Lecture 4

Electric Potential

In this lecture you will learn:

Electric Scalar Potential

Laplaces and Poissons Equation
Potential of Some Simple Charge Distributions

ECE 303 Fall 2006 Farhan Rana Cornell University

Conservative or Irrotational Fields

Irrotational or Conservative Fields:

Vector fields F for which F = 0 are called irrotational or conservative fields

This implies that the line integral of F

around any closed loop is zero

r r
F . ds = 0

Equations of Electrostatics:
Recall the equations of electrostatics from a previous lecture:

r
. o E =
r
E = 0
In electrostatics or electroquasistatics, the E-field is conservative or irrotational
(But this is not true in electrodynamics)
ECE 303 Fall 2006 Farhan Rana Cornell University

Conservative or Irrotational Fields

More on Irrotational or Conservative Fields:

If the line integral of F

around any closed loop is zero ..

r r
F . ds = 0
r

. then the line integral of F between any two points is independent of any specific
Path (i.e. the line integral is the same for all possible paths between the two points)

r r
F . ds = 0

r
r2

path A

r
r1

path B

r2 r r
r1 r r
F . ds
+ r F . ds
=0
r
r

1
path A r2
path B

r2 r r
r2 r r
F . ds
r F . ds
=0
rr

1
path A r1
path B

r2 r r
r2 r r
F . ds
F . ds
=
rr

1
path A r1
path B

ECE 303 Fall 2006 Farhan Rana Cornell University

The Electric Scalar Potential - I

The scalar potential:
Any conservative field can always be written (up to a constant) as the gradient
of some scalar quantity. This holds because the curl of a gradient is always
r
zero.

If F =

( )

r
Then F = ( ) = 0
For the conservative E-field one writes:
(The ve sign is just a convention)

r
E =

Where is the scalar electric potential

The scalar potential is defined only up to a constant

(r ) gives a certain electric field then the scalar

If the scalar potential
r
potential (r ) + c will also give the same electric field (where c is a constant)
The absolute value of potential in a problem is generally fixed by some
physical reasoning that essentially fixes the value of the constant c

ECE 303 Fall 2006 Farhan Rana Cornell University

The Electric Scalar Potential - II

We know that:

r
E =

This immediately suggests that:

The line integral of E-field between any two points is the difference of
the potentials at those points
r
r2

r
r1

r
r2

r r
r
r
r
E . ds = r ( ) . ds = (r1 ) (r2 )

r
r2

r
r1

r1

The line integral of E-field around a closed loop is zero

r r
r
E . ds = ( ) . ds = 0

ECE 303 Fall 2006 Farhan Rana Cornell University

The Electric Scalar Potential of a Point Charge

Assumption: The scalar potential is assumed to have a value equal to zero at
infinity far away from any charges
Point Charge Potential

r
ds

r
r

r
E=

q
r
4 o r 2

Do a line integral from infinity to the point r where the potential needs to be
determined
0

r r
r
r
r
r E . ds = r ( ) . ds = (r ) ( ) = (r )

(r ) = r E . ds =
r

(r ) = r E . ds
r

q
dr
4 o r 2

q
4 o r

(r ) =

q
4 o r

ECE 303 Fall 2006 Farhan Rana Cornell University

Electric Scalar Potential and Electric Potential Energy

The electric scalar potential is the potential energy of a unit positive charge
in an electric field

Electric force on a charge of q Coulombs = q E

Potential energy of a charge q at
any point in an electric field

(Lorentz Law)

Work done by the field in moving the

charge q from that point to infinity

r
r r r
r
r
Work done = r F . ds = r qE . ds = q [ (r ) ( )] = q (r )
r

Work done on unit charge =

r
r
q(r )
= (r )
q

r
P.E. of unit charge = (r )

r
ds

r
r

Potential energy of a charge of q Coulombs in electric field = q (r )

ECE 303 Fall 2006 Farhan Rana Cornell University

Poissons and Laplaces Equation

It is not always easy to directly use Gauss Law and solve for the electric fields
Need an equation for the electric potential

Start from: . o E =
Use:

r
E =

To get: . o ( ) =

2 =

Poissons Equation

If the volume charge density is zero then Poissons equation becomes:

2 = 0

Laplaces Equation

Poissons or Laplaces equation can be solved to give the electric scalar

potential for charge distributions

ECE 303 Fall 2006 Farhan Rana Cornell University

Potential of a Uniformly Charged Spherical Shell - I

Coulombs/m2

Use the spherical coordinate system

a
For a r :
Assume a solution:

2 = 0

1 2
r
=0
r 2 r r

(r ) =

A
+F
r

F must be 0 so that the potential is 0

at r =
For 0 r a :

2 = 0

Assume solution:

1 2
r
=0
r 2 r r

(r ) =

B
+D
r

Potential must not become infinite

at r = 0 so B must be 0
ECE 303 Fall 2006 Farhan Rana Cornell University

Potential of a Uniformly Charged Spherical Shell - II

For 0 r a

For a r

(r ) = D
E r (r ) =

A
r
A

E r (r ) =
=
r r 2
r

(r ) =

=0
r

Boundary conditions
We need two additional boundary conditions to determine the two unknown
coefficients A and D
(1) At r = a the potential is continuous (i.e. it is the same just inside and just
outside the charged sphere)

D=

A
a

(2) At r = a the electric field is NOT continuous. The jump in the component of
the field normal to the shell (i.e. the radial component) is related to the
surface charge density

o (E r out E r

in

)=

0 =
a2

ECE 303 Fall 2006 Farhan Rana Cornell University

Surface Charge Density Boundary Condition

Suppose we know the surface normal electric
field on just one side of a charge plane with a
surface charge density

E2 = ??

E1

Question: What is the surface normal field on

the other side of the charge plane?
Solution:
Draw a Gaussian surface in the form of a cylinder of area A
piercing the charge plane
Total flux coming out of the surface = o (E2 E1 ) A
Total charge enclosed by the surface = A

o (E2 E1 ) =

E2 = ??

E1

o (E2 E1 )A = A
o (E2 E1 ) =

By Gauss Law:

This an extremely important result that relates surface normal

electric fields on the two sides of a charge plane with surface
charge density
ECE 303 Fall 2006 Farhan Rana Cornell University

Potential of a Uniformly Charged Spherical Shell - III

For 0 r a

(r ) =

(4 a )
2

4 o a

For a r

r
4 a 2
(r ) =
4 o r

Sketch of the Potential:

(r )

r
a

ECE 303 Fall 2006 Farhan Rana Cornell University

Potential of a Uniformly Charged Sphere a la Poisson and Laplace

In spherical co-ordinates potential can only be a function of r (not of or )

Coulombs/m3

For a r :
Assume a solution:

2 = 0

1 2
r
=0
r 2 r r

(r ) =

Work in spherical
co-ordinates

F must be 0 so that the

potential is 0 at r =

For 0 r a :

2 =

A
+F
r

Assume solution:

1 2
2
r
=
o
r r r

(r ) =

B
+ D +Cr2
r
particular
solution

homogenous
parts

C=

By substituting the solution in the Poisson equation find C

6 o

Potential must not become infinite at r = 0 so B must be 0

ECE 303 Fall 2006 Farhan Rana Cornell University

Potential of a Uniformly Charged Sphere a la Poisson and Laplace

For 0 r a
For a r
r

(r ) = D

6 o

r2

(r ) =

A
r

Boundary conditions
We need two additional boundary conditions to determine the two unknown
coefficients A and D
(1) At r = a the potential is continuous (i.e. it is the same just
inside and just outside the charged sphere)
(2) At r = a the radial electric field is continuous (i.e. it is the
same just inside and just outside the charged sphere)
(1) gives:

D
(2) gives:

6 o

a2 =

a= 2
3 o
a

A
a

A=

D=

3 o

2 o

Er =

a3
a2

ECE 303 Fall 2006 Farhan Rana Cornell University

Potential of a Uniformly Charged Sphere a la Poisson and Laplace

For 0 r a
For a r
a

4
3
a
r
3

(r ) =
4 o r

r
2 r2
a
(r ) =
2 o
3

Sketch of the Potential:

(r )

ECE 303 Fall 2006 Farhan Rana Cornell University

The Principle of Superposition for the Electric Potential

Poisson equation is LINEAR and allows for the superposition principle to hold
Suppose for some charge density 1 one has found the potential 1
Suppose for some other charge density 2 one has found the potential 2
The superposition principle says that the sum (1 + 2 ) is the solution for the
charge density ( 1 + 2 )
A Simple Proof

2 1 =

1
o

2 2 =

2
o

2 (1 + 2 ) =

( 1 + 2 )
o

ECE 303 Fall 2006 Farhan Rana Cornell University

Potential of a Charge Dipole

Consider Two Equal and Opposite Charges

z
P

We are interested in the potential

at a distance r from the center of
the pair in the plane of the
charges, where r >> d

+q

Work in spherical co-ordinates

r+
r

d
Potential contributions from the
two charges can be added
algebraically

(r ) =

d
cos( )
2
d
r = r + cos( )
2
r+ = r

d
cos( )
2

q
q

4 o r+ 4 o r

q
q

d
d

4 o r cos( ) 4 o r + cos( )
2
2

qd

cos( )
4 o r 2

ECE 303 Fall 2006 Farhan Rana Cornell University

Field of a Charge Dipole

r

(r )

qd
4 o r 2

cos( )

r
r
E = (r )
qd

2 cos( ) r + sin( )
4 o r 3

)
+q
q

Same result for the E-field was obtained

in the previous lecture by superposing
the individual E-fields (rather than the
potentials) of the two charges

ECE 303 Fall 2006 Farhan Rana Cornell University

Potential of a Line Charge

y

Consider an infinite line charge coming

out of the plane of slide
The electric field, by symmetry, has only a
radial component

Coulombs/m

Draw a Gaussian surface in the form of a cylinder of

radius r and Length L perpendicular to the slide

Work in cylindrical
co-ordinates

oEr (2 r L ) = L

Er =
2 o r

Using Gauss Law:

But E r = =

r
(r )

=
r
2 o r

Upon integrating from ro to r we get: (r ) (ro ) =

2 o

r
ln o
r

Where ro is a constant of integration and is some point where the potential is

known
The problem is that this solution becomes infinite at r =
ECE 303 Fall 2006 Farhan Rana Cornell University

Potential of a Line rDipole

Consider two infinite equal and opposite
line charges coming out of the plane of
slide

r+

Coulombs/m

Coulombs/m

Using superposition, the potential can be written as:

r
r

ln o
ln o
r

2
+
r
o
r

=
ln
2 o r+

(r ) =

2 o

The final answer does not

depend on the parameter ro

Question: where is the zero of potential?

Points for which r+ equals r- have zero potential. These points constitute
the entire y-z plane

ECE 303 Fall 2006 Farhan Rana Cornell University

10

The 3D Superposition Integral for the Potential

In the most general scenario, one has to solve the Poisson equation:

r
r
(r )
2 (r ) =

r r
r r'

r
r'

We know that the solution for a point charge

sitting at the origin:

(r ) =

r
r

q
4 o r

To find the potential at any point one can sum up the contributions from
different portions of a charge distribution treating each as a point charge

(r ) =

(r ')
r r dV '
4 o r r '

dV ' = dx ' dy ' dz '

Check: For a point charge at the origin (r ' ) = q 3 (r ' ) = q ( x ' ) ( y ' ) (z ' )

(r ) =

(r ')
q 3 (r ')
q
q
r r dV ' =
r =
r r dV ' =
4 o r r '
4 o r r '
4 o r
4 o r
ECE 303 Fall 2006 Farhan Rana Cornell University

ECE 303 Fall 2006 Farhan Rana Cornell University

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