STATISTICAL PROCESS CONTROL

Statistics is defined as the science that deals with the

Collection,
Tabulation,
Analysis,
Interpretation,
Presentation of
quantitative data.

SPC is one of the best technical tool for improving product and

service quality.

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SPC is a control system which uses statistical techniques for

knowing, all the time, changes in the process.

It is an effective method

Helps in preventing defects

Helps continuous quality improvement.

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Statistical Process Control

Statistical:

Statistics are tools used to make predictions on performance.

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Statistical Process Control

Process:

The process involves

people,

PROCESS
People
Equipment
Method
Environment
Materials
Procedures

machines,

materials,

methods,

management

and environment

working together to produce an output, such as an end product.

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The Process
People

Machines

Material

Output

Management

Methods

Environment

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Statistical Process Control

Control:

Controlling a process is

guiding it

comparing actual performance against a target.

Then identifying when and what corrective

action is necessary to achieve the target.
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S.P.C. is statistical analysis of

the predictability

and capacity of a process

to give a uniform product.

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The Aim of S.P.C. - Detection Strategy

This focuses on identification of problems after production, by

100% inspection or by customer complaints.

It is a historically-based strategy.

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Detection Drawbacks:

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Production is already made.

Customer dissatisfaction.

Inflated costs - rework; inspection.

Repetitive problems.

Neglected improvements.

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The Aim of S.P.C - Prevention Strategy

Prevention:

This focuses on in-process production and identification of

problems through analysis of process capability.

It is a future-orientated strategy.

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Prevention Benefits:

Improved design and process capability.

Improved manufacturing quality.

Improved organisation.

Continuous Improvement.

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S.P.C. as a Prevention Tool

The S.P.C. has to be looked at as a stage towards completely

preventing defects.

With stable processes, the cost of inspection and defects are

significantly reduced.

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The Benefits of S.P.C.

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Assesses the design intent.

Achieves a lower cost by providing an early warning

system.

Monitors performance, preventing defects.

Provides a common language for discussing process

performance.
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Process Variations

Process Element

Variable Examples

Machine.Speed, operating temperature,

feed rate
Tools..Shape, wear rate
Fixtures..Dimensional accuracy
MaterialsComposition, dimensions
OperatorChoice of set-up, fatigue
MaintenanceLubrication, calibration
EnvironmentHumidity, temperature

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Process Variations

No industrial process or machine is able to produce consecutive

items which are identical in appearance, length, weight,

thickness etc.

The differences may be large or very small, but they are always

there.

The differences are known as variation.

This is the reason why tolerances are used.
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Designed Size

10

17

11

12

13

14

15 16

17 18 19

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Natural Variation

14.5 14.6 14.7 14.8

18

14.9 15.0 15.1 15.2

15.3

15.4 15.5
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Process Variability
Variations due to:

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Natural Causes:

Special Causes:

Temperature variation
Material variation
Customer differences
Operator performance

Machine is breaking
Untrained operative
Machine movement
Process has changed

Must be monitored

Early and visible

warning required
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Stability

Common causes are the many sources of variation that are

always present.

A process operates within normal variation when each element

varies in a random manner, within expected limits, such that the

variation cannot be blamed on one element.

When a process is operating with common causes of variation it

is said to be stable.

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Process Control

The process can only be termed under control if it gives

predictable results.

Its variability is stable over a long period of time.

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Statistical Process Control Steps

Start

Produce Good
Provide Service
Take Sample

No
Assign.
Causes?
Yes

6-22

Inspect Sample

Stop Process

Create
Control Chart

Find Out Why

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Control Chart Decision Tree

Determine Sample size (n)

Variable or Attribute Data

Variable is measured on a continuous scale

Attribute is occurrences in n observations

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Determine if sample size is constant or changing

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Control Chart Decision Tree

X bar , R
X bar, S
Start

IX, Moving
Range
p (fraction defective)
or
n p (number def. Per
sample
c (defects per
sample or
u defects per unit
u

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What does it look like?

o Adding the element of time will help clarify your
understanding of the causes of variation in the processes.
o A run chart is a line graph of data points organized in time
sequence and centered on the median data value.

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Individual X charts
How is it done?

The data must have a normal distribution (bell curve).

Have 20 or more data points. Fifteen is the absolute minimum.

List the data points in time order. Determine the range between
each of the consecutive data points.

Find the mean or average of the data point values.

Calculate the control limits (three standard deviations)

Set up the scales for your control chart.

Draw a solid line representing the data mean.

Draw the upper and lower control limits.

Plot the data points in time sequence.

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Next, look at the upper and lower

Control Charts

control limits. If your process is in

control, 99.73% of all the data
points will be inside those lines.

The upper and lower control limits

represent three standard deviations

on either side of the mean.

Divide the distance between the

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centerline and the upper control

limit into three equal zones
representing
three
standard
deviations.

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Search for trends:

Two out of three consecutive points

are in zone C

Four out of five consecutive points

on the same side of the center line

are on zone B or C

Only one of 10 consecutive points

is in zone A
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Basic

Control
Charts
interpretation rules:

Specials are any points above
the UCL or below the LCL

A Run violation is seven or
more consecutive points above
or below the center (20-25 plot
points)

A trend violation is any upward
or downward
movement of
five or more consecutive points
or drifts of seven or more
points (10-20 plot points)

A 1-in-20 violation is more
than one point in twenty
consecutive points close to the
center line

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Attribute Control charts :

To monitor Attribute data (Characteristics that are measured as

either "acceptable" or "not acceptable", thus have only discrete,
binary, or integer values).

Variable Control charts :

To monitor the Variable data (Characteristics that are measured

on a continuous scale).


Control charts for Variables

X-bar chart

It is used to monitor change in mean of a process.

Variation in the average of the samples.

R-chart

it shows the consistency of the process.

Control charts

Control charts for Attributes

P-chart

C-Chart

np-Chart

U-Chart

CONTROL CHARTS FOR VARIABLES


Sources Of Variation

Types Of Variation

Types Of Variable Control Charts

Control Chart Patterns

Control Chart And Warning Control Limit

Basic Equations And Example

Consequences Of Misinterpreting Control Charts

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Control chart is a graph that displays data taken over time and

variations of this data.

Control charts, also known as Shewhart charts or process-

behavior charts

One of the axioms or truism of manufacturing is that no two

objects are ever made exactly alike.

When variations are very small, it may appear that items are

identical; but precision instruments will show difference.

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SOURCES OF VARIATION
Mainly there are four sources of variations. They are,

Processes

Materials

Operators

Miscellaneous factors

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TYPES OF VARIATIONS
There are two kinds of variations. They are,

1. Assignable (or special) causes of variations and

2. Chance (or random or common) causes of variations.

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1. Assignable causes of variations

Assignable causes of variations are larger in magnitude and

can be easily traced and detected.

The prime objective of control chart is detecting assignable

causes of variation by analyzing data(length, dia.. Etc.)

Actions on the part of both management and workers will

reduce the occurrence of assignable causes.

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REASONS FOR ASSIGNABLE CAUSES OF VARIATION

Difference among machines.

Difference among materials.

Difference among process.

Difference in each of these factors overtime.

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Difference in their relationship to one another.

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2. CHANCE (OR RANDOM OR COMMON) CAUSES OF VARIATIONS

Chances causes of variations are inevitable in any process.

These are difficult to trace and control even under best conditions of

production.

All occur at random and cannot be avoided.

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REASONS FOR CHANCE CAUSES OF VARIATION

Human variability from one operation cycle to the next

Minor variations in raw materials

Fluctuations in working conditions.

Lack of adequate supervision skills.

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TYPES OF VARIABLE CONTROL CHARTS

X Bar or average chart

R or Range chart

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CONTROL CHART PATTERNS

1. Natural Patterns

In natural pattern no points fall outside the control limits.

The majority of points are near the center line.

2. Sudden shifts in Level

Many changes can bring about a sudden change( or jump) in

pattern on an X bar and R charts

Changes in process settings like temperature, depth of cut,
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new operators, etc.

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CONTROL CHART PATTERNS CONT..

3. Graduation shifts in the Level

Gradual shifts in the level occurs when a process parameter changes

gradually over a period of time.

Such gradual shift in X bar chart may occur because the incoming quality of

raw materials changed over time, change in style of supervision etc.

Such shift in R chart may occur because of new operator, decrease in

worker skill due to fatigue etc.

4. Tending Pattern

Trend pattern represents changes that steadily increase or decrease.

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Trend pattern in X bar chart may occur because of tool wear, die wear etc

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CONTROL CHART PATTERNS CONT..

Trending pattern in R chart may occur because of Gradual improvement in

operator still resulting from on-the-job training.

 Decrease in operator skill due to fatigue.

5. Cyclic Patterns

Cyclic patterns are characterized by a repetitive periodic behavior in the system.

Cyclic patterns in X bar chart may occur because of rotation of operators, periodic

changes in temperature, humidity etc.

Cyclic patterns in R chart may occur because of operator fatigue, periodic

maintenance of equipment's etc.

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CONTROL CHART PATTERNS CONT..

6. Wild Patterns

Bunching ( or groups) are clusters of several observations

that are decidedly different from other points of the plot.

Such behavior is due to use of new vendor for a short period

of time, use of a machine for a brief period of time etc.

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CONTROL CHART AND WARNING LIMITS

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Formula

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Example problem for X bar and R Chart

The goliath Tool company produces slip ring bearings which

look like washers. They fit around shaft such as drive shafts in
machinery or motors. In the production process for a
particular slip ring bearing the employees have taken 10
samples (during a 10 day period) of 5 slip ring bearings. The
individual observations are shown below. Prepare the R chart
and X bar chart.

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Sample
No

52

Observation (slip ring diameters cm)

1

5.02

5.01

4.94

4.99

4.96

5.01

5.03

5.07

4.95

4.96

4.99

4.93

4.92

4.99

5.03

4.91

5.01

4.98

4.89

4.95

4.92

5.03

5.05

5.01

4.97

5.06

5.06

4.96

5.03

5.05

5.01

5.1

4.96

4.99

5.09

5.1

4.99

5.08

5.14

5.1

4.99

5.08

5.09

10

5.01

4.98

5.08

5.07

4.99
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CONSEQUENCES OF MISINTERPRETING CONTROL CHARTS

Blaming people for problems that they cannot control.

Spending time and money looking for problems that do not exist.

Spending time and money on unnecessary process adjustments.

Taking action where no action is warranted.

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 Our goal

is to decrease the variation inherent in a

process/material/operator over time.

 As we improve those factors ( mentioned above), the spread of

the data will continue to decrease.

 Quality improves!!

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Process Capability
is the ability of a process to make a feature within its tolerance.


Process Capability

A critical aspect of statistical quality control is evaluating the

ability of a production process to meet or exceed preset
specifications. This is called process capability.

Product specifications, often called tolerances, are preset

ranges of acceptable quality characteristics, such as product

dimensions.


For a product to be considered acceptable, its characteristics

must fall within this preset range.

Otherwise, the product is not acceptable.

Product specifications, or tolerance limits, are usually

established by design engineers or product design specialists.


Process capability is the ability of the process to meet the

design specifications for a service or product.

Nominal value is a target for design specifications.

Tolerance is an allowance above or below the nominal value.

Nominal
value
Process distribution
Lower
specification

20

Upper
specification

25
Process is capable

30

Nominal
value
Process distribution
Lower
specification

20

Upper
specification

25
Process is not capable

30


Process capability is measured by the process capability index

( Cp ) .

which is computed as the ratio of the specification width to

the width of the process variability

R
Process width = 6X
d2

R bar Mean of the sample range

d2 is the value taken from statistical table

Process Capability Index, Cpk

Process Capability Index, Cpk, is an index that measures the
potential for a process to generate defective outputs relative to
either upper or lower specifications.

Cpk = Minimum of

=x Lower specification
3

Upper specification x=
3

We take the minimum of the two ratios because it gives the worstcase situation.


where the specification width is the difference between the

upper specification limit (USL) and the lower specification limit

(LSL) of the process.

The process width is computed as 6 standard deviations (6)

of the process being monitored.

A six sigma process is one in which 99.99966% of the products

manufactured are statistically expected to be free of defects

(3.4 defective parts/million) .


Cp = 1

Process variability just meets specifications.

Cp <= 1

Process is not capable of meeting

specifications .

Cp >= 1

Process is capable of meeting specifications

Yes:

No:

too wide

Yes:

No:
potentially capable
if re-centered

Yes:

No:
potentially capable
if re-centered

Problem

In a capabilty study of a lathe used in turning a shaft to a

diameter of 23.75 +-0.1 mm a sample of 6 consecutive

pieces was taken each day for 8 days . The values of xbar=
190.156

R =0.54 .Construct the control chart and fnd out the
process capability of the machine

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R
Pr ocesswidth = 6 X
d2
d2 = 2.534
A2=0.48
D3=0
D4=2
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72

ucl = 23.802

Lcl= 23.7322

Cp=1.254

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Problem

The length of time customers of Statistical Software, Inc.

waited from the time their call was answered until a technical
representative answered their question or solved their
problem is recorded in Table 20-1.

Develop a control chart.

Does it appear that there is any time when there is too much
variation in the operation?

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ATTRIBUTE CONTROL CHARTS

Attribute charts

Many quality characteristics cannot be conveniently

represented numerically.

In such cases, each item inspected is classified as

either conforming or nonconforming to the
specifications on that quality characteristic.

Quality characteristics of this type are called

attributes.

Examples are nonfunctional semiconductor chips,

warped connecting rods, etc,.

Control Charts for Attributes Data

p charts: proportion of units nonconforming

np charts: number of units nonconforming

c charts: count of nonconformities.

u charts: count of nonconformities per unit.

Type of Attribute Charts

p charts

This chart shows the fraction of nonconforming or

defective product produced by a manufacturing

process.

It is also called the control chart for fraction

nonconforming.

np charts

This chart shows the number of nonconforming.
Almost the same as the p chart.

c charts

This shows the number of defects or nonconformities

produced by a manufacturing process.

u charts

This chart shows the nonconformities per unit produced by

a manufacturing process.

p charts
In this chart, we plot the percent of defectives (per
batch, per day, per machine, etc.).

However, the control limits in this chart are not based on

the distribution of rate events but rather on the
binomial distribution (of proportions).

Formula

Fraction nonconforming:

p = No of defects/n

where p = proportion or fraction non conformities in the

sample or subgroup,

n = number in the sample or subgroup,

P chart
No of defectives
p=
total no inspected

p (1 p )
UCL = p + 3
n
p (1 p )
LCL = p 3
n

Sample
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
88

Nof pieces
inspected
300
300
300
300
300
300
300
300
300
300

No of defects
identified
25
30
35
40
45
35
40
30
20
50
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89

Sample no
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

Sample size
90
65
85
70
80
80
70
95
90

No of defective
pieces
9
7
3
2
9
5
3
9
6

10

75

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Example

P chart

np Chart
When the subgroup size is constant, the chart constructed
for the actual no. of defectives rather than the fraction
defectives is called np-chart.

Advantages

np-chart is easier for operating personnel to understand.

Inspection results are posted directly to chart without any

calculations.


A manufacturer uses a injection moulding to produce a plastic

insulation barrier. He inspects 100 barriers daily picked

randomly from the production and determines the no. of
defects by visual inspection. He wishes to use the data
accumulated during a 10 day period to construct an attribute
chart. The results of inspection are shown below.
(a) Plot np-chart and offer your comments
(b) What control limits would you recommend for the future
period.

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c Chart
The procedures for c chart are the same as those for the p
chart.
If count of nonconformities, co, is unknown, it must be found by
collecting data, calculating UCL & LCL.

LCL = c 3 c

UCL = c + 3 c

No of defects in all samples

C=
Total no of samples

Applications of C and U chart

Number of surface defects in a galvanized sheet.

Number of imperfections in a certain area of cloth.

Number of defective units in an air craft unit.

Number of mistakes per unit.
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The following data refers to the no. of missing rivets on an

aircraft body noticed during preventive maintenance schedule.

(a) Compute the control limits for a suitable control chart.

(b) Plot the data and offer your comments.
(c) What value of C would you recommend for the future period

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u Chart

The u chart is mathematically equivalent to the c

chart.

c
u=
n

u
UCL = u + 3
n

u=
n

u
LCL = u 3
n

Listed below are the cloths produced on a daily basis in a small

textile mill and the corresponding number of imperfections
found in their bales is as follows.

(a) Use the data to estimate U .

(b) Determine the control limits and plot the data.
(c) What value of U1 would you recommend for the future period

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110

Determine the control limits for the following data using

suitable control chart. Plot the data and offer your
comments.

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No of Defects
Castings
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
114

2
4
1
5
5
6
3
4
0
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Nonconformity Classification

Critical nonconformities

Indicate hazardous or unsafe conditions.

Major nonconformities

Failure

Minor nonconformities

Advantages of attribute control charts

Allowing for quick summaries, that is, the engineer may simply

classify products as acceptable or unacceptable, based on

various quality criteria.

Thus,

attribute charts sometimes bypass the need for

expensive, precise devices and time-consuming measurement
procedures.

More easily understood by managers unfamiliar with quality

control procedures.