must be applied to prevent the sticking of materials such as plastics, rubber and
waxes to molds. The mixture should be poured slowly to prevent air bubbles.
Apparatus:
Grinder polisher, sand paper (600 and 1000), mold, water, 3m diamat polycrystalline diamond,
1m diamat polycrystalline diamond
Procedure:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
The product after sample preparation which is also used in hardness testing.
Introduction:
The tensile test is the simplest and most widely used test to characterize the mechanical
properties of a material. The test is performed using a benchtop machine shown above in the
figure above. The capacity of this machine is 10,000 pounds (tension and compression). The
specimen of a given material takes a cylindrical shape that is 2.0in long and 0.5in. in diameter in
its undeformed (no permanent strain or residual stress), or original shape.
Objective: to determine the limits of physical properties
Apparatus:
benchtop testing machine, steel sample .
Procedure:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Results:
After tensile test :
Before
D= 5.36mm
L=27mm
D=5.36mm
L=27mm
First steel
Second steel
After
D=4.98mm
L=32mm
D=4.94mm
L33mm
= 32.5mm
10
The maximum force applied to the first and second steel is 10250 N and 10163N respectively
and thus, taking the average, the force is 10206.5N
=
==
=
=
=
=
)
(
)
)
Modulus elasticity E =
=
= 2.59GPa
=
=
=
=
Percentage elongation =
x 100 = 20.4%
Discussion:
The diagram above shows the evolution of ductile fracture. At the start of the tensile
pulling at (a) , it shows the initial necking where the diameter decreases. At (b) , small cavity are
formed and slowly is grows across the specimen at (c). At (d) , crack propagation occurs and
finally the specimen breaks and shears forming a cup and cone fracture. From the results
obtained, the average stress applied to the material is 528.23MPa , the modulus of elasticity is
2.59GPa, and a percentage elongation of 20.4%.
Modulus of elasticity, or better known as Youngs modulus, is the constant of
proportionality. It is the measure of the stiffness of a material and the elasticity of the material
before experiencing plastic deformation. The Formula of modulus of elasticity is given by
E
= where is the shear stress and is the strain. The yield stress is the stress where a
material begins plastic deformation. While the ultimate tensile stress is the maximum stress that
a material can cope while being pulled with force before breaking.
Conclusion:
Youngs Modulus of 2.59GPa is required to break the material while the yield strength of
shows the significant plastic deformation. From this information, the limit of the
physical properties of steel is determined.
4.2 Hardness.
Objective:
To determine the hardness of the material.
Introduction:
Hardness is the property of a material that plastic deformation. Deformation may refer to
as indenting, scratching, bending or cutting. In metals, ceramics and most polymers, the
deformation considered is plastic deformation of the surface. A Vickers hardness test machine is
used in this experiment to indent steel. The tip of the indenter, which is a diamond tip is strong
enough to indent the steel. The tip is forced to indent the metal surface and then it is being
withdrawn. The value shown on the machine indicates the value of hardness.
Apparatus :
Mold with steel surface, Vickers machine.
Method:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
Results:
d1 (m)
d2 (m)
1
2
3
Average
132.66
127.31
133.06
131.01
138.41
134.26
134.31
135.66
dmean (m)
(d1 + d2)/2
135.535
130.785
133.685
133.335
Hardness(HV) Hardness(MPa)
1HV=9.807MPa
201.9
1980.03
216.8
2126.16
207.5
2034.95
208.73
2047.05
HV = Vickers Hardness:
F= Load kgf
d= Arithmetic mean of the two diagonals, d1 and d2 in mm
Experimental Hardness:
F = 2 x 9.807 = 19.614
= 2045 MPa
Theoretical Hardness:
2047.05 MPa
%
Getting the value d1 and d2
1.
2.
3.
4.
D2
D1
D1
D2
D2
D2
D1
D1
The Vickers Hardness test was developed in England is 1925 and also known as the
Diamond Pyramid Hardness (DPH) test. The Vickers hardness test method consists of indenting
the test material with a diamond indenter, which means in right pyramid form with a square base.
A diamond of two tangents to the circle at the ends of a chord 3d/8 long intersect at 136 degrees
between opposite faces and also used to leave a mark in metal under a precisely applied force to
avoid impact. The diagonals of the impression have to be measured by using microscope and the
results will be calculated by using the formula.
The hardness values obtained each time has a varying value. The hardness of steel is
around 85HV to 740HV. The hardness varies with each different indenter is because different
position of the steel specimen will have different arrangement of grain, or there is some tiny flaw
compared to other location on the specimen. When location tested is fall on the flaw, the indenter
is more significant, so it affected the value.
Percentage difference is calculated to identify the successfulness of the experiment, as the
percentage is lower the successfulness of the experiment is closes. Percentage different that
calculated is 0.1002% which is almost perfect, so the experiment is successful and the hardness
of the steel specimen is determined.
4.3 Fatigue.
Introduction:
A metal subjected to a repetitive or fluctuating stress will fail at a stress much lower
than that required to cause fracture on a single application of load. Failures occurring under
conditions of dynamic loading are called fatigue failures, presumably because it is generally
observed that these failures occur only after a considerable period of service. Fatigue accounts
for at least 90 percent of all service failures due to mechanical causes.
Fatigue occurs when a material is subject to alternating or cyclic stresses, over a long period of
time. Examples of where fatigue may occur in a marine diesel engine are: crankshafts, valve
springs, turbocharger blades, piston crowns, bottom end bolts, piston skirts at the gudgeon pin
boss and tie bolts.
Stresses can be applied in three ways, torsionally, axially and by bending.
The symbol for stress is the Greek letter sigma and the units are force/ unit area i.e N/m2 or psi
(imperial)
Objective:
The objective of this experiment is to test the fatigue strength of a material subjected to repetitive
or cyclic stress.
Apparatus:
123456-
Stainless steel
Fatigue Testing Machine
Frequency inverter Three-phase motor
Loading scale
Limit switch
Specimen chuck holder
Method:
1. Fatigue Testing Machine was plugged into a 240VAC single
Phase 50Hz supply.
2. The specimen were Positioned into the shaft end first and then into the bearing end
That applies force.
3. The grips in the chuck were slowly tightened with the tee key provided.
4. The cycle counter was set to zero.
5. The required force was set by turning the load nut. (160N) which is (16 kg)
6. The main switch was turned on and the required frequency of the motor was set.
7. The motor was let to run until the specimen fail
8. The number of turns before failure was Recorded
9. The S-N curve was plotted on semi-log graph paper.
Results:
Steel
Force (N)
No of cycles
to failure
800
160
Stress
MPa
152.6
Force (N)
Series1
5000
10000
15000
Where
M = Moment = Force x distance = F x 0.0364 Nm
y = 0.0045m
I = 3.22 x 10-10 m4
Kt = 2 (constant)
20000
Discussion:
From the obtained results, a S-N curve is plotted. From the graph, it is known as when the
force applied to the material increases, the number of cycles to break the material to failure
decreases. The picture above shows the material after breaking. The fracture surface of the
specimens contains two different regions, which are smooth and rough. Smooth region is due to
the rubbing action as crack propagates, while the rough surface area is formed by fast fracture
when load is too high for remaining cross-sectional area.
One of the factors that affect the number of cycles needed to break the material is the
temperature. Extreme high or low temperatures can decrease fatigue strength. Besides
temperature,, stress concentration, size effect, surface effect, combined stresses, cumulative
fatigue and sequence effect, metallurgical variables, and corrosion can affect the number of
cycles fracture. Increasing of the weight applied to the fatigue specimen results in a reduction in
number of cycles to failure.
We can then use the experimental results to construct an S-N curve The fatigue test is
normally conducted using at least 8-12 specimens in order to provide sufficient information for
the interpretation of fatigue behavior of the tested material. The S-N curve shows a relationship
between the applied stress and the numbers of cycles to failure, which can be used to determine
the fatigue life of the material subjected to cyclic loading. High applied cyclic stress results in a
low number of cycles to failure.
Limitations during fatigue test are inevitable. Difficulties in reading the dial gauge when
calibrating the specimen in the machine, human error as well as the accuracy of the gauge itself
could cause error in loading the part. One last possible error could be the number of cycles. The
level of uncertainty of the counter could cause error as well as the person reading the cycles, but
the possibility for 99 cycles to be missed always exists.
Conclusion:
The stress needed to break the steel is 152.6MPa when a force of 160N is applied after 800
cycles to fracture.
Metals consist of small particles called atoms. Atoms after combination form molecules.
Combination of molecules or atoms is called grain. A grain is a portion of the material within
which the arrangement of the atoms is identical. The orientation of the grain may different but
arrangement of atoms is same. Grains are separated by boundaries called grain boundaries. They
are near with the boundaries. If they are too close to the boundaries call compression, if they are
far apart call tension. Microstructure of metals consists of many grain. Grains are very small,
cant be seen by eyes. Therefore, microscope is required. For seeing grain for any metal, a few
operations have to perform on metal to prepare the sample, this technique is called
Metallographic examination.
From the photomicrograph taken above, some impurities is found under this specimen.
The impurities might be caused by the surface not being grinded enough. Flaws may happen
during sectioning, and thus affects the surface of the steel. Besides that, there are some grain
boundaries which appears in this specimen but we couldnt see the grain and the grain
boundaries clearly based on we didnt go through the process of etching. Etching means that we
use dilute acid to react with the surface of the sample. Therefore etching must be done to make
the grain and grain boundaries easier to be observed.
References:
Sp.se. 2013. Fatigue test of materials and structures. [online] Available at:
http://www.sp.se/en/index/services/fatigue/sidor/default.aspx [Accessed: 2 Oct 2013].
YEDITEPE
UNIVERSITY
ENGINEERING
FACULTY
MECHANICAL
ENGINEERING me.yeditepe.edu.tr (n.d.) YEDITEPE UNIVERSITY ENGINEERING
FACULTY MECHANICAL ENGINEERING LABORATORY [Online] Available
at:http://me.yeditepe.edu.tr/courses/me402/lab%20manuals/hardness%20test.pdf
[Accessed at 1/10/2013]
HARDNESS TEST
civil.eng.buffalo.edu (n.d.) HARDNESS TEST [Online] Available at:
http://civil.eng.buffalo.edu/cie616/2-LECTURES/Lecture%204a%20%20Material%20Testing/HARDNESS%20TEST.pdf [Accessed at 1/10/2013]
at: