History of Christian theology

The doctrine of the Trinity, considered the core of

Christian theology by Trinitarians, is the result of continuous exploration by the church of the biblical data,
thrashed out in debate and treatises, eventually formulated at the First Council of Nicaea in 325 AD in a way
they believe is consistent with the biblical witness, and
further rened in later councils and writings.[1] The most
widely recognized Biblical foundations for the doctrines
formulation are in the Gospel of John.[1]

gard as divinely inspired and thus constituting the Christian Bible. Though the early church used the Old Testament according to the canon of the Septuagint (LXX),
the apostles did not otherwise leave a dened set of new
scriptures; instead the New Testament developed over
time.
The writings attributed to the apostles circulated amongst
the earliest Christian communities. The Pauline epistles were circulating in collected form by the end of the
1st century AD. The Bryennios list is an early Christian canon found in Codex Hierosolymitanus and dated
to around 100.[2] Justin Martyr, in the early 2nd century,
mentions the memoirs of the apostles, but his references are not detailed. Around 160 Irenaeus of Lyons argued for only four Gospels (the Tetramorph), and argued
that it would be illogical to reject Acts of the Apostles but
accept the Gospel of Luke, as both were from the same
author.[3] By the early 200s, Origen may have been using the same 27 books as in the modern New Testament,
though there were still disputes over the canonicity of Hebrews, James, II Peter, II and III John, and Revelation,[4]
see Antilegomena. Likewise by 200 the Muratorian fragment shows that there existed a set of Christian writings
somewhat similar to what is now the 27-book New Testament.

Nontrinitarianism is any of several Christian beliefs that

reject the Trinitarian doctrine that God is three distinct
persons in one being. Modern nontrinitarian groups views
dier widely on the nature of God, Jesus, and the Holy
Spirit.

Biblical canon

Main article: Biblical Canon

See also: Deuterocanonical books and Apocrypha
The Biblical canon is the set of books Christians re-

In his Easter letter of 367, Athanasius, Bishop of Alexandria, gave a list exactly the same in number and order
with what would become the New Testament canon and
be accepted by the Greek church.[5] The African Synod of
Hippo, in 393, approved the New Testament, as it stands
today, together with the Septuagint books, a decision that
was repeated by Councils of Carthage in 397 and 419.
Pope Damasus I's Council of Rome in 382, only if the
Decretum Gelasianum is correctly associated with it, issued a biblical canon identical to that mentioned above.[5]
In 405, Pope Innocent I sent a list of the sacred books to
a Gallic bishop, Exsuperius of Toulouse. Nonetheless, a
full dogmatic articulation of the canon was not made until
the Council of Trent in the 16th century.[6]

2 Emergence of Christian theology

See also: Split of early Christianity and Judaism
The emergence of Christian theology has sometimes been
presented as the triumph of Hellenistic rationality over
the Hebraic faith of Jesus and the early disciples. The

A folio from P46, an early 3rd-century collection of Pauline epistles.

4 PATRISTIC THEOLOGY

early African theologian Tertullian, for instance, com- 4 Patristic theology

plained that the 'Athens of philosophy was corrupting the
'Jerusalem' of faith.[7] More recent discussions have qual- Main article: Patristics
ied and nuanced this picture.
See also: Church Fathers
See also: Apostolic Fathers
From the very beginning of the Christian movement,
followers of Jesus tried to make sense of the impact
of Jesus of Nazareth, and began arguing about dif- As Christianity spread, it acquired certain members from
fering ways of making sense. There has never been well-educated circles of the Hellenistic world; they sometimes became bishops but not always. They produced two
an uncontested, unrationalized Christian faith.[8]
sorts of works: theological and apologetic, the latter
These processes of making sense initially drew upon being works aimed at defending the faith by using reason
the ideas and narratives of contemporary Judaism, to refute arguments against the veracity of Christianity.
which was already Hellenized in various degrees. As These authors are known as the church fathers, and study
time went by, ideas and narratives from other Hel- of them is called Patristics. Notable early Fathers include
lenistic context were drawn on, but the Jewish scrip- Justin Martyr, Irenaeus, Tertullian, Clement of Alexantures remained a key driver of theological develop- dria, Origen, etc.
ment, and too sharp a distinction between Hebraic A huge quantity of theological reection emerged in the
and Hellenistic is unsustainable. Some elements of early centuries of the Christian churchin a wide vaearly Christian theologizing previously thought to be riety of genres, in a variety of contexts, and in several
thoroughly 'Hellenistic' (e.g., the Prologue of Johns languagesmuch of it the product of attempts to disGospel) are now regularly argued to be thoroughly cuss how Christian faith should be lived in cultures very
Jewish.
dierent from the one in which it was born. So, for
The ideas and narratives drawn on in this process
were transformed as they were given a new context
in Christian practices of devotion, community - formation and evangelism - and the extent to which borrowings from Hellenistic culture (for instance) were
given new meanings in this process should not be
underestimated.[9]

instance, a good deal of the Greek language literature

can be read as an attempt to come to terms with Hellenistic culture. The period sees the slow emergence
of orthodoxy (the idea of which seems to emerge from
the conicts between catholic Christianity and Gnostic
Christianity), the establishment of a Biblical canon, debates about the doctrine of the Trinity (most notably between the councils of Nicaea in 325 and Constantinople in
381), about Christology (most notably between the councils of Constantinople in 381 and Chalcedon in 451),
about the purity of the Church (for instance in the debates surrounding the Donatists), and about grace, free
will and predestination (for instance in the debate between Augustine of Hippo and Pelagius).

One of the characteristics of those strands of early

Christianity (in the 2nd and 3rd centuries) sometimes called 'proto-orthodox' (because they are the
most direct ancestors of the forms of Christianity
that in the 4th century were dened as Orthodox),
invested a great deal of time and energy in communication between widely spread conversations, and
in pursuing a deep interest in each others beliefs and
practices. This concern and communication seems 4.1 Ante-Nicene Fathers
to have been as much a driver of the development
of theological activity as the desire to communicate Main article: Ante-Nicene Fathers
Christianity to, or make it acceptable in, a Hellenistic culture.[10]
Inuential texts and writers in the 2nd century include:

3
3.1

Early Christian theology

Theologies of the New Testament

The New Testament contains evidence of some of the

earliest forms of reection upon the meanings and implications of Christian faith, mostly in the form of guidance oered to Christian congregations on how to live
a life consistent with their convictionsmost notably
in the Sermon on the Mount, the Confession of Peter,
the Council of Jerusalem, the Pauline epistles and the
Johannine corpus.

The collection known as the Apostolic Fathers

(mostly 2nd century)
Justin Martyr (c. 100/114c. 162/168)
Clement of Alexandria (died c. 215)
Irenaeus of Lyons (c. 130202)
Various 'Gnostic' authors, such as Marcion (c. 85-c.
160), Valentinius (c. 100c. 153) and Basilides (c.
117138)
Some of the texts commonly referred to as the New
Testament apocrypha.

4.3

Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers

Inuential texts and writers between c. 200 and 325 (the With the creation of the Nicene Creed, a precedent was
First Council of Nicaea) include:
established for subsequent general councils to create a
statement of belief and canons which were intended to be Tertullian (c. 155230)
come guidelines for doctrinal orthodoxy and a source of
unity for the whole of Christendoma momentous event
Hippolytus (died 235)
in the history of the church and subsequent history of Eu Origen (c. 182c. 251)
rope.
Cyprian (died c. 258)
Arius (256336)

4.2.1 Nicene Creed

Other Gnostic texts and texts from the New Testa- Main article: Nicene Creed
ment apocrypha.

4.2

First Council of Nicaea

Main article: First Council of Nicaea

Each phrase in the Nicene Creed, which was hammered

out at the Council of Nicaea, addresses some aspect
that had been under passionate discussion and closes the
books on the argument, with the weight of the agreement
of the over 300 bishops in attendance. [Constantine had
invited all 1800 bishops of the Christian church (about
1000 in the east and 800 in the west). The number of participating bishops cannot be accurately stated; Socrates
Scholasticus and Epiphanius of Salamis counted 318; Eusebius of Caesarea, only 250.] In spite of the agreement
reached at the council of 325 the Arians who had been defeated dominated most of the church for the greater part
of the 4th century, often with the aid of Roman emperors
who favored them.

The First Council of Nicaea, held in Nicaea in Bithynia

(in present-day Turkey), convoked by the Roman Emperor Constantine I in 325, was the rst ecumenical[11]
conference of bishops of the Catholic Church (Catholic as
in 'universal', not just Roman) and most signicantly resulted in the rst declaration of a uniform Christian doctrine, called the Nicene Creed. With the creation of the
creed, a precedent was established for subsequent 'general (ecumenical) councils of Bishops (Synods) to create
statements of belief and canons of doctrinal orthodoxy
the intent being to dene unity of beliefs for the whole of 4.3 Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers
Christendom.
The purpose of the council was to resolve disagreements Main article: Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers
in the Church of Alexandria over the nature of Jesus in
relationship to the Father; in particular, whether Jesus
was of the same substance as God the Father or merely
of similar substance. St. Alexander of Alexandria and
Athanasius took the rst position; the popular presbyter
Arius, from whom the term Arian controversy comes,
took the second. The council decided against the Arians
overwhelmingly (of the estimated 250-318 attendees, all
but 2 voted against Arius). Another result of the council
was an agreement on the date of the Christian Passover
(Pascha in Greek; Easter in modern English), the most
important feast of the ecclesiastical calendar. The council decided in favour of celebrating the resurrection on the
rst Sunday after the rst full moon following the vernal
equinox, independently of the Bible's Hebrew Calendar
(see also Quartodecimanism), and authorized the Bishop
of Alexandria (presumably using the Alexandrian calendar) to announce annually the exact date to his fellow
bishops.
The Council of Nicaea was historically signicant because it was the rst eort to attain consensus in
the church through an assembly representing all of
Christendom.[12] It was the rst occasion for the development of technical Christology.[12] Further, Constantine in convoking and presiding over the council signaled a measure of imperial control over the church.[12]

Late antique Christianity produced a great many

renowned church fathers who wrote volumes of theological texts, including SS. Augustine, Gregory Nazianzus,
Cyril of Jerusalem, Ambrose of Milan, Jerome, and others. What resulted was a golden age of literary and scholarly activity unmatched since the days of Virgil and Horace. Some of these fathers, such as John Chrysostom
and Athanasius, suered exile, persecution, or martyrdom from heretical Byzantine Emperors. Many of their
writings are translated into English in the compilations of
Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers.
Inuential texts and writers between 325 AD and c. 500
AD include:
Athanasius (298373)
The Cappadocian Fathers (late 4th century)
Ambrose (c. 340397)
Jerome (c. 347420)
Chrysostom (347407)
Augustine of Hippo (354430)
Cyril of Alexandria (376444)

EARLY HERESIES

shift to Milan and then Ravenna, however, more detailed

arguments were developed based on Matthew 16:18-19
etc.[13] Nonetheless, in antiquity the Petrine and Apostolic quality, as well as a primacy of respect, concerning the Roman See went unchallenged by emperors, eastern patriarchs, and the Eastern Church alike.[14] The Ecumenical Council of Constantinople in 381 armed Rome
as rst among equals.[15] By the close of antiquity, the
doctrinal clarication and theological arguments on the
primacy of Rome were developed. Just what exactly was
entailed in this primacy, and its being exercised, would
become a matter of controversy at certain later times.

5 Early heresies
Main article: Christian heresy

Augustine

Texts from patristic authors after 325 AD are collected in the Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers. Important theological debates also surrounded the various
Ecumenical CouncilsNicaea in 325, Constantinople in
381, Ephesus in 431 and Chalcedon in 451.

4.4

Papacy and primacy

Main article: Historical development of the doctrine of

Papal Primacy
The theology of the Bishop of Rome having a monarchal
papacy developed over time. As a bishopric, its origin
is consistent with the development of an episcopal structure in the 1st century. The origins of papal primacy concept are historically obscure; theologically, it is based on
three ancient Christian traditions: (1) that the apostle Peter was preeminent among the apostles, (2) that Peter ordained his successors as Bishop of Rome, and (3) that
the bishops are the successors of the apostles. As long
as the Papal See also happened to be the capital of the
Western Empire, prestige of the Bishop of Rome could
be taken for granted without the need of sophisticated
theological argumentation beyond these points; after its

Urgent concerns with the uniformity of belief and practice have characterized Christianity from the outset. The
New Testament itself speaks of the importance of maintaining orthodox doctrine and refuting heresies, showing
the antiquity of the concern.[16] The development of doctrine, the position of orthodoxy, and the relationship between the early Church and early heretical groups is a
matter of academic debate. Some scholars, drawing upon
distinctions between Jewish Christians, Gentile Christians, and other groups such as Gnostics, see Early Christianity as fragmented and with contemporaneous competing orthodoxies.
The process of establishing orthodox Christianity was set
in motion by a succession of dierent interpretations of
the teachings of Christ being taught after the crucixion.
Though Christ himself is noted to have spoken out against
false prophets and false christs within the gospels themselves Mark 13:22 (some will arise and distort the truth in
order to draw away disciples), Matthew 7:5-20, Matthew
24:4, Matthew 24:11 Matthew 24:24 (For false christs
and false prophets will arise). On many occasions in
Pauls epistles, he defends his own apostleship, and urges
Christians in various places to beware of false teachers,
or of anything contrary to what was handed to them by
him. The epistles of John and Jude also warn of false
teachers and prophets, as does the writer of the Book of
Revelation and 1 Jn. 4:1, as did the Apostle Peter warn in
2 Pt. 2:1-3:.
One of the roles of bishops, and the purpose of many
Christian writings, was to refute heresies. The earliest
of these were generally Christological in nature, that is,
they denied either Christs (eternal) divinity or humanity. For example, Docetism held that Jesus humanity was
merely an illusion, thus denying the incarnation; whereas
Arianism held that Jesus was not eternally divine.[17][18]
Many groups were dualistic, maintaining that reality was
composed into two radically opposing parts: matter, usually seen as evil, and spirit, seen as good. Orthodox Chris-

5
tianity, on the other hand, held that both the material and AD, some opinion was formulated as dogma through the
spiritual worlds were created by God and were therefore canons promulgated by the councils.
both good, and that this was represented in the unied
divine and human natures of Christ.[19]
Irenaeus (c. 130202) was the rst to argue that his
proto-orthodox position was the same faith that Jesus
gave to the apostles, and that the identity of the apostles, their successors, and the teachings of the same were
all well-known public knowledge. This was therefore an
early argument supported by apostolic succession. Irenaeus rst established the doctrine of four gospels and no
more, with the synoptic gospels interpreted in the light
of John. Irenaeus opponents, however, claimed to have
received secret teachings from Jesus via other apostles
which were not publicly known. Gnosticism is predicated
on the existence of such hidden knowledge, but brief references to private teachings of Jesus have also survived
in the canonic Scripture as did warning by the Christ
that there would be false prophets or false teachers. Irenaeus opponents also claimed that the wellsprings of divine inspiration were not dried up, which is the doctrine
of continuing revelation.

6 Medieval Christian theology

Main article: Medieval history of Christianity

6.1 Byzantine theology

While the Western Roman Empire declined and fell, the
Eastern Roman Empire, centred on Constantinople, remained standing until 1453, and was the home of a wide
range of theological activity that was seen as standing in
strong continuity with the theology of the Patristic period; indeed the division between Patristic and Byzantine
theology would not be recognised by many Orthodox theologians and historians.

In the middle of the 2nd century, three groups of Christians adhered to a range of doctrines that divided the
Christian communities of Rome: the teacher Marcion,
the pentecostal outpourings of ecstatic Christian prophets
of a continuing revelation, in a movement that was called
"Montanism" because it had been initiated by Montanus
and his female disciples, and the gnostic teachings of
Valentinus. Early attacks upon alleged heresies formed
the matter of Tertullian's Prescription Against Heretics
(in 44 chapters, written from Rome), and of Irenaeus
Against Heresies (ca 180, in ve volumes), written in
Lyons after his return from a visit to Rome. The letters of Ignatius of Antioch and Polycarp of Smyrna to
various churches warned against false teachers, and the
Epistle of Barnabas, accepted by many Christians as part
of Scripture in the 2nd century, warned about mixing Judaism with Christianity, as did other writers, leading to
decisions reached in the rst ecumenical council, which
was convoked by the Emperor Constantine at Nicaea in
325, in response to further disruptive polemical controversy within the Christian community, in that case Arian
disputes over the nature of the Trinity.
During those rst three centuries, Christianity was effectively outlawed by requirements to venerate the Roman emperor and Roman gods. Consequently, when the
Church labelled its enemies as heretics and cast them Gregory Palamas
out of its congregations or severed ties with dissident
churches, it remained without the power to persecute
them. However, those called heretics were also called
a number of other things (e.g. fools, wild dogs, ser- 6.2 Mystical theology
vants of Satan), so the word heretic had negative asso Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite (working c. 500)
ciations from the beginning, and intentionally so.
Before 325 AD, the heretical nature of some beliefs was
a matter of much debate within the churches. After 325

Symeon the New Theologian (9491022)

Gregory Palamas (12961359)

8 WESTERN THEOLOGY

6.3

Council of Chalcedon

A thorough understanding of the Iconoclastic Period in

Byzantium is complicated by the fact that most of the surThe Council of Chalcedon was an ecumenical council viving sources were written by the ultimate victors in the
that took place from October 8 to November 1, 451, at controversy, the iconodules. It is thus dicult to obtain a
Chalcedon (a city of Bithynia in Asia Minor).
complete, objective, balanced, and reliably accurate ac[20]
It is the fourth of the rst seven ecumenical councils in count of events and various aspects of the controversy.
Christianity, and is therefore recognized as infallible in its As with other doctrinal issues in the Byzantine period, the
dogmatic denitions by the Roman Catholic and Eastern controversy was by no means restricted to the clergy, or
Orthodox churches. It repudiated the Eutychian doctrine to arguments from theology. The continuing cultural conof monophysitism, and set forth the Chalcedonian Creed, frontation with, and military threat from, Islam probably
which describes the full humanity and full divinity of had a bearing on the attitudes of both sides. Iconoclasm
Jesus, the second person of the Holy Trinity.
seems to have been supported by many from the East of
the Empire, and refugees from the provinces taken over
by the Muslims. It has been suggested that their strength
6.4 Christological controversy after Chal- in the army at the start of the period, and the growing
cedon
inuence of Balkan forces in the army (generally considered to lack strong iconoclast feelings) over the period
Severus of Antioch (c. 465518)
may have been important factors in both beginning and
ending imperial support for iconoclasm.
Leontius of Jerusalem (working 538544)
Maximus the Confessor (c. 580682)

7 Heresies
Main article: List of heresies in Catholicism

8 Western theology
8.1 Before the Carolingian Empire
When the Western Roman Empire fragmented under the
impact of various 'barbarian' invasions, the Empire-wide
intellectual culture that had underpinned late Patristic
theology had its interconnections cut. Theology tended to
become more localised, more diverse, more fragmented.
The classically clothed Christianity preserved in Italy by
men like Boethius and Cassiodorus was dierent from the
vigorous Frankish Christianity documented by Gregory
of Tours which was dierent again from the Christianity
that ourished in Ireland and Northumbria in the 7th and
8th centuries. Throughout this period, theology tended to
be a more monastic aair, ourishing in monastic havens
where the conditions and resources for theological learning could be maintained.
Important writers include:
John of Damascus

Caesarius of Arles (c. 468542)

6.5

Iconoclasts and iconophiles

Patriarch Germanus I of Constantinople (patriarch

715730)

Boethius (480524)
Cassiodorus (c. 480c. 585)
Pope Gregory I (c. 540604)

John of Damascus (676749)

Isidore of Seville (c. 560636)

Theodore the Studite (c. 758c. 826)

Bede (672736)

8.4

8.2

Scholasticism

Theology in the time of Charlemagne

Both because it made communication between dierent Christian centres easier, and because there was a
concerted eort by its rulers to encourage educational
and religious reforms and to develop greater uniformity in Christian thought and practice across their territories, the establishment of the Carolingian Empire
saw an explosion of theological inquiry, and theological controversy. Controversy ared, for instance, around
'Spanish Adoptionism, around the views on predestination of Gottschalk, or around the eucharistic views of
Ratramnus.

7
Fulbert of Chartres (died 1028)
Berengar of Tours (c. 9991088)
Lanfranc (died 1089)

8.4 Scholasticism
Main article: Scholasticism

Scholasticism comes from the Latin word scholasticus, which means that [which] belongs to the school,
and was a method of learning taught by the academics
(or schoolmen) of medieval universities c. 1100
Important writers include:
1500. Scholasticism originally began to reconcile the
philosophy of the ancient classical philosophers with me Alcuin (c. 735804)
dieval Christian theology. It is not a philosophy or the The Spanish Adoptionists Felix of Urgel and ology in itself, but a tool and method for learning which
puts emphasis on dialectical reasoning. The primary purElipandus of Toledo (late 8th century)
pose of scholasticism was to nd the answer to a question
Rabanus Maurus (c. 780856)
or resolve a contradiction. It is most well known in its application in medieval theology, but was eventually applied
Radbertus (c. 790865)
to classical philosophy and many other elds of study.
Ratramnus (died c. 868)
Hincmar (806882)

8.4.1 Early scholasticism and its contemporaries

Gottschalk (c. 808c. 867)

Anselm of Canterbury is sometimes misleadingly called

the 'Father of Scholasticism' because of the prominent
place that reason has in his theology; instead of establishing his points by appeal to authority, he presents arguments to demonstrate why it is that the things he believes on authority must be so. His particular approach,
however, was not very inuential in his time, and he kept
his distance from the sathedral schools. We should look
instead to the production of the gloss on Scripture associated with Anselm of Laon, the rise to prominence of
dialectic (middle subject of the medieval trivium) in the
work of Abelard, and the production by Peter Lombard
of a collection of Sentences or opinions of the Church
Fathers and other authorities. Scholasticism proper can
be thought of as the kind of theology that emerges when,
in the sathedral schools and their successors, the tools of
dialectic are pressed into use to comment upon, explain,
and develop the gloss and the sentences.

Johannes Scotus Eriugena (c. 815877)

8.3

Before Scholasticism

With the division and decline of the Carolingian Empire,

notable theological activity was preserved in some of the
cathedral schools that had begun to rise to prominence
under itfor instance at Auxerre in the 9th century or
Chartres in the 11th. Intellectual inuences from the Arabic world (including works of classical authors preserved
by Islamic scholars) percolated into the Christian West
via Spain, inuencing such theologians as Gerbert of Aurillac, who went on to become Pope Sylvester II and mentor to Otto III. (Otto was the fourth ruler of the Germanic
Ottonian Holy Roman Empire, successor to the Carolingian Empire). With hindsight, one might say that a new
note was struck when a controversy about the meaning Notable authors include:
of the eucharist blew up around Berengar of Tours in the
Anselm of Canterbury (1033/10341109)
11th century: hints of a new condence in the intellectual
investigation of the faith that perhaps foreshadowed the
Anselm of Laon (died 1117)
explosion of theological argument that was to take place
Hugh of St Victor (10781151)
in the 12th century.
Peter Abelard (10791142)
Notable authors include:
Bernard of Clairvaux (10901153)
Heiric of Auxerre (c. 835887)

Hildegard of Bingen (10981179)

Remigius of Auxerre (c. 841908)

Peter Lombard (c. 1100-1160)

Gerbert of Aurillac (c. 9501003)

Joachim of Fiore (c. 1135-1202)

8 WESTERN THEOLOGY

Anselm of Canterbury

8.4.2

High Scholasticism and its contemporaries

The 13th century saw the attempted suppression of various groups perceived as heterodox, such as the Cathars
and Waldensians and the associated rise of the mendicant
orders (notably the Franciscans and Dominicans), in part
intended as a form of orthodox alternative to the heretical groups. Those two orders quickly became contexts
for some of the most intense scholatsic theologizing, producing such 'high scholastic' theologians as Alexander of
Hales (Franciscan) and Thomas Aquinas (Dominican), or
the rather less obviously scholastic Bonaventure (Franciscan). The century also saw a ourishing of mystical
theology, with women such as Mechthild of Magdeburg
playing a prominent role. In addition, the century can be
seen as period in which the study of natural philosophy
that could anachronistically be called 'science' began once
again to ourish in theological soil, in the hands of such
men as Robert Grosseteste and Roger Bacon.
Notable authors include:
Saint Dominic (11701221)
Robert Grosseteste (c. 1175-1253)
Francis of Assisi (11821226)

Aquinas

8.4.3 Late Scholasticism and its contemporaries

Scholastic theology continued to develop as the 13th century gave way to the fourteenth, becoming ever more
complex and subtle in its distinctions and arguments.
The 14th century saw in particular the rise to dominance of the nominalist or voluntarist theologies of men
like William of Ockham. The 14th century was also a
time in which movements of widely varying character
worked for the reform of the institutional church, such as
conciliarism, Lollardy and the Hussites. Spiritual movements such as the Devotio Moderna also ourished.
Notable authors include:
Meister Eckhart (12601328)
Duns Scotus (12661308)
Marsilius of Padua (12701342)

Alexander of Hales (died 1245)

William of Ockham (c. 12851349)

Mechthild of Magdeburg (12101285)

John Wyclie (c. 13201384)

Roger Bacon (12141294)

Julian of Norwich (13421413)

Bonaventure (12211274)

Geert Groote (13401384)

Thomas Aquinas (12251274)

Catherine of Siena (13471380)

Angela of Foligno (12481309)

Jean Gerson (13631429)

9.1

Lutheranism

Luthers seal

9.1 Lutheranism
Main article: Lutheranism

Catherine of Siena

Jan Hus (c. 13691415)

Thomas a Kempis (13801471)

Renaissance and Reformation

The Renaissance yielded scholars the ability to read the

scriptures in their original languages and this in part stimulated the Reformation. Martin Luther, a Doctor in Bible
at the University of Wittenburg,[21] began to teach that
salvation is a gift of Gods grace, attainable only through
faith in Jesus, who in humility paid for sin.[22] This one
and rm rock, which we call the doctrine of justication",
insisted Martin Luther, is the chief article of the whole
Christian doctrine, which comprehends the understanding of all godliness.[23] Along with the doctrine of justication, the Reformation promoted a higher view of
the Bible. As Martin Luther said, The true rule is this:
Gods Word shall establish articles of faith, and no one
else, not even an angel can do so.[24] These two ideas in
turn promoted the concept of the priesthood of all believers. Other important reformers were John Calvin,
Huldrych Zwingli, Philipp Melanchthon, Martin Bucer
and the Anabaptists. Their theology was modied by successors such as Theodore Beza, the English Puritans and
Francis Turretin.

Lutheranism is a major branch of Western Christianity that identies with the teachings of the 16th-century
German reformer Martin Luther. Luthers eorts to reform the theology and practice of the church launched
The Reformation. As a result of the reactions of his
contemporaries, Christianity was divided.[25] Luthers insights were a major foundation of the Protestant movement.
9.1.1 The start of the Reformation
Further information: History of Protestantism
In 1516-17, Johann Tetzel, a Dominican friar and papal

The sale of indulgences shown in A Question to a Mintmaker,

woodcut by Jrg Breu the Elder of Augsburg, c. 1530.

commissioner for indulgences, was sent to Germany by

the Roman Catholic Church to sell indulgences to raise

10

RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION

false assurances.
According to Philipp Melanchthon, writing in 1546,
Luther nailed a copy of the 95 Theses to the door of
the Castle Church in Wittenberg that same daychurch
doors acting as the bulletin boards of his timean event
now seen as sparking the Protestant Reformation,[31]
and celebrated each year on 31 October as Reformation
Day. Some scholars have questioned the accuracy of
Melanchthons account, noting that no contemporaneous
evidence exists for it.[32] Others have countered that no
such evidence is necessary, because this was the customary way of advertising an event on a university campus in
Luthers day.[33]
The 95 Theses were quickly translated from Latin into
German, printed, and widely copied, making the controversy one of the rst in history to be aided by the
printing press.[34] Within two weeks, the theses had
spread throughout Germany; within two months throughout Europe.
Justication by faith Main article: Sola de
Door of the Schlosskirche (castle church) in Wittenberg to
which Luther is said to have nailed his 95 Theses, sparking the
Reformation.

money to rebuild St Peters Basilica in Rome.[26] Roman

Catholic theology stated that faith alone, whether duciary or dogmatic, cannot justify man;[27] and that only
such faith as is active in charity and good works (des
caritate formata) can justify man.[28] These good works
could be obtained by donating money to the church.
On 31 October 1517, Luther wrote to Albrecht, Archbishop of Mainz and Magdeburg, protesting the sale of
indulgences. He enclosed in his letter a copy of his
Disputation of Martin Luther on the Power and Ecacy of Indulgences, which came to be known as The
95 Theses. Hans Hillerbrand writes that Luther had no
intention of confronting the church, but saw his disputation as a scholarly objection to church practices, and the
tone of the writing is accordingly searching, rather than
doctrinaire.[29] Hillerbrand writes that there is nevertheless an undercurrent of challenge in several of the theses, particularly in Thesis 86, which asks: Why does the
pope, whose wealth today is greater than the wealth of
the richest Crassus, build the basilica of St. Peter with
the money of poor believers rather than with his own
money?"[29]
Luther objected to a saying attributed to Johann Tetzel
that As soon as the coin in the coer rings, the soul
from purgatory springs,[30] insisting that, since forgiveness was Gods alone to grant, those who claimed that
indulgences absolved buyers from all punishments and
granted them salvation were in error. Christians, he said,
must not slacken in following Christ on account of such

From 1510 to 1520, Luther lectured on the Psalms, the

books of Hebrews, Romans, and Galatians. As he studied these portions of the Bible, he came to view the use
of terms such as penance and righteousness by the Roman
Catholic Church in new ways. He became convinced that
the church was corrupt in their ways and had lost sight
of what he saw as several of the central truths of Christianity, the most important of which, for Luther, was the
doctrine of justicationGods act of declaring a sinner righteousby faith alone through Gods grace. He
began to teach that salvation or redemption is a gift of
Gods grace, attainable only through faith in Jesus as the
messiah.[22]
This one and rm rock, which we call the
doctrine of justication, he wrote, is the
chief article of the whole Christian doctrine,
which comprehends the understanding of all
godliness.[35]

Luther came to understand justication as entirely the

work of God. Against the teaching of his day that the
righteous acts of believers are performed in cooperation with God, Luther wrote that Christians receive such
righteousness entirely from outside themselves; that righteousness not only comes from Christ but actually is the
righteousness of Christ, imputed to Christians (rather
than infused into them) through faith.[36] That is why
faith alone makes someone just and fullls the law, he
wrote. Faith is that which brings the Holy Spirit through
the merits of Christ.[37] Faith, for Luther, was a gift from
God. He explained his concept of justication in the
Smalcald Articles:

9.1

Lutheranism

11

The rst and chief article is this: Jesus

Christ, our God and Lord, died for our sins and
was raised again for our justication (Romans
3:24-25). He alone is the Lamb of God who
takes away the sins of the world (John 1:29),
and God has laid on Him the iniquity of us all
(Isaiah 53:6). All have sinned and are justied
freely, without their own works and merits, by
His grace, through the redemption that is in
Christ Jesus, in His blood (Romans 3:23-25).
This is necessary to believe. This cannot be
otherwise acquired or grasped by any work,
law or merit. Therefore, it is clear and certain
that this faith alone justies us ... Nothing of
this article can be yielded or surrendered, even
though heaven and earth and everything else
falls (Mark 13:31).[38]

Pope Leo X by Raphael.

he had the theses checked for heresy and forwarded to

Rome.[40]
Leo responded over the next three years, "with great care
as is proper",[41] by deploying a series of papal theologians and envoys against Luther. Perhaps he hoped the
matter would die down of its own accord, because in 1518
he dismissed Luther as "a drunken German" who "when
sober will change his mind".[42]

Widening breach Luthers writings circulated widely,

reaching France, England, and Italy as early as 1519, and
students thronged to Wittenberg to hear him speak. He
published a short commentary on Galatians and his Work
on the Psalms. At the same time, he received deputations
from Italy and from the Utraquists of Bohemia; Ulrich
von Hutten and Franz von Sickingen oered to place
Luther under their protection.[43]

Cardinal Albrecht of Hohenzollern, Archbishop of Mainz and

Magdeburg, was using part of the indulgence income to pay
bribery debts;[39] portrait by Albrecht Drer, 1519

Response of the papacy In contrast to the speed with

which the theses were distributed, the response of the papacy was painstakingly slow.
Cardinal Albrecht of Hohenzollern, Archbishop of Mainz
and Magdeburg, with the consent of Pope Leo X, was
using part of the indulgence income to pay his bribery
debts,[39] and did not reply to Luthers letter; instead,

This early portion of Luthers career was one of his

most creative and productive.[44] Three of his best known
works were published in 1520: To the Christian Nobility
of the German Nation, On the Babylonian Captivity of the
Church, and On the Freedom of a Christian.
Finally on 30 May 1519, when the Pope demanded an
explanation, Luther wrote a summary and explanation of
his theses to the Pope. While the Pope may have conceded some of the points, he did not like the challenge to
his authority so he summoned Luther to Rome to answer
these. At that point Frederick the Wise, the Saxon Elector, intervened. He did not want one of his subjects to be
sent to Rome to be judged by the Catholic clergy so he
prevailed on the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, who

12
needed Fredericks support, to arrange a compromise.
An arrangement was eected, however, whereby that
summons was cancelled, and Luther went to Augsburg in
October 1518 to meet the papal legate, Cardinal Thomas
Cajetan. The argument was long but nothing was resolved.

RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION

political conict as well, pitting Luther, his German allies and Northern European supporters against Charles
V, France, the Italian Pope, their territories and other allies. The conict would erupt into a religious war after
Luthers death, fueled by the political climate of the Holy
Roman Empire and strong personalities on both sides.
In 1526, at the First Diet of Speyer, it was decided that,
until a General Council could meet and settle the theological issues raised by Martin Luther, the Edict of Worms
would not be enforced and each Prince could decide if
Lutheran teachings and worship would be allowed in his
territories. In 1529, at the Second Diet of Speyer, the decision the previous Diet of Speyer was reverseddespite
the strong protests of the Lutheran princes, free cities
and some Zwinglian territories. These states quickly became known as Protestants. At rst, this term Protestant
was used politically for the states that resisted the Edict
of Worms. Over time, however, this term came to be
used for the religious movements that opposed the Roman Catholic tradition in the 16th century.

First edition of Exsurge Domine.

Excommunication On 15 June 1520, the Pope warned

Luther with the papal bull (edict) Exsurge Domine that he
risked excommunication unless he recanted 41 sentences
drawn from his writings, including the 95 Theses, within
60 days.
That autumn, Johann Eck proclaimed the bull in Meissen and other towns. Karl von Miltitz, a papal nuncio,
attempted to broker a solution, but Luther, who had sent
the Pope a copy of On the Freedom of a Christian in October, publicly set re to the bull and decretals at Wittenberg on 10 December 1520,[45] an act he defended in Why
the Pope and his Recent Book are Burned and Assertions
Concerning All Articles.

Lutheranism would become known as a separate movement after the 1530 Diet of Augsburg, which was convened by Charles V to try to stop the growing Protestant
movement. At the Diet, Philipp Melanchthon presented a
written summary of Lutheran beliefs called the Augsburg
Confession. Several of the German princes (and later,
kings and princes of other countries) signed the document
to dene Lutheran territories. These princes would
ally to create the Schmalkaldic League in 1531, which
lead to the Schmalkald War, 1547, a year after Luthers
death, that pitted the Lutheran princes of the Schmalkaldic League against the Catholic forces of Charles V.
After the conclusion of the Schmalkald War, Charles V
attempted to impose Catholic religious doctrine on the
territories that he had defeated. However, the Lutheran
movement was far from defeated. In 1577, the next generation of Lutheran theologians gathered the work of the
previous generation to dene the doctrine of the persisting Lutheran church. This document is known as the
Formula of Concord. In 1580, it was published with
the Augsburg Confession, the Apology of the Augsburg
Confession, the Large and Small Catechisms of Martin
Luther, the Smalcald Articles and the Treatise on the
Power and Primacy of the Pope. Together they were distributed in a volume entitled The Book of Concord. This
book is still used today.

As a consequence, Luther was excommunicated by Leo 9.3 Results of the Lutheran reformation
X on 3 January 1521, in the bull Decet Romanum Pontificem.
Luthers followers and the Roman Catholic Church broke
fellowship during the Protestant Reformation. In the
years and decades following Luthers posting of the 95
9.2 Political maneuvering
theses on the door of the Wittenberg church, large numbers of Europeans abandoned observance of papal auWhat had started as a strictly theological and academic thority, including the majority of German speakers. Foldebate had now turned into something of a social and lowing the Counter-Reformation, Catholic Austria and

9.6

Anglicanism

Bavaria, together with the electoral archbishops of Mainz,

Cologne, and Trier consolidated the Catholic position on
the German-speaking section of the European continent.
Because Luther sparked this mass movement, he is known
as the father of the Protestant Reformation, and the father
of Protestantism in general.

9.4

Calvinism

Main article: Calvinism

Calvinism is a system of Christian theology and an approach to Christian life and thought within the Protestant
tradition articulated by John Calvin, a Protestant Reformer in the 16th century, and subsequently by successors, associates, followers and admirers of Calvin, his interpretation of scripture, and perspective on Christian life
and theology. Calvins system of theology and Christian
life forms the basis of the reformed tradition, a term
roughly equivalent to Calvinism.

13
God allows his grace to be resisted by those unwilling to believe
Salvation can be lost, as continued salvation is
conditional upon continued faith
Arminianism is most accurately used to dene those who
arm the original beliefs of Jacobus Arminius himself,
but the term can also be understood as an umbrella for a
larger grouping of ideas including those of Hugo Grotius,
John Wesley, Clark Pinnock, and others. There are
two primary perspectives on how the system is applied
in detail: Classical Arminianism, which sees Arminius
as its gurehead, and Wesleyan Arminianism, which (as
the name suggests) sees John Wesley as its gurehead.
Wesleyan Arminianism is sometimes synonymous with
Methodism.

Within the broad scope of church history, Arminianism is

closely related to Calvinism (or Reformed theology), and
the two systems share both history and many doctrines in
common. Nonetheless, they are often viewed as archriThe reformed tradition was originally advanced by stal- vals within Evangelicalism because of their disagreement
warts such as Martin Bucer, Heinrich Bullinger and Peter over the doctrines of predestination and salvation.
Martyr Vermigli, and also inuenced English reformers
such as Thomas Cranmer and John Jewel. However, because of Calvins great inuence and role in the confes- 9.6 Anglicanism
sional and ecclesiastical debates throughout the 17th century, this reformed movement generally became known as Anglican doctrine emerged from the interweaving of two
Calvinism. Today, this term also refers to the doctrines main strands of Christian doctrine during the English refand practices of the Reformed churches, of which Calvin ormation in the 16th and 17th centuries. The rst strand
was an early leader, and the system is perhaps best known is the Catholic doctrine taught by the established church
for its doctrines of predestination and election.
in England in the early 16th century. The second strand is
a range of Protestant reformed teachings brought to England from neighbouring countries in the same period, no9.5 Arminianism
tably Calvinism and Lutheranism.
Main article: Arminianism
Arminianism is a school of soteriological thought in
Protestant Christian theology founded by the Dutch theologian Jacobus Arminius. Its acceptance stretches
through much of mainstream Protestantism. Due to the
inuence of John Wesley, Arminianism is perhaps most
prominent in the Methodist movement.
Arminianism holds to the following tenets:
Humans are naturally unable to make any eort towards salvation

The Church of England was the national branch of the

Catholic Church. The formal doctrines had been documented in canon law over the centuries, and the Church
of England still follows an unbroken tradition of canon
law today. The English Reformation did not dispense
of all previous doctrines. The church not only retained
the core Catholic beliefs common to reformed doctrine
in general, such as the Trinity, the Virgin Birth of Jesus, the nature of Jesus as fully human and fully God,
the resurrection of Jesus, original sin, and excommunication (as armed by the Thirty-Nine Articles), but also
retained some Catholic teachings which were rejected by
true Protestants, such as the three orders of ministry and
the apostolic succession of bishops.

Salvation is possible by grace alone

Works of human eort cannot cause or contribute to
salvation
Gods election is conditional on faith in Jesus
Jesus atonement was potentially for all people

9.7 Orthodox Reformation

The fall of Constantinople in the East, 1453, led to a
signicant shift of gravity to the rising state of Russia,
the Third Rome. The Renaissance would also stimulate a program of reforms by patriarchs of prayer books.

14

11

REVIVALISM (17201906)

A movement called the "Old believers" consequently re- 10.1 The Council of Trent
sulted and inuenced Russian Orthodox Theology in the
Main article: Council of Trent
direction of conservatism and Erastianism.
The Council of Trent (15451563), initiated by Pope

10

Counter-Reformation

Main article: Counter-Reformation

The Counter-Reformation, or Catholic Reformation, was
the response of the Catholic Church to the Protestant
Reformation. The essence of the Counter-Reformation
was a renewed conviction in traditional practices and the
upholding of Catholic doctrine as the source of ecclesiastic and moral reform, and the answer to halting the
spread of Protestantism. Thus it experienced the founding of new religious orders, such as the Jesuits, the establishment of seminaries for the proper training of priests,
renewed worldwide missionary activity, and the development of new yet orthodox forms of spirituality, such
as that of the Spanish mystics and the French school of
spirituality. The entire process was spearheaded by the
Council of Trent, which claried and reasserted doctrine,
issued dogmatic denitions, and produced the Roman
Catechism.
The Roman Catholic counter-reformation spearheaded
by the Jesuits under Ignatius Loyola took their theology
from the decisions of the Council of Trent, and developed
Second Scholasticism, which they pitted against Lutheran
Scholasticism. The overall result of the Reformation was
therefore to highlight distinctions of belief that had previously co-existed uneasily.
Though Ireland, Spain, France, and elsewhere featured
signicantly in the Counter-Reformation, its heart was
Italy and the various popes of the time, who established
the Index Librorum Prohibitorum, or simply the Index,
a list of prohibited books, and the Roman Inquisition, a
system of juridical tribunals that prosecuted heresy and
related oences. The Papacy of St. Pius V (15661572)
was known not only for its focus on halting heresy and
worldly abuses within the Church, but also for its focus
on improving popular piety in a determined eort to stem
the appeal of Protestantism. Pius began his ponticate by
giving large alms to the poor, charity, and hospitals, and
the ponti was known for consoling the poor and sick,
and supporting missionaries. The activities of these pontis coincided with a rediscovery of the ancient Christian
catacombs in Rome. As Diarmaid MacCulloch stated,
Just as these ancient martyrs were revealed once more,
Catholics were beginning to be martyred afresh, both in
mission elds overseas and in the struggle to win back
Protestant northern Europe: the catacombs proved to be
an inspiration for many to action and to heroism.[46]

The Council in Santa Maria Maggiore church; Museo Diocesiano

Tridentino, Trento

Paul III (15341549) addressed issues of certain ecclesiastical corruptions such as simony, absenteeism,
nepotism, and other abuses, as well as the reassertion
of traditional practices and the dogmatic articulation of
the traditional doctrines of the Church, such as the episcopal structure, clerical celibacy, the seven sacraments,
transubstantiation (the belief that during mass the consecrated bread and wine truly become the body and blood
of Christ), the veneration of relics, icons, and saints (especially the Blessed Virgin Mary), the necessity of both
faith and good works for salvation, the existence of purgatory and the issuance (but not the sale) of indulgences,
etc. The Council also fostered an interest in education
for parish priests to increase pastoral care. Milan's Archbishop St. Carlo Borromeo (15381584) set an example
by visiting the remotest parishes and instilling high standards.

11 Revivalism (17201906)
Main article: Revivalism
See also: Charles Grandison Finney

Holiness movement in the U.S. and Higher Life

movement in Britain
The Calvinist and Wesleyan revival, called the
Great Awakening, established the Congregationalist,
Presbyterian, Baptist, and new Methodist churches on
competitive footing for social inuence in North America. However, as that great revival of religion began
to wane, a new era of secularism began to overwhelm
the social gains that had been experienced by evangelical

11.2

Second Great Awakening

churches. Furthermore, that revival had popularized the

strong opinion that evangelical religions were weakened
and divided, primarily due to unreasonable loyalty to
creeds and doctrines which made salvation, and Christian
unity, seem unattainable. This sentiment gave rise to
restorationism.
[47]

11.1

First Great Awakening

Main article: First Great Awakening

The First Great Awakening was a wave of religious enthusiasm among Protestants that swept the American
colonies in the 1730s and 1740s, leaving a permanent impact on American religion. An overrriding theme of religion in Colonial America was the hatred of everything
Catholic. The religious tension in Great Britain was carried into the colonies. A large number of colonists who
came to America did so in order to be able to practice
their religion freely, without interference from a higher
authority. The desire for religious independence was encouraged. Series of revivals were led by evangelists who
preached personal faith rather than conforming to doctrine. These revivals were emotional and took on a life
of their own. They fueled the people into thinking they
could do anything and achieve everything that God desired for them. It created a sense of community and liberty in Christ. They preached a reliance of experience
instead of authority. Powerful preaching deeply aected
listeners (already church members) with a deep sense of
personal guilt and salvation by Christ. Pulling away from
ritual and ceremony, the Great Awakening made religion intensely personal to the average person by creating a deep sense of spiritual guilt and redemption. Historian Sydney E. Ahlstrom sees it as part of a great international Protestant upheaval that also created pietism
in Germany, the evangelical revival and Methodism in
England.[48] It brought Christianity to the slaves and was
an apocalyptic event in New England that challenged established authority. It incited rancor and division between the old traditionalists who insisted on ritual and
doctrine and the new revivalists. It had a major impact in reshaping the Congregational, Presbyterian, Dutch
Reformed, and German Reformed denominations, and
strengthened the small Baptist and Methodist denominations. It had little impact on Anglicans and Quakers. Unlike the Second Great Awakening that began about 1800
and which reached out to the unchurched, the First Great
Awakening focused on people who were already church
members. It changed their rituals, their piety, and their
self-awareness.
The new style of sermons and the way people practiced
their faith breathed new life into religion in America.
People became passionately and emotionally involved in
their religion, rather than passively listening to intellec-

15
tual discourse in a detached manner. The First Great
Awakening was a religious upheaval that prepared a generation of consist to not only support a polcial revolution, but to participate in one. It launched the life of
the churches and the nation in a momentus leap forward.
It was a psychological earthquake that reshaped the religious, moral and social landscape of Colonial America
for the next two centuries. Christians enjoying spiritual
liberties started to crave political liberties as well. Religion and politics were so interwoven that the Christians
started craving political freedom as well, thus leading the
colonies into a revolution that shaped the foundation we
would come to call The United States of America, one
nation under God.
Kidd, Thomas S (2007). The Great Awakening: A Brief
History w/ Documents. Bedford. ISBN 0-312-45225-X.

11.2 Second Great Awakening

Main article: Second Great Awakening
The Second Great Awakening (18001830s) was the
second great religious revival in United States history
and consisted of renewed personal salvation experienced
in revival meetings. Major leaders included Charles
Grandison Finney, Lyman Beecher, Barton Stone. Peter
Cartwright and James B. Finley.
In New England, the renewed interest in religion inspired
a wave of social activism. In western New York, the spirit
of revival encouraged the emergence of the Restoration
Movement, Latter Day Saint movement, Adventism and
the Holiness movement. In the west especiallyat Cane
Ridge, Kentucky and in Tennesseethe revival strengthened the Methodists and the Baptists and introduced into
America a new form of religious expressionthe Scottish camp meeting.

11.3 Resurgence
The third awakening or resurgence, from 1830, was
largely inuential in America and many countries worldwide including India and Ceylon. The Plymouth Brethren
started with John Nelson Darby at this time, a result of
disillusionment with denominationalism and clerical hierarchy.

11.4 Third Great Awakening

Main article: Third Great Awakening
The next great awakening (sometimes called the Third
Great Awakening) began from 1857 onwards in Canada
and spread throughout the world including America and
Australia. Signicant names include Dwight L. Moody,

16

13

Ira D. Sankey, William Booth and Catherine Booth

(founders of the Salvation Army), Charles Spurgeon and
James Caughey. Hudson Taylor began the China Inland Mission and Thomas John Barnardo founded his famous orphanages. The Keswick Convention movement
began out of the British Holiness movement, encouraging a lifestyle of holiness, unity and prayer.

11.5

Further resurgence

The next awakening (18801903) has been described as

a period of unusual evangelistic eort and success, and
again sometimes more of a resurgence of the previous
wave. Moody, Sankey and Spurgeon are again notable
names. Others included Sam Jones, J. Wilber Chapman
and Billy Sunday in North America, Andrew Murray in
South Africa, and John McNeil in Australia. The Faith
Mission began in 1886.

11.6

Welsh and Pentecostal revivals

The nal great awakening (1904 onwards) had its roots in

the Holiness movement which had developed in the late
19C. The Pentecostal revival movement began, out of a
passion for more power and a greater outpouring of the
Spirit. In 1902, the American evangelists Reuben Archer
Torrey and Charles M. Alexander conducted meetings in
Melbourne, Australia, resulting in more than 8,000 converts. News of this revival travelled fast, igniting a passion for prayer and an expectation that God would work
in similar ways elsewhere.

RESTORATIONISM

in the belief that Jesus is the Christ, the Son of God, that
churches celebrate the Lords Supper on the rst day of
each week, and that baptism of adult believers, by immersion in water, is a necessary condition for Salvation.
The Restoration Movement began as two separate
threads, each of which initially developed without the
knowledge of the other, during the Second Great Awakening in the early 19th century. The rst, led by Barton
W. Stone began at Cane Ridge, Bourbon County, Kentucky. The group called themselves simply Christians.
The second, began in western Pennsylvania and Virginia
(now West Virginia), led by Thomas Campbell and his
son, Alexander Campbell. Because the founders wanted
to abandon all denominational labels, they used the biblical names for the followers of Jesus that they found in
the Bible.[49]:27 Both groups promoted a return to the purposes of the 1st-century churches as described in the New
Testament. One historian of the movement has argued
that it was primarily a unity movement, with the restoration motif playing a subordinate role.[50]:8
The Restoration Movement has seen several divisions,
resulting in multiple separate groups. Three modern groups claim the Stone Campbell movement as
their roots: Churches of Christ, Christian churches and
churches of Christ, and the Christian Church (Disciples
of Christ). Some see divisions in the movement as the
result of the tension between the goals of restoration
and ecumenism, with the Churches of Christ and Christian churches and churches of Christ resolving the tension by stressing restoration while the Christian Church
(Disciples of Christ) resolved the tension by stressing
ecumenism.[50]:383

Torrey and Alexander were involved in the beginnings

of the great Welsh revival (1904) which led Jessie PennLewis to witness the working of Satan during times of re- 13 Restorationism
vival, and write her book War on the Saints. In 1906 the
modern Pentecostal movement was born in Azusa Street, Main article: Restorationism (Christian primitivism)
in Los Angeles.
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints

12

Restoration Movement

Main article: Restoration movement

Jehovahs Witnesses
Although restorationists have some basic similarities,
their doctrine and practices vary signicantly. Restorationists do not usually describe themselves as reforming
a Christian church continuously existing from the time of
Jesus, but as restoring the Church that they believe was
lost at some point. The name Restorationism is also used
to describe the Latter Day Saint movement. These movements have a briey overlapping history. Other groups
are also called restorationists because of their comparable
goal to re-establish Christianity in its original form, such
as some anti-denominational Restorationists who arose
in the 1970s, in Britain,[51] and others.

The Restoration Movement (also known as the StoneCampbell Movement) generally refers to the American Restoration Movement, which began on the American frontier during the Second Great Awakening of the
early 19th century. The movement sought to reform
the church and unite Christians. Barton W. Stone and
Alexander Campbell each independently developed similar approaches to the Christian faith, seeking to restore
the whole Christian church, on the pattern set forth in the
New Testament. Both groups believed that creeds kept
Christianity divided. They joined in fellowship in 1832 The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints with 15.3
with a handshake. They were united, among other things, million members,[52] and Jehovahs Witnesses with 6.6

17
million members.[53]

14

Modern Christian theology

After the Reformation Protestant groups continued to

splinter, leading to a range of new theologies. The
"Enthusiasts" were so named because of their emotional
zeal. These included the Methodists, the Quakers and
Baptists. Another group sought to reconcile Christian
faith with Modern ideas, sometimes causing them to reject beliefs they considered to be illogical, including the
Nicene creed and Chalcedonian Creed. these included
Unitarians and Universalists. A major issue for Protestants became the degree to which Man contributes to his
salvation. The debate is often viewied as synergism versus monergism, though the labels Calvinist and Arminian
are more frequently used, referring to the conclusion of
the Synod of Dort.

Some of the doctrines of Protestantism that the Catholic

Church considers heretical are the belief that the Bible
is the only source and rule of faith ("sola scriptura"), that
faith alone can lead to salvation ("sola de") and that there
is no sacramental, ministerial priesthood attained by ordination, but only a universal priesthood of all believers.

16 Postmodern Christianity
Main article: Postmodern Christianity
See also: Postmodern philosophy

Postmodern Christianity is an understanding of Christianity that is closely associated with the body of writings
known as postmodern philosophy. Although it is a relatively recent development in the Christian religion, many
Christian postmodernists are quick to assert that their
style of thought has an anity with foundational Christian
The 19th century saw the rise of biblical criticism, new thinkers such as Augustine of Hippo and Thomas Aquinas
knowledge of religious diversity in other continents and and famed Christian mystics such as Meister Eckhart and
above all the growth of science. This led many church Angelus Silesius.
men to espouse a form of Deism. This, along with con- In addition to Christian theology, postmodern Christiancepts such as the brotherhood of man and a rejection of ity has its roots in post-Heideggerian continental philosmiracles led to what is called "Classic Liberalism". Im- ophy, particularly the thought of Jacques Derrida. Postmensely inuential in its day, classic liberalism suered modern Christianity rst emerged in the early 1980s with
badly as a result of the two world wars and fell prey to the the publication of major books about Derrida and thecriticisms of postmodernism.
ology authored by Carl Raschke, Mark C. Taylor, and
Vladimir Lossky is a famous Eastern Orthodox theolo- Charles Winquist. Many people prefer to eschew the label postmodern Christianity because the idea of postgian writing in the 20th century for the Greek church.
modernity has almost no determinate meaning and, in
the United States, serves largely to symbolize an emocharged battle of ideologies. Moreover, such al15 Modern Catholic response to tionally
leged postmodern heavyweights as Jacques Derrida and
Philippe Lacoue-Labarthe have refused to operate unProtestantism
der a so-called postmodern rubric, preferring instead to
Well into the 20th century, Catholicseven if no longer specically embrace a single project stemming from the
European Enlightenment and its precursors. Nevertheresorting to persecutionstill dened Protestants as
heretics. Thus, Hilaire Belloc - in his time one of the most less, postmodern Christianity and its constituent schools
of thought continue to be relevant.
conspicuous speakers for Catholicism in Britain - was
outspoken about the Protestant Heresy. He even de- Postmodern theology seeks to respond to the challenges
ned Islam as being A Christian heresy, on the grounds of post modern and deconstructionist thought, and has
that Muslims accept many of the tenets of Christianity included the death of God movement, process theology,
but deny the godhood of Jesus (see Hilaire Belloc#On Is- feminist theology and Queer Theology and most imporlam).
tantly neo-orthodox Theology. Karl Barth, Rudolf BultHowever, in the second half of the century - and mann and Reinhold Niebuhr were neo-orthodoxies main
especially in the wake of Vatican II - the Catholic representatives. In particular Barth labeled his theology
Church, in the spirit of ecumenism, tends not to refer to dialectical theology, a reference to existentialism.
Protestantism as a heresy nowadays, even if the teachings
of Protestantism are indeed heretical from a Catholic perspective. Modern usage favors referring to Protestants
as separated brethren rather than heretics, although
the latter is still on occasion used vis-a-vis Catholics who
abandon their church to join a Protestant denomination.
Many Catholics consider Protestantism to be material
rather than formal heresy, and thus non-culpable.

The predominance of Classic Liberalism resulted in

many reactionary movements amongst conservative believers. Evangelical theology, Pentecostal or renewal
theology and fundamentalist theology, often combined
with dispensationalism, all moved from the fringe into
the academy. Marxism stimulated the signicant rise of
Liberation theology which can be interpreted as a rejection of academic theology that fails to challenge the es-

18

16 POSTMODERN CHRISTIANITY

tablishment and help the poor.

From the late 19th century to the early twentieth groups
established themselves that derived many of their beliefs
from Protestant evangelical groups but signicantly differed in doctrine. These include the Jehovahs Witnesses,
the Latter Day Saints and many so called "cults". Many
of these groups use the Protestant version of the Bible and
typically interpret it in a fundamentalist fashion, adding,
however, special prophecy or scriptures, and typically
denying the trinity and the full deity of Jesus Christ.
Ecumenical Theology sought to discover a common consensus on theological matters that could bring the many
Christian denominations together. As a movement it was
successful in helping to provide a basis for the establishment of the World Council of Churches and for some
reconciliation between more established denominations.
But ecumenical theology was nearly always the concern
of liberal theologians, often Protestant ones. The movement for ecumenism was opposed especially by fundamentalists and viewed as awed by many neo-orthodox
theologians.

16.1

Liberal Christianity

ing its source: sin. In so doing, it explores the relationship

between Christian theologyespecially Roman Catholic
theologyand political activism, especially about social
justice, poverty, and human rights. The Theologys principal methodological innovation is seeing theology from
the perspective of the poor and the oppressed (socially,
politically, etc.); per Jon Sobrino, S.J., the poor are a
privileged channel of Gods grace. According to Phillip
Berryman, liberation theology is an interpretation of
Christian faith through the poors suering, their struggle and hope, and a critique of society and the Catholic
faith and Christianity through the eyes of the poor.
Liberation theologians base their social action upon the
Bible scriptures describing the mission of Jesus Christ,
as but bringing a sword (social unrest), e.g. Isaiah 61:1,
Matthew 10:34, Luke 22:35-38 Matthew 26:51-52and
not as bringing peace (social order). This Biblical interpretation is a call to action against poverty, and the
sin engendering it, and as a call to arms, to eect Jesus Christs mission of justice in this world. In practice, the Theology includes the Marxist concept of perpetual class struggle, thus emphasizing the persons individual self-actualization as part of Gods divine purpose
for mankind.

Besides teaching at (some) Roman Catholic universities

and seminaries, liberation theologians often may be found
working in Protestant schools, often working directly
with the poor. In this context, sacred text interpretation
Liberal Christianitysometimes called liberal theolis Christian theological praxis.
ogyhas an anity with certain current forms of postmodern Christianity, although postmodern thought was The issue is seriously confused by the problem of teroriginally a reaction against mainstream Protestant liber- minology. Liberation theology is used in a technical
alism. Liberal Christianity is an umbrella term covering sense to describe a particular theology which uses spediverse, philosophically informed movements and moods cic Marxist concepts. It is also used, especially by nonspecialists and the media, to refer to any approach which
within 19th and 20th-century Christianity.
sees Christianity as requiring political activism on behalf
Despite its name, liberal Christianity has always been
of the poor. It is in the rst sense that the Roman Catholic
thoroughly protean. The word liberal in liberal Chrishierarchy has condemned liberation theology, rejecttianity does not refer to a leftist political agenda but rather
ing especially the idea that a violent class struggle is funto insights developed during the Enlightenment. Generdamental to history, and the reinterpretation of religious
ally speaking, Enlightenment-era liberalism held that man
phenomena such as the Exodus and the Eucharist as esis a political creature and that liberty of thought and exsentially political. The broader sense is not condemned:
pression should be his highest value. The development
The mistake here is not in bringing attention to a political
of liberal Christianity owes a lot to the works of philosodimension of the readings of Scripture, but in making of
phers Immanuel Kant and Friedrich Schleiermacher. As
this one dimension the principal or exclusive component.
a whole, liberal Christianity is a product of a continuing [54]
The Instruction explicitly endorsed a preferential opphilosophical dialogue.
tion for the poor, stated that one could be neutral in the
Many 20th century liberal Christians have been inu- face of injustice, and referred to the crimes of colonialenced by philosophers Edmund Husserl and Martin Hei- ism and the scandal of the arms race. However, media
degger. Examples of important liberal Christian thinkers reports tended to assume that the condemnation of libare Rudolf Bultmann and John A.T. Robinson.
eration theology meant a rejection of such attitudes and
an endorsement of conservative politics.
Main article: Liberal Christianity

16.2

Liberation theology

Main article: Liberation theology

Liberation Theology posits ghting poverty by suppress-

These tensions have probably been worsened by the fact

that many liberation theologians regard their concepts of
political liberation as the only meaningful ones, and thus
see little advance in the ocial attitudes described.

16.5

16.3

Radical Orthodoxy

Christian existentialism

19
philosophers that appeared on the continent in the 1970s
and 1980s. Groundbreaking works such as Jean-Luc
Marion's God Without Being and John D. Caputo's The
Prayers and Tears of Jacques Derrida ushered in the era
of continental philosophical theology.

16.5 Radical Orthodoxy

Main article: Radical Orthodoxy
Radical Orthodoxy is a form of philosophical theology
that has been inuenced by the Nouvelle Theologie, especially of Henri de Lubac.

Sren Kierkegaard

Main article: Christian existentialism

Christian existentialism is a form of liberal Christianity that draws extensively from the writings of Sren
Kierkegaard. Kierkegaard initiated the school of thought
when he reacted against Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel's
claims of universal knowledge and what he deemed to be
the empty formalities of the 19th-century church. Christian existentialism places an emphasis on the undecidability of faith, individual passion, and the subjectivity
of knowledge.

An ecumenical movement begun by John Milbank and

others at Cambridge, Radical Orthodoxy seeks to examine classic Christian writings and related neoplatonic texts
in full dialogue with contemporary, philosophical perspectives. The movement nds in writers such as Augustine of Hippo and Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite,
but also in certain non-Christian writers, valuable sources
of insight and meaning relevant to the supposed impasse
between theology and philosophy, faith and reason, the
Church and the secular. Predominantly Anglican and Roman Catholic in orientation, it has received positive responses from high places in those communions: one of
the movements founders, Catherine Pickstock, received
a letter of praise from Joseph Ratzinger before he became
Pope, while Rowan Williams, the Archbishop of Canterbury, has contributed to the movements publications. A
major hearth of Radical Orthodoxy remains the Centre
of Theology and Philosophy at the University of Nottingham.

16.6 Hermeneutics of religion

The hermeneutics of religion is another form of
continental philosophical theology. The system of
hermeneutic interpretation developed by Paul Ricur has
heavily inuenced the school of thought. A central theme
in the hermeneutics of religion is that of a God who exists
outside the connes of the human imagination.

Although Kierkegaards writings were not initially embraced, they became widely known at the beginning
of the 20th century. Later Christian existentialists 16.7 Weak theology
synthesized Kierkegaardian themes with the works of
thinkers such as Friedrich Nietzsche, Walter Benjamin, Main article: Weak theology
and Martin Buber.
Paul Tillich and Gabriel Marcel are examples of leading Weak theology is a manner of thinking about theology
from a deconstructive point of view. This style of thought
Christian existentialist writers.
owes a debt to Jacques Derrida, especially in light of his
idea of a weak force. Weak theology is weak because
it takes a non-dogmatic, perspectival approach to theol16.4 Continental philosophical theology
ogy. Proponents of weak theology believe that dominant
Continental philosophical theology is the most recent contemporary explications of theology are inherently ideform of postmodern Christianity. The movement was ological, totalizing, and militant. In response, weak thefueled heavily by the slew of notable post-Heideggerian ology expresses itself through acts of interpretation.

20

16.8

18 NOTES

Institutional eects

Although postmodern Christianity is inescapably political, postmodern Christianity does not necessarily represent a new ecclesiastical epoch. It is consonant with postmodern Christianity to work within existing institutions,
interrupting business as usual in order to make room for
marginalized voices. In such a case, the goal would not be
revolution but rather a call to reform and transform existing social structures in the direction of love, hospitality,
and openness.

16.9

Emerging church

Main article: Emerging church

nal term until the dogmatic denition of the Tridentine

Council.
[7] Tertullian, De praescriptione haereticorum 7.
[8] See, for example, Stephen Sykes, The Identity of Christianity (London: SPCK, 1984) or Wayne Meeks, 'Inventing the Christ: multicultural process and poetry among
the rst Christians, Studia Theologica 58.1, pp.77-96, for
arguments along these lines
[9] Larry Hurtado, Lord Jesus Christ (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2003)
[10] See Rowan Williams, 'Does it make sense to speak of pre
Nicene orthodoxy?' in idem (ed.) The Making of Orthodoxy (Cambridge: CUP, 1989), pp.1-23.
[11] Ecumenical, from Koine Greek oikoumenikos, literally
meaning worldwide but generally assumed to be limited to
the Roman Empire as in Augustus claim to be ruler of the
oikoumene/world; the earliest extant uses of the term for a
council are Eusebius Life of Constantine 3.6 around 338
" " (he convoked an
Ecumenical council), Athanasius Ad Afros Epistola Synodica in 369 , and the Letter in 382 to Pope Damasus I and
the Latin bishops from the First Council of Constantinople

Postmodern Christianity has inuenced the emerging

church movement. The emerging church movement
seeks to revitalize the Christian church beyond what it
sees as the connes of Christian fundamentalism so that
it can eectively engage with people in contemporary society. Critics allege, however, that this movements understanding of faith has led many of its adherents outside
the bounds of traditional Christianity. Brian McLaren is
a well-known author and spokesperson for the emerging
[12] Richard Kieckhefer (1989). Papacy. Dictionary of the
church movement.
Middle Ages. ISBN 0-684-18275-0

17

See also

History of Christian thought on persecution and tolerance

18

Notes

[1] Oxford Dictionary of the Bible, Trinity Article

[2] published by J.-P. Audet in JTS 1950, v1, pp 135-154; see
also The Council of Jamnia and the Old Testament Canon,
Robert C. Newman, 1983.

[13] cf. Richards, Jerey. The Popes and the Papacy in the
Early Middle Ages 476-752 (London: Routledge & Kegan
Paul, 1979) p. 9
[14] Richards, Jerey. The Popes and the Papacy in the Early
Middle Ages 476-752 (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul,
1979) pp. 10 and 12
[15] see J. D. Mansi, Sacrorum Conciliorum Nova et Amplissima Collectio 3, p. 559
[16] e.g. 11:13-15; 2:1-17; 7-11; 4-13, and the Epistle of
James in general.
[17] Jared C. Wilson (2009-06-18). Your Jesus Is Too Safe:
Outgrowing a Drive-Thru, Feel-Good Savior. p. 78. ISBN
9780825439315. Retrieved 5 May 2011.

[3] Irenaeus, Adversus Haereses 3.11.8

[4] Both points taken from Mark A. Nolls Turning Points,
(Baker Academic, 1997) pp 36-37

[18] L. Charles Jackson (2007-03-01). Faith of Our Fathers: A

Study of the Nicene Creed. p. 37. ISBN 9781591280439.
Retrieved 5 May 2011.

[5] Lindberg, Carter (2006). A Brief History of Christianity.

Blackwell Publishing. p. 15. ISBN 1-4051-1078-3.

[19] R. Gerberding and J. H. Moran Cruz, Medieval Worlds

(New York: Houghton Miin Company, 2004) p. 58

[6] According to the Catholic Encyclopedia article on the

Canon of the New Testament: The idea of a complete
and clear-cut canon of the New Testament existing from
the beginning, that is from Apostolic times, has no foundation in history. The Canon of the New Testament, like
that of the Old, is the result of a development, of a process
at once stimulated by disputes with doubters, both within
and without the Church, and retarded by certain obscurities and natural hesitations, and which did not reach its

[20] L. Brubaker and J. Haldon, Byzantium in the iconoclast era

(ca. 680-850): the sources (Birmingham, 2001).
[21] Brecht, Martin. Martin Luther. tr. James L. Schaaf,
Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 198593, 1:12-27.
[22] Wriedt, Markus. Luthers Theology, in The Cambridge
Companion to Luther. New York: Cambridge University
Press, 2003, 8894.

21

[23] Selected passages from Martin Luther, Commentary on

Galatians (1538)" as translated in Herbert J. A. Bouman,
The Doctrine of Justication in the Lutheran Confessions, Concordia Theological Monthly 26 (November
1955) No. 11:801.
[24] Martin Luther, Smalcald Articles II, 15.
[25] MSN Encarta, s.v. "Lutheranism" by George Wolfgang Forell; Christian Cyclopedia, s.v. "Reformation,
Lutheran" by Theore Hoyer. Archived 2009-10-31.
[26] Johann Tetzel, Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2007: Tetzels experiences as a preacher of indulgences, especially
between 1503 and 1510, led to his appointment as general
commissioner by Albrecht, archbishop of Mainz, who,
deeply in debt to pay for a large accumulation of beneces,
had to contribute a considerable sum toward the rebuilding of St. Peters Basilica in Rome. Albrecht obtained
permission from Pope Leo X to conduct the sale of a special plenary indulgence (i.e., remission of the temporal
punishment of sin), half of the proceeds of which Albrecht
was to claim to pay the fees of his beneces. In eect,
Tetzel became a salesman whose product was to cause a
scandal in Germany that evolved into the greatest crisis
(the Reformation) in the history of the Western church.
[27] (Trent, l. c., can. xii: Si quis dixerit, dem justicantem nihil aliud esse quam duciam divinae misericordiae,
peccata remittentis propter Christum, vel eam duciam
solam esse, qua justicamur, a.s.)

[38] Luther, Martin. The Smalcald Articles, in Concordia:

The Lutheran Confessions. (Saint Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 2005, 289, Part two, Article 1.
[39] Rupp, Ernst Gordon. Martin Luther, Encyclopdia Britannica, accessed 2006.
[40] Treu, Martin. Martin Luther in Wittenberg: A Biographical Tour. Wittenberg: Saxon-Anhalt Luther Memorial
Foundation, 2003, 31.
[41] Papal Bull Exsurge Domine.
[42] Scha, Philip. History of the Christian Church. New
York: Charles Scribners Sons, 1910, 7:99; Polack, W.G.
The Story of Luther. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing
House, 1931, 45.
[43] Macauley Jackson, Samuel and Gilmore, George William.
(eds.) Martin Luther, The New Scha-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge, New York, London, Funk
and Wagnalls Co., 19081914; Grand Rapids, Michigan:
Baker Book House, 1951), 71.
[44] Spitz, Lewis W. The Renaissance and Reformation Movements, St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1987,
338.

[28] (cf. Trent, Sess. VI, cap. iv, xiv)

[45] Brecht, Martin. (tr. Wolfgang Katenz) Luther, Martin,

in Hillerbrand, Hans J. (ed.) Oxford Encyclopedia of the
Reformation. New York: Oxford University Press, 1996,
2:463.

[29] Hillerbrand, Hans J. Martin Luther: Indulgences and salvation, Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2007.

[46] Diarmaid MacCulloch, The Reformation: A History (New

York: Penguin Books, 2004) p. 404

[30] Bainton, Roland. Here I Stand: a Life of Martin Luther.

New York: Penguin, 1995, 60; Brecht, Martin. Martin Luther. tr. James L. Schaaf, Philadelphia: Fortress
Press, 198593, 1:182; Kittelson, James. Luther The
Reformer. Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress Publishing
House, 1986),104.
[31] Luthers lavatory thrills experts, BBC News, October
22, 2004.

[47] Kidd, Thomas S (2007). The Great Awakening: A Brief

History w/ Documents. Bedford. ISBN 0-312-45225-X.
[48] Sydney E. Ahlstrom, A Religious History of the American
People. (New Haven and London: Yale University Press,
1972) p. 263

[32] Iserloh, Erwin. The Theses Were Not Posted. Toronto:

Saunders of Toronto, Ltd., 1966.

[49] McAlister, Lester G. and Tucker, William E. (1975),

Journey in Faith: A History of the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) - St. Louis, Chalice Press, ISBN 978-08272-1703-4

[33] Junghans, Helmer. Luthers Wittenberg, in McKim,

Donald K. (ed.) The Cambridge Companion to Martin
Luther. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003,
26.

[50] Leroy Garrett, The Stone-Campbell Movement: The Story

of the American Restoration Movement, College Press,
2002, ISBN 0-89900-909-3, ISBN 978-0-89900-909-4,
573 pages

[34] Brecht, Martin. Martin Luther. tr. James L. Schaaf,

Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 198593, 1:204-205.

[51] Evangelicalism in modern Britain: a history from the 1730s

to the 1980s, David W. Bebbington, pub 1995, Routledge
(UK), ISBN 0-415-10464-5, pg 230,231; 245-249

[35] Bouman, Herbert J. A. The Doctrine of Justication

in the Lutheran Confessions, Concordia Theological
Monthly, November 26, 1955, No. 11:801.
[36] Dorman, Ted M., "Justication as Healing: The LittleKnown Luther, Quodlibet Journal: Volume 2 Number 3,
Summer 2000. Retrieved 13 July 2007.
[37] Luthers Denition of Faith.

[52] mormonnewsroom.org, Facts and Statistics

[53] Examining the Scriptures2014: 2014 Yeartext
[54] INSTRUCTION ON CERTAIN ASPECTS OF THE
THEOLOGY OF LIBERATION from the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith

22

19

19 FURTHER READING

Further reading

Hgglund, Bengt (2007) [1968]. Teologins historia [History of Theology] (in German). Translated by Gene J.
Lund (4th rev. ed.). St. Louis, MO: Concordia Publishing House. ISBN 978-0758613486.

23

20
20.1

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