21st Applied Aerodynamics Conference AIAA 2003-3678

23-26 June 2003, Orlando, Florida

Simulations of Bleed-Air Duct Rupture

Ramon Papa
Empresa Brasileira de Aeronáutica SA – Embraer
Environmental and Control System Division
Av. Brigadeiro Faria Lima, 2170
12227-901 São José dos Campos – SP – Brazil
ramon.papa@embraer.com.br

Bento Silva de Mattos

Empresa Brasileira de Aeronáutica SA – Embraer
Technological Development Division
Av. Brigadeiro Faria Lima, 2170
12227-901 São José dos Campos – SP – Brazil
bmattos@embraer.com.br

Luis Carlos de Castro Santos

Empresa Brasileira de Aeronáutica SA – Embraer
Environmental and Control System Division
Av. Brigadeiro Faria Lima, 2170
12227-901 São José dos Campos – SP – Brazil
luis.castro@embraer.com.br

Abstract Introduction

Aircraft engine bleed-air system is of vital Bleed-air system

importance concerning flight safety and
ground operations. The architecture for the
duct placement in the aircraft has to take into
account the proximity of fuel lines, fuel tanks,
avionics, and cargo in order to assure a safe
design. To accomplish this, extensive testing
and numerical simulations are required. By
using computational fluid dynamics analysis
hazardous unforeseen situations as well as the
timing that they occur can be accurately
identified providing the designer with a useful
tool to take corrective and preventive actions.
The present work reports some two- and three-
dimensions simulations of engine bleed-air
rupture performed with the fully unstructured
CFD code FLUENT 1. Some validation cases
using the FLUENT code are also provided.
The careful choice of flow models, especially
turbulence models, and several geometric
arrangements allow the evaluation of important
design features and characteristics relevant for
the safe design of this system.
Copyright 2003 by the American Institute of
Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc. All rights
reserved.
The air-bleed system is the primary air source for the
environmental control system (ECS) including anti-
and de-icing functions. The primary sources of air
supply are the compressor stages of the engines. The
auxiliary power unit (APU) acts as a secondary
source, while sometimes, during ground operation, an
external air supply is also used.
The external air enters the engine compressor at
atmospheric conditions and is compressed by the
several stages raising its pressure to up to 50 psi with
temperature usually toping 450 K. A small portion
this air is then extracted from the engine through one
or more bleed port openings on the side of the engine.
The choice of the number and the conditions from
which bleed port extracts the air depends on the
design and requirements of the system. Commonly
one port bleeds the compressor at higher pressure and
temperature, being called “high stage”, and is
primarily used at extreme energy output requirements,
such as anti-ice operation. For normal operation lower
settings are required, commonly called “low” or
“intermediate stages.” The exact stage can vary
depending on engine type, and energy requirements.

Copyright © 2003 by the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc. All rights reserved.
Although the choice of bleed ports attempts to
minimize the waste of energy, depending of the flight
altitude and engine regime in order to guarantee that
bleed temperatures remain on safety limits excess
energy must be discarded as waste heat. The function
of the pre-cooler is to automatically discharge excess
energy back into the atmosphere as waste heat.
Ensuring that the temperature of the pneumatic duct
line is always well below the ignition temperature of
fuel, and/or below the critical level for surrounding
equipment.
For turbine engine bleed air systems, the Federal
Aviation Administration elaborated the following
rules.
(a) No hazard may result if duct rupture or failure
occurs anywhere between the engine port and the
airplane unit served by the bleed air.
(b) The effect on airplane and engine performance of
using maximum bleed air must be established.
(c) Hazardous contamination of cabin air systems may
not result from failures of the engine lubricating
system.
Usually the hot high-pressure air coming from the
engine compressor is cooled to a safer temperature
level before it is distributed throughout ducts to
pneumatic aircraft systems. The ducts can cross or
pass close to many high-sensitive areas like baggage
and fuel storage compartments or be located beneath
the passenger cabin floor.
The bleed-air rupture computational simulation
objective is to assess the local temperature level of
neighboring compartments that surround the bleed
line, suggest the adequate thermal protection and
provide the necessary information for the positioning
of sensors in order to detect a leak in minimal time.
This is a formidable problem to the flow solvers due
to its high complex nature and transient behavior.
Turbulence Modeling
Direct simulation of the Navier-Stokes equations is
only possible for simple low-Reynolds flow. Instead,
the Reynolds Averaged Navier-Stokes equations
(RANS) are solved (Table. I). RANS equations
require closure for Reynods stresses in order to
develop turbulence models. For two-equation models,
turbulence viscosity is correlated with turbulent
kinetic energy (TKE) and the dissipation rate of TKE.
Turbulent viscosity:
Transport equations for TKE and dissipation rate are
then solved so that turbulent viscosity can be
computed for RANS equations. The k-ε turbulence
model is the most widely used in the industry.
Therefore, its strength and weaknesses are well
documented. The k-equation is derived by subtracting
the instantaneous mechanical energy from its time-
averaged value, and the ε-equation is formed from
physical reasoning. This model is only valid in fully
turbulent flows. In order to overcome the intrinsic
drawbacks of the Standard k-ε model, some
derivatives were developed.
Table I – Solving the Navier-Stokes equations.
One of them is the Realizable k-ε. The basic
distinctions of the Realizable k-ε are given as follow
· Alternative formulation for turbulent
viscosity
where
is now variable.
· A0, As and U* are functions of velocity
gradients.
· Ensures positivity of normal stresses;
u i2 ³ 0
· Ensures Schwarz inequality ;
(u u )
2
i j £ ui2u j2
· New transport equation for dissipation rate,
ε;
Concerning the near-wall treatment, Table II
provides a good comparison between the existing
usual approaches1.

Table II – Comparison of near wall treatments.
Aerothermal Modeling Validation
In terms of fluid dynamics the accurate modeling the
bleed rupture phenomena requires the adequate
computation of both flow field and heat transfer
characteristics of both free and impinging jets. This
section presents some validation results in order to
raise important issues concerning the application. The
choice of FLUENT was the CFD tools is based on
previous successful experience by de Mattos et all [2–
5] in the application of FLUENT to usual practical
problems, typical of the aerospace industry, in both
aerodynamics and thermal analysis.
Jet Impingement
As a validation case for jet impingement the
experiment described in [6 - 11] provides a basis for
evaluation of the computational tool used. An axi-
symmetrical numerical grid of 26 by 26 mesh points
is used to compute the heat transfer Nusselt
coefficient on the wall (Figs. 2-3). Although this
mesh is coarse for academic purposes it is
representative of the limitations of the application
CFD for practical problems where the excessive use
of grid points in complex configurations may lead to
unfeasible computational costs. Another issue is the
choice of turbulence models. Although the references
indicate several specific/customized turbulence
models for jet impingement, the practical approach
was to use a general model, available commercially a
variety of software tools. In this study FLUENT was
used and the realizable k-ε model selected. It predicts
more accurately (than the Standard k-ε) the spreading
rate of both planar and round jets. It is also likely to
provide superior performance for flows involving
rotation, boundary layers under strong adverse
pressure gradients, separation, and recirculation.
For flows with high swirl numbers, high-Rayleigh-
number natural convection, high-speed rotating flows,
flows involving porous media, and flows in strongly
curved domains, the combination of the Realizable k-ε
(RKE) with the PRESTO pressure integration scheme
provides a reasonable computing time with more than
satisfactory accuracy. Since the grid is coarse
Enhanced Wall Functions are used. Fig. 4 displays the
comparison between the experimental curve and the
results obtained using FLUENT. The advantages of
the combination suggested above are evident.
Free Jet Expansion
Physical observation indicates that in nature the free
jet displays four distinct regions as shows Fig. 5. An
important feature of the numerical simulation is the
accurate prediction of the rate of expansion of the jet.
Experiments are used to propose relations shown Fig.
6, see ref. [12], such that they can be used as a
reference for computation. Another axi-symmetrical
model is used (2500 cells) in order to evaluate the
accuracy of the simulation of the jet velocity decay.
Applying FLUENT with both the realizable k-epsilon
model and PRESTO pressure integration scheme
provides accurate results in terms of jet velocity decay
for a wide range of flow velocities (Fig. 7).
The results of both validation cases qualify the
computational model built on the FLUENT code as a
reliable tool to analyze the phenomena arising from a
bleed duct rupture. Now, a more specific test case is
proposed, simulating the typical geometrical
arrangement present in several aircraft designs.
Bleed Air - Duct Rupture Simulations
Three-dimensional case
To analyze the phenomena of interest a geometrically
simplified model was constructed as shows Fig. 8.
Consider a prismatic enclosure, which is traversed by
a bleed air duct. The practical problem consists on
evaluating what would be the temperature of the
surrounding compartment walls in case of bleed
rupture. In order to evaluate the effect of modeling
four cases are proposed: case a) free jet, b) partial
duct obstruction c) full obstruction without duct d)
misaligned free jet. Case a) is the easier to model,
specially considering a more complicated special
arrangement. Case b) represents the more typical
behavior of a joint failure still leaving the ducts
aligned enough to direct the flow downstream. Case
c) represents an extreme case where jet impinges
directly on an obstruction; case d) can represent the
event of the random displacement of the bleed line
favoring impingement on the surrounding walls. All
the models are in the range of 140,000 hexahedral
cells resulting in maximum y+ at the wall in the range
of 300 in the worst case, well within suggested range
for the use of enhanced wall functions. Based on the
previous experiments the Realizable k-ε model with
enhanced wall functions is the natural choice. A mass
flow of 0.3 kg/s, at a total temperature of 500 K is
imposed. The inlet turbulence intensity is 10%. The
temperature distribution along a mid-plane crossing
the domain is displayed on Fig. 9. The transient
behavior of the maximum wall temperature,
regardless where it happens, is presented on Fig. 10.
In case d), the direct impingement of the jet core leads
the peak temperature to 440 K. This case illustrates
both the need of thermal protection on the
surrounding walls and also some mechanical
restriction of the duct movement. The temperature
rises sharply minimizing the possibility of early
detection, this clearly represents the most critical case.
Case b), on the other hand, represents the least
hazardous possibility, when the duct ruptures, but
remains mostly aligned conducting the flow
downstream. The temperature rise is mild, which
would indicate a light thermal protection, but again
the need to restrain the duct movement is greatly
emphasized. Although case a) might represent a
severe geometrical simplification its solution behavior
leads to a balance between a more severe restriction in
transient temperature analysis, since its peak is higher
than the obstruction cases b) and c), although in
steady state the final temperature drops to a lower
value than the other cases. Case a) stresses the
importance of the transient analysis: The temperature
peak is significantly higher than the steady state
values; therefore the thermal protection has to be
designed for the worst case. This arrangement also
clearly allows the analysis of the minimum response
time required by sensors to detect the leak. The
hypothesis of a full blockage of the duct after the
rupture, case c), displays a similar transient to case a)
leading to a peak of the same level at the same time,
but a more pessimistic steady state temperature,
which, in terms of design, calls for more thermal
insulation.
These are some possibilities of massive rupture of the
bleed duct. Depending on the size of the enclosure
and freedom of movement of the duct several other
possibilities exist. The important issue is that CFD
can be used as a tool to take the relevant issues into
account supporting design decisions and risk analysis.
Two-dimensional case
A section of an aircraft aft fuselage that contains a
bleed duct and a protective shroud was selected to
perform a rupture simulation (Fig. 11). A kawool
mantle provides thermal insulation for the duct. The
bleed air inside of the duct is maintained at 577 K and
200 psi. The numerical calculation for this case was
performed employing the Standard k-ε turbulence
model instead of the Realizable one as for the
previous cases. The thin-wall approach was employed
in order to model the shroud.
Fig. 12 shows as the temperature contour develops
before the air hits the shroud. Just after the hot air
leaves the duct through the breach the wave front
reaches Mach number 3 driving a significant
temperature drop in the region behind the front. A
close-up of the flow pattern of the hot-air jet
impacting of the shroud reveals that the shroud was
not able to properly avoid the temperature reaching
undesirable levels downstream (Fig. 13). Covering
the shroud with an adequate insulation provides a
typical solution for this problem. Finally, Fig. 14
displays as the flow evolves after the hot air impacted
on the shroud. Two important aspects of the flow
pattern at this stage can be observed: a ring structure
in the region close to the shroud; and a heating of the
outer parts of the kawool insulation by the backflow
of the hot air. The temperature reached critical levels
0.001 s after the rupture.
Concluding remarks
The careful use of a CFD tool (such as FLUENT) can
be useful for the design an evaluation of bleed duct
ruptures protection systems. The careful judicious of
turbulence models and integration schemes added to
the use of enhanced wall function can be combined to
produce a reliable and consistent analysis procedure.
The flow pattern can eventually evolve in a
completely different way in a three-dimensional
simulation when compared to a two-dimensional one
depending on the configuration taken into account.
However, the two-dimensional analysis presented
here revealed that the temperature reached critical
values in sensitive areas in a very short period of time.
Even if one considers that a three-dimensional
simulation may provide a time scale ten times longer,
the period of time is short enough in order to prevent
certain probes of properly shutting down the bleed-air
flow in the duct. In addition, the two-dimensional
analysis also showed that the backflow of the hot air
led to a heating of the outer parts of the insulation. A
more sophisticated three-dimensional simulation
would certainly capture this kind of situation, too.
Considering the amount of computational power
required for transient simulations as shown in the
present paper, a two-dimensional bleed rupture
simulation can be attractive by providing some
insights of the flow pattern involved. On the other
hand, due to the inherent perils of a bleed air-duct
rupture, a three-dimensional simulation of the
configuration under study should be always
performed in order to correctly capture and predict all
flow phenomena and situations related to.
 References
1. FLUENT 5.3 User’s Guide, Vol. 1-4, FLUENT
Inc., Lebanon, NH, USA, 1996.
2. de Mattos, B. S., Ferarri, M. A. S. and Leahy-
Dios, F, “Transonic Euler Flow Calculation
around a Transport Configuration with Powered-
Engine Effects,” 37th AIAA Aerospace Sciences
and Exhibit, AIAA Paper # 99-0529, January
1999, Reno, NV, USA.
3. de Mattos, B. S. and Oliveira, G. L., “ Three-
dimensional Thermal Coupled Analysis of a
Wing Slice Slat with a Piccolo Tube,” 18th AIAA
Applied Aerodynamics Conference, AIAA Paper
# 2000-3921, August 2000, Denver, CO, USA.
4. de Mattos, B. S. and Oliveira, G. L.,
“Aerothermodynamic Flow Simulation Inside an
Aircraft Cabin Section with Consoles and
Screens,” European Congress on Computational
in Applied Sciences and Engineering,
ECCOMAS 2001 Conference, September 2001,
Swansea, UK.
5. Fernandes, F. C., and de Mattos, B. S.,
“Aerothermodynamic Flow Simulation Inside an
Aircraft Cabin with Consoles and Screens,”
European Congress on Computational in Applied
Sciences and Engineering, ECCOMAS 2001
Conference, September 2001, Swansea, UK.
6. Baughn, J., Hechanova, A., Yan,X., “An
Experimental Study of Entrainment Effects on
Figures
Fig. 1 – Schematic of a typical bleed-air system of aircraft with rear-mounted engines.
the Heat Transfer for a Flat Surface to a Heated
Circular Impinging Jet”, Journal of Heat
Transfer, 113,pp.1023-1025, 1991.
7. Baughn, J., Shimizu,S., “Heat Transfer
Measurements form a Surface with Uniform Heat
Flux and an Impinging Jet.”, Journal of Heat
Transfer, 111, pp.1096-1098, 1989.
8. Behnia, M., Parneix, S., Durbin, P., “Simulations
of the Jet Impingement Heat Transfer with the k-
e-v2 Model”, Annual Research Briefs, Center for
Turbulent Research , NASA Ames/Stanford
University, pp. 3-16, 1996.
9. Behnia, M., Parneix, S., Durbin, P., “Accurate
Modeling Impinging Jet Heat Transfer”, Annual
Research Briefs, Center for Turbulent Research,
NASA Ames/Stanford University, pp. 149-164,
1997.
10. Cooper, D., Jackson, D.C., Launder, B. E., Liao,
G.X. “Impinging Jet Studies for Turbulence
Model Assessment- I. Flow-field Experiments”,
Int. J. Heat and Mass Transfer, 36(10), pp. 2675-
2684, 1993.
11. Craft, T. J., Graham, L.J.W. , Launder, B. E.,
“Impinging Jet Studies for Turbulence Model
Assessment- II. Examination of the Performance
of Four Turbulence Models”, Int. J. Heat and
Mass Transfer, 36(10), pp. 2685-2697, 1993.
12. ASHRAE Handbook 1997.
 13 x 13 D Impingement
Surface

D = 0.0403m
Flow
Direction Symmetry
Axis

Fig. 2 – Geometry for the impinging jet validation test case.

Fig. 3 – Computational Mesh and Contours of Velocity Magnitude.

220
Rke_Enh_Presto
200 Ske_Enh_Presto
Experimental
180
Rke_Enh_2order
160 Ske_Enh_2order

140
Nusselt

120

100

80

60

40

20
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2

Distance

Fig. 4 – Nusselt number along the wall.

Fig. 5 – Schematic description of the free jet expansion phenomena.

Fig. 6 – Excerpt from ASHRAE Handbook, presenting the relations for

free jet expansion computation.
 Flow
direction
Nozzle
Contour of velocity

Center Line Velocity Decay (V=10m/s) Center Line Velocity Decay (V=200m/s)

velocity
velocity

12 250

ASHRAE Handbook 1997 ASHRAE Handbook 1997

10 Fluent_Rk-e Fluent_Rk-e
200
y = 3,0x-1
y = 45.9x-1
8
150

100
4

50
2

0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
distance distance

Fig. 7 – Comparison between numerical simulation (FLUENT) and experimental data – Free jet.

Case A) Free Jet

Case B) Partial Duct

Obstruction

Case C) Full Obstruction

Case D) Free Jet with 30 deg incidence

Fig. 8 – Test Cases for the Bleed-Rupture Simulation Model.

 Case A

Case B

Case C

Case D

Fig. 9 –Flow solution of the bleed-rupture simulation model.

440 Case D

420

400

380

360
Case C
340
Case A
320
Case B
300
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30

Fig. 10 – Time history of temperature on the top wall.

 Fig. 11 – Geometry of the two-dimensional application case.

Fig. 12 – The sequence above shows the bleed air leaving the duct before it impacts on the
shroud (Temperature contours).

Fig. 13 – Details of the jet impacting on the shroud (Temperature contours).

Fig. 14 – Sequence showing the evolution of the temperature contours after the hot air
encountered the shroud.