Proceedings ISC-2 on Geotechnical and Geophysical Site Characterization, Viana da Fonseca & Mayne (eds.

)
2004 Millpress, Rotterdam, ISBN 90 5966 009 9

Quantitative resistivity methods for marine and fluvial site investigations

Peteralv Brabers
Demco NV, Wintershoven, Belgium

Keywords: aquares, resistivity survey, geoelectrical, pipeline route, dredging, exploration

ABSTRACT: Geophysical methods are often being used in offshore site investigation programs as an exploration tool to define the general geological structure of the subsurface and its vertical and horizontal variability. Geophysical results are used either to define in a more economically and geologically justified way geotechnical sampling locations or to get more continuous information between widely spaced borehole and CPT
locations. Although earlier resistivity methods, as originally developed for land applications, have been used
in offshore applications for more than 15 years now, they often tended to produce less quantitative information as compared to the classical seismic methods and as a consequence the offshore site investigation markets had lost their interest in them.
The Aquares resistivity or geoelectrical method was developed specifically for offshore applications. The last
few years this technique has been applied successfully on various marine and fluvial site investigation projects and is more and more being used on port design & engineering projects, dredging reconnaissance projects, pipeline routes and gravel and sand exploration projects.
The resistivity data is acquired using a multichannel resistivity cable trailing behind the survey vessel on the
seafloor. While the vessel is sailing electrical soundings are obtained every 3 seconds. During the fieldsurvey
qualitative results are monitored on computer screen and allow already on site to define a number of subsequent CPT or borehole locations in an economically justified manner.
After processing the resistivity results are presented as colorcoded horizontal and vertical sections derived
from a digital 3D model of the geological subsurface.
Quantitative marine resistivity methods can effectively be applied in conditions where gas-masking, multiple reflections in shallow water, diffractions on coarse gravel, cap rock tend to reduce the effectiveness of
classical seismic reflection methods.
A number of case studies are presented.
1

INTRODUCTION

As geotechnical investigations tend to be relatively

expensive in offshore environments, offshore site
investigators generally use geophysical methods to
obtain a more detailed knowledge of the subsurface
geology. Geophysical results were used either to define in a more economically and geologically justified way geotechnical sampling locations or to get
more continuous information between the widely
spaced borehole and CPT locations. For this purpose
resistivity or geoelectrical methods, as originally developed for land applications, have been used in offshore applications for more than 15 years. As they
had a reputation of producing less quantitative information compared to the more classical seismic
methods offshore site investigation markets had lost
their interest in them. At this moment these older

methods are still doing useful work supplying formation factors and average resistivity values on marine cable routes with less importance attached to
more quantitative information on sediment thicknesses and depths.
The Aquares resistivity method was recently developed specifically for quantitative offshore applications involving depths and thicknesses of geological structures. During the last several years this
method has been successfully applied on various
projects and is gradually again drawing the attention
of port design engineers, dredgers, pipeline route designers and sand- and gravel markets.

427

PRINCIPLES

for a quick and well justified choice of subsequent

CPT and borehole locations.

2.1 Land based applications

An electrical current is injected into the subsurface
by means of two currrent electrodes. The voltage
gradient associated with the electrical field of this
current is measured between two voltage electrodes
placed in between the current electrodes (see fig.
1a). Based on the measured values of current and
voltage the average resistivity of the subsurface is
calculated for a subsurface volume from the seafloor
surface down to a certain penetration depth. The
penetration depth depends on the distance between
the current electrodes. Larger electrode distances are
associated with increasing penetration depths.
If the measurements are repeated with progressively increasing current electrode distances information is obtained from progressively deeper geological structures (fig. 1a). As such, a fieldcurve is
obtained showing the resistivity as a function of the
horizontal distance between current electrodes. After
computermodelling this fieldcurve is transformed
into a geophysical subsurface section showing the
resistivity as a function of depth. Various algorithms
exist to carry out the resistivity curve inversion
(M.H. Loke and R.D. Barker 1996, L.R. Lines and
S. Treitel 1984, Zohdy A.A.R. 1989, Koefoed O.
1970).

Figure 1a: Principles of Vertical Electrical Soundings

On land

The resistivity of a geological structure depends on

its porosity, water saturation and the water resistivity. Gravel usually has a lower porosity than sand
and its resistivity thus is higher. Clay with generally
very high porosities shows very low resistivities.
Solid rock, on the other hand, has a low porosity and
shows very high resistivities. Weathered rock tends
to show relatively lower resistivities compared to
solid rock. Every geological structure thus has its
own specific resistivity value.
2.2 Marine/fluvial applications
For water based applications the electrodes are
placed on a multichannel cable trailing behind the
survey vessel (fig. 1b).
During the fieldsurvey qualitative results are already shown on computer screen. This allows on site
428

2.3 Data Processing

A complicated sequence of mathematical operations
has to be followed before any interpretable results
can be obtained.
First, the resistivity field data are edited and filtered to improve the signal/noise ratio. Geometrical
corrections are applied to correct for the fact that the
resistivity cable may show more or less significant
curvature. Measurements made with a strongly
curved cable are rejected. Other corrections are
made to account for current losses into the watercolumn.

Figure 1b: Principles of Vertical Electrical Soundings

On water

After interpolation of the resistivity information

into a regular grid a digital 3D model of the subsurface is obtained. The results are visualised in color
on vertical and horizontal cross sections showing the
different geological structures in function of depth
and geographical position.
The processing procedure described above is an
interactive process. In order to extract a maximum of
information out of the raw survey data the processing sequence has to be repeated several times to find
the optimum processing parameters.
3

ADVANTAGES

At a speed of 1 sounding every 3 seconds the

Aquares resistivity method is very fast compared to
mechanical drilling or CPTs. It also has the advantage that a much larger volume is being sampled by
a single sounding. While the subsurface volume
sampled by a mechanically drilled borehole corresponds exactly with the borehole diameter (a few
centimeters), the volume sampled by an electrical
sounding may in some cases exceed 5 or 10 m in diameter. As a consequence, resistivity methods are
quite suitable for determining various degrees of
fracturing and weathering in rock.
Classical acoustical geophysical methods often
have difficulties coping with geological situations
limiting their effectiveness:

2004 Millpress, Rotterdam, ISBN 90 5966 009 9

The presence of gravel in the subsurface tends to

obscure the information due to the appearance of
diffractions.
The application in shallow water causes multiple
reflections to obscure the data.
The application in areas with sediments rich in
organic matter may cause gas-masking problems.
The presence of cap rock on the seafloor tends
to hide all geological structures underneath by
reflecting most acoustical energy.

Thanks to the nature of geoelectrical methods, the

abovementioned effects generally are not bothersome to resistivity methods. Furthermore, the results
of a quantitative resistivity survey not only provide
depths and thicknesses, it also results in a resistivity
value for each geological structure which is an indication of its porosity.
Thanks to the use of 3000 fold stacks, high electrical currents, signal enhancing electrode configurations, noise free electrode design, newly developed
statistical techniques and appropriate processing algorithms signal/noise ratios have been improved
significantly.

-3 m

rock

gravel

Rather than give an in-depth insight into the technical aspects of the method, this papers merely aims
to present a number of case studies showing the possibilities of quantitative marine resistivity methods.
For practical reasons the original colorcoded resistivity sections have been rendered in black-andwhite by various ways of hatching.
4

CORRIB PIPELINE LANDFALL

In 2001 a resistivity survey was carried out at the

landfall area of the Corrib gas pipeline along the
West-Coast of Ireland. The proposed burial burial
depth of the pipeline was 3m below seabed level.
The geology is known to consist of sand, clay and
gravel overlying a very hard metamorphic basement
rock. About 10 survey lines were sailed parallel to
the proposed piperoute, a 3D model was worked out
including a number of horizontal and vertical sections to represent the geological subsurface. A horizontal section parallel to the seafloor at the proposed
burial depth of 3 m is shown in figure 2 as well as a
vertical resistivity section along the proposed pipe
route.
Resistivity Scale

sand

4-30 Ohm
2-4 Ohm
<2 Ohm

P1
500

1000

750

1250

Horizontal Resistivity Section

0

P1

gravel
sand

-4

3m m trenching depth

500

-8
-12

Rock

750
1000
Vertical Resistivity Section

1250

-16

Figure 2: Corrib pipeline landfall resistivity survey

High resistivities (> 4 Ohmm) and intermediate

resistivities (2-4 Ohmm) are hatched following the
resistivity legend. High resistivity basement rocks
reaching pipeline burial levels are visible at KP500.
Other rockheads are located at deeper levels at
KP850 and south of the route at KP1250. Intermediate resistivities correspond to gravel as confirmed by
drilling. The lower resistivities (< 2 Ohmm) correspond to sand and clay.
Based on these results trenching costs were estimated and pipe burial operations were planned.

WEST-INDIA PORT DEVELOPMENT

In 2000 a resistivity survey was carried out along the

West-Coast of India in view of the development of a
new port. The exact location is not disclosed for
commercial reasons. The geology along the West
Coast of India is generally known to consist of mud
and clay on basalt rock. Seismic exploration methods often fail because of multiple reflections in shallow water and effects of gas-masking in organic
rich muds.
A large number of resistivity lines were sailed in
various directions following the accessibility of the

Proceedings ISC2 on Geotechnical and Geophysical Site Characterization, Viana da Fonseca & Mayne (eds.)

429

survey area, a 3D model was worked out including

horizontal and vertical resistivity sections as the one
shown in figure 3.
The upper part of figure 3 shows a horizontal section at 11 m below Chart Datum while the lower part

shows a vertical section along profile line P3 marked

on the horizontal section. The vertical scale is exaggerated 100 times.

Marine clay
Solid basalt

P3
Resistivity Scale
> 3 Ohmm
2 3 Ohmm
1 2 Ohmm
0,5 0,7 Ohmm
< 0,5 Ohmm

1 km
-11 m

Continental sediments
Soft mud
marine clay

P3

0
-4
-8
-12

Continental sediments

Solid
basalt

weathered
basalt

Figure 3: West-India port development resistivity survey

The vertical resistivity sections shows a low resistivity top structure of soft mud (< 0.5 Ohmm) and
more consolidated marine clay (0.5-0.7 Ohmm) on
top of a substratum consisting of high resistivity
solid basalt (> 3 Ohmm) and weathered basalt with
slightly lower resistivities (2-3 Ohmm) Intermediate
resistivities (1-2 Ohmm) correspond to detritic
sediments of continental origin deposited in valleys
cut into the basaltic basement.
Based on above resistivity results, a drilling campaign was organised involving a limited number of
(expensive) boreholes to confirm the geotechnical
nature of each of above described structures. Based
on the combined geophysical and geotechnical information turning basins, access channels and reclamation areas were designed in a most costeffective way.

430

INN RIVER RESISTIVITY SURVEY

In 2003 a site investigation program was carried out

on the river Inn in Austria and Germany along a 4
km long river section located downstream of a high
dam. The geology in the survey area is known to
consist of two gravel units separated by a clay intercalation. As the lower gravel unit is an important
aquifer contributing to the regions drinking water
supply local authorities were worried about maninduced effects of river erosion cutting through the
impervious clay layer and exposing the lower aquifer to contaminated surface water.
In order to obtain more detailed information on
the geological structure of the river bed a resistivity
survey was carried out on the river before starting
the drilling campaign. Seven lines were sailed at
about 10 m interspacing, a 3D model was con 2004 Millpress, Rotterdam, ISBN 90 5966 009 9

structed and presented as various horizontal and vertical resistivity sections. Figure 4 shows some examples of such horizontal and vertical sections located between KP207.5 (downstream) to KP209.5
(upstream). The upper horizontal section is situated

at NN458 (458 m above German Chart Datum) in

the upper gravel unit while the lower horizontal section at NN454 is cutting through the lower gravel
unit.

Km 208

NN 485 m

Silty clay

Resistivity Scale
> 150 Ohmm

km 209

80 120 Ohmm
< 80 Ohmm

NN 454 m

Sand and silt

Sandy gravel
Clay intercalation
Upper gravel unit
Lower gravel unit

Silty clay
Tributary
confluence

Sand and silt

462
458
454
450
Km 209

Km 208

Figure 4: Inn river resistivity survey

Subsequent borehole information made clear that

high resistivities (>150 Ohmm) shown in Figure 4
correspond to sandy gravel while lower resistivities
(80-120 Ohmm) correlate with finer sediments such
as sand and silt deposited as channel-fill sediments.
Very low resistivities (< 80 Ohmm) are associated
with the clay intercalation mentioned above. Very
low resistivities are also associated with clay and silt
deposits found at KP209.3 at the confluence of a
small tributary on the right bank of the river. The
vertical section below in Figure 4 shows this silt and
clay deposit to be very thick. Apparently the vortex
associated with the confluence of both the Inn and
its tributary must have been cutting through both
gravel units as well as the clay intercalation. The
idea that upper and lower gravel formations were
two hydrologically separate units thus has to be
abandoned. Even between KP208.5 and KP209.1 the
low resistivity clay intercalation seems to be missing
and mostly replaced by gravel.
7

MIDDLE EAST SAND SEARCH SURVEY

A resistivity survey was carried out on a location in

the Persian Gulf with the aim of finding sand for
reclamation purposes. The geology consisted of sand
and silt sediments on top of a basement rock. A large
surface area was overgrown with coral fields. Previous seismic and geotechnical surveys failed to find
sand deposits in this area.

rock

Cap rock

sand

E
-15

0,8-3,0 Ohmm
0,7-1,5 Ohmm

-20

< 0,7 Ohmm

-25
1000

2000

3000

Figure 5: Sand search in caprock covered area

The western reaches of the resistivity section

shown in Figure 5 show a high resistivity caprock
layer (0.8-3.0 Ohmm) on top of a 4 to 5 m thick sand
deposit (<0.7 Ohmm) resting on basement rock (0.71.5 Ohmm). Dredging operations in this area have
indeed confirmed the existence of a 2 m thick
caprock on top of the sand deposit.
8

CONCLUSIONS

The Aquares resistivity method is a quantitative

geophysical tool that can be used in a large variety
of site investigations involving dredging reconnaissance, port design, sand searches, pipe route surveys
or sand and gravel exploration. It has been successfully applied in shallow water, gravel, in caprock
covered areas and in organic rich sediments where
seismic methods often tend to be less effective.
As each volume in the geological subsurface has
a specific resistivity value defining the nature of the
geological subsurface at each point in space, quanti-

Proceedings ISC2 on Geotechnical and Geophysical Site Characterization, Viana da Fonseca & Mayne (eds.)

431

tative resistivity methods offer the possibility to develop digital 3D models of the geological subsurface
which can be visualised as colored horizontal and
vertical sections.
REFERENCES
Koefoed, O. 1970. A fast method for determining the Layer
Distribution from the Raised Kernel Function in Geoelectrical Sounding. Geoph. Prosp. 18, 564-569.
Lines, L.R. and Treitel S. 1984. Tutorial. A review of leastsquares inversion and its application to Geophysical Problems. Geoph. Prosp. 32, 159-186.
Loke, M.H. and Barker, R.D. 1996. Rapid Least-Squares Inversion of Apparent Resistivity Pseudosections by a quasiNewtonian Method. Geoph. Prosp. 44, 131-152.
Zohdy, A.A.R. 1989. A new method for the automated interpretation of Schlumberger and Wenner sounding curves.
Geoph. 54, 245-253.

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2004 Millpress, Rotterdam, ISBN 90 5966 009 9