TELECOM NETWORKING

A SUMMER INTERN REPORT

Submitted by

UNIQUE KUMAR
00314802812
in partial fulfillment of Summer Internship for the award of the degree
of

BACHELOR OF TECNOLOGY
IN
ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

Maharaja Agrasen Institute of Technology

Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University,

Delhi
2012-2016

Maharaja Agrasen Institute of Technology

To Whom It May Concern

I _______________________, Enrolment No. ______________from a student of Bachelor of
Technology (ECE), a class of 2012-16, Maharaja Agrasen Institute of Technology, Delhi hereby
declare
that
the
Summer
Training
entitled
___________________________________________________
________at ________________________________ is an original work and the same has
not been submitted to any other Institute for the award of any other degree.

Date:
Student

Signature of the

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
It is my pleasure to be indebted to various people, who directly or indirectly contributed in the
development of this work and who influenced my thinking, behavior, and acts during the course of
study.
I express my sincere gratitude to Mr. Rakesh Gusain, Training Head of Bharti Airtel Ltd. for
providing me an opportunity to undergo summer training at Airtel.
I am thankful to Mr. Yuvraj, Switching Engineer at Aitel for his support, cooperation and
motivation provided to me during the training for constant inspiration, presence and blessings.
Lastly, I would like to thank the almighty and my parents for their moral support and my friends
with whom I shared my day-to-day experience and received lots of suggestions that improved my
quality of work.

III

CONTENTS
Title Page

Certificate

II

Acknowledgement

III

List of Figures

IV

List of Tables

CONTENTS

VI

LIST OF FIGURE
S.no Fig No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18

1.1
1.2
3.1
4.1
4.2
5.1
5.2
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.7
6.8
6.9
8.1
8.2

19

8.3

Figure Description

Pg No.

Services Offered By Bharti Airtel

1
History Of Telecommunication
2
Broadband Services by Telecommunication Networks
7
Types Of Networks
8
Network Topologies
9
Bearer Service Functions
10
Teleservice Functions
11
Structure of Telecom Networks
13
GSM Network Architecture
14
Actual Siemens BTS Device
16
BTS Tower
17
Base Station Subsystem
20
BSS Interfaces to the MS & GPRS Core Network
21
Mobile Switching Center
22
Home Location Register
24
Authentication Center
27
SIM Chip Structure and Packaging
32
Full Size SIM(1FF), Mini SIM(2FF), Micro SIM(3FF),Nano 34
SIM(4FF)
Types Of Signaling
35

IV

LIST OF TABLE
S.No Table No. Table Description

Page No

1
2
3
4

4
5
31
33

2.1
2.2
8.1
8.2

GSM History
Specification Summary for GSM Cellular System
HSCSD Data Rates
SIM Sizes

CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1: Various Services Offered by Bharti Airtel1
1.2: History of Telecommunication..2
CHAPTER 2: GSM
2.1: What is GSM?...........................................................................................3
2.2: Why GSM?................................................................................................3
2.3: GSM History..4
CHAPTER 3: TELECOM LINKS AND SERVICE
3.1: Telecommunication Links..6
3.1.1: Uplink.6
3.1.2: Downlink7
3.1.3: Forward Link..7
3.1.4: Reverse Link...7
3.2: Broadband Services by Telecom Networks7
CHAPTER 4: TYPES OF NETWORKS
4.1: Network Topology..8
CHAPTER 5: TELECOMMUNICATION SERVICES
5.1: Bearer Services..10
5.2: Teleservices11
5.3: Supplementary Services.11

Chapter 6: Telecommunication Architecture

6.1: Mobile Station14
6.2: Base Transceiver Station16
6.2.1: General BTS Architecture..17

VI

6.3: Base Station Controller..18

6.4: Base Station Subsystem.20
6.4.1: BSS Interfaces....20
6.5: Mobile Switching Center22
6.5.1: Mobile Location Register...23
6.6: Visitor Location Register...25
6.7: Authentication Center26
6.8: Equipment Identity Register..28
CHAPTER 7: MOBILE SUBSCRIBER IDENTITIES IN GSM
7.1: International Mobile subscriber Identity(IMSI).29
7.2: Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity(TMSI)..29
7.3: Mobile Station ISDN Number....29
7.4: The Mobile Station Roaming Number(MSRN).29
7.5: International Mobile Equipment Identity(IMEI)....30
7.6: Location Area Code(LAC).30
7.7: Cell Global Identity(CGI)...30
7.8: Base Station Identity Code(BSIC)..30

CHAPTER 8: FEW MORE TELECOMMUNICATION CONCEPTS

8.1: High Speed Circuit Switched Data31
8.2: Subscriber Identity Module...32
8.2.1: Design32
8.2.2: Data33
8.2.3: Format33
8.3: Signaling34
8.3.1: Classification of Signaling.34

8.3.2: Signaling Modes.35

8.3.3: Classification of External Signaling...35
8.3.4: Common Channel Signaling...35
8.3.5: Signaling Network Terminology36
CHAPTER 9: CONCLUSION..38
REFERENCES.39

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Various Services Offered By BHARTI AIRTEL

Fig 1.1 Services Offered by Bharti Airtel

Mobile Services:-Bharti AirTel offers GSM mobile services in all the 22-telecom circles of India and
is the largest mobile service provider in the country, based on the number of customers.
AirTel Business:-AirTel business provides a broad portfolio of services to large Enterprise,
Government, Small & Medium businesses and carrier customers. It is Indias leading and most trusted
provider of communication and ICT services, offering services that include voice, data, network
integration, data center & managed services, enterprise mobile applications and digital media
AirTel Telemedia Services:-The group offers high-speed broadband with the best in class network.
With fixed line services in 87 cities, we help you stay in touch with your friends & family and keep
you updated round the clock
AirTel Digital Media Services:-Discover the magical experience of digital entertainment with AirTel.
From DVD quality picture and sound, the best and widest variety of channels and programmes to the
best on-demand content on AirTel Live, your TV viewing experience change forever with digital TV
from AirTel

1.

1.2 HISTORY OF TELECOMMUNICATION

Fig 1.2 History of Telecommunication

1G (First Generation ): 1G is the first generation cellular network that existed in 19805. It transfer
data (only voice) in analog wave, it has limitation because there are no encryption, the sound quality is
poor and the speed of transfer is only at 9.6kbps.
2G (Second Generation): 2G is the second one, improved by introducing the concept of digital
modulation, which means converting the voice (only) into digital code (in your phone) and then into
analog signals. Being digital, they overcame some of the limitations of 1G, such as it omits the radio
power from handsets making life more healthier, and it has enhanced privacy privacy.
2G & 2.5G(GPRS,EDGE): 2.5G is a transition of 2G and 3G. In 2.5G, the most popular services like
SMS (short messaging service), GPRS, EDGE, High Speed Circuit switched data, and more had been
introduced.
3G(Third Generation ): 3G is the current generation of mobile telecommunication standards. It allows
simultaneous use of speech and data services and offers data rates of up to 2 Mbps, which provide
services like video calls, mobile TV, mobile Internet and downloading. There are a bunch of
technologies that fall under 3G, like WCDMA, EV-DO, and HSPA etc..
4G (Fourth Generation): 4Gis the fourth generation of cellular wireless standards. It is a successor to
the 3G and 2G families of standards. In 2008, the ITU-R organization specified the IMT-Advanced
(International Mobile Telecommunications Advanced) requirements for 4G standards, setting peak
speed requirements for 4G service at 100 Mbit/s for high mobility communication (such as from trains
and cars) and l Gbit/s for low mobility communication (such as pedestrians and stationary users) 4G
system is expected to provide a comprehensive and secure all-IP based mobile broadband solution to
laptop computer wireless modems,smart phones, and other mobile devices. Facilities such as ultrabroadband Internet access, IP telephony, gaming services, and streamed multimedia may be provided
to users. PRE-4G technologies such as mobile WiMaX and Long term evolution (LTE) have been on
the market since 2006 and 2009 respectively, and are often branded as 4G. The current versions of
these technologies did not fulfill the original ITU-R requirements of data rates approximately up to 1
Gbit/s for 4G system.

2.

CHAPTER 2. GSM
2.1 WHAT IS GSM?
GSM stands for Global System for Mobile Communication. It is a digital cellular technology
used for transmitting mobile voice and data services.
The concept of GSM emerged from a cell-based mobile radio system at Bell Laboratories in the
early 1970s.
GSM is the name of a standardization group established in 1982 to create a common European
mobile telephone standard.
GSM is a circuit-switched system that divides each 200 kHz channel into eight 25 kHz timeslots. GSM operates on the mobile communication bands 900 MHz and 1800 MHz in most
parts of the world. In the US, GSM operates in the bands 850 MHz and 1900 MHz.
GSM owns a market share of more than 70 percent of the world's digital cellular subscribers.
GSM makes use of narrowband Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) technique for
transmitting signals.
GSM was developed using digital technology. It has an ability to carry 64 kbps to 120 Mbps of
data rates.
Presently GSM supports more than one billion mobile subscribers in more than 210 countries
throughout the world.
GSM provides basic to advanced voice and data services including roaming service. Roaming
is the ability to use your GSM phone number in another GSM network.
GSM digitizes and compresses data, then sends it down through a channel with two other
streams of user data, each in its own timeslot.
2.2 WHY GSM?

Improved spectrum efficiency

International roaming

Low-cost mobile sets and base stations (BSs)

3.

2.3 GSM HISTORY

Years

Events

1982

Conference of European Posts and Telegraph (CEPT) establishes a GSM group to widen the standards for a
pan-European cellular mobile system.

1985

A list of recommendations to be generated by the group is accepted.

1986

Executed field tests to check the different radio techniques recommended for the air interface

1987

Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) is chosen as the access method (with Frequency Division Multiple Acce
[FDMA]). The initial Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) is signed by telecommunication operators representin
12 countries

1988

GSM system is validated.

1989

The European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) was given the responsibility of the
GSM specifications.

1990

Phase 1 of the GSM specifications is delivered.

1991

Commercial launch of the GSM service occurs. The DCS1800 specifications are finalized.

1992

The addition of the countries that signed the GSM MoU takes place. Coverage spreads to larger cities and airports.

1993

Coverage of main roads GSM services starts outside Europe.

1994

Data transmission capabilities launched. The number of networks rises to 69 in 43 countries by the end of 1994.

1995

Phase 2 of the GSM specifications occurs. Coverage is extended to rural areas.

1996

June: 133 network in 81 countries operational.

1997

July: 200 network in 109 countries operational, around 44 million subscribers worldwide.

1999

Wireless Application Protocol (WAP) came into existence and became operational in 130 countries with 260
million subscribers.

2000

General Packet Radio Service(GPRS) came into existence.

2001

As of May 2001, over 550 million people were subscribers to mobile telecommunications.
Table 2.1 History of GSM

4.

SPECIFICATION SUMMARY FOR GSM

CELLULAR SYSTEM

Multiple
technology

access

FDMA / TDMA

Duplex technique

FDD

Uplink
band

frequency

890 - 915 MHz

(basic 900 MHz band
only)

Downlink
band

frequency

933 -960 MHz

(basic 900 MHz band
only)

Channel spacing

200 kHz

Modulation

GMSK

Speech coding

Various - original was

RPE-LTP/13

Speech channels per

RF channel

Channel data rate

270.833 kbps

Frame duration

4.615 ms

Table 2.2 Specification Summary for

GSM Cellular System

5.

CHAPTER 3. TELECOM LINKS AND SERVICES

The telecommunications infrastructure of a network operator consists of a set of networks
(transmission network, switching network, access network, signaling network, mobile network,
intelligent network, management network), each performing a particular function towards the
provision of the service to the customer. With the evolution towards IP-based network, the circuit
switched network is migrating towards a new architecture called Next Generation Network (NGN)
which emulates the behavior of circuit switching. With the advent of broadband access networks, the
core network evolves towards IP Multimedia Subsystem (IMS) which provides IP-based multimedia
services.
The objective of this tutorial is to briefly introduce the telecommunication network structure to
acquire the vocabulary of the field, understand the several types of networks involved in the operators
Telecommunication Network, and gain knowledge on how these networks interface and
interoperate. The various services supplied by each type of network are also emphasized. Another
important objective of the tutorial is to introduce the evolutions of these networks and services on the
medium and long terms.A Telecommunication network consists of two parts: the network
(transmission, switching, access, signaling, mobile, intelligent network)
The business and technical information system which consists of OSS (Operating Support System)
and BSS (Business Support system).
3.1 TELECOMMUNICATIONS LINK
A telecommunications link is generally one of several types of information transmission paths
accomplished by communication satellites to connect two points on earth.
3.1.1 UPLINK
An uplink (UL or U/L) is the portion of a communications link used for the transmission of signals
from an Earth terminal to a satellite or to an airborne platform. An uplink is the inverse of a downlink.
An uplink or downlink is distinguished from reverse link or forward link.
Pertaining to data transmission from a data station to the headed. Pertaining to GSM and cellular
networks, the radio uplink is the transmission path from the Mobile Station (Cell Phone) to a Base
Station (Cell Site). Traffic and signaling flows within the BSS and NSS may also be identified as
uplink and downlink. Up Link Frequency 890 915 MHz. GSM-1800 Up Link Frequency 1710
1785 MHz .

6.

3.1.2 DOWNLINK
A downlink (DL) is the link from a satellite to a ground station.Pertaining to cellular networks, the
radio downlink is the transmission path from a Base Transceiver Station (Cell Site) to the Mobile
Station (Cell Phone). Traffic and signaling flows within the BSS and NSS may also be identified as
uplink and downlink. Down Link Frequency 935 960 MHz.GSM-1800 . Down Link Frequency
1805 1880MHz.
3.1.3 FORWARD LINK
A forward link is the link from a fixed location (e.g., a base station) to a mobile user. If the link
includes a communications relay satellite, the forward link will consist of both an uplink (base station
to satellite) and a downlink (satellite to mobile user).
3.1.4 REVERSE LINK
The reverse link (sometimes called a return link) is the link from a mobile user to a fixed base station.
If the link includes a communications relay satellite, the reverse link will consist of both an uplink
(mobile station to satellite) and a downlink (satellite to base station) which together constitute a half
hop. Carrier Spacing 200 KHz .Can support 1000 speech or data channels Uses GMSK modulation.

3.2 BROADBAND SERVICES BY TELECOM NETWORKS

Fig 3.1 Broadband Services by Telecom

7.

CHAPTER 4. TYPES OF NETWORKS

The three types of Networks include:
Local Area Network (LAN).
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN).
Wide Area Network (WAN).

Fig 4.1 Types of Networks

4.1 NETWORK TOPOLOGY

Network topology - refers to the geometric arrangement of the actual physical organization of the
computers and other network devices) in a network
Bus
Star
Ring
Hybrid
Wireless

8.

 Bus Topology:
All devices are connected to a central cable, called the bus or backbone. These networks are
relatively inexpensive and easy to install for small networks.
Star Topology:
All devices are connected to a central device, called a hub. Star networks are relatively easy to install
& manage, but bottlenecks can occur because all data must pass through the hub .
Ring Topology:
The ring topology connects computers on a single circle of cable. Signals travel around the loop in
one direction and pass through each computer acting like a repeater to boost the signal and send it on
to the next computer.
Hybrid Topology:
Groups of star-configured workstations are connected to a linear bus backbone cable, combining the
characteristics of bus and star topologies.
Wireless Topology:
Devices are connected by a receiver/transmitter to a special network interface card that transmits
signals between a computer and a server---all with an acceptable transmission range.

Fig 4.2 Network Topologies

9.

CHAPTER 5. TELECOMMUNICATION SERVICES

The ETSI Standards define the telecommunication services. With D900/D1800 the GSM
telecommunication services offered to the GSM subscriber are subdivided as follows:
1. Bearer services (for data only)
2. Tele-services (for voice and data)
3. Supplementary services
Bearer services and tele-services are also called basic telecommunication services. The use of GSM
telecommunication services is subject to subscription. A basic subscription permits participation in
those GSM telecommunication services that are generally available.
If a GSM subscriber roams out of the entitled area there is no possibility of establishing
communication (roaming not allowed), except the use of the tele-service emergency call.
5.1 Bearer Services
Bearer services are telecommunication services providing the capability of transmission of signals
between access points. The bearer services describe what the network can offer (e.g. speech, data and
fax).
The bearer services are pure transport services for data. Some of the transmission modes and rates
already used in modern data networks are implemented; others are planned. The following, already
implemented, bearer services provide unrestricted information transfer between the reference points in
the mobile stations.

Fig 5.1 Bearer Sevice Functions

Data CDA (circuit duplex asynchronous) + basic PAD (packet assembler Disassembler) access
Data CDS (circuit duplex synchronous)

PAD CDA (dedicated PAD access)

Alternate speech/data CDA (circuit duplex asynchronous)
Speech followed by data CDA (circuit duplex asynchronous)
Data compression on the GSM radio interface

10.

5.2 Teleservices
Teleservices are telecommunication services including terminal equipment functions, which provide
communication between users according to protocols established by agreement between network
operators. The teleservices are user end-to-end services (e.g. emergency call and short message
service).
Tele-services use both low layer and high layer functions for the control of communication from
terminal to terminal. The following tele-services have already been realized:

Telephony
Emergency call
Short message service (SMS)
Short message cell broadcast
Automatic facsimile (group 3)
Alternative speech and facsimile (group 3)

Fig 5.2 Teleservice Functions

5.3 Supplementary Services

Supplementary Services modify or supplement a basic telecommunication service. Consequently,
they cannot be offered to a customer as a stand-alone service. They must be offered together or in
association with a basic telecommunication service. The same supplementary service may be
applicable to a number of telecommunication services. Most supplementary services are directly
inherited from a fixed network, with minor modifications (when needed) to adapt to mobility.
Examples of supplementary services are calling line identification and call waiting.
Supplementary services extend beyond the normal bearer services and teleservices (basic
telecommunication services) and can be subscribed to separately. In the following a supplementary
service is called simply service, in contrast to basic telecommunication service.

11.

 Number Identification Services

o Calling line identification presentation (CLIP)
o Calling line identification restriction (CLIR)
Call Offering Services
o Call forwarding unconditional (CFU)
o Call forwarding on mobile subscriber busy (CFB)
o Call forwarding on no reply (CFNRy)
o Call forwarding on mobile subscriber not reachable (CFNRc)

Call Completion Services

o Call hold
o Call waiting (CW)
Multi-Party Service
Charging Services
o Advice of charge (AOC)
Call Restriction Services
o Barring of all outgoing calls (BAOC)
o Barring of all outgoing international calls (BOIC)
o Barring of all outgoing international calls except to home PLMN country (BOICexHC)
o Barring of all incoming calls (BAIC)
o Barring of all incoming calls when roaming outside home PLMN country (BIC Roam)
Closed User Group (CUG)

12.

CHAPTER .6 TELECOMMUNICATION ARCHITECTURE

Fig 6.1 Structure of Telecom Networks

GSM network can be viewed as consisting of major parts: the Mobile Station(MS) (not shown in the
figure), the Mobile Switching Center (MSC), the Base Station Controller (BSC) and the Base
Transceiver Station (BTS). The Home and Visitor Location
Registers (HLR and VLR) and other back-office subsystems are considered to be part of the MSC
since these links would not normally be routed via satellite. In a typical network, there is a single
MSC, a few BSCs and many BTSs. The equipment cost also decreases from MSC to BSC to BTS.
This distribution is important when considering where to put the satellite link.

13.

Fig 6.2 GSM Network

6.1 Mobile Station

A mobile station (MS) comprises all user equipment and software needed for communication with a
mobile network.
The term refers to the global system connected to the mobile network, i.e. a mobile phone or mobile
computer connected using a mobile broadband adapter. This is the terminology of 2G systems like
GSM. In 3G systems, a mobile station (MS) is now referred to as user equipment (UE).
In GSM, a mobile station consists of four main components:

Mobile termination (MT) - offers common functions of a such as: radio Transmission and
handover, speech encoding and decoding, Error detection and correction, signalling and access
to the SIM. The IMEI code is attached to the MT. It is equivalent to the network termination of
an ISDN access.

Terminal equipment (TE) - is any device connected to the MS offering services to the user. It
does not contain any functions specific to GSM.

Terminal adapter (TA) - Provides access to the MT as if it were an ISDN network

termination with extended capabilities. Communication between the TE and MT over the TA
takes place using AT commands.

Subscriber identity module (SIM) - is a removable subscriber identification token storing the
IMSI a unique key shared with the mobile network operator and other data.

In a mobile phone, the MT, TA and TE are enclosed in the same case. However, the MT and TE
functions are often performed by distinct processors. The application processor serves as a TE, while
the baseband processor serves as a MT, communication between both takes place over a bus using AT
commands, which serves as a TA.

14
.
The MS includes radio equipment and the man machine interface (MMI) that a subscriber needs in
order to access the services provided by the GSM PLMN also named as ME. MS can be installed in
vehicles or can be portable. The MS may include provisions for data communication as well as voice.
A mobile transmits and receive messages to and from the GSM system over the air interface to
establish and continue connections through the system.
Different types of MSs can provide different types of data interfaces. To provide a common
model for describing these different MS configuration, reference configuration for MS, similar to
those defined for ISDN landstations. Each MS is identified by an IMEI that is permanently stored in
the mobile unit. Upon request, the MS send this number over the signaling channel to the MSC. The
IMEI can be used to identify mobile units that are reported stolen or operating incorrectly.
MOBILE STATION ROAMING NUMBER:

A Mobile Station Roaming Number (MSRN) is an E.164 defined telephone number used to route
telephone calls in a mobile network from a GMSC (Gateway Mobile Switching Centre) to the target
MSC (see Network Switching Subsystem). It can also be defined as a directory number temporarily
assigned to a mobile for a mobile terminated call. A MSRN is assigned for every mobile terminated
call, not only the calls where the
terminating MS lives on a different MSC than the originating MS. Although this seems unnecessary
since many vendors' VLR's are integrated with the MSC, the GSM specification indicates that the
MSC and VLR (Visitor Location Register) do not need to reside on the same switch. They are
considered two different nodes as they have their own routing addresses. i.e. the MSRN is one of the
returned parameters into SRI Response message. In particular the MSRN is used into an MNP
scenario (in this case it can be modified as 'RgN + MSISDN'.

15.
6.2 Base Transceiver Station
A base transceiver station (BTS) is a piece of equipment that facilitates wireless communication
between user equipment (UE) and a network. UEs are devices like mobile phones (handsets), WLL
phones, computers with wireless Internet connectivity. The network can be that of any of the wireless
communication technologies like GSM, CDMA, wireless local loop, Wi-Fi, WiMAX or other wide
area network (WAN) technology.
BTS is also referred to as the radio base station (RBS), node B (in 3G Networks) or, simply, the base
station (BS). For discussion of the LTE standard the abbreviation eNB for evolved node B is widely
used.
Though the term BTS can be applicable to any of the wireless communication standards, it is
generally associated with mobile communication technologies like GSM and CDMA. In this regard, a
BTS forms part of the base station subsystem (BSS) developments for system management. It may
also have equipment for encrypting and decrypting communications, spectrum filtering tools (band
pass filters), etc. antennas may also be considered as components of BTS in general sense as they
facilitate the functioning of BTS. Typically a BTS will have several transceivers (TRXs) which allow
it to serve several different frequencies and different sectors of the cell (in the case of sectorised base
stations). A BTS is controlled by a parent base station controller via the base station control function
(BCF). The BCF is implemented as a discrete unit or even incorporated in a TRX in compact base
stations. The BCF provides an operations and maintenance (O&M) connection to the network
management system (NMS), and manages operational states of each TRX, as well as software
handling and alarm collection. The basic structure and functions of the BTS remains the same
regardless of the wireless technologies

Fig 6.3 Actual Siemens

BTS Device

16.

6.2.3 General BTS Architecture

A BTS it has the following parts:
Transceiver (TRX)
Quite widely referred to as the driver receiver (DRX), DRX are either in form of single
(sTRU), double(dTRU) or a composite double radio unit (DRU). It basically does transmission
and reception of signals. It also does sending and reception of signals to and from higher
network entities (like the base station controller in mobile telephony).
Power amplifier (PA)
Amplifies the signal from DRX for transmission through antenna; may be integrated with
DRX.
Combiner
Combines feeds from several DRXs so that they could be sent out through a single antenna.
Allows for a reduction in the number of antenna used.
Multiplexer
For separating sending and receiving signals to/from antenna. Does sending and receiving
signals through the same antenna ports (cables to antenna).
Antenna
This is the structure that the BTS lies underneath; it can be installed as it is or disguised in
some way (Concealed cell sites).
Alarm extension system
Collects working status alarms of various units in the BTS and extends them to operations and
maintenance (O&M) monitoring stations.
Control function
Controls and manages the various units of BTS, including any software. On-the-spot
configurations, status changes, software upgrades, etc. are done through the control function.
Baseband receiver unit (BBxx)
Frequency hopping, signal DSP.

BTS
Tower

Shelter which houses the

Fig 6.4 BTS Tower

17.
Diversity Techniques
To improve the quality of the received signal, often two receiving antennas are used, placed at an
equal distance to an uneven multiple of a quarter of wavelength (for 900 MHz the wavelength it is
30 cm). This technique, known as antenna diversity or space diversity, avoids interruption caused by
path fading. The antennas can be spaced horizontally or vertically. Horizontal spacing requires more
complex installation, but brings better performance.
Other than antenna or space diversity, there are other diversity techniques such as frequency/time
diversity, antenna pattern diversity, and polarization diversity.
Splitting refers to the flow of power within a particular area of the cell, known as a sector. Every field
can therefore be considered like one new cell.
Directional antennas reduce LORA interference. If not sectorised, the cell will be served by an
omnidirectional antenna, which radiates in all directions. A typical structure is the trisector, also
known as clover, in which there are three sectors served by separate antennas. Each sector has a
separate direction of tracking, typically of 120 with respect to the adjacent ones. Other orientations
may be used to suit the local conditions. Bisectored cells are also implemented. These are most often
oriented with the antennas serving sectors of 180 separation to one another, but again, local
variations do exist.
6.3 BASE STATION CONTROLLER
The base station controller (BSC) provides, classically, the intelligence behind the BTSs. Typically a
BSC has tens or even hundreds of BTSs under its control. The BSC handles allocation of radio
channels, receives measurements from the mobile phones, and controls handovers from BTS to BTS
(except in the case of an inter-BSC handover in which case control is in part the responsibility of the
anchor MSC). A key function of the BSC is to act as a concentrator where many different low capacity
connections to BTSs (with relatively low utilisation) become reduced to a smaller number of
connections towards the mobile switching center (MSC) (with a high level of utilisation). Overall, this
means that networks are often structured to have many BSCs distributed into regions near their BTSs
which are then connected to large centralised MSC sites.
The BSC is undoubtedly the most robust element in the BSS as it is not only a BTS controller but, for
some vendors, a full switching center, as well as an SS7 node with connections to the MSC and
serving GPRS support node (SGSN) (when using GPRS). It also provides all the required data to the
operation support subsystem (OSS) as well as to the performance measuring centers.
A BSC is often based on a distributed computing architecture, with redundancy applied to critical
functional units to ensure availability in the event of fault conditions. Redundancy often extends
beyond the BSC equipment itself and is commonly used in the power supplies and in the transmission
equipment providing the A-ter interface to PCU.
The databases for all the sites, including information such as carrier frequencies, frequency hopping
lists, power reduction levels, receiving levels for cell border calculation, are stored in the BSC. This
data is obtained directly from radio planning engineering which involves modelling of the signal
propagation as well as traffic projections.

18.
TRANSCODER
The transcoder is responsible for transcoding the voice channel coding between the coding used in the
mobile network, and the coding used by the world's terrestrial circuit-switched network, the Public
Switched Telephone Network. Specifically, GSM uses a regular pulse excited-long term prediction
(RPE-LTP) coder for voice data between the mobile device and the BSS, but pulse code modulation
(A-law or -law standardized in ITU G.711) upstream of the BSS. RPE-LPC coding results in a data
rate for voice of 13 kbit/s where standard PCM coding results in 64 kbit/s. Because of this change in
data rate for the same voice call, the transcoder also has a buffering function so that PCM 8-bit words
can be recoded to construct GSM 20 ms traffic blocks.
Although transcoding (compressing/decompressing) functionality is defined as a base station function
by the relevant standards, there are several vendors which have implemented the solution outside of
the BSC. Some vendors have implemented it in a stand-alone rack using a proprietary interface. In
Siemens' and Nokia's architecture, the transcoder is an identifiable separate sub-system which will
normally be co-located with the MSC. In some of Ericsson's systems it is integrated to the MSC rather
than the BSC. The reason for these designs is that if the compression of voice channels is done at the
site of the MSC, the number of fixed transmission links between the BSS and MSC can be reduced,
decreasing network infrastructure costs.
This subsystem is also referred to as the transcoder and rate adaptation unit (TRAU). Some networks
use 32 kbit/s ADPCM on the terrestrial side of the network instead of 64 kbit/s PCM and the TRAU
converts accordingly. When the traffic is not voice but data such as fax or email, the TRAU enables its
rate adaptation unit function to give compatibility between the BSS and MSC data rates.
PACKET CONTROL UNIT
The packet control unit (PCU) is a late addition to the GSM standard. It performs some of the
processing tasks of the BSC, but for packet data. The allocation of channels between voice and data is
controlled by the base station, but once a channel is allocated to the PCU, the PCU takes full control
over that channel.
The PCU can be built into the base station, built into the BSC or even, in some proposed architectures,
it can be at the SGSN site. In most of the cases, the PCU is a separate node communicating
extensively with the BSC on the radio side and the SGSN on the Gb side.

19.
6.4 BASE STATION SUBSYSTEM

The base station subsystem (BSS) is the section of a traditional cellular telephone network which is
responsible for handling traffic and signaling between a mobile phone and the network switching
subsystem. The BSS carries out transcoding of speech channels, allocation of radio channels to mobile
phones, paging, transmission and reception over the air interface and many other tasks related to the
radio network.

Fig 6.5Base Station

Subsystem

6.4.1 BSS INTERFACES

Um
The air interface between the mobile station (MS) and the BTS. This interface uses LAPDm
protocol for signaling, to conduct call control, measurement reporting, handover, power
control, authentication, authorization, location update and so on. Traffic and signaling are sent
in bursts of 0.577 ms at intervals of 4.615 ms, to form data blocks each 20 ms.
Abis
The interface between the BTS and BSC. Generally carried by a DS-1, ES-1, or E1 TDM
circuit. Uses TDM subchannels for traffic (TCH), LAPD protocol for BTS supervision and
telecom signaling, and carries synchronization from the BSC to the BTS and MS.
A
The interface between the BSC and MSC. It is used for carrying traffic channels and the
BSSAP user part of the SS7 stack. Although there are usually transcoding units between BSC
and MSC, the signaling communication takes place between these two ending points and the
transcoder unit doesn't touch the SS7 information, only the voice or CS data are transcoded or
rate adapted.

20.
Ater
The interface between the BSC and transcoder. It is a proprietary interface whose name
depends on the vendor (for example Ater by Nokia), it carries the A interface information from
the BSC leaving it untouched.
Gb
Connects the BSS to the SGSN in the GPRS core network.
Fig 6.6 BSS Interfaces to the MS and
GPRS core network

21.
6.5 MOBILE SWITCHING CENTER
A switching center coordinates all communication channels and processes. There are two types of
switches used in the GSM system; a mobile switching center (MSC) and a packet switching system.
Mobile Switching Center - MSC - processes requests for service connections from mobile devices
and land line callers, and routes calls between the base stations and the public switched telephone
network (PSTN). The MSC receives the dialed digits, creates and interprets call processing tones, and
routes the call paths.
Serving General Packet Radio Service Support Node - SGSN - is a packet switching node that
coordinates the operation of packet data devices that are operating within its service coverage range.
The SGSN operates in a process similar to that of a MSC and a VLR, except the SGSN performs
packet switching instead of circuit switching. The SGSN registers and maintains a list of active packet
data radios in its network and coordinates the packet transfer between the mobile radios.
Controls the call set up for incoming and outgoing calls. Interfaces to the PSTN and other mobile
networks. Usually there is one in a network or possibly one in each major city. All calls must go
through the MSC. Its a telephone switch that performs all the switching functions for MSs located in
geographical area as the MSC area. The MSC also handle different types of numbers and identities
related to the same MS and contained in diffe4rent registers: IMSI, TMSI, ISDN number, and MSRN.
In general identities are used in the interface between the MSC and the MS, while numbers are used in
the fixed part of the network, such as for routing.

Fig 6.7 Mobile Switching Center

22.
MOBILE SWITCHING CENTER SERVER:
The mobile switching center server is a soft-switch variant (therefore it may be referred as Mobile
Soft Switch, MSS) of the mobile switching center, which provides circuit-switched calling mobility
management, and GSM services to the mobile phones roaming within the area that it serves. MSS
functionality enables split between control (signalling) and user plane (bearer in network element
called as media gateway/MG), which guarantees better placement of network elements within the
network.
MSS and MGW media gateway makes it possible to cross-connect circuit switched calls switched by
using IP, ATM AAL2 as well as TDM. More information is available in 3GPP TS 23.205.
Circuit switching (CS) term used here originates from the traditional telecommunications systems.
However, modern MSS and MGW devices mostly use generic Internet technologies and form nextgeneration telecommunication networks. MSS software may run on generic computers or virtual
machines in cloud environment.
6.5.1 HOME LOCATION REGISTER
The home location register (HLR) is a central database that contains details of each mobile phone
subscriber that is authorized to use the GSM core network. There can be several logical, and physical,
HLRs per public land mobile network (PLMN), though one international mobile subscriber identity
(IMSI)/MSISDN pair can be associated with only one logical HLR (which can span several physical
nodes) at a time.
The HLRs store details of every SIM card issued by the mobile phone operator. Each SIM has a
unique identifier called an IMSI which is the primary key to each HLR record.
Another important item of data associated with the SIM are the MSISDNs, which are the telephone
numbers used by mobile phones to make and receive calls. The primary MSISDN is the number used
for making and receiving voice calls and SMS, but it is possible for a SIM to have other secondary
MSISDNs associated with it for fax and data calls. Each MSISDN is also a primary key to the HLR
record. The HLR data is stored for as long as a subscriber remains with the mobile phone operator.
Examples of other data stored in the HLR against an IMSI record is:

GSM services that the subscriber has requested or been given.

GPRS settings to allow the subscriber to access packet services.

Current location of subscriber (VLR and serving GPRS support node/SGSN).

Call divert settings applicable for each associated MSISDN.

The HLR is a system which directly receives and processes MAP transactions and messages from
elements in the GSM network, for example, the location update messages received as mobile phones
roam around.

23.
Other GSM core network elements connected to the HLR
The HLR connects to the following elements:

The G-MSC for handling incoming calls

The VLR for handling requests from mobile phones to attach to the network

The SMSC for handling incoming SMSs

The voice mail system for delivering notifications to the mobile phone that a message is
waiting

The AuC for authentication and ciphering and exchange of data (triplets)

Main Functions of HLR:

Manage the mobility of subscribers by means of updating their position in administrative areas
called 'location areas', which are identified with a LAC. The action of a user of moving from
one LA to another is followed by the HLR with a Location area update procedure.

Send the subscriber data to a VLR or SGSN when a subscriber first roams there.

Broker between the G-MSC or SMSC and the subscriber's current VLR in order to allow
incoming calls or text messages to be delivered.

Remove subscriber data from the previous VLR when a subscriber has roamed away from it.

Responsible for all SRI related queries (i.e. for invoke SRI, HLR should give sack SRI or SRI
reply).

Fig 6.8 Home Location Register

24.
6.6 VISITOR LOCATION REGISTER
The Visitor Location Register (VLR) is a database of the subscribers who have roamed into the
jurisdiction of the MSC (Mobile Switching Center) which it serves. Each main base station in the
network is served by exactly one VLR (one BTS may be served by many MSCs in case of MSC in
pool), hence a subscriber cannot be present in more than one VLR at a time.
The data stored in the VLR has either been received from the HLR, or collected from the MS ( Mobile
station). In practice, for performance reasons, most vendors integrate the VLR directly to the V-MSC
and, where this is not done, the VLR is very tightly linked with the MSC via a proprietary interface.
Whenever an MSC detects a new MS in its network, in addition to creating a new record in the VLR,
it also updates the HLR of the mobile subscriber, apprising it of the new location of that MS. If VLR
data is corrupted it can lead to serious issues with text messaging and call services.
Data stored include:

IMSI (the subscriber's identity number).

Authentication data.

MSISDN (the subscriber's phone number).

GSM services that the subscriber is allowed to access.

access point (GPRS) subscribed.

The HLR address of the subscriber.

SCP Address(For Prepaid Subscriber).

Main Functions Of VLR

To inform the HLR that a subscriber has arrived in the particular area covered by the VLR.

To track where the subscriber is within the VLR area (location area) when no call is ongoing.

To allow or disallow which services the subscriber may use.

To allocate roaming numbers during the processing of incoming calls.

To purge the subscriber record if a subscriber becomes inactive whilst in the area of a VLR.
The VLR deletes the subscriber's data after a fixed time period of inactivity and informs the
HLR (e.g., when the phone has been switched off and left off or when the subscriber has
moved to an area with no coverage for a long time).

To delete the subscriber record when a subscriber explicitly moves to another, as instructed by
the HLR.

25.
6.7 AUTHENTICATION CENTER

The authentication center (AuC) is a function to authenticate each SIM card that attempts to connect
to the GSM core network (typically when the phone is powered on). Once the authentication is
successful, the HLR is allowed to manage the SIM and services described above. An encryption key is
also generated that is subsequently used to encrypt all wireless communications (voice, SMS, etc.)
between the mobile phone and the GSM core network.
If the authentication fails, then no services are possible from that particular combination of SIM card
and mobile phone operator attempted. There is an additional form of identification check performed
on the serial number of the mobile phone described in the EIR section below, but this is not relevant to
the AuC processing.
Proper implementation of security in and around the AuC is a key part of an operator's strategy to
avoid SIM cloning.
The AuC does not engage directly in the authentication process, but instead generates data known as
triplets for the MSC to use during the procedure. The security of the process depends upon a shared
secret between the AuC and the SIM called the Ki. The Ki is securely burned into the SIM during
manufacture and is also securely replicated onto the AuC. This Ki is never transmitted between the
AuC and SIM, but is combined with the IMSI to produce a challenge/response for identification
purposes and an encryption key called Kc for use in over the air communications.
Other GSM core network elements connected to the AuC
The AuC connects to the following elements:

The MSC which requests a new batch of triplet data for an IMSI after the previous data have
been used. This ensures that same keys and challenge responses are not used twice for a
particular mobile.

The AuC stores the following data for each IMSI:

the Ki
Algorithm id. (the standard algorithms are called A3 or A8, but an operator may choose a
proprietary one).

When the MSC asks the AuC for a new set of triplets for a particular IMSI, the AuC first generates a
random number known as RAND. This RAND is then combined with the Ki to produce two numbers as
follows:

The Ki and RAND are fed into the A3 algorithm and the signed response (SRES) is calculated.

The Ki and RAND are fed into the A8 algorithm and a session key called Kc is calculated.

26.
The numbers (RAND, SRES, Kc) form the triplet sent back to the MSC. When a particular IMSI
requests access to the GSM core network, the MSC sends the RAND part of the triplet to the SIM. The
SIM then feeds this number and the Ki (which is burned onto the SIM) into the A3 algorithm as
appropriate and an SRES is calculated and sent back to the MSC. If this SRES matches with the SRES
in the triplet (which it should if it is a valid SIM), then the mobile is allowed to attach and proceed
with GSM services.
After successful authentication, the MSC sends the encryption key Kc to the base station controller
(BSC) so that all communications can be encrypted and decrypted. Of course, the mobile phone can
generate the Kc itself by feeding the same RAND supplied during authentication and the Ki into the A8
algorithm.
The AuC is usually collocated with the HLR, although this is not necessary. Whilst the procedure is
secure for most everyday use, it is by no means crack proof. Therefore, a new set of security methods
was designed for 3G phones.
A3 Algorithm is used to encrypt Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM) cellular
communications. In practice, A3 and A8 algorithms are generally implemented together (known as
A3/A8, see COMP128). An A3/A8 algorithm is implemented in Subscriber Identity Module (SIM)
cards and in GSM network Authentication Centers. It is used to authenticate the customer and
generate a key for encrypting voice and data traffic, as defined in 3GPP TS 43.020 (03.20 before Rel4). Development of A3 and A8 algorithms is considered a matter for individual GSM network
operators, although example implementations are available.
The AUC stores information that is necessary to protect communication through the air interface
against intrusions, to which the mobile is vulnerable. The legitimacy of the subscriber is established
through authentication and ciphering, which protects the user information against unwanted
disclosure. Authentication information and ciphering keys are stored in a database within the AUC,
which protects the user information against unwanted disclosures and access.

Fig 6.9 Authentication Center

27.
6.8 EQUIPMENT IDENTITY REGISTER

The equipment identity register is often integrated to the HLR. The EIR keeps a list of mobile
phones (identified by their IMEI) which are to be banned from the network or monitored. This is
designed to allow tracking of stolen mobile phones. In theory all data about all stolen mobile phones
should be distributed to all EIRs in the world through a Central EIR. It is clear, however, that there are
some countries where this is not in operation. The EIR data does not have to change in real time,
which means that this function can be less distributed than the function of the HLR. The EIR is a
database that contains information about the identity of the mobile equipment that prevents calls from
stolen, unauthorized or defective mobile stations. Some EIR also have the capability to log Handset
attempts and store it in a log file.
EIR is a database that store the IMEI numbers for all registered ME units. The IMEI uniquely
identifies all registered ME. There is generally one EIR per PLMN. It interfaces to the various HLR in
the PLMN. The EIR keeps track of all ME units in the PLMN, it maintains various lists of message.
The database stores the ME identification and has nothing do with subscriber who is receiving or
originating call. There are three classes of ME that are stored in the database, and each group has
different characteristics
White list : Contains those IMEI that are known to have been assigned to valid MSs. This is the
category of genuine equipment
Black list : contains IMEIs of mobiles that have been reported stolen.
Gray list : Contains IMEIs of mobiles that have problems(for example : faulty software, wrong make
of the equipment). This list contains all MEs with faults not important enough for barring.

28.

CHAPTER 7. MOBILE SUBSCRIBER IDENTITIES IN GSM

7.1 International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI)
An IMSI is assigned to each authorized GSM user. It consists of a mobile country code (MCC),
mobile network code (MNC) (to identify the PLMN), and a PLMN unique mobile subscriber
identification number (MSIN). The IMSI is the only absolute identity that a subscriber has within the
GSM system. The IMSI consists of the MCC followed by the MNC and MSIN and shall not exceed
15 digits. It is used in the case of system-internal signaling transactions in order to identify a
subscriber. The first two digits of the MSIN identify the HLR where the mobile subscriber is
administrated.

7.2 Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity (TMSI)

A TMSI is a MSC-VLR specific alias that is designed to maintain user confidentiality. It is assigned
only after successful subscriber authentication. The correlation of a TMSI to an IMSI only occurs
during a mobile subscribers initial transaction with an MSC (for example, location updating). Under
certain condition (such as traffic system disruption and malfunctioning of the system), the MSC can
direct individual TMSIs to provide the MSC with their IMSI.

7.3 Mobile Station ISDN Number

The MS international number must be dialed after the international prefix in order to obtain a mobile
subscriber in another country. The MSISDN numbers is composed of the country code (CC) followed
by the National Destination Code (NDC), Subscriber Number (SN), which shall not exceed 15 digits.
Here too the first two digits of the SN identify the HLR where the mobile subscriber is administrated.

7.4 The Mobile Station Roaming Number (MSRN)

The MSRN is allocated on temporary basis when the MS roams into another numbering area. The
MSRN number is used by the HLR for rerouting calls to the MS. It is assigned upon demand by the
HLR on a per-call basis. The MSRN for PSTN/ISDN routing shall have the same structure as
international ISDN numbers in the area in which the MSRN is allocated. The HLR knows in what
MSC/VLR service area the subscriber is located. At the reception of the MSRN, HLR sends it to the
GMSC, which can now route the call to the MSC/VLR exchange where the called subscriber is
currently registered.

29.
7.5 International Mobile Equipment Identity(IMEI)
The IMEI is the unique identity of the equipment used by a subscriber by each PLMN and is used to
determine authorized (white), unauthorized (black), and malfunctioning (gray) GSM hardware. In
conjunction with the IMSI, it is used to ensure that only authorized users are granted access to the
system.

7.6 Location Area Code- (LAC)

LAI is used for location updating of Mobile Subscribers.
LAI = MCC +MNC + LAC (Mobile Country Code + Mobile Network Code + Location area
Code).

MCC = 3 Digits (Identifies the Mobile Country Code of 3 digits same as IMSI
MNC = 2 Digits (Identifies the Mobile Network Code of 2 Digits same as IMSI
LAC

= Location Area Code This identifies a location area within a GSM

PLMN network. The Maximum length of LAC is 16 bits, which enables

65, 53 location areas in one GSM PLMN.

7.7 Cell Global Identity (CGI)

CGI is used for cell identification within the GSM network. This is done by adding a cell identity (CI)
to the location area Identity.
CGI

= MCC + MNC + LAC +CI

Here CI = Cell Identity, identifies a cell within a location area consisting of maximum 16 bits.
7.8 Base Station Identity Code (BSIC)
BSIC= NCC + BCC (Network Color Code + Base station Color Code).
NCC - Network Color Code (3 Bits),identifies the GSM PLMN. This does not means that it
uniquely identifies the Operator. NCC is primarily used for distinguishing the operators of border side.

30.

CHAPTER 8. FEW MORE TELECOMMUNICATION CONCEPTS

8.1 HIGH SPEED CIRCUIT SWITCHED DATA

HSCSD is basically an upgrade of the original GSM CS data transmission system, by using HSCSD
the speed at which data is transmitted is greatly improved. The higher data transmission rates are
achieved by making use of bundled Traffic Channels (TCH). The way that this works is the MS
requests one or more TCHs from the GSM network, in other words the MSC will allocate TDMA slots
within a TDMA frame. This allocations do not need to be asymmetrical i.e. more slots can allocated
downlink than the uplink, this fit the behavior of most users, typically the user will download more
than they will upload. HSCSD requires software upgrades in an MS and MSC, this is because both
have to be able to split a single traffic stream into several traffic streams, each using a TCH, and then
to combine the streams again.
In theory a single MS could use all eight time slots within a TDMA frame to achieve an Air Interface
User Rate (AIUR), for example 8 TCH/F14.4 channels or 115.2 kbit/s (ETSI 1998) TR 101 186. One
major problem with this configuration is that the MS is required to send and receive at the same time.
However standard GSM does not support this, uplinks and down links are always shifted for three
slots. ESTI, (1997) EN 301 344, specifies that the AIUR available at 57.6 kbit/s (duplex) using four
time slots and four time slots for the downlink, the table on the next page shows the allowable
combinations of TCHs and allocated slots for non-transparent services.

Table 8.1 HSCSD Data Rates

Although HSCSD delivers major advantages in data transmission over GSM CS it does have several
major disadvantages, it still uses a connection-orientated mechanisms of GSM, these mechanisms are
not very efficient when it comes to computer data traffic, which typically uses bursts of data. If a large
file is being downloaded HSCSD may require all channels to be reserved, where as typical web
browsing would leave the channels idle most of the time. The allocation of channels is reflected
directly in the service cost, as once the channels have been reserved by one HSCSD user other users
can not use them, even if they are idle.

31.

8.2 SUBSCRIBER IDENTITY MODULE

A subscriber identity module or subscriber identification module (SIM) is an integrated circuit
chip that is intended to securely store the international mobile subscriber identity (IMSI) number and
its related key, which are used to identify and authenticate subscribers on mobile telephony devices
(such as mobile phones and computers). It is also possible to store contacts on many SIM cards. SIM
cards are always used on GSM phones; for CDMA phones, they are only needed for newer LTEcapable handsets. SIM cards can also be used in satellite phones.
The SIM circuit is part of the function of a Universal Integrated Circuit Card (UICC) physical smart
card, which is usually made of PVC with embedded contacts and semiconductors. "SIM cards" are
designed to be transferable between different mobile devices. The first UICC smart cards were the
size of credit and bank cards; the development of physically smaller mobile devices has prompted the
development of smaller SIM cards, where the size of the plastic carrier is reduced while keeping
electrical contacts the same.
A SIM card contains its unique serial number (ICCID), international mobile subscriber identity (IMSI)
number, security authentication and ciphering information, temporary information related to the local
network, a list of the services the user has access to, and two passwords: a personal identification
number (PIN) for ordinary use, and a personal unblocking code (PUK) for PIN unlocking.
8.2.1 DESIGN
There are three operating voltages for SIM cards: 5 V, 3 V and 1.8 V (ISO/IEC 7816-3 classes A, B
and C, respectively). The operating voltage of the majority of SIM cards launched before 1998 was 5
V. SIM cards produced subsequently are compatible with 3 V and 5 V. Modern cards support 5 V, 3 V
and 1.8 V.
Modern SIM cards allow applications to be loaded when the SIM is in use by thfe subscriber. These
applications communicate with the handset or a server using SIM application toolkit, which was
initially specified by 3GPP in TS 11.14 (there is an identical ETSI specification with different
numbering). ETSI and 3GPP maintain the SIM specifications; the main specifications are: ETSI TS
102 223, ETSI TS 102 241, ETSI TS 102 588, and ETSI TS 131 111. SIM toolkit applications were
initially written in native code using proprietary APIs. In order to allow interoperability of the
applications, Java Card was taken as the solution of choice by ETSI. Additional standards and
specifications of interest are maintained by Global Platform.

Fig 8.1 SIM Chip Structure and Packaging

32.
8.2.2 DATA

SIM cards store network-specific information used to authenticate and identify subscribers on the
network. The most important of these are the ICCID, IMSI, Authentication Key , Local Area Identity
(LAI) and Operator-Specific Emergency Number. The SIM also stores other carrier-specific data such
as the SMSC (Short Message Service Center) number, Service Provider Name (SPN), Service Dialing
Numbers (SDN), Advice-Of-Charge parameters and Value Added Service (VAS) applications. (Refer
to GSM 11.11.)
SIM cards can come in various data capacities, from 32 KB to at least 128 KB. All allow a maximum
of 250 contacts to be stored on the SIM, but while the 32 KB has room for 33 Mobile Network Codes
(MNCs) or "network identifiers", the 64 KB version has room for 80 MNCs. This is used by network
operators to store information on preferred networks, mostly used when the SIM is not in its home
network but is roaming. The network operator that issued the SIM card can use this to have a phone
connect to a preferred network, in order to make use of the best commercial agreement for the original
network company instead of having to pay the network operator that the phone 'saw' first. This does
not mean that a phone containing this SIM card can connect to a maximum of only 33 or 80 networks,
but it means that the SIM card issuer can specify only up to that number of preferred networks; if a
SIM is outside these preferred networks it will use the first or best available network.
8.2.3 FORMAT

Table 8.2 SIM Sizes

FULL SIZE SIM:

The full-size SIM (or 1FF, 1st form factor) was the first form factor to appear. It has the size of a credit
card (85.60 mm 53.98 mm 0.76 mm).
MINI SIM:
The mini-SIM (or 2FF) card has the same contact arrangement as the full-size SIM card and is
normally supplied within a full-size card carrier, attached by a number of linking pieces. This
arrangement allows such a card to be used in a device requiring a full-size card, or in a device
requiring a mini-SIM card after breaking the linking pieces.
MICRO SIM:
The micro-SIM was designed for backward compatibility. The major issue for backward compatibility
was the contact area of the chip. Retaining the same contact area allows the micro-SIM to be
compatible with the prior, larger SIM readers through the use of plastic cutout surrounds.
33.
NANO SIM:

The nano-SIM (or 4FF) card was introduced on 11 October 2012, when mobile service providers
began selling it in various countries. The nano-SIM measures 12.3 8.8 0.67 mm and reduces the
previous format to the contact area while maintaining the existing contact arrangements. A small rim
of isolating material is left around the contact area to avoid short circuits with the socket. The
0.67 mm thickness of the nano-SIM is about 12% less than the 0.76 mm of its predecessor.

Fig 8.2 Full Size SIM (1FF),Mini SIM(2FF),Micro SIM(3FF), Nano

SIM(4FF)

8.3 SIGNALLING
The term signaling is used in many contexts. In technical systems, it very often refers to the control of
different procedures. With reference to telephony, signaling means the transfer of information and the
instructions.
The main purpose of using signaling in modern telecom networks where different network nodes
must cooperate and communicate with each other is to enable transfer of control information
between nodes in connection with:
Traffic control procedures as set-up, supervision, and release of telecommunication
connections and services
Database communication, for example, database queries concerning specific services, roaming
in cellular networks, etc.
Network management procedures, for example, blocking or daglocking trunks.
It has always played a very important role in the field of comm, since it provide the means for the
information interchange between two or more nodes within a network basically it is used to exchange
of control information associated with the estab. of a telephone call on a telecommunication circuit.
8.3.1 Classification of Signalling
Line signaling - The intention to seize or to release a local line(in uni signaling) or a trunk
circuit(in nine signaling)
Register signaling - The call destination will have to be passed from the
register of the previous steps to the register of the next exchange

34.
8.3.2 Signaling modes

 Associative Mode: In this mode, signaling point are directly connected by means of signaling
links means direct link
Non Associative mode: In thisk mode, two signalling points do not have to be directly
connected by a signalling link. The signalling info. can be sent via multiple stp's.multiple paths
become available between two signalling points.

8.3.3 Classification of External Signaling

Traditionally, external signaling has been divided into two basic
types :
Access signaling (for example, Subscriber Loop Signaling)
o This means signaling between a subscriber terminal(telephone) and the local exchange.
Trunk signaling (that is, Inter-Exchange Signaling)
o This is used for signaling between exchanges.

Fig 8.3 Types of Signaling

8.3.4 Commom Channel Signaling

In CCS, signaling messages (or data packets) are transmitted over time slots in a PCM link reserved
for the purpose of signaling, instead of Line Signals and Register Signals (which do not exist in CCS).
The system is designed to use a common data channel (or signaling link) as the carrier of all signals,
required by a large number of traffic channels.In 1968, CCITT specified a Common Channel
Signaling system called CCS System No. 6, which was designed especially for international analogue
telephony networks. However, very few installations of this system remain today. It has, as already
mentioned, been replaced by Signaling System No. 7.

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The first version of Signaling System No. 7 (1980) was designed for telephony and data. In the 80s
the demand for new services dramatically increased and the SS7 was therefore developed to meet the
signaling requirements, specified for all these new services. Today SS7 is used by many different
networks and related services, typically within PSTN, ISDN, PLMN, and IN all over the world.
8.3.5 Signaling Network Terminology

Signaling Point (SP)

The switching or processing node in a signaling network where the functions of the Signaling System
No. 7 are implemented. The node may have the application functionality, for example, the MSC in
GSM or transit exchange in the PSTN.
Every SP is identified by a number determined by the Network Identifier (NI) and Signaling Point
Code (SPC). The network indicator provides discrimination between international and national
messages or discrimination between two national signaling networks. The Signaling Point Code (SPC)
uniquely identifies an SP within the signaling network.

Originating Point (OP)

The Signaling Point (SP) at which the signaling message is generated. It is identified by an
Originating Point Code (OPC).

Destination Point (DP):

The Signaling Point (SP) to which the signaling message is destined. It is identified by a
Destination Point Code (DPC). Note that OP/OPC and DP/DPC relate to MTP messages. An
application may send messages on longer distances and may utilize the number of an MTP message.

Signaling Transfer Point (STP)

This is a Signaling Point (SP) that is able to route the signaling messages. In GSM, every SP is an STP
as soon as it routes the signaling message that must be delivered to a different destination point. In this
case only the MTP is used.The upper levels are not involved.

Signaling Link (SL)

The packet data link that connects two SPs is a Signaling Link (SL). It is not necessary to have a
Signaling Link (SL) in each PCM line. According to the maximum load, there may be more than one
SL between two SPs depending on the network structure. Theoretically, one SL can serve up to 5000
connections. In reality, a maximum of 500 connections are controlled by one SL due to security
reasons.

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Link Set (LS)

A number of parallel Signaling Links (SLs) connecting the same Signaling Points (SPs) is referred to
as a signaling Link Set (LS).

Signaling Route (SR)

The predetermined path a message takes through the signaling network between the Origination Point
(OP) and the Destination Point (DP) is called a Signaling Route (SR).
A Signaling Route is defined as a link set which is assigned to carry traffic to a particular destination.
A link set may carry several signaling routes and hence convey traffic to several destinations.

Signaling Route Set (SRS)

The signaling network groups all Signaling Routes (SRs) that may be used for message traversing
between an Origination Point (OP) and a Destination Point (DP), and refers to them as a Signaling
Route Set (SRS) for that signaling relation.

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CHAPTER 9 CONCLUSIONS

In conclusion, there were many thing that I have experience and learned during the eight weeks of my
Industrial Training at BHARTI AIRTEL LIMITED. The whole training period was very interesting,
instructive and challenging. Through this training I was able to gain new insights and more
comprehensive understanding about the real industry working condition and practice. The eight
week training also has provided me the opportunities to develop and improve my soft and functional
skills. All of this valuable experience and knowledge that I have gained were not only acquired
through
the
direct
involvement in task given but also through other aspect of the training such as work
observation, interaction with colleagues, superior, and others third party related to the company.
From what I have undergone, I believe that the industrial training program has achieved its primary
objective. Its also the best ways to prepare student in facing the real working life.
As a result of the program now I am more confident to enter the employment world and build my
future career.

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REFERENCES

www.wikipedia.com
www.google.com
www.ericsson.com
www.blueadmiral.com
Mr. Rakesh Gusain (Training Department Head)
Mr. Yuvraj (Switching Engineer).
Mr. Ajay (Switching Engineer).

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