Developmental Psychology

Developmental psychology is the scientific study of how and why human beings change
over the course of their life. Originally concerned with infants and children, the field has
expanded to include adolescence, adult development, aging, and the entire lifespan. This field
examines change across a broad range of topics including: motor skills, cognitive
development, executive functions, moral understanding, language acquisition, social
change, personality, emotional development, self-concept and identity formation.
Developmental psychology examines the influences of nature and nurture on the process of
human development, and processes of change in context and across time. Many researchers
are interested in the interaction between personal characteristics, the individual's behaviour
and environmental factors, including social context and the built environment. Ongoing
debates include biological essentialism vs. neuroplasticity and stages of development vs.
dynamic systems of development.
Developmental psychology involves a range of fields, such as, educational psychology, child
psychopathology, forensic developmental psychology, child development, cognitive
psychology, ecological psychology, and cultural psychology. Influential developmental
psychologists from the 20th century include Urie Bronfenbrenner, Erik Erikson, Sigmund
Freud, Jean Piaget, Barbara Rogoff, Esther Thelen, and Lev Vygotsky.

Theories
Attachment theory
Attachment theory, originally developed by John Bowlby, focuses on the importance of open,
intimate, emotionally meaningful relationships. Attachment is described as a biological
system or powerful survival impulse that evolved to ensure the survival of the infant. A child
who is threatened or stressed will move toward caregivers who create a sense of physical,
emotional and psychological safety for the individual. Attachment feeds on body contact and
familiarity. Later Mary Ainsworth developed the Strange Situation protocol and the concept
of the secure base.
There are four types of attachment styles: secure, anxious-avoidant, anxious-resistant, and
disorganized. Secure attachment is a healthy attachment between the infant and the caregiver.
It is characterized by trust. Anxious-avoidant is an insecure attachment between an infant and
a caregiver. This is characterized by the infant's indifference toward the caregiver. Anxious-

resistant is an insecure attachment between the infant and the caregiver characterized by
distress from the infant when separated and anger when reunited. Disorganized is an
attachment style without a consistent pattern of responses upon return of the parent.
A child can feel hindered in its natural tendency to form attachments. Some babies are raised
without the stimulation and attention of a regular caregiver, or locked away under conditions
of abuse or extreme neglect. The possible short-term effects of this deprivation are anger,
despair, detachment, and temporary delay in intellectual development. Long-term effects
include increased aggression, clinging behaviour, detachment, psychosomatic disorders, and
an increased risk of depression as an adult.
Attachment style can impact the relationships of people. Attachment is established in early
childhood and attachment continues in adulthood. An example of secure attachment
continuing in adulthood would be when the person feels confident and is able to meet their
own needs. An example of anxious attachment during adulthood is when the adult chooses a
partner with anxious-avoidant attachment.

Constructivism
Constructivism is a paradigm in psychology that characterizes learning as a process of
actively constructing knowledge. Individuals create meaning for themselves or make sense of
new information by selecting, organizing, and integrating information with other knowledge,
often in the context of social interactions. Constructivism can occur in two ways: individual
and social. Individual constructivism is when a person constructs knowledge through
cognitive processes of their own experiences rather than by memorizing facts provided by
others. Social constructivism is when individuals construct knowledge through an interaction
between the knowledge they bring to a situation and social or cultural exchanges within that
content.
Jean Piaget, a Swiss developmental psychologist, proposed that learning is an active process
because children learn through experience and make mistakes and solve problems. Piaget
proposed that learning should be whole by helping students understand that meaning is
constructed.

Ecological systems theory

Ecological systems theory, originally formulated by Urie Bronfenbrenner, specifies four types
of nested environmental systems, with bi-directional influences within and between the
systems. The four systems are microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, and macrosystem. Each
system contains roles, norms and rules that can powerfully shape development. Microsystem

is the direct environment in our lives such as our home and school. Mesosystem is how
relationships connect to the microsystem. Exosystem is a larger social system where the child
plays no role. Macrosystem refers to the cultural values, customs and laws of society.
The microsystem is the immediate environment surrounding and influencing the individual
(example: school or the home setting). The mesosystem is the combination of two
microsystems and how they influence each other (example: sibling relationships at home vs.
peer relationships at school). The exosystem is the interaction among two or more settings
that are indirectly linked (example: a father's job requiring more overtime ends up influencing
his daughter's performance in school because he can no longer help with her homework). The
macrosystem is broader taking into account social economic status, culture, beliefs, customs
and morals (example: a child from a wealthier family sees a peer from a less wealthy family
as inferior for that reason). Lastly, the chronosystem refers to the chronological nature of life
events and how they interact and change the individual and their circumstances through
transition (example: a mother losing her own mother to illness and no longer having that
support in her life).
Since its publication in 1979, Bronfenbrenner's major statement of this theory, The Ecology
of Human Development has had widespread influence on the way psychologists and others
approach the study of human beings and their environments. As a result of this
conceptualization of development, these environmentsfrom the family to economic and
political structureshave come to be viewed as part of the life course from childhood
through to adulthood.

Psychosexual Development
Sigmund Freud believed that we all had a conscious, preconscious, and unconscious level. In
the conscious we are aware of our mental process. The preconscious involves information
that, though not currently in our thoughts, can be brought into consciousness. Lastly, the
unconscious includes mental processes we are unaware of.
He believed there is tension between the conscious and unconscious, because the conscious
tries to hold back what the unconscious tries to express. To explain this he developed three
personality structures: the id, ego, and superego. The id, the most primitive of the three,
functions according to the pleasure principle: seek pleasure and avoid pain.[12] The superego
plays the critical and moralizing role; and the ego is the organized, realistic part that mediates
between the desires of the id and the superego.
Based on this, he proposed five universal stages of development, that each are characterized
by the erogenous zone that is the source of the child's psychosexual energy. The first is
theoral stage, which occurs from birth to 12 months of age. During the oral stage "the libido
is centered in a baby's mouth." The baby is able to suck. The second is the anal stage, from
one to three years of age. During the anal stage, the child defecates from the anus. The third is

the phallic stage, which occurs from three to five years of age (most of a person's personality
forms by this age). During the phallic stage, the child is aware of their sexual organs. The
fourth is the latency stage, which occurs from age five until puberty. During the latency stage,
the child's sexual interests are repressed. Stage five is the genital stage, which takes place
from puberty until adulthood. During the genital stage, puberty starts happening.

Stages of Moral development

Piaget claimed that logic and morality develop through constructive stages. Expanding on
Piaget's work, Lawrence Kohlberg determined that the process of moral development was
principally concerned with justice, and that it continued throughout the individual's lifetime.
He suggested three levels of moral reasoning; pre conventional moral reasoning, conventional
moral reasoning, and post conventional moral reasoning. Pre conventional moral reasoning is
typical of children and is characterized by reasoning that is based on rewards and
punishments associated with different courses of action. Conventional moral reason occurs
during late childhood and early adolescence and is characterized by reasoning based on rules
and conventions of society. Lastly, post conventional moral reasoning is a stage during which
the individual sees society's rules and conventions as relative and subjective, rather than as
authoritative.
Kohlberg used the Heinz Dilemma to apply to his stages of moral development. The Heinz
Dilemma involves Heinz's wife dying from cancer and Heinz having the dilemma to save his
wife by stealing a drug. Pre conventional morality, conventional morality, and post
conventional morality applies to Heinz's situation.

Stages of psychosocial development

Erik Erikson reinterpreted Freud's psychosexual stages by incorporating the social aspects of
it. He came up with eight stages, each of which has two crisis (a positive and a negative).
Stage one is trust versus mistrust, which occurs during infancy. Stage two is autonomy versus
shame and doubt, which occurs during early childhood. Stage three is initiative versus guilt,
which occurs during play age. Stage four is industry versus inferiority, which occurs during
school age. Stage five is identity versus identity diffusion, which occurs during adolescence.
Stage six isintimacy versus isolation which occurs during young adulthood. Stage seven
is generativity versus self-absorption which occurs during adulthood. Lastly, stage eight
is integrity versus despair, which occurs in old age.
Each stage builds upon the successful completion of earlier stages. The challenges of stages
not successfully completed may be expected to reappear as problems in the future. However,
mastery of a stage is not required to advance to the next stage.
Erik Erikson proposed his stages of psychosocial development to discuss the psychological
development of the human lifespan. Sigmund Freud's stages of development focused on

psychosexual development, while Erikson's theory focused on psychosocial development.

Erikson's theory claimed that humans develop throughout their lifespan and consists of eight
stages: Trust vs. Mistrust, Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt, Initiative vs. Guilt, Industry vs.
Inferiority, Identity vs. Role Confusion, Intimacy vs. Isolation, Generativity vs. Stagnation,
and Integrity vs. Despair.

Stages based on the model of hierarchical complexity

Michael Commons enhanced and simplified of Inhelder and Piaget's developmental and
offers a standard method of examining the universal pattern of development. The Model of
Hierarchical Complexity (MHC) is not based on the assessment of domain specific
information, It divides the Order of Hierarchical Complexity of tasks to be address from the
Stage performance on those tasks. Stage is the order hierarchical complexity of the tasks the
participant's successfully addresses. He expanded Piaget's original eight stage (counting the
half stages) to fifteen stages. The stages are : 0 Calculatory; 1 Sensory & Motor; 2 Circular
sensory-motor; 3 Sensory-motor; 4 Nominal; 5 Sentential; 6 Preoperational; 7 Primary; 8
Concrete; 9 Abstract; 10 Formal; 11 Systematic; 12 Metasystematic; 13 Paradigmatic; 14
Cross-paradigmatic; 15 Meta-Cross-paradigmatic. The order of hierarchical complexity of
tasks predicts how difficult the performance is with a R ranging from 0.9 to 0.98.
In the MHC, there are three main axioms for an order to meet in order for the higher order
task to coordinate the next lower order task. Axioms are rules that are followed to determine
how the MHC orders actions to form a hierarchy. These axioms are: a) defined in terms of
tasks at the next lower order of hierarchical complexity task action; b) defined as the higher
order task action that organizes two or more less complex actions; that is, the more complex
action specifies the way in which the less complex actions combine; c) defined as the lower
order task actions have to be carried out non-arbitrarily.

Theories of cognitive development

Jean Piaget, a Swiss theorist, posited that children learn by actively constructing knowledge
through hands-on experience.] He suggested that the adult's role in helping the child learn was
to provide appropriate materials that the child can interact with and use to construct. He
used Socratic questioning to get children to reflect on what they were doing, and he tried to
get them to see contradictions in their explanations.
Piaget believed that intellectual development takes place through a series of stages, which he
described in his theory on cognitive development. Each stage consists of steps the child must
master before moving to the next step. He believed that these stages are not separate from one
another, but rather that each stage builds on the previous one in a continuous learning
process. He proposed four stages: sensorimotor, pre-operational, concrete operational,
and formal operational. Though he did not believe these stages occurred at any given age,
many studies have determined when these cognitive abilities should take place

Zone of Proximal Development

Lev Vygotsky was a Russian theorist from the Soviet era, who posited that children learn
through hands-on experience and social interactions with members of his/her culture. Unlike
Piaget, he claimed that timely and sensitive intervention by adults when a child is on the edge
of learning a new task (called the "zone of proximal development") could help children learn
new tasks. This adult role is often referred to as the skilled "master," whereas the child is
considered the learning apprentice through an educational process often termed "cognitive
apprenticeship." Martin Hill stated that "The world of reality does not apply to the mind of a
child." This technique is called "scaffolding," because it builds upon knowledge children
already have with new knowledge that adults can help the child learn. Vygotsky was strongly
focused on the role of culture in determining the child's pattern of development, arguing that
development moves from the social level to the individual level. In other words, Vygotsky
claimed that psychology should focus on the progress of human consciousness through the
relationship of an individual and their environment.[23] He felt that if scholars continued to
disregard this connection, then this disregard would inhibit the full comprehension of the
human consciousness.

Case Study
Reena is a 23-year old woman who was raised in a middle-to-upper class suburban
household. She is the second born and the only girl out of three, where the oldest is nine years
her senior, and the youngest boy is four years apart from her. Now, the major gap between the
oldest brother and her made for an interesting dynamic. In fact, Reena once told the older
brother that, I looked at everything you did growing up, anytime you got in trouble for
something, I made a note not to do that, and when there was something you did that received
praise, I wanted to outdo it! During Reenas infancy, her mother, grandmother, and Mrs.
Guptathe babysitter, cared for her. Mrs. Gupta was introduced into Reenas life later in her
toddler period, but her mother and grandmother took shifts in raising her during infancy. The
grandmother would be the caretaker during the day, while her mother would nurse her at
night. In fact, Reena often slept in the same bed with the mother, which provided for
immediate response and care anytime Reena wanted it. Reenas mother reported mastering a
schedule throughout some nights whenever she had to bring work home (which was quite
often). Fortunately, both her parents remained together throughout her lifetime with the intent

on making her the brainchild protg. There is not as much known about her fathers
participation during the infancy period. However, it was said that when she was wet, he
would change the diaper, when she would cry, he picked her up, and when she was hungry, he
would prepare the cerelac; however, before Reena was born, it was reported that you would
never see him in the kitchenthe guy could barely boil and egg! Nonetheless, she was
Daddys little girl, and he would do anything in the world for her. Her father, a very
hardworking, militant man, not only provided heavy protection of his only daughter, but he
instilled in her to have an independent personality. He wanted her to break all gender
typecasting when it came to occupational or recreational work. His philosophy was a
distortion of Platos conceptthe only thing you know is that you dont know
everythingbut, you damn sure better strive to know everything, was his spin on it!
Nevertheless, from infancy to young adult hood, Reena was given anything she asked for
from her father. There was never a time when Daddy wasnt there, she proclaimed. reena
recalled a time when her car broke down around 2:00am, after coming back from a party.
None of her friends knew anything about cars, including the gentlemen with her, so without a
second guess she called up her father who was an hour away. He was a little upset, of
course, especially since I didnt bring my AAA card, but once he knew I was safe and met my
nice friends, he calm down, she claimed. Her father eventually bought her a new car.
Moreover, being the only cute protg girl of that family generation (all her cousins in her
generation bracket are male), she was focused on with great detail. Every one of the family
members stressed the necessity for her to read and become proficient in arithmetic at five or
six years old. Now, as a young toddler, her family hypothesized that she would be a talented
and gifted individual. Reena was walking, speaking structured sentences, and even reading
teenage books by the age of five. In addition, she became easily acquainted to playing the
violin and piano, while gracefully mastering ballether passion. Now, although Reena would
try to stray away from these activities, because of peer pressure or disappointments, her
family was insistent on her maintaining these goals. Reena received great attention from the
individuals in her family nucleus. She embraced the attention from her elders and took pride
in fulfilling their expectations. What were their expectations? Some version of Hillary
Clinton or Condole ezza Rice, or a combination of both it was said around the dinner table.
There was an emphasis for her to become a lawyer, doctor, or financial broker, whatever
suited her preference, but as long as it made a lot of money. When asked, her mother recalled
taking her several times to her job on days that school was out and having no babysitter, I
remember when Reena said: Mommy, why do you tell people what to do? and I just
chuckled, her mother relayed. Reena recollected on those moments, and said she only
remembered sitting in a room with a big long table and people talking mumbo jumboand
someone was laughing through a phoneand Mommy was at the easel one time! Reenas
aunt, a well opinionated, boisterous, but upstanding registered nurse would always lecture
Reena when she was a young adolescent. She would preach about the standards of dignified
womanhood, along with the life of a professional. As if she did not hear this already at home,
Reenas aunt would forcefully make the point of how she wanted Reena to be a successful
accountant or doctor. My first discussion about making money, actually was with my aunt,
Reena recalled, and I can remember when I opened my first savings account, this
somehow lead to a discussion about stocks and bondsI didnt know what the heck she was

talking about, but it was actually interesting to see her passionate about it. Now, Reena later
realized that the discussion at her mothers board meeting was of a similar nature. Daddy
never took me to his office job, Reena recently said, but he did take me to his clients
houses while he fixed their computers, it was kinda cool that he made his own hours.
Actually, this was not out of luxury or fun, but this was her fathers second job, the one he
needed to help put her through private school and later college. Nevertheless, Reena admitted
that she learned a great deal about consulting and business interactions. Her grandparents
(both sides) had a similar tendency to hint at their career expectations for her, but they found
it necessary for her to have a strong religious footing. Each Sunday and sometimes
throughout the week they would consistently demand for her participation in the church
service. Grandma Vi still today recites to me bible verses and wants me to pray with her
over the phone, Reena explains. She wants me to be at church all the time, but I had to tell
her that Im trying to juggle all kinds of things, sometimes I have to miss itShe aint
listening though! This was the first time Reena really pushed against any authority to take
control of her own life. In all, her immediate family continued to be encouraging and was
persistent in pushing her along a set direction. Now, the parents expected the very best with
little room for failure; and, anything less that an A-grade in academia was unacceptable in the
household. Although to the parents credit, the academic standards were applied to all the
children, not just to Reena. Now, unlike a good portion of the representatives in Reenas
generation, she has become a reliable, responsible, and a fairly mature adult. She is a bit of a
purist, leaning on an almost nunlike piousness by never getting into troublestaying away
from drugs, alcohol, premarital sexual relations, and mostly all the un-Godly sins that young
people partake in today. The parents never really had anything negative to say about Reena
when asked about her childhood, other than she would jump from one extracurricular activity
to another, and they had to make her stick to certain activities beyond her own will. The
family mentioned that from her toddler age to the present day, Reena was rather firm on what
she wanted and didnt want. If she did not want to play with a particular toy in her time, she
would throw it and say no fun! Reena was given a Barbie once and threw that into the wall,
because she wanted to play with her stuffed animal Tigger instead. Her love for Tigger never
ceased; because when Reena was a bachelorette she plastered the walls of her room with
different types of Tigger stuffed animals and posters. Her finicky decisiveness with toys and
food as a toddler, carried over to her extracurricular activities as an adolescent. Again, when
Reena was disappointed or bored with her activities (violin, piano, and dancing), she
wanted to jump into something else instantly, such as Taekwondo, gymnastics, or basketball.
Although, she was the most passionate about dancing, there were times she wanted to quit
because of the level of difficulty. She states, there were times I just wanted to give up, but
my parents, especially Daddy kept pushing me to make a breakthroughthats the only way I
will be the best, he said. Now, since her parents thought they made a mistake of allowing the
first child to stop certain activities because of his request, they wanted to prevent that from
happening again. Therefore, beyond Reenas own impulsive desire, they encouraged her to
minimally sustain her dancing, because she could become Reena rich and famous like
sharuk or salman. Now, although the parents stooped so low to use popular celebrities as
idols, this did work in everyones favor to keep Reen motivated to dance. In addition, Reena
had immense trust in her parents decisions and saw fit to follow their advice. One thing her

mother noted, was that was extremely inquisitive, and when she was confident in knowing
something, she had a knack for teaching others. Reena eventually tutored the next-door
neighbors daughter in mathematics, while attempting to train her little brother as well.
Unfortunately, it was exposed later, that when she didnt know something, she had a difficult
time admitting she was unknowledgeable about the subject. This was a point of crisis for
Reena as she transitioned to her adolescent stage. The question is how would she resolve it.
Throughout her adolescence, she continued to show promise in her private school, becoming
a favorite amongst her teachers, meanwhile setting the standards high for her younger brother
that followed her. She attended a private religious academy from Kindergarten to Middle
school (Junior-high school). Her teachers clouded her with praise and inspiration, pushing her
parents to permit skipping grades and try-out for outside extracurricular programs, especially
in dancing. According to her parents, the education was decent, but the private school gave
her a smothering atmosphere, and perhaps a little too much micromanaging with very little
freedom to let her breathe. They were going to force me to join their congregation if I
wanted to continue throughout high school there, and I said hell nowhat if I have
commitments to other churches, she explained. With that said, Reenas parents wanted her to
have exposure to the real world, and never to live in some type of bubble. So, they placed
her into a public high school, with the idea of preparing her for everyday realities she might
encounter in college and the work force. As was expected, she was in for a cultural shock, but
she was trained enough to brace herself for the wild ride. Now, with the egregious display of
the counterculture that her generation gravitated toward, she held a strong resistance against
all pressure, she said. Although Reena claimed to resist most of the pressure from
uninspiring people, she felt the pressure of deciding on what college she was going to attend.
This for her was based on her career pursuit and if she wanted to stay in close vicinity to her
family. I had to make a decision in 11th grade, although I had some idea already by 9th she
claimed. She figured dancing would not be a long-term plan, even though she was purported
to be very good. Now, all throughout high school she breezed through the courses with
honors and won the attraction of a professor, whom she calls her mentor. This mentor pointed
Reena in certain directions to get into a particular college program and finish quickly.
Additionally, Reena surrounded herself with people of like-minded interest and goals and
continued to take advantage of the support from her family. She claimed that all her friends
were in her AP honors classes or either extracurricular activities. I decided early-on that I
did not want to hang with the hoochie mamas or knuckle headseven in IBA [Independent
Baptist Academy]! Reena for certain kept that promise, by sustaining a long-term
relationship with some of those same friends. Reenas chose of school was close enough to
family, but far enough away to move out. It was perfect, I can go see my parents when I
want to, or for emergencies, but at the same time, it is far enough away where they wont just
show up at my doorstep, she excitedly explained. Reenas college years were described as
excessive freedom away from home and family. However, she kept close contact with those
individuals who had provided the intellectual and emotion support, while meeting new people
on the way. Now, Reena worked, went to school, and danced most of the time to stay in good
health. Her predetermined path of being a lawyer, doctor, or financial broker was going
according to plan. However, Reena dropped the lawyer and doctor idea, because she was
dreading the long-term schooling that went beyond the undergraduate level. So, she stuck to a

timelier route of finance and business. She recalled always talking to her parents about
running her own business some day. Additionally, she wanted to have a deeper understanding
of how the financial system worked, especially after the 2008 financial crisis. I really
wanted to understand the stock market, she said. Hence, her major in Economics and
History. Reenas pathway was seemly on the right track, she was on the fast pace to graduate
early and she eventually met her future husband, which she now lives happily with. Up until
that point, there were no real bumps in the road for Reena, and life seem to be a textbook
fairy-tale; until her father unexpectedly passed away in his sleep at the young age of fiftytwo. Now, even with all the respect and support she had from others, with her Daddy
leaving forever that was a major emotional blow. It did feel like the end of the world, she
cried. Who does she go to when the car or computer is acting up? Who will be there for onthe-spot personal advice? Who will walk her down the aisle in her wedding? These were
pressing questions as she moved on pass undergraduate college and jumped into the real
world. This was a major turning point in her life, she said. Justifiably, there was a downbeat
in Reenas life. She performed poorly on her MBA test, which was a new experience for her,
and she had excruciating pressure from all angles of the family to hold off marriage, to allow
herself to mourn and reflect on her life. In addition, her fianc was off training for the
military in another state, which did not make matters any better. Moreover, her new job at
tetu Lynch was performing a mass layoff. Would I be one of the victims too? she asked.
These were times that try womens souls. Nevertheless, after some time of relief, Reena
retook the MBA test and scored reasonably well enough for graduate school, she eventually
eloped and married her fianc in the state he was training, and she not only outlasted the mass
lay-off by her job, but was promoted to a higher position in short order. End Case Study.
Reena is a 23-year old female who was raised in a suburban town 15 miles southeast of
Washington, D.C. She was fortunate enough to have two loving parents throughout her
development, along with two siblings. Reena is the middle child of the three and happens
to be the only girl. That is important to note, because she understandably received different
attention than the other two children, not out of favoritism, but from natural biological
reasons. However, Reenas father always taught her that she could break all gender
boundaries, if she put her mind to it. Her mother, maternal grandmother, and baby-sitter were
the primary caretakers during her infancy to adolescence period. All of which, were strong
independent women in their own right. Now, although the father wasnt a major caretaker in
the true sense of the word, he played a major part as well in developing her independent
identity. The father pushed her to overcome all odds and hurdles of life. For example, when a
difficulty came up in academia or a sport, he insisted that she persevere to figure out the
solution and never give up. Reenas mom nurtured the respectful, upstanding and loving side
of her, whereas her father instilled the competitive hubristic edge in her. He eventually got
what he asked for because his nickname for her was KIAKnow It All. Her grandmother
demonstrated a true sense of faith and spirituality to Reena, inoculating her with religious
disciplines, while the oldest brother was the demonstrable example of what to-do and not-todo in life. In analyzing Reenas life, Erik Eriksons epigenetic psychological theory seemed to
be the most appropriate to detail Reenas life cycle from her infancy to adulthood. According
to Erikson, the psychological growth of any individual is similar to that of the growth process
of an embryo. In the simplest terms, an embryo is an organism (e.g. a human being) in its

earliest stages of development. In this stage, the organism is unrecognizable until a period of
time passes by, and throughout that time period, each stage of its development is dependent
on the previous stage. Again, Erikson likens this embryonic biological process to the human
psychological process. However, in his model of human development, each stage has not
only biological qualities, but psychological and socio-cultural components as well. Erikson
specifies eight distinct but interrelated stages of human psychological development. Each
stage is characterized by a specific developmental task, or crisis, as Erikson called it. A crisis
in his sense is more so a crucial moment in someones lifea turning point. For example,
Reenas father passing away was a critical turning point in her life. Reena had to make a
decision to either resolve the tension by moving on and progressing with life or potentially
regressing, by mourning and feeling sorry for herself. So, that period of crisis must be
resolved in order for the individual to proceed to the next stage of their life. The question of
resolving a crisis is critical to the human development, according to Erikson. Erikson states
that the successful resolution of a crisis at each stage fosters what he calls a virtuous strength.
The strength of virtue is one of two preliminary concepts I will discuss here, because of the
relevancy of it for all the developmental stages. The term virtue Erikson refers more to the
notion of competency, or better yet potency of an individual, more so than the idea of
morality. In other words, witnessing an individuals capacity to overcome their crisis and
proceed with an even stronger sense of clear mindedness, inner strength, or functionality, is a
remarkable featthis is virtuous. Often, while going through the crisis, the individual doesnt
recognize until after the resolution that they made a tremendous breakthrough. This leads me
to the second preliminary conceptratio and balance. Erikson suggests that the ability for an
individual to resolve a crisis is always in result of a dynamic balance. In other words, an
individuals emotional structure could be see-sawed between two extremes, either too much
or too little of something. For example, if you take the sense of trust: According to Erikson,
trust is developed in infancy, an individual like Reena perhaps developed trust in her mother
for placating to her every demand when sleeping next to her. The mother offered her services
to nurse her instead of others and Reena, in fact, happily took those services to relieve her
hunger pangs. As mentioned above, Reenas father broke from his macho routine and was
responsible for the cooking and hygienical matters. He maintained that sense of responsibility
to pamper his daughter with the care she needed. In every case, the parents maintained all
comfort for Reena, by providing unconditional positive regard to her, which gave her an
opportunity to develop a trusting relationship with them. If I didnt trust them [parents], I
dont know who to trust and what to do, Reena recently said. The trust took another form in
adolescence, where Reena trusted individuals enough to allow them to mentor her.
Additionally, she only trusted those people who were intellectually like-minded with similar
career goals and chose not to be around those hoochie mamas, as she put it. Erikson states
that trust can manifest itself in yet another way, as one gets older. Effectively, a person could
have too much trust, which results in gullibility and naivety, or a person could have very little
trust in anything, and become out of touch with reality. No matter which extreme, it develops
an unhealthy-unbalanced individual that Erikson calls a Pollyanna figure. Therefore, a
healthy individual is someone who can consciously balance his or her emotions, i.e. know
how to gauge the level of their emotions in relationship to the real world. This balance will be
further demonstrated in the example for stage number one. In Reenas case, Erikson would

describe her as a syntonic or harmonious character, rather than a dystonic figure. Erikson
would attribute the syntonic character to Reena, because at each stage of her development
there was positive support to help her function in the world competently. Essentially, Reena
was an easy-going baby, who is now a happy, mature, and motivated young adult who was
willing to be challenged and driven forward by her dynamic changing environment. Stage 1:
Basic Trust vs. Mistrust This stage is an enhancement on Freuds oral stage of development.
Erikson states that every newborn child goes through a stage where that child naturally has to
decide to have trust or mistrust for people or things. This is the stage when a person is
entirely dependent on other people for emotional, intellectual, and physical nourishment.
Mostly, the earliest demonstration of this period is witnessed between the mother (or primary
caregiver) and child. For instance, when the child demands to be fed by the mother, or when
the child cries for attention (for compassion or hygienical purposes). Erikson claims that the
sense of trust is implicitly communicated from the mothers own sense of security and
confidence. In other words, the mother is sensitive and responsive to her child enough to
which it produces a childs own sense of security and confidence that someone will be there
for their basic needs. Now, the virtue that results from the resolution of this crisis Erikson
attributed to hope. According to Erikson, hope emerges from three sources: 1. The
manifestation of the hope within the mother/caregiver and transmitted to the child. 2. The
mother-child bonding itself. 3. Mentorship, altruistic cause, or religious creeds; in fact,
Erikson asserts that the mature form of a childs hope is faith, which religion/spirituality is
designed to generate. In the case of Reena, she developed a sense of trust in her infancy
period, as was mentioned above, her mother would serve to the request of Reenas every
demand. The ability for her mom to balance a schedule of her work and nursing at night is a
remarkable feat. Her mother claims that she was an easy baby and had almost a set clock,
unlike her other children, who had a more erratic circadian clock. Additionally, Reenas dad
broke from any previous traditions and bowed to the whims of his infant daughter. He
claimed she seemed to stop crying most of the time that he picked her up. Consider the time
Reena called her father at two in the morning to help fix her car, so she could get back to
campus safely. The father went and hour out of his way on a weeknight to provide the safety
and comfort of his daughter. When all failed, she trusted that Daddy would always be there
if things went wrong; she trusted that she would have the emotional and financial support. As
Reena got older she developed an insight of who to invite into her life and who to keep at a
distance. For example, Reena had enough trust in some of her professors and peers to utilize
them as mentors. However, she also had insight on whom not to trust. For instance, when
Reena bought her first house she placed the basement portion up for rent. Upon meeting and
reviewing the applicants, she had a nose to smell out the problematic people. As her
instincts told her not to trust certain applicants, she would in fact legally check their
backgrounds, and lo and behold, her judgment was usually 99% right. In this case, Erikson
would consider this a healthy balance of trust and mistrust. In other words, knowing how far
to go in expressing trust and mistrust for someone, and certainly not tending to one extreme
reena would not be label a Pollyanna. Now, Reenas parents demonstrated a sense of
spiritual discipline within the household, but her grandmothers, especially her maternal
grandmother, develop a true sense of religious consistency in her life. The grandmother
recommended the baptismal of Reena as an infant, gave Reena her first bible, taught her how

to pray, as well as suggest weekly participation in the church. In fact, still to this day, no
matter where Reena is visiting in the country, she finds a church to join. Erikson believes that
faith is a mature form of an infants hope, and hope is developed and maintained through
social institutions such as church. It is suggested that all these qualities promoted at Reenas
infant stages fostered her capability to have a healthy balance of trust and mistrust. Moreover,
with such a supportive and futureoriented family structure, her life, even to this day, is
determined by the forethought and indoctrination of her loved ones. Stage 2: Autonomy vs.
Shame and Doubt This stage comes at a time when the child (2 to 3 years old) begins to
desire some level of autonomy, i.e., the child wants to be free to exert its own control in the
world. This is a mature step up from the dependency that was needed during a childs infancy.
Often, in this stage, a child is grabbing onto things, whether in a negative way or a
compassionate way. Holding or grabbing on to someone or something no longer is the
reflexive process that occurs in the newborn infant stage, but it is a conscience deliberate act.
Most children can walk and climb on top of items at this stage. Now that the child can
transport around without so much dependence from anyone, they often want to explore the
boundaries of the external world. The notion of Shame and Doubt stems from the childs
insecurities of their small physical stature in a world of giants. The child perhaps feels
shameful when they realize that they cannot walk straight without falling, or that they are too
weak to climb or grab on to something. Erikson claims the sense of doubt is generated from
the childs inability to see both sides of their body. Unfortunately, the child realizes that
because they cannot see their own backside they have no control over it and now has to
submit to the will of the giant powerful people, i.e. adults! Erikson states that the virtue
acquired at this stage is will. However, not will in the generic sense of being willful, but the
idea of controlling ones inner drives with sensible judgment and lawful discrimination. This
gets at the fact of why most societies have laws. The laws serve as a social institution to
temper, moderate, and control our bestial drives. Will forms the acceptance of law and is
intended to foster a sense of organization for the society. Hence, an infant growing up within
a law-enforced society has the potential ability to moderate his or her own impulses as an
adult in that society. There was a case when Reena was learning to walk, she attempted to
climb onto a mirror coffee table, and as she looked a bit surprised at the image reflective on
the other end, she startled herself enough to collapse and bump her little head on the corner of
the stand. Although Reena cried excessively after this incident, she attempted this seemingly
difficult endeavor many times over, with the determination to be triumphant. Incidentally, the
small scar from the fall remains present, moving from her forehead as a child, to the top of
the head as a young adult. Not surprisingly, Reena maintained her feistiness and
demonstrated her willful control over her life, most indicative by this statement, She
[Grandma Vi] wants me to be at church all the time, but I had to tell her that Im trying to
juggle all kinds of things, sometimes I have to miss itShe aint listening though! This was
the first time Reena really pushed against any authority to take control of her own life, but
this would not be the last. Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt This is an interesting stage for the
child, because they develop a conscience about their moral limits in the world. This is the
time when a child is curious, imaginative, and inquisitive, usually around the preschool age
of three to five years old. They often ask themselves or others the critical scientific question
Why? Therefore, the child tends to be into everything and perhaps wants to do (master)

everything, such as paint or draw, build puzzles, fly a kite, etc. With that, the child begins to
develop an idea of planning ahead (on a small scale), with an intention or a sense of purpose.
In fact, purpose is the virtue of this stage, which is led by imagination and playfulness. Now,
since the child develops a conscience and begins a mastery over the environment, the child
will observe, critique, and judge his or her own self. Therefore, Erikson asserts that this new
sense of curiosity and mastery is tempered by a guilty feeling, if the child does not
accomplish a goal. He claims that the newly realized freedom and authority of the child is
inevitably met with anxiety, especially when the child experiences their shortcomings. In
Reenas case, she had her older brother and cousins who invited her into their activities.
Reenas cousin Vidhi, who is six years her senior, was a very good dancer and would often
showcase her talents at family gatherings and other extracurricular events. Reena would often
mimic Vidhi and repeatedly ask her to do that thing again! and it was always followed up
with Reena saying, Look, I can do it too! The family would witness Reena prancing around
the house or jumping off furniture, sometimes without the presence of an audience (at least
she thought). In fact, her parents had a deep appreciation of the arts and music, where at one
point they individually told her they wanted to be artists until practical necessities arose.
Nevertheless, they played different genres of music almost daily in the household during their
leisure time. To this, Reena would spin and flip as if she were a solo ballerina. Reenas
behavior suggested that she had a liking for music and dancing. What child doesnt?
Additionally, she would always try to play with her older brothers instruments when he
brought them home from school, consistently asking, how the sound comes from the
object. eenaRs parents eventually placed her into dancing school as well as provide her with
private violin and piano lessons. She took each activity up with great strides leading into high
school, where she was encouraged by professionals to take up dancing and violin as a career.
However, when she got older her musical pathway took a different direction. There was a
time (adolescence) when Reenas ambition got the best of her, when her father relayed a story
about Reenas humiliating experience with her piano recital. She virtually froze on stage,
after deliberately leaving her musical score at home, because she knew it by heart.
Needless to say, Reena said she felt horrible, and gave up on the piano from that day on.
Watching Reena blushing with a feeling of guilt as her father recalled that story was an
interesting surprise. As said in the case study above, R continues her passion toward music
and dancing as a young adult. Although, she does not compete at this stage in her life, she
participates in regular dance sessions every weekend for the joy and health benefits. Erikson
claims that the development of fantasy and imagination at the early stages forms the basis for
dancing, drama, and ritual in ones adult period. This certainly was the case in Reenas
colorful life. Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority At this stage of a childs life he or she begins an
independent streak by entering life outside of just the mere family circle. By law in the
United States, children by the age of six must enter school, which is where the child faces a
new social situation. Therefore, children between the ages of six to eleven no longer are
dedicated to just playing, but they are expected to fulfill task and master certain skills valued
by society. Now, because there are expectations placed on the child (and the child realizes
this), everyones opinion and recognition is important to the child. However, if the child does
not accomplish certain things branded by society as important, the child will feel a level of
inferiority, according to Erikson. The same goes for the child that does not receive positive

recognition or respect from the family, teachers, or peer group. Now, Erikson associates the
idea of competence, as the virtue of this stagemore specifically, an individuals capacity to
accomplish a practical or creative task at a high level. Eriksons analysis for this stage is a
near perfect match for Reenas case. Reena was placed into private school at the age of five
and she was expected to master the fundamentals of reading, writing, and arithmetic, beyond
a mediocre level. For example, when Reena was seven she was not allowed to go outside and
play until she mastered her times tables. She had to relay them out loud to her parents each
day until she got them. This was a standard practice within the household. This was fruitful,
because later in her teenage years, her mastery over the subject brought request from the
family, neighbors, and peers for her help in tutoring them. Similarly, with her reading
comprehension, she was expected to read a lot and report back to her parents the literature
she had read. Reena was showered with praise in her academic surroundings, and since she
advanced so well in school, her teachers suggested that she skip grades to increase her
challenge. Interestingly, although Reena did well in school she strayed away from
mathematics and completely rejected any field that required higher levels of it. On the other
hand, she continues to read a great deal and went on to pursue a major in Economics and a
minor in History. After graduating with honors, she is currently finishing her Master of
Business Administration degree with a plan of managing her own business. Stage 5: Identity
vs. Identity Confusion This is the transitional stage between childhood and adulthoodalso
known as adolescence. Erikson believes this is the most crucial stage in a persons life, where
a person takes his or her past experiences and integrates them, while simultaneously thinking
in the future of which path they will take and who they will become. In fact, the most
common question to an individual at this stage is Who am I? According to Erikson, an
adolescent takes a critical period of time through this process to experiment the different roles
socially available through society. The individuals attempt to find where their place is in
society or what they can offer to the world is a difficult process. Moreover, without a cultural
role model or inspirational advisor for the adolescent, this can potentially lead to a period of
insecurity and role confusion. During this period an individual develops his or her own belief
system in conjunction to their cultures ethical values. Throughout extended Western culture,
this is demonstrated by each generation preserving some traditions and changing others. Now,
according to Erikson, when an individual pushes against the grain of current and past
traditions, they are branded as revolutionary people. Erikson really takes the time to expound
on the Identity stage, he additionally shows how each of the stages of development is
engaged during the period of identity crisis. I shall attempt to reflect on the stages of
development that are engaged during the period of Reenas identity process: Harkening back
to Reenas early childhood, one could infer that she was developing an independent identity.
On the one hand, most children at an early age, liberally threw around the word No,
however, for Reena, she seemed to make clear why she refused something not of her taste.
For example, Reena told her mother that she didnt want to play with the kid at the
playground they regularly attended, because he case too much! This statement is not too far
from her recent expression of disgust with hanging out with the hoochie mamas and
knuckleheads. Remember, R made it clear that she wanted to surround herself with only
academically honorable people. In fact, her decision to socialize with individuals with an
intellectually progressive mentality marked a strong point of forming her identity. As Reena

moved throughout childhood and entered private school she decided that she wanted to be an
excellent student in order to get into a good college. Ironically, Reena said my best years
were actually in elementary school, where I decided I wanted to teach and run my own dance
studio when I got older! Those plans have not panned out precisely the way she imagined
yet, but her business mentality continues to stand. Again, Reenas reflection on her
discussions with her aunt, the ad hoc board meeting babysitting that occurred with the
mother, or the fathers business professionalism with his clients may take credit for her
fascination with business management. Reena said she is not only content, but also happy at
where she stands thus far. Looking back, I always wanted to be my own boss, Reena
asserted. This is who Reena wanted to be and what Reena wanted to do in her life. As said
above, Reenas high school years made a deep impression on her. Her parents deliberate
plans to remove her from private school to a public school created an interesting process. It
was in high school where Reena said, I resisted all pressure. Her remarkable ability to
buffer the youthful temptations came from her attitude to learn from other peoples mistakes,
and be the best in all facets of life. Remember, she said to her older brother, I looked at
everything you did growing up, anytime you got in trouble for something, I made a note not
to do that, and when there was something you did that received praise, I wanted to outdo it!
By these statements alone, this suggests that Reena is a competitive overachieving individual.
In addition, Reena pays debt to her parents for instilling in her a hard-working ethic, matched
with unbridled resilience. This, today, is what has formed her motivated personal identity.
Lastly, Reena is finishing up her Master of Business Administration degree, with the intent on
starting her own caf business. She has bought her first home and claims to be happily
married. Not surprisingly, Reena continues to dance with the same academic friends for fun,
and now she is giving back financially and intellectually (as a mentor) to her friends, family,
and community. In all, she is a mature and dedicated young adult that will more than likely
develop to have the positive qualities of Eriksons later stages.

DEVELOPMENTAL
PSYCHOLOGY

By: Atishay Magan

Class: XI E
Roll No: 3