CIC Presentation RT Rev.0

Cairo Inspection Company
Eng. Ibrahim Eldesoky

ASNT NDT
NDT--LEVEL III
ASME AUTHORIZED INSPECTOR
Elementary Particles
The Electron
The electron is an elementary particle that is
present in all atoms in groupings called shells
around the nucleus.
nucleus. When they detach from the
nucleus they are called free electrons. The
antiparticle of the electron is the positron
positron.. An
antiparticle is a subatomic particle that has the
same mass number as another particle and equal
but opposite values of some other property or
properties. For example, the antiparticle of the
electron is the positron, which has a positive charge
equal in magnitude to the electron's negative
charge.
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The Proton
The proton is an elementary particle that is
stable and bears a positive charge equal in
magnitude to that of the electron. The proton
occurs in all atomic nuclei (the hydrogen
atom contains a single proton).
The Neutron
The neutron is a neutral particle that is
stable in the atomic nucleus but decays into
a proton and electron, and an antineutrino
with a mean life of 12 minutes outside the
nucleus. Neutrons occur in all atomic nuclei
except normal hydrogen.
Atomic Structure
An atom is the smallest part of an element that can exist and
consists of a small dense nucleus of protons and neutrons
surrounded by moving electrons.
electrons. The number of electrons
equals the number of protons so the overall charge is 0.
Electrons may be thought of as moving in circular or elliptical
orbits or, more accurately, in regions of space around the
nucleus. Electrons are arranged in shells at various distances
from the nucleus according to how much energy they have.
have.
These shells are identified by the letters K, L, M, N, O, P and Q
with K being the closest to the nucleus. Each shell can hold
only a certain maximum number of electrons;
electrons; the K shell can
hold no more than 2, the L shell no more than 8, shell M no
more than 18, shell N no more than 32, shell O no more than
50, shell P no more than 72 and shell Q no more than 98.
Atomic Number
The atomic number is the number of protons in
the nucleus of an atom. The atomic number is
equal to the number of electrons orbiting the
nucleus in a neutral atom. The symbol for
atomic number is Z.
Mass Number
The mass number is the sum of the protons and
neutrons in an atom. Although all atoms of an
element have the same number of protons, they
may have different numbers of neutrons. Atoms
that have the same number of protons but
different numbers of neutrons are called
isotopes.
Atomic Weight
The atomic weight is the weight of an atom
expressed in atomic mass units (amu
(amu).
). One
atomic mass unit equals 1/12 the weight of an
atom of CC-12.
Isotope
An isotope is an atom with a specific atomic
number and mass number. Each atomic number
element may exist with different mass number
number
and these are isotopes For example, hydrogen (1
proton, no neutrons), deuterium (1 proton, 1
neutron), and tritium (1 proton, 2 neutrons) are
isotopes of hydrogen.
hydrogen. Some isotopes are stable
while others are unstable and change state by
radioactive decay.
Electromagnetic Radiation
The Photon
Electromagnetic radiation occurs in the form
of individual packets of energy called photons.
When photons travel through space, they
appear as continuous electromagnetic waves.
However, when photons of radiation strike a
substance, they behave as if they were
separate particles of energy instead of a
continuous wave. Each photon has a certain
amount of energy that is proportional to its
frequency.
X-rays
X-rays are produced whenever high energy electrons

suddenly give up energy.
energy. This can be done either by
accelerating electrons to a high speed and then stopping
them suddenly, or by these high speed electrons striking
others and knocking them out of their normal positions.
When these dislodged electrons fall back into place, they
give off XX-rays. The position of XX-rays in the electromagnetic
spectrum is shown in Figure 1.
Gamma Rays
Gamma rays are similar to XX-rays except that they have a

much shorter wavelength and differ in their origin. Gamma
rays are emitted from the nucleus itself during the process
of radioactivity. The position of gamma rays in the
electromagnetic spectrum is shown in Figure 1.
Fig. 1: The Electromagnetic Spectrum

Properties of XX-Rays
and Gamma Rays
Both
X--rays and gamma rays can be

X
characterized by frequency, wavelength, and
velocity. However, they act somewhat like a particle
at times in that they occur as small "packets" of
energy and are referred to as "photons." Due to
their short wavelength they have more energy to
pass through matter than do the other forms of
energy in the electromagnetic spectrum. As they
pass through matter, they are scattered and
absorbed and the degree of penetration depends
on the kind of matter and the energy of the rays.
10
Properties of X-Rays and

Gamma Rays
They are not detected by human senses (cannot
be seen, heard, felt, etc.).

They travel in straight lines at the speed of light.
Their paths cannot be changed by electrical or
magnetic fields.
fields.
They can be diffracted to a small degree at
interfaces between two different materials.
They pass through matter until they have a
chance to encounter with an atomic particle.
Their degree of penetration depends on their
energy and the matter they are traveling through.
through.
They have enough energy to ionize matter and
can damage or destroy living cells
11
X-rays are produced in packets of
energy called photons, just like light.

There are two different atomic
processes that can produce XX-ray
photons. One is called Bremsstrahlung
and is a German term meaning
"braking radiation." The other is called
K-shell emission.
12
Bremsstrahlung Radiation
X-ray tubes produce xx-ray photons by

accelerating a stream of electrons to energies
of several hundred kilovolts with velocities of
several hundred kilometers per hour and
colliding them into a heavy target material. The
abrupt acceleration of the charged electrons
produces Bremsstrahlung photons. XX-ray
radiation with a continuous spectrum of
energies is produced ranging from a few keV to
a maximum of energy of the electron beam.
13
K-shell Emission Radiation
The KK-shell is the lowest energy state of an atom.

An incoming electron can give a KK-shell electron
enough energy to knock it out of its energy state.
About 0.1% of the electrons produce KK-shell
vacancies; most produce heat. Then, a tungsten
electron of higher energy (from an outer shell) can
fall into the KK-shell. The energy lost by the falling
electron shows up in an emitted xx-ray photon.
Meanwhile, higher energy electrons fall into the
vacated energy state in the outer shell, and so on.
K-shell emission produces higherhigher-intensity xx-rays
than Bremsstrahlung, and the xx-ray photon comes
out at a single wavelength. "characteristic xx-Ray
14
X-Ray Radiation
Fig.2
Fig.
2 A: Bremsstrahlung Radiation
Fig.2
Fig.
2 B: K-shell Emission Radiation
15
Gamma Radiation
Gamma rays are highhigh-energy electromagnetic
waves of relatively short wavelength that are emitted

during the radioactive decay of both naturally
occurring and artificially produced unstable
isotopes. In all respects other than their origin, -rays
and xx-rays are identical.
identical. Unlike the broadbroad-spectrum
radiation produced by an xx-ray tube, -ray sources
emit one or more discrete wavelengths of radiation,
each having its own characteristic photon energy.
The two most common radioactive isotopes used in
radiography are iridium
iridium--192 and cobalt
cobalt--60
60..
Alpha Particles
16
Alpha Particles
Certain radioactive materials of high atomic mass

(Ra226, U238, Pu239) decay by the emission of
alpha particles. These alpha particles are tightly
bound units of two neutrons and two protons each
(He4 nucleus) and have a positive charge.
Emission of an alpha particle from the nucleus
results in a decrease of two units of atomic
number (Z) and four units of mass number (A).
Alpha particles are emitted with discrete energies
characteristic of the particular transformation
from which they originate. All alpha particles from
a particular radioactive transformation will have
identical energies.
17
Beta Particles
A nucleus with an unstable ratio of neutrons

to protons may decay through the emission of
a high speed electron called a beta particle.
particle.
This results in a net change of one unit of
atomic number (Z). Beta particles have a
negative charge and the beta particles
emitted by a specific radionuclide will range in
energy from near zero up to a maximum
value, which is characteristic of the particular
transformation.
18
Gamma
Gamma--rays
A nucleus which is in an excited state may emit
one
or
more
photons
(packets
of
electromagnetic radiation) of discrete energies
energies..
The emission of gamma rays does not alter the
number of protons or neutrons in the nucleus
but instead has the effect of moving the nucleus
from a higher to a lower energy state (unstable
to stable)
stable).. Gamma ray emission frequently
follows beta decay, alpha decay, and other
nuclear decay processes
processes..
19
Activity is the number of

atoms
of a radioactive
substance that disintegrate
per unit time,
the specific activity is the
activity per unit mass of a pure
radioisotope.
The Becquerel (Bq
(Bq),
), the SI
unit of activity, represents one
spontaneous transition per
second.
Thus 1 Bq = 1 S-1. The
former unit, the curie (Ci
(Ci),
), is
equal to 3.7xl
xl0
010Bq.
20
Each radioactive substance decays at its own

unique rate which cannot be altered by any chemical
or physical process.
process. A useful measure of this rate is
the halfhalf-life of the substance. Half
Half--life is defined as
the time required for the activity of any particular
radioactive substance to decrease to oneone-half of its
initial value. Half
Half--life of two widely used industrial
isotopes are 74 days for IridiumIridium-192, and 5.3 years
for CobaltCobalt-60
60.. More exacting calculations can be
made for the halfhalf-life of these materials, however,
these times are commonly used.
21
Inverse Square Law

Any point source which
spreads its influence
equally in all directions
without a limit to its
range will obey the
inverse square law. This
comes from strictly
geometrical
considerations
22
Attenuation of Electromagnetic
Radiation
X-rays and -rays interact with any substance,
even gases such as air, as the rays pass through
the substance. It is this interaction that enables
parts to be inspected by differential attenuation
of radiation and that enables differences in the
intensity of radiation to be detected and
recorded.. Both these effects are essential to the
recorded
radiographic
process.
The
attenuation
characteristics of materials vary with the type,
intensity, and energy of the radiation and with
the density and atomic structure of the material.
23
The intensity of radiation varies exponentially
with the thickness of homogeneous material through

which it passes. This behavior is expressed as:
I= Ioexp
exp((-t
t))
where I is the intensity of the emergent radiation, Io
is the initial intensity, t is the thickness of
homogeneous material, and is a characteristic of
the material known as the linear absorption
coefficient
mass absorption coefficient is (/
(/),
), where is the
density of the material
Atomic absorption coefficient (
(a) or cross section,
is equal to the linear absorption coefficient divided by
the number of atoms per unit volume. The cross
section, usually expressed in barns (1
(1 barn = 10-24
cm2), indicates the probability of collision with the
atoms of the material.
24
Using the transmitted intensity equation above,

linear attenuation coefficients can be used to make a
number of calculations. These include:
the intensity of the energy transmitted through a
material when the incident xx-ray intensity, the material and
the material thickness are known.
the intensity of the incident xx-ray energy when the
transmitted xx-ray intensity, material, and material
thickness are known.
the thickness of the material when the incident and
transmitted intensity, and the material are known.
the material can be determined from the value of
when the incident and transmitted intensity, and the
material thickness are known.
25
Atomic Attenuation Processes

Several interaction events are usually involved
and the total attenuation is the sum of the
attenuation due to different types of interactions.
These interactions include the photoelectric
effect, scattering, and pair production. The figure
below shows an approximation of the total
absorption coefficient, (), in red, for iron plotted
as a function of radiation energy. The four
radiation matter interactions that contribute to the
total absorption are shown in black.
26
The four types of interactions are

are::
photoelectric (PE), Compton scattering (C),
pair production (PP), and Thomson or
Rayleigh scattering (R)
(R).. Since most
industrial radiography is done in the 0.1 to
1.5 MeV range, it can be seen from the plot
that photoelectric and Compton scattering
account for the majority of attenuation
encountered..
encountered
27
Radiation
different mechanisms that cause attenuation of an incident xx-ray beam

28
Radiation
Photoelectric (PE) absorption of xxrays occurs when the xx-ray photon
is absorbed, resulting in the
ejection of electrons from the outer
shell of the atom, and hence the
ionization
of
the
atom.
Subsequently, the ionized atom
returns to the neutral state with the
emission of an xx-ray characteristic
of the atom. This subsequent
emission of lower energy photons is
generally absorbed and does not
contribute to (or hinder) the image
making process.
29
Radiation
Compton scattering (C) occurs when
the incident xx-ray photon is deflected
from its original path by an
interaction with an electron. The
electron gains energy and is ejected
from its orbital position. The xx-ray
photon looses energy due to the
interaction but continues to travel
through the material along an
altered path. Since the scattered xxray photon has less energy, it,
therefore, has a longer wavelength
than the incident photon.
30
Pair production (PP) : can occur

when the x-ray photon energy is
greater than 1.02 MeV
MeV,, but really
only becomes significant at energies
around 10 MeV
MeV.. Pair production
occurs when an electron and
positron are created with the
annihilation of the x-ray photon
photon..
Positrons are very short lived and
disappear (positron annihilation)
with the formation of two photons of
0.51 MeV energy
energy.. Pair production is
of particular importance when high
high-energy photons pass through
materials of a high atomic number
number..
31
Thomson scattering (R), :also

known as Rayleigh, coherent, or
classical scattering, occurs
when the xx-ray photon interacts
with the whole atom so that the
photon is scattered with no
change in internal energy to the
scattering atom, nor to the xx-ray
photon.. The scattering occurs
without the loss of energy.
Scattering is mainly in the
forward direction.
32
Half--Value Layer
Half
The thickness of any given material
where 50
50%
% of the incident energy has
been attenuated is know as the halfhalfvalue layer (HVL). The HVL is
expressed in units of distance (mm or
cm). Like the attenuation coefficient, it
is
photon
energy
dependant.
Increasing the penetrating energy of a
stream of photons will result in an
increase in a material's HVL.
33
The HVL is inversely proportional to the
attenuation coefficient.
I = Ioexp
exp((-t
t))
0.5=1 exp(
exp(--t
t))
If x is the HVL then m times HVL must
equal 0.693 (since the number 0.693 is
the exponent value that gives a value of
0.5).
Therefore, the HVL and are related
as follows:
HVL=
HVL=0
0.693
693//
34
The HVL is often used in

radiography simply because
it is easier to remember
values and perform simple
calculations. In a shielding
calculation,
such
as
illustrated to the right, it can
be seen that if the thickness
of one HVL is known, it is
possible to quickly determine
how much material is
needed to reduce the
intensity to less than 1%.
35
Manmade radioactive sources are

produced by introducing an extra neutron
to atoms of the source material
material.. As the
material rids itself of the neutron, energy
is released in the form of gamma rays
rays.. Two
of the more common industrial gamma
gamma--ray
sources for industrial radiography are
iridium--192 and cobalt
iridium
cobalt--60
60..
36
These isotopes emit radiation in a few

discreet wavelengths
wavelengths.. Cobalt
Cobalt--60 will emit a
1.33 and a 1.17 MeV gamma ray, and iridium
iridium-192 will emit 0.31
31,, 0.47
47,, and 0.60 MeV
gamma rays
rays.. In comparison to an X-ray
generator, cobalt
cobalt--60 produces energies
comparable to a 1.25 MeV X-ray system and
iridium--192 to a 460 keV X-ray system
iridium
system..
37
These high energies make it possible to

penetrate thick materials with a relatively
short exposure time
time.. This and the fact that
sources are very portable are the main
reasons that gamma sources are widely
used for field radiography
radiography.. Of course, the
disadvantage of a radioactive source is that
it can never be turned off and safely
managing the source is a constant
responsibility..
responsibility
38
Physical size of isotope materials varies

between manufacturers, but generally an
isotope material is a pellet that measures
1.5 mm x 1.5 mm. Depending on the
level of activity desired, a pellet or pellets
are loaded into a stainless steel capsule
and sealed by welding. The capsule is
attached to short flexible cable called a
pigtail.
39
The source capsule and the pigtail is housed

in a shielding device referred to as an exposure device
or camera. Depleted uranium is often used as a shielding
material for sources. The exposure device for iridiumiridium-192
and cobaltcobalt-60 sources will contain 45 pounds(
pounds(20
20Kg)
Kg) and
500 pounds(
pounds(226
226Kg)
Kg) of shielding materials, respectively.
Cobalt cameras are often fixed to a trailer and
transported to and from inspection sites. When the source
is not being used to make an exposure, it is locked inside
the exposure device.
40
To make a radiographic exposure, a crank

out mechanism and a guide tube are attached to
opposite ends of the exposure device
device.. The guide
tube often has a collimator at the end to shield
the radiation except in the direction necessary to
make the exposure
exposure.. The end of the guide tube is
secured in the location where the radiation
source needs to produce the radiograph
radiograph.. The
crank out cable is stretched as far as possible to
put as much distance as possible between the
exposure device and the radiographer
radiographer..
41
To make the exposure, the radiographer quickly cranks

the source out of the exposure device and into position
in the collimator at the end of the guide tube
tube.. At the end
of the exposure time, the source is cranked back into the
exposure device
device.. There is a series of safety procedures,
which include several radiation surveys, that must be
accomplished when making an exposure with a gamma
source
42
43
Production of XX-Rays
X-rays are produced when electrons,
traveling at high speed, collide with matter
or change direction.
direction. In the usual type of xxray tube, an incandescent filament supplies
the electrons and thus forms the cathode,
or negative electrode, of the tube. A high
voltage applied to the tube drives the
electrons to the anode, or target. The
sudden stopping of these rapidly moving
electrons in the surface of the target
results in the generation of xx-radiation.
44
X-Ray Tubes
X-ray tubes are electronic devices that convert
electrical energy into xx-rays. Typically, an xx-ray
tube consists of a cathode structure containing a
filament and an anode structure containing a
target all within an evacuated chamber or
envelope .A lowlow-voltage power supply, usually
controlled by a rheostat, generates the electric
current that heats, the filament to incandescence.
This incandescence of the filament produces an
electron cloud, which is directed to the anode by a
focusing system and accelerated to the anode by
the high voltage applied between the cathode and
the anode.
45
When the accelerated electrons

impinge on the target immediately
beneath the focal spot, the electrons
are slowed and absorbed, and both
bremsstrahlung and characteristic xrays are produced
produced.. Most of the energy
in the impinging electron beam is
transformed into heat, which must be
dissipated.. Severe restrictions are
dissipated
imposed on the design and selection
of materials for the anode and target
to ensure that structural damage
from
overheating
does
not
prematurely destroy the target
target..
46
Anode heating also limits the

size of the focal spot
spot.. Because
smaller focal spots produce
sharper radiographic images, the
design of the anode and target
represents a compromise between
maximum radiographic definition
and maximum target life
life.. In many
x-ray tubes, a long, narrow, actual
focal spot is projected as a roughly
square effective focal spot by
inclining the anode face at a small
angle (usually about 20
20
) to the
centerline of the x-ray beam
beam..
47
Tube Design and Materials
The cathode structure in a conventional xx-ray

tube incorporates a filament and a focusing
cup, which surrounds the filament. The
focusing cup, usually made of pure iron or
pure nickel, functions as an electrostatic lens
whose purpose is to direct the electron beam
toward the anode. The filament, usually a coil
of tungsten wire, is heated to incandescence
by an electric current produced by a relatively
low voltage, similar to the operation of an
ordinary incandescent light bulb.
48
At incandescence, the filament emits
electrons, which are accelerated across the

evacuated space between the cathode and
the anode. The driving force for acceleration
is a high electrical potential (voltage)
between anode and cathode, which is
applied during exposure.
The anode usually consists of a button of
the target material embedded in a mass of
copper that absorbs much of the heat
generated by electron collisions with the
target.
49
Tungsten is the preferred material for traditional
x-ray tubes used in radiography because its high

atomic number makes it an efficient emitter of xxrays and because its high melting point enables it to
withstand the high temperatures of operation. Gold
and platinum are also used in xx-ray tubes for
radiography, but targets made of these metals must
be more effectively cooler than targets made of
tungsten. Other materials are used, particularly at
low energies, to take advantage of their
characteristic radiation. Most highhigh-intensity xx-ray
tubes have forced liquid cooling to dissipate the
large amounts of anode heat generated during
operation.
50
Tube envelopes are constructed of glass,
ceramic
materials
or
metals,
or
combinations of these materials. Tube
envelopes must have good structural
strength at high temperatures to withstand
the combined effect of forces imposed by
atmospheric pressure on the evacuated
chamber and radiated heat from the anode.
51
The shape of the envelope varies with
the cathodecathode-anode arrangement and with

the maximum rated voltage of the tube.
Electrical connections for the anode and
cathode are fused into the walls of the
envelope. Generally, these are made of
metals or alloys having thermal expansion
properties that match those of the
envelope material.
52
X-ray tubes are inserted into metallic housings
that contain an insulating medium such as

transformer oil or an insulating gas. The main
purpose of the insulated housing is to provide
protection from highhigh-voltage electrical shock.
shock.
Housings usually contain quick disconnects for
electrical cables from the highhigh-voltage power
supply or transformer. On selfself-contained units,
most of which are portable, both the xx-ray tube
and the highhigh-voltage transformer are contained in
a single housing, and no highhigh-voltage cables are
used.
54
There are three important electrical

characteristics of xx-ray tubes:
The filament current,
current, which controls
the filament temperature and in turn the
quantity of electrons that are emitted
The tube voltage,
voltage, or anodeanode-to
to--cathode
potential, which controls the energy of
impinging electrons and therefore the
energy or penetrating power, of the xx-ray
beam
55
The tube current, which is directly
related to filament temperature and is

usually referred to as the milliamperage of
the tube
The strength, or radiation output, of the
beam is approximately proportional to
milliamperage,, which is used as one of the
milliamperage
variables in exposure calculations. This
radiation output, or R-output, is usually
expressed in roentgens per minute (or
hour) at 1 m
56
The RR-output
The RR-output of an xx-ray tube varies with
tube voltage (accelerating potential), tube
current (number of electrons impinging on
the target per unit time), and physical
features of the individual equipment.
Because of the last factor, the RR-output of an
individual source also varies with position in
the radiation beam, position usually being
expressed as the angle relative to the
central axis of the beam.
57
Effect of Tube Voltage

Voltage..
The effect of tube voltage on the

variation of intensity (R
(R--output) is
shown in Fig
Fig.. The overall R-output
varies approximately as the
square root of tube voltage
voltage.. The
combined effect of greater
photon energy and increased Routput
produces,
for
film
radiography, a decrease in
exposure time of about 50
50%
% for a
10%
10
% increase in tube voltage
voltage.. The
effect is similar with other
permanent
image
recording
media, as in paper radiography
and xeroradiography
xeroradiography..
58
Effect of Tube Current

Current..
only the R-output (intensity)
varies.. Because tube current
varies
is a direct measure of the
number
of
electrons
impinging on the target per
unit of time, and therefore
the number of photons
emitted per unit of time at
each value of photon energy,
R-output varies directly with
tube current
current..
59
Heel Effect.
X-ray
tubes
exhibit
a
detrimental feature known
as the heel effect. When the
direction in which xx-rays are
emitted from the target
approaches the anode heel
plane, the intensity of
radiation at a given distance
from the focal spot is less
than the intensity of the
central beam because of
self--absorption by the target.
self
60
Radiographs of large
large-area test pieces that are
made at relatively short
source--to
source
to--detector
distances will exhibit less
photographic
density
(film) or less brightness
(real--time) in the region
(real
where
the
incident
radiation is less intense
because of the heel
effect.. This can lead to
effect
errors in interpretation
unless the heel effect is
recognized
61
Inherent Filtration.
In the radiography (film or realreal-time)

of thin or lightweight materials,
which requires lowlow-energy radiation,
filtration by the glass walls of the xxray tube becomes a problem. NinetyNinetyfive percent of a 30
30--kV xx-ray beam is
absorbed by the glass walls of an
ordinary xx-ray tube. Consequently, in
a tube used to radiograph thin or
lightweight materials, a beryllium
window is fused into the glass wall in
the path of the xx-ray beam. Beryllium
is one of the lightest of metals and is
more transparent to xx-rays than any
other metal. The beryllium window
tube has a minimum of inherent
filtration and allows most of the very
low energy xx-rays to escape from the
tube
62
High
High--Energy XX-Ray Sources
Above about 400 kV, the conventional design of

an xx-ray tube and its highhigh-voltage ironiron-core transformer
becomes cumbersome and large. Although xx-ray machines
with ironiron-core transformers have been built for 600 kV
(maximum), there are no commercial versions operating
above 500 kV. For higherhigher-energy xx-rays, other designs are
used. Some of the machine designs for the production of
high--energy xhigh
x-rays include:
Linear accelerators
Betatrons
Van de Graaff generators
X-ray tubes with a
resonant transformer
63
A radiograph is a photographic
record produced by the passage
of x-rays or gamma rays through
an object onto a film
film.. See the
figure.. When film is exposed to xfigure
rays, gamma rays, or light, an
invisible change called a latent
image is produced in the film
emulsion.. The areas so exposed
emulsion
become dark when the film is
immersed in a developing
solution, the degree of darkening
depending on the amount of
exposure..
exposure
64
After development, the film is rinsed, preferably

in a special bath, to stop development
development.. The film
is next put into a fixing bath, which dissolves
the undarkened portions of the sensitive salt
salt.. It
is then washed to remove the fixer and dried so
that it may be handled, interpreted, and filed
filed..
The developing, fixing, and washing of the
exposed film may be done either manually or in
automated processing equipment
equipment..
65
A radiograph is a shadow picture of an object

that has been placed in the path of an xx-ray or
gamma--ray beam,
gamma
beam, between the tube anode and
the film or between the source of gamma
radiation and the film. It naturally follows,
therefore, that the appearance of an image thus
recorded is materially influenced by the relative
positions of the object and the film and by the
direction of the beam. For these reasons,
familiarity with the elementary principles of
shadow formation is important to those making
and interpreting radiographs.
66
x-rays and gamma rays obey the common
laws of light, their shadow formation may be

explained in a simple manner in terms of light. It
should be borne in mind that the analogy
between light and these radiations is not perfect
since all objects are, to a greater or lesser
degree, transparent to xx-rays and gamma rays
and since scattering presents greater problems
in radiography than in optics. However, the
same geometric laws of shadow formation hold
for both light and penetrating radiation.
67
Suppose, as in Figure below, that
there is light from a point L falling on

a white card C, and that an opaque
object O is interposed between the
light source and the card. A shadow
of the object will be formed on the
surface of the card.
68
This shadow cast by the object will naturally
show some enlargement because the object is

not in contact with the card; the degree of
enlargement will vary according to the relative
distances of the object from the card and from
the light source. The law governing the size of the
shadow may be stated: The diameter of the object
is to the diameter of the shadow as the distance
of the light from the object is to the distance of
the light from the card. Mathematically, the
degree of enlargement may be calculated by use
of the following equations:
69
where SO is the size of the object

object;; Si is the size of
the shadow (or the radiographic image)
image);; DO the
distance from source of radiation to object
object;; and
Di the distance from the source of radiation to
the recording surface (or radiographic film)
film)..
Figure A to F shows the effect of changing the size of the
source and of changing the relative positions of source,
object, and card
card..
70
From an examination of these drawings, it will be
seen that the following conditions must be fulfilled to

produce the sharpest, truest shadow of the object:
object:
1. The source of light should be small, that is, as nearly a
point as can be obtained. Compare Figure 11
11,, A and C.
2. The source of light should be as far from the object as
practical. Compare Figure 11
11,, B and C.
3. The recording surface should be as close to the object
as possible. Compare Figure 11
11,B
,B and D.
4. The light rays should be directed perpendicularly to the
recording surface. See Figure 11
11,A
,A and E.
5. The plane of the object and the plane of the recording
surface should be parallel. Compare Figure 11
11,, A and F.
71
72
Geometric unsharpness refers

to the loss of definition that is the
result of geometric factors of the
radiographic
equipment
and
setup. It occurs because the
radiation does not originate from a
single point but rather over an
area.
73
Codes and standards used in industrial
radiography require that geometric unsharpness

be limited. In general, the allowable amount is
1/100 of the material thickness up to a maximum
of 0.040 inch. These values refer to the degree of
penumbra shadow in a radiographic image. Since
the penumbra is not nearly as well defined in the
image, it is difficult to measure it in a radiograph.
Therefore it is typically calculated. The source size
must be obtained from the equipment
manufacturer
or
measured.
Then
the
unsharpness
can
be
calculated
using
measurements made of the setup.
74
Ug = f* b/a
Ug=
Ug
= Geometric unsharpness
f = source focalfocal-spot size.
a = distance from xx-ray source to
front surface of
material/object
b = distance from the front
surface of the object to the
detector
75
Definition
Radiographic definition is the
abruptness of change in going from
one area of a given radiographic
density to another
another.. Geometric
factors of the equipment and the
radiographic setup, and film and
screen factors both have an effect
on definition
definition.. Geometric factors
include the size of the area of origin
of the radiation, the source
source--to
to-detector
(film)
distance,
the
specimen--to
specimen
to--detector (film) distance,
movement of the source, specimen
or detector during exposure, the angle
between the source and some feature
and the abruptness of change in
specimen thickness or density
density..
76
It can be seen that the details,

particularly the small circle, are
much easier to see in the high
definition radiograph. It can be
said that the detail portrayed in
the radiograph is equivalent to
the physical change present in
the step wedge
77
78
Definition
Geometric Factors
to produce the highest level of definition, the focalfocal-spot or

source size should be as close to a point source as
possible, the sourcesource-to
to--detector distance should be a great
as practical, and the specimenspecimen-to
to--detector distance should
be a small as practical. This is shown graphically in the
images below.
79
Definition
The angle between the
radiation and some features will
also have an effect on
definition. If the radiation is
parallel to an edge or linear
discontinuity, a sharp distinct
boundary will be seen in the
image. However, if the radiation
is not parallel with the
discontinuity, the feature will
appear distorted, out of position
and less defined in the image.
80
Abrupt changes in thickness and/or

density will appear more defined in a
radiograph than will areas of gradual
change.
Lastly, any movement of the specimen,
specimen,
source or detector during the exposure
will reduce definition. Similar to
photography, any movement will result in
blurring of the image. Vibration from
nearby equipment may be an issue in
some inspection situations.
81
Definition
Film and Screen Factors
The last set of factors concern the film and the

use of fluorescent screens.
A fine grain film is capable of producing an
image with a higher level of definition than is a
coarse grain film. Wavelength of the radiation
will influence apparent graininess
graininess.. As the
wavelength shortens and penetration increases,
the apparent graininess of the film will increase.
Also, increased development of the film will
increase the apparent graininess of the
radiograph.
82
Definition
The use of fluorescent screens also results in
lower definition. This occurs for a couple of

different reasons. The reason that fluorescent
screens are sometimes used is because incident
radiation causes them to give off light that helps
to expose the film. However, the light they
produce spreads in all directions, exposing the
film in adjacent areas, as well as in the areas
which are in direct contact with the incident
radiation. Fluorescent screens also produce
screen mottle on radiographs. Screen mottle is
associated with the statistical variation in the
numbers of photons that interact with the screen
from one area to the next.
83
Radiographic contrast is the

degree of density difference
between two areas on a
radiograph. Contrast makes it
easier to distinguish features of
interest, such as defects, from
the surrounding area. The
contrast between different parts
of the image is what forms the
image and the greater the
contrast, the more visible
features become. Radiographic
contrast
has
two
main
contributors: subject contrast and
detector (film) contrast.
84
The image to the right shows

two radiographs of the same
step
wedge.
The
upper
radiograph has a high level of
contrast
and
the
lower
radiograph has a lower level of
contrast
85
Subject Contrast
Subject contrast is the ratio of

radiation
intensities
transmitted
through different areas of the
component being evaluated. It is
dependant
on
the
absorption
differences in the component, the
wavelength of the primary radiation,
and intensity and distribution of
secondary radiation due to scattering.
86
It should be no surprise that absorption
differences within the subject will affect the

level of contrast in a radiograph. The larger
the difference in thickness or density
between two areas of the subject, the larger
the difference in radiographic density or
contrast. However, it is also possible to
radiograph a particular subject and produce
two radiographs having entirely different
contrast levels.
87
Generating XX-rays using a low

kilovoltage will generally result
in a radiograph with high
contrast. This occurs because
low energy radiation is more
easily attenuated. Therefore, the
ratio of photons that are
transmitted through a thick and
thin area will be greater with low
energy radiation. This in turn will
expose the film to a greater and
lesser degree in the two areas.
88
A: 220 kV exposure
exposure.. B:
120 kV exposure
exposure..
Radiographs of steel
stepped wedge having
a thickness range of
1/4 to 3/4 inch in
1/8-inch steps
steps..
89
Film contrast refers to density

differences that result due to the type of
film used, how it was exposed, and how
it was processed. Since there are other
detectors besides film, this could be
called detector contrast, but the focus
here will be on film.
90
Exposing the film to produce higher film

densities will generally increase the contrast.
In other words, darker areas will increase in
density faster than lighter areas because in
any given period of time more xx-rays are
reaching the darker areas. Therefore, the
highest density that can be conveniently
viewed or digitized will have the highest
contrast and contain the most information.
91
in the thickness range of

0.004 to 0.015 inch typically reduce scatter
radiation at energy levels below 150
150,,000
volts. Above this point they will emit electrons
to provide more exposure of the film to
ionizing radiation, thus increasing the density
and contrast of the radiograph. Fluorescent
screens produce visible light when exposed
to radiation and this light further exposes the
film and increases contrast.
92
Radiographic Density
Photographic, radiographic or film density is
a measure of the degree of film
darkening.. Technically it should be called
darkening
"transmitted density" when associated with
transparent--base film since it is a measure of
transparent
the light transmitted through the film
film.. Density is
a logarithmic unit that describes a ratio of two
measurements.. Specifically, it is the log of the
measurements
intensity of light incident on the film (I0) to the
intensity of light transmitted through the film (It).
93
From this table, it can be seen that a density

reading of 2.0 is the result of only one
percent of the incident light making it through
the film. At a density of 4.0 only 0.01
01%
% of
transmitted light reaches the far side of the
film. Industrial codes and standards typically
require a radiograph to have a density
between 2.0 and 4.0 for acceptable viewing
with common film viewers. Above 4.0,
extremely bright viewing lights is necessary
for evaluation. Contrast within a film
increases with increasing density, so in
general the higher the density the better.
When radiographs will be digitized, densities
above 4.0 are often used since digitization
systems can capture and redisplay for easy
viewing information from densities up to 6.0.
94
X-ray films for general radiography

consist of an emulsion
emulsion--gelatin containing
radiation sensitive silver halide crystals,
such as silver bromide or silver chloride,
and a flexible, transparent, blue
blue--tinted
base.. The emulsion is different from
base
those used in other types of photography
films to account for the distinct
characteristics of gamma rays and x-rays,
but X-ray films are sensitive to light
light..
Usually, the emulsion is coated on both
sides of the base in layers about 0.0005
inch thick
thick..
95
Putting emulsion on both sides of the base

doubles the amount of radiationradiation-sensitive
silver halide, and thus increases the film
speed. The emulsion layers are thin
enough so developing, fixing, and drying
can be accomplished in a reasonable time.
A few of the films used for radiography only
have emulsion on one side which produces
the greatest detail in the image
96
When xx-rays, gamma rays, or light strike the grains

of the sensitive silver halide in the emulsion, some
of the BrBr- ions are liberated and captured by the
Ag+ ions. This change is of such a small nature that
it cannot be detected by ordinary physical methods
and is called a "latent (hidden) image." However, the
exposed grains are now more sensitive to the
reduction process when exposed to a chemical
solution (developer), and the reaction results in the
formation of black, metallic silver. It is this silver,
suspended in the gelatin on both sides of the base,
that creates an image.
97
Film Selection
The selection
of a film when
radiographing any particular component
depends on a number of different factors.
Listed below are some of the factors that
must be considered when selecting a film
and developing a radiographic technique.
Composition, shape, and size of the part
being examined and, in some cases, its
weight and location.
Type of radiation used, whether xx-rays
from an xx-ray generator or gamma rays from
a radioactive source.
Kilovoltages available with the xx-ray
equipment or the intensity of the gamma
radiation.
Relative importance of high radiographic
detail or quick and economical results.
98
Selecting the proper film and developing the

optimal radiographic technique usually involves
arriving at a balance between a number of
opposing factors. For example, if high resolution
and contrast sensitivity is of overall importance,
a slower and finer grained film should be used
in place of a faster film.
99
Film Handling
X-ray film should always be handled carefully
to avoid physical strains, such as pressure,

creasing, buckling, friction, etc. Whenever films
are loaded in semisemi-flexible holders and external
clamping devices are used, care should be
taken to be sure pressure is uniform. If a film
holder bears against a few high spots, such as
on an unun-ground weld, the pressure may be
great enough to produce desensitized areas in
the radiograph. This precaution is particularly
important when using envelopeenvelope-packed films.
100
Marks resulting from contact with fingers
That are moist or contaminated with processing

chemicals, as well as crimp marks, are avoided if
large films are always grasped by the edges and
allowed to hang free. A supply of clean towels
should be kept close at hand as an incentive to dry
the hands often and well. Use of envelopeenvelope-packed
films avoids many of these problems until the
envelope is opened for processing.
Another important precaution is to avoid
drawing film rapidly from cartons, exposure
holders, or cassettes. Such care will help to
eliminate circular or treelike black markings in the
radiograph that sometimes result due to static
electric discharges.
101
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103
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Main Content Page Layout
106
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Cairo Inspection Company

Eng. Ibrahim Eldesoky

Eng. Ibrahim Eldesoky

Eng. Ibrahim Eldesoky

Eng. Ibrahim Eldesoky

Eng. Ibrahim Eldesoky

Eng. Ibrahim Eldesoky

Cairo Inspection Company (CIC)

Eng. Ibrahim Eldesoky

X-rays are produced whenever high energy electrons

Gamma rays are similar to XX-rays except that they have a

Cairo Inspection Company (CIC)

Eng. Ibrahim Eldesoky

Fig. 1: The Electromagnetic Spectrum

Eng. Ibrahim Eldesoky

X--rays and gamma rays can be

Cairo Inspection Company (CIC)

Eng. Ibrahim Eldesoky

Properties of X-Rays and

They are not detected by human senses (cannot

be seen, heard, felt, etc.).

Eng. Ibrahim Eldesoky

X-rays are produced in packets of

energy called photons, just like light.

Cairo Inspection Company (CIC)

Eng. Ibrahim Eldesoky

X-ray tubes produce xx-ray photons by

Cairo Inspection Company (CIC)

Eng. Ibrahim Eldesoky

K-shell Emission Radiation

The KK-shell is the lowest energy state of an atom.

Eng. Ibrahim Eldesoky

Cairo Inspection Company (CIC)

Eng. Ibrahim Eldesoky

waves of relatively short wavelength that are emitted

Cairo Inspection Company (CIC)

Eng. Ibrahim Eldesoky

Certain radioactive materials of high atomic mass

Eng. Ibrahim Eldesoky

A nucleus with an unstable ratio of neutrons

Eng. Ibrahim Eldesoky

Cairo Inspection Company (CIC)

Eng. Ibrahim Eldesoky

Activity is the number of

Eng. Ibrahim Eldesoky

Each radioactive substance decays at its own

Eng. Ibrahim Eldesoky

Inverse Square Law

Cairo Inspection Company (CIC)

Eng. Ibrahim Eldesoky

Cairo Inspection Company (CIC)

Eng. Ibrahim Eldesoky

The intensity of radiation varies exponentially

with the thickness of homogeneous material through

Eng. Ibrahim Eldesoky

Using the transmitted intensity equation above,

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Atomic Attenuation Processes

Eng. Ibrahim Eldesoky

The four types of interactions are

Cairo Inspection Company (CIC)

Eng. Ibrahim Eldesoky

different mechanisms that cause attenuation of an incident xx-ray beam

Eng. Ibrahim Eldesoky