ROOTS OF EQUATIONS

BRACKETING
METHODS

This chapter on roots of equations

deals with methods that exploit the fact
that a function typically changes sign in
the vicinity of a root.
These techniques are called bracketing
methods because two initial guesses
for the root are required and must be
on either side of the root.
The particular methods described
herein employ strategies to
systematically reduce the width of the
bracket and hence, home in on the
correct answer.

Numerical Methods these are techniques by

which engineering problems are solved by
basic arithmetic operations, which are
normally long and tedious (i.e. iterative /
repetitive)
TYPES OF EQUATION

1. Polynomial or Algebraic Equations

Theory: Every equation f(x) = 0 of degree n

If f(x) =x4-5x3+6x2-9 : _____variations of sign

If

has most n distinct roots. If the equation has

a + bi as a root, then it has a bi also as a
root.
Signs of the roots
Let f(x) have real coefficients and be arranged
in descending powers of x. Then, if two
successive terms differ in sign, there is said
to be a variation of sign. In counting the
variation, zero coefficients or missing powers
of x are disregarded.
f(x) = 2x4+5x2-4x-1

: ____variations of sign

DESCARTES RULE OF SIGNS

If f(x) is a polynomial with real coefficients, the
number of positive roots of the equation f(x)=0
cannot exceed the number of variation of sign
in f(x), and, in any case, differs from the
number of variations by an even integer.
To determine the number of negative roots
f(x)=0 , determine the number of positive
roots of f(-x)=0 .

Example: Determine the number of positive and negative

roots of the equation
a) f(x) = 2x4 + 5x2 - 4x -1
b) f(x) = 2x5 3x4 + 2x - 5

A simple method for obtaining an estimate of

the root of the equation f(x)=0 is to make a
plot of the function and observe where it
crosses the x axis.
y

Root
x

Illustration of a number of general ways that a

root may occur in an interval prescribed by a
lower bound xl and an upper bound xu.

Figure 5.2

Parts (a) and (c)

indicate that if
both f(xl) and
f(xu) have the
same sign,
either there will
be no roots or
there will be an
even number of
roots within the
interval.

Parts (b) and

(d) indicate
that if the
function has
different signs
at the end
points, there
will be an odd
number of
roots in the
interval.

Illustration of some exceptions to the general cases

depicted in Fig. 5.2.
(a) Multiple roots that occur when the function is
tangential to the x axis. For this case, although the
end points are of opposite signs, there are an even
number of axis interceptions for the interval.
(b) Discontinuous functions where end points of
opposite sign bracket an even number of roots.
Special strategies are required for determining the
roots for these cases.

Figure 5.3

In general, if f(x) is real and continuous in the

interval from xl to xu and f(xl) and f(xu) have
opposite signs then there is at least one real
root between xl and xu
The bisection method is one type of an
incremental search method in which the
interval is always divided in half.

STEP 1 Choose lower xl and xu guesses for the root

such that the root changes sign over the interval.
STEP 2
An estimate of the root xr is determined by

xr

xl xu
2

STEP 3 Make the following evaluations to determine in which

subinterval the root lies:

(a)If f(xl)f(xr) < 0 the root lies in the lower subinterval.

Therefore set xu=xr and return to step 2.
(b)If f(xl)f(xr) > 0 the root lies in the upper subinterval.
Therefore set xl = xr and return to step 2.
(c)If f(xl)f(xr) = 0 the root equals xr; terminate the
computation.

A graphical depiction of the bisection method.

Figure 5.6

When a becomes less than a pre-specified stopping

criterion s, the computation is terminated.

xrnew xrold
a
100%
new
xr
Table form:
n
xl

f(xl)

xu

Xr

f(xr)

f(xl)f(xr)

1
2

Example: Find the positive root of f(x) =4x3-6x2+7x-2.3

(use 4 decimal places), use x =-5, -4, -3

shortcoming of the bisection

method is that it does not take
into account the magnitudes of
f(xl) and f(xu).
For example, if f(xl) is much
closer to zero than f(xu), it is

likely that the root is closer to

xl than to xu

 An

alternative method that

exploits this graphical insight is
to join f(xl) and f(xu) by a
straight line. The intersection
of this line with the x-axis
represents an improved
estimate of the root.

f(x)

f(xu)

xr
xl
xu
f(xl)

f ( xu )( xl xu )
xr xu
f ( xl ) f ( xu )

False Position method

Replacing the curve by a line will give false position of
the root. It is also called the linear interpolation method

 One

way to mitigate the onesided nature of false position is

to have the algorithm detect when
one of the bounds is stuck. If this
occurs, the function value at the
stagnant bound can be divided in
half. This is called the modified

false-position method.

Example:

Determine the real roots of

f(x)=-13-20x+19x2 3x2 using the Regula
Falsi method to 3 decimal places.
Use xl = -1 and xu = 0.