Energy Conversion & Management 41 (2000) 861881

www.elsevier.com/locate/enconman

Comparative study of the performances of four

photovoltaic/thermal solar air collectors
Adel A. Hegazy*
Mechanical Power Engineering and Energy Department, Faculty of Engineering, Minia University, Minia-61517, Egypt
Received 5 January 1999; accepted 17 August 1999

Abstract
An extensive investigation of the thermal, electrical, hydraulic and overall performances of at plate
photovoltaic/thermal (PV/T) air collectors has been made. Four popular designs are considered with the
air owing either over the absorber (Model I) or under it (Model II) and on both sides of the absorber
in a single pass (Model III) or in a double pass fashion (Model IV). Heat balance equations are written
for each model and are numerically solved, incorporating measured climate data. The eects of air
specic ow rate and the selectivity of the absorber plate and PV cells on the performances have been
examined. It is found that under similar operational conditions, the Model I collector has the lowest
performance, while the other models exhibit comparable thermal and electrical output gains.
Nevertheless, the Model III collector demands the least fan power, followed by Models IV and II. It is
also shown that selective properties are inappropriate for these PV/T collectors due to the resultant
reduction in the generated PV energy, especially at low ow rates. The study provides valuable
information regarding the design and operation of such types of PV/T air collectors. # 2000 Elsevier
Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Hybrid air collector; Flat PV modules system; Stand alone solar air heater; Performance analysis

1. Introduction
Solar energy is the cheapest source of energy available in the developing countries which are

* Tel.: +20-86-362083, ext. 237; fax: +20-86-346674.

E-mail address: mineng@scc-alphl.minia.eun.eg (A.A. Hegazy).
0196-8904/00/$ - see front matter # 2000 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 1 9 6 - 8 9 0 4 ( 9 9 ) 0 0 1 3 6 - 3

862

A.A. Hegazy / Energy Conversion & Management 41 (2000) 861881

Nomenclature
A
cp
D
Dh
E
f
F
G
h
k
I
L
L
.
m
n
p
P
Qu
Re
s
S
t
T
U
V
W
x

area, m2
air specic heat, J/kg K
depth of air channel, m
hydraulic diameter=4  ow area/p, m
electrical energy, W
friction factor
packing factor=Ac/Ap
.
specic mass rate=m/Ap, kg/s m2
HTC=heat transfer coecient, W/m2 K
thermal conductivity, W/m K
incident solar radiation intensity, W/m2
length of absorber plate, m
length of air ow path, m
air mass ow rate, kg/s
number of collector elements
channel wetted perimeter=2D + 2W, m
pumping power, W
rate of useful heat gain, W
.
Reynolds number=4m/mp
air gap height in Model II collector, m
absorbed solar radiation intensity, W/m2
thickness, m
temperature, K
heat loss coecient, W/m2 K
air mean velocity, m/s
width of absorber plate, m
distance from air inlet in ow direction, m

Greek symbols
a
absorptivity
DP
pressure drop, N/m2
E
emissivity
Z
eciency (%)
m
viscosity, kg/m s
r
density, kg/m3
s
StefanBoltzmann constant, W/m2K4
t
transmissivity
Subscripts
a
ambient
b
bottom plate

A.A. Hegazy / Energy Conversion & Management 41 (2000) 861881

c
d
g
i
in
m
o
p
po
r
s
w
1
2

863

PV cells
daily
glass cover
inlet
insulation
mean
outlet
absorber plate
pottant
radiative
sky
wind
air stream 1
air stream 2

mainly located on both sides of the equator. In these tropical and subtropical countries, the
insolation is considerably high, and therefore, solar energy has been traditionally used in
drying and preservation of agricultural crops. The utility of solar air collectors for supplying
the hot air required for this purpose, as well as the dehydration of industrial products and
space heating, has now become a common practice in these countries. However, electrical
energy is needed to operate the fan which forces the air throughout the system.
The agriculture sector in most developing countries contains many isolated farms, small
remote villages and rural areas which experience diculties in connecting to electricity from the
national grid due to several technical and economical problems. However, this form of energy
demand could be aorded by using photovoltaic/thermal (PV/T) air collectors in connection
with storage batteries, which is an attractive alternative to grid extension. In fact, a few small
to medium PV/T collectors could provide the rural consumer with sucient electrical energy to
circulate the hot air and to run other domestic utilities.
A PV/T air collector is simply a at plate solar air heater with photovoltaic cells pasted on
the black absorber plate. It has the advantage of generating both thermal (low grade) and
electrical (high grade) energies from the same unit, and hence, it is less costly than two
separate units. Flat plate air collectors exist in many designs, but the most common models are
shown in Fig. 1. In these single glazing collectors, air may ow over the absorber (Model I) or
below it (Model II), and even on both sides of the absorber in a single pass (Model III) or in a
double pass (Model IV) fashion. Although the Model I collector has the simplest design,
Model II, of conventional design, is the PV/T collector which has been widely studied. The
articles include those by Sopian et al. [1], Prakash [2], Bhargava et al. [3] and Cox and
Raghuraman [4].
Sopian et al. [1] also examined the performance of the Model IV PV/T collector and
concluded that it has a superior performance over Model II. However, they did not consider
the extra increase in energy demand for pumping the air through Model IV in comparison with
that of the Model II collector. The aim of the present investigation is, thus, to compare
critically the overall performances of these two collectors in addition to those of Models I and

864

A.A. Hegazy / Energy Conversion & Management 41 (2000) 861881

Fig. 1. Schematics of the various PV/T models along with heat transfer coecients.

A.A. Hegazy / Energy Conversion & Management 41 (2000) 861881

865

III, Fig. 1. This includes both kinds of energy, i.e. thermal and electrical, as well as pumping
power requirements and the net available electrical energy after taking into account the energy
loss in the storage and the power consumed by the fan. The eects of mass ow rate and the
radiative properties of the absorber plate and PV cells on the performances are also
investigated.

2. Design of PV/T collectors

The various designs of PV/T collectors are shown in Fig. 1. Each collector is covered with a
3 mm thick (tg) glass plate and has an eective absorber area of length L = 9 m and width
W = 1 m. There is only a single rectangular ow channel inside Models I and II, while the
other models exhibit two identical channels above and under the absorber; separated in Model
III but interconnected by a 1808 close return bend in Model IV. The depth of a particular
channel (D ) is chosen as to satisfy the optimization criterion proposed by Hegazy [5,15] for
variable mass ow operation:
D=Loptimum 2:5  103 :

In this criterion, L is the length of the ow path traversed by the turbulent airow from inlet
to exit, and therefore, L=L for Models I, II and III, but L=2L for the Model IV collector.
Ambient air enters the various channels at x = 0 and the hot air emerges at x=L except for
Model IV, where air rst ows in the channel above the absorber and returns through the one
under it, i.e. air also exits at x = 0. To minimize heat loss to the ambient, the side walls and
back plate of each collector are adequately insulated (tin=50 mm, kin=0.045 W/m K) and
suitably enclosed.
The photovoltaic system consists basically of PV modules, storage batteries with a charge
regulator and an inverter to convert D.C. to A.C. for domestic supplies. Commercial PV
modules are constructed from monocrystalline silicon cells which are encapsulated between a
protective transparent layer (pottant) and a moisture-proof backing. A typically available
50Wp, 16.5 V module contains 36 series connected cells (each 10 cm diameter) with overall
dimensions of 98.2  43.6  3.85 cm, Ref. [6]. Hence, 20 PV modules are required to cover the
absorber eective area of 9 m2 so hat the fraction of area occupied by the solar cells, i.e.
packing factor F, is 62.8%. The PV modules are commonly pasted on the absorber plate using
a silicon dielectric heat transfer compound to ensure good electrical insulation along with good
thermal contact. A series parallel arrangement is usually used to connect the PV modules in
order to provide the desired voltage and current.

3. Mathematical formulation
Fig. 1 also shows the various heat transfer coecients (HTCs) along the surfaces of the four
PV/T collectors considered in this study. For each model, an energy balance analysis is
performed over a dierential element having a surface area (width  length) W dx after

866

A.A. Hegazy / Energy Conversion & Management 41 (2000) 861881

making the following assumptions: (a) heat transfer is quasi-steady and one dimensional; (b)
there is no air leakage from the hydraulically smooth ow channels; (c) heat capacity eects of
the glass cover, enclosed air, PV modules, absorber and bottom plates are negligible; (d) the
part of solar radiation which is not converted into electrical energy is absorbed by the PV cells
and the plates as thermal energy; (e) the temperatures of the PV modules, glass, absorber and
bottom plates vary only along the x-direction of the airow; (f) each collector consists of a
number of small elements so that the temperatures of the element surfaces are uniform, while
that of the turbulent airow inside varies linearly along its small length dx; (g) the PV modules
are in perfect thermal contact with the absorber plate of a particular element and both have
the same uniform temperature. Accordingly, the energy balance equations for the jth element
of a particular collector are as follows after dropping the subscript ( j ) for the sake of
simplicity.
3.1. Model I PV/T collector
For glass cover:
Sg hg Tm Tg hrpg Tp Tg hw hrgs Tg Ta ,

where Sg (=agI ) is the fraction of solar insolation (I ) absorbed by the element glass and Tm is
the mean of air stream inlet and outlet temperatures, (Ti+To)/2.
For air stream:
_ p To Ti :
hp Tp Tm W dx hg Tm Tg W dx mc

However, the rate of useful heat Qu extracted by the air stream can be expressed in terms of
.
.
specic mass rate G (=m/WL ) and Tm rather than m and T0 (=2 TmTi). Thus, Eq. (3)
becomes:
hp Tp Tm hg Tm Tg 2Gcp Tm Ti L=dx:

For absorber plate:

Sp hp Tp Tm hrpg Tp Tg Ub Tp Ta ,

where Sp is the total solar energy reaching the element plate minus the energy converted into
electrical energy
Sp tg tpo Iap 1 F ac F1 Zc :

The rst term in Eq. (6) represents the solar radiation absorbed directly by the plate, while the
second term is the part of insolation which is not converted into electrical energy but is
transmitted to and absorbed by the plate. The conversion eciency of the PV module Zc is a
function of its temperature Tc [=Tp according to assumption (g)] and is calculated by the
relation, Ref. [7]:
Zc 0:1251 0:004Tc 293:

A.A. Hegazy / Energy Conversion & Management 41 (2000) 861881

867

Regarding the bottom and sides heat loss coecient Ub, it is given by
Ub 1 2tin tc D tg =W =tin =kin 1=hw :

3.2. Model II PV/T collector

For glass cover:
Sg hpg hrpg Tp Tg hw hrgs Tg Ta ,

where hpg is the free convection HTC of the air gap of height s = 25 mm between the PV
module and glass cover. It is computed by, Ref. [8]:
hpg k=sf1 1:441 R 1 Rsin 1:8b1:6 0:66416R1=3 1 g,

10

where R = 1708/Ras cos b, Ras is the air gap Rayleigh number, b is the collector tilt angle
(=288N, the latitude of Minia city). The notation [ ] means that only the positive value is
considered, with zero used if this term is negative. All properties are evaluated at the air gap
mean temperature, (Tp+Tg)/2.
For absorber plate:
Sp hpg hrpg Tp Tg hp Tp Tm hrpb Tp Tb :

11

For air stream between absorber and bottom plates:

hp Tp Tm hb Tm Tb 2Gcp Tm Ti L=dx:

12

For bottom plate:

hb Tm Tb hrpb Tp Tb Ub Tb Ta ,

13

where Ub is given by
Ub 1 2tin D tc s tg =W =tin =kin 1=hw :

14

3.3. Model III PV/T collector

For this model, the air specic mass rate G is considered to be equally divided between the
two identical channels on both sides of the absorber. Hence, G1=G2=G/2 since the depths of
both channels are equal (D1=D2=D ), as they are determined according to the criterion given
by Eq. (1). The element energy balance equations are
For glass cover:
Sg hg Tm1 Tg hrpg Tp Tg hw hrgs Tg Ta :

15

For air stream 1 in upper channel:

hp1 Tp Tm1 hg Tm1 Tg 2G1 cp Tm1 Ti1 L=dx:

16

868

A.A. Hegazy / Energy Conversion & Management 41 (2000) 861881

For absorber plate:

Sp hp1 Tp Tm1 hrpg Tp Tg hp2 Tp Tm2 hrpb Tp Tb :

17

For air stream 2 in lower channel:

hp2 Tp Tm2 hb Tm2 Tb 2G2 cp Tm2 Ti2 L=dx:

18

For bottom plate:

hb Tm2 Tb hrpb Tp Tb Ub Tb Ta

19

where Ub is given by
Ub 1 2tin D2 tc D1 tg =W =tin =kin 1=hw :

20

3.4. Model IV PV/T collector

The energy balance equations for the jth element of the Model IV collector are similar to
Eqs. (15)(20) of Model III, but it should be noticed that in Model IV, the air ows rst in the
upper channel before turning and then passing through the lower channel. Hence, the specic
mass rate G should be substituted in Eqs. (16) and (18) instead of G1 and G2. In addition, the
depth of the upper or lower channel is twice the channel depth of the other models in order to
satisfy the optimization criterion, Eq. (1), since the ow path length L is twice the absorber
length L, i.e. D1=D2=2D. Further, the temperature of the air out of the upper channel at
x=L is essentially the temperature of the air entering the lower channel, i.e.
To1

at xL

Ti2

at xL :

21

3.5. Forced convective and radiative HTCs

Depending on the PV/T collector model, the forced convective HTCs between the turbulent
airow and both the absorber plate (hp) and the glass cover (hg) or the bottom plate (hb) are
calculated by the following correlation, Refs. [9,10]:
h k=Dh f0:0158 Re0:8 0:00181 Re 2:92 exp0:03795x=Dh g,

22
.
where x is the distance travelled by the air from the channel entrance, and Re (=4m/mp ) is the
.
Reynolds number of a certain air mass rate (m ) through a particular channel of depth D,
width W and hydraulic diameter Dh=4  ow area (WD )/wetted perimeter ( p ). All properties
are evaluated at the air mean temperature Tm,j inside a particular channel element, so that the
convective HTCs of the upper and lower plates are equal.
The radiative HTC (hrgs) between the glass cover and the sky is calculated by
hrgs sEg T 4g T 4s =Tg Ta ,
where the equivalent sky temperature (Ts) is evaluated by the simple relation, Ref. [11]:

23

A.A. Hegazy / Energy Conversion & Management 41 (2000) 861881

Ts 0:0552T 1:5
a :

869

24

The radiative HTCs between the absorber plate and both glass cover (hrpg) and bottom plate
(hrpb) are calculated by the formula of two innite parallel plates (k, l ):
hrkl sTk Tl T 2k T 2l =1=Ek 1=El 1:

25

However, when the absorber plate is uniformly covered with PV modules, the radiative HTC
between this combination and glass cover is estimated as:
hr pcg Fhrcg 1 F hrpg :

26

4. Performance parameters
The performance of an PV/T air collector is characterized by its air temperature rise,
thermal and electrical eciencies, pumping power requirement and the net available electrical
energy. To determine these parameters for a particular model, a step-marching computational
procedure is employed to solve the energy balance equations at dierent elements along the
collector length following the path of the airow. In the present work, the collector is
discretized into 20 elements (n = 20), each 0.45 m in length (=dx ) to accommodate only a
single PV module. Also, it is found that this element length satises assumption (f) and yields
accurate results as well.
4.1. Temperature rise and collector eciencies
For certain ambient and operating conditions, the temperature of the glass cover, absorber
plate (=PV module), moving air etc. are initially guessed for all the elements. However, the
temperature of the air inlet to the collector and rst element at x = 0 is taken equal to the
ambient (Ti,1=Ta), i.e. no air recycling. With these temperatures, the various HTCs and PV
module conversion eciency (Zc) are estimated for the rst element, and the balance equations
are then solved to obtain new temperatures which are compared with the old ones. The
iteration process is continued with the most updated variables until all the temperature values
converge. Hence, the temperature(s) of the air stream(s) leaving the rst element can be
determined, along with the element useful heat gain Qu,1 and generated PV energy EPV , 1
tg tpo Iac Zc , 1FW dx:
Using the temperature(s) of the air leaving the rst element as the inlet one(s) for the next
element, the exit temperature(s) for the second element can similarly be computed. Continuing
this way from one element to the next, the temperature of the air (To) at the exit (x=L ) from
collectors IIII is determined and, thus, the air temperature rise (ToTi). Note that the
temperature of the air leaving the Model III collector is calculated as To=(To1+To2)/2 on the
basis of equal mass rates in channels 1 and 2. For the Model IV collector, the procedure is
continued along the path of airow in the second channel under the absorber from x=L to the
collector exit at x = 0. However, all of the computed temperatures for Model IV are treated as

870

A.A. Hegazy / Energy Conversion & Management 41 (2000) 861881

new guess values, and the whole procedure is repeated again until converged values are nally
obtained, and in turn, the airow outlet temperature is obtained.
The instantaneous useful heat gained by the airow through PV/T Models I and II is
computed as
Qu

n
X

Qu, j :

27

j1

For Models III and IV with two air streams 1 and 2 above and under the absorber,
respectively, the instantaneous thermal energy is evaluated by
Qu

n
X

Qu1, j Qu2, j :

28

j1

In contrast, the instantaneous PV energy generated by any collector is determined as

EPV

n
X
EPV, j :

29

j1

Three kinds of average eciencies are dened for a PV/T collector. The rst one is the daily
thermal eciency:
!
!
ts
ts
Qu dt =
Ap I dt ,
30
ZT, d
tr

tr

while the second one is the daily PV eciency:

!
!
ts
ts
ZPV, d
EPV dt =
FAp I dt ,

31

and nally the daily combined eciency of the PV/T collector is calculated by:
!
!
ts
ts
ts
Qu dt EPV dt =
Ap I dt :
ZPVT, d

32

tr

tr

tr

tr

tr

All computations are performed over the same period of time between sunrise, tr, and sunset, ts.
4.2. Fan power
Electrical energy is needed to drive the motor of the fan which forces the air through the
collector, and thus, part of the energy generated by the PV modules would be utilized for this
purpose. The amount of this energy depends on the fan system eciency and ow pumping
power of a particular collector model. The latter could be estimated by
Pflow Ap SGDP=ri channel ,

33

A.A. Hegazy / Energy Conversion & Management 41 (2000) 861881

871

where DP is the total pressure drop experienced by the air stream in passing through a certain
channel at a mass rate G due to ow friction and losses at the channel entrance, exit and
various ttings. The pressure drop due to friction is given by
DPfriction

n
X
rfV 2 L=n=D,

34

j1

where V (=GL/rD ) is the mean velocity of the air at the mean temperature Tm,j inside the
channel element j, and f is the friction factor for turbulent ow calculated by, Ref. [12]:
f 0:079 Re0:25

6  103 < Re < 5  105 :

35

Other pressure drop values due to the eects of channel entrance, exit, elbows, bends, joints,
valves etc. are determined by the formula
DPother SKrV 2 =2,

36

where the coecient K is assigned the values of 0.5, 1.0 and 10 for the losses of entrance, exit
and various ttings, respectively. For the 1808 close return bend inside the Model IV collector,
its K value is taken as 2.2, Ref. [13], and the air properties are evaluated at the mean
temperature of the ow at the particular location in the channel.
Now, if the fan eciency is assumed to be 74%, while that of the electrical motor is taken as
90%, then the instantaneous power required for circulating a certain amount of air becomes
Pfan Pflow =Zfan Zmotor 1:5Pflow :
Hence, the daily fan power is given by
ts
Pfan, d Pfan dt,
tr

37

38

which should be supplied from a constant source (storage batteries) for steady operation.

4.3. Net available electrical energy

The daily electrical energy generated by the PV modules (EPV,d) is determined by integrating
the instantaneous values calculated by Eq. (29) over the period of sunshine. Because of this
variability in electrical energy generation rate, the PV output is rst stored in the batteries
before it is used for running the collector fan and/or other utilities either during the day or
night time. If 30% allowance is assumed for the energy losses in the batteries (10%), charge
regulator (5%), inverter (15%) and cabling (2.5%), then about 70% of the PV energy is stored
in the batteries. However, about 80% of this stored energy becomes available when the collector
fan or other appliance consumes energy from the batteries. Thus, only 56% of the daily PV power
is useful (Euseful=0.56EPV), and in turn, the net available electrical energy can be determined as
Enet,

0:56EPV, d Pfan, d :

39

872

A.A. Hegazy / Energy Conversion & Management 41 (2000) 861881

5. Results and discussion

Performance comparisons have been performed employing the hourly data of solar intensity
and ambient temperature shown in Fig. 2. These climate data are recorded at Minia University
for the summer day 24 June 1998, during which the prevailing wind speeds (Vw) varied
between 0.5 and 1.5 m/s. Wind HTCs are estimated by Sharples and Charlesworth correlations
[14], but an average value of hw=10 W/m2 K is assigned for the whole day, since the Vw range
is very limited. Values of absorptivity, transmissivity and emissivity for the various surfaces of
the collectors are taken as: ag=0.04, tg=tpo=0.9, Eg=0.86, ap=0.94, Ep=0.95, ac=0.9, Ec=0.7
and Eb=0.95. For each collector model, the performance characteristics are determined for
eight specic mass rates of air, spanning the range of G = 0.0050.04 kg/s m2.
The comparisons between the various performance parameters for the considered PV/T
Models IIV are presented in Figs. 36 as a function of the air specic mass ow rate G. In
general, each data point in a particular gure represents the parameter integrated value over
the day time. Smooth curves are passed through the various data sets to provide continuity. It
is evident from Fig. 3 that under the same ambient conditions, the Model I collector exhibits
the lowest daily thermal performance irrespective of the mass rate G value. In contrast is the
Model II collector which has the highest ZT,d values. Further, the daily thermal eciencies for
Models III and IV are quite close to the ZT,d values of Model II in the range of G < 0.02 kg/s
m2, but the deviation becomes more pronounced for Gr0.02 kg/s m2.
Fig. 4 shows the maximum rise in air temperature (ToTi)max which occurs at 13:00 (local
time) when the incident solar radiation is maximum too. Clearly, the rise in the temperature of

Fig. 2. Hourly values of solar radiation intensity and ambient temperature used in the computations.

A.A. Hegazy / Energy Conversion & Management 41 (2000) 861881

873

Fig. 3. Variation of daily thermal eciency with air specic mass rate for PV/T collectors IIV.

the air owing through PV/T Models II, III and IV is nearly the same and is higher than the
rise experienced by air through Model I especially for G < 0.02 kg/s m2. Generally, the air
temperature rise is seen to drop, as expected, with increasing specic mass rate G regardless of
the collector model.

Fig. 4. Variation of maximum air temperature rise with air specic mass rate for PV/T collectors IIV.

874

A.A. Hegazy / Energy Conversion & Management 41 (2000) 861881

Fig. 5. Variation of daily electrical eciency with air specic mass rate for PV/T collectors IIV.

The daily electrical eciencies of the four PV/T models are shown in Fig. 5. In connection
with Fig. 4, it is obvious that as the air temperature rise of a particular model gets less and less
with increasing specic mass rate G, the collector ZPV,d gets correspondingly higher and higher
due to the decrease in the average temperatures of the PV modules. However, the enhancement
in the value of ZPV,d is remarkably very small as compared to the increase in the value of the G

Fig. 6. Daily fan power and average PV and useful energies as a function of air specic mass rate.

A.A. Hegazy / Energy Conversion & Management 41 (2000) 861881

875

rate. Further, the maximum dierence between the ZPV,d values of the various models at a
particular G rate is negligible, Fig. 5; typically less than 0.3% at G = 0.005 kg/s m2 down to
0.1% at G = 0.04 kg/s m2. Accordingly, this permits us to arithmetically average the PV
energies (EPV,d) generated daily by the four models, so that it becomes possible to compare the
daily fan power Pfan,d required by each model with the daily useful energy (Euseful,d=0.56EPV,d)
as shown in Fig. 6.
Examination of Fig. 6 reveals that collectors I and II demand almost identical fan powers,
since each of them has only a single ow channel of depth D either above (Model I) or under
(Model II) the absorber. On the other hand, the Model III collector consumes the least fan
power, while Model IV comes in the second rank. Also indicated in Fig. 6 is that these types
of PV/T collectors could aord the electrical energy necessary for pumping the hot air with a
maximum rate G = 0.02 kg/s m2 for both Models I and II, G = 0.025 kg/s m2 for Model IV
and G < 0.035 kg/s m2 for the Model III collector. These characteristics can, however, be
quantied by dening a collector daily electro-hydraulic eciency ZPV,net as
ZPV,

net

Enet, d =

ts
tr

!
FAp I dt :

40

The various ZPV,net values for PV/T Models IIV are graphed in Fig. 7 as a function of mass
ow rate G. Clearly, the net available electrical energy Enet,d from the four models are almost
the same for G R 0.01 kg/s m2. With increasing G rate, however, the fan power requirement
increases too, so that Enet,d continuously decreases, with a relatively steep gradient for Models
I and II. Also obvious in Fig. 7 is that the Enet,d available from Model III is generally more
than that of Model IV.

Fig. 7. Daily electro-hydraulic eciency for PV/T collectors IIV as a function of air specic mass rate.

876

A.A. Hegazy / Energy Conversion & Management 41 (2000) 861881

As a summary to the preceding paragraphs, the following can be concluded. First, the
Model II collector shows a comparable thermal performance with those of Models III and IV
up to G < 0.02 kg/s m2, but it has a better thermal performance for higher G rates. Second,
the PV energy generated from Model II is relatively higher than those of other models, but its
amount is close to that of Model III in the range of Gr 0.02 kg/s m2. Third, the Model II
collector consumes a large amount of fan power relative to that required by Model III or
Model IV for pumping the same G rate under similar ambient conditions. Of course, this has a
direct impact on the net PV energy available for domestic purposes.
In light of the above summary, it is evident that better judgment on the performances of
these four PV/T models could be critically assessed by comparing their overall performances
(including thermal, electrical and fan power parameters) under similar operational conditions.
Therefore, it becomes convenient to dene a collector daily overall eciency as:
ts
41
Zoverall Qu, d Enet, d = Ap I dt:
tr

The computed Zoverall values for PV/T Models IIV are plotted in Fig. 8 over the range of
0.005 R G R 0.04 kg/s m2. Generally, the overall eciency of a particular PV/T model
increases with an increase in air mass rate G, attains a maximum value and then decreases with
a further increase in G. This is attributed to the sharp increase in fan power with increasing G,
while the accompanying enhancements in the generated PV energy (Fig. 6) and the collected
heat (Fig. 3) are, respectively, slight and moderate. Also obvious in Fig. 8 is that the Model I
collector has the lowest overall performance among the other models for all mass rates G. In
the range of G < 0.02 kg/s m2, Models IIIV has almost identical overall performances. For

Fig. 8. Daily collector overall eciency for models IIV as a function of air specic mass rate.

A.A. Hegazy / Energy Conversion & Management 41 (2000) 861881

877

Table 1
Comparison between daily performance parameters for collector IIV with Ep=0.9 and Ec=0.7a,b
G (kg/s m2)
Model I
0.005
0.010
0.015
0.020
0.030
0.040
Model II
0.005
0.010
0.015
0.020
0.030
0.040
Model III
0.005
0.010
0.015
0.020
0.030
0.040
Model IV
0.005

Qu (Wh/day)

DTmax (K)

EPV (Wh/day)

ZPVT (%)

Pfan (Wh/day)

Enet (Wh/day)

Zoverall (%)

17,510
(21,607)
25,358
(28,404)
29,686
(31,947)
32,445
(34,189)
35,783
(36,923)
37,736
(38,554)

48.0
(59.4)
35.4
(39.6)
27.8
(29.9)
22.9
(24.1)
16.9
(17.4)
13.4
(13.6)

3018
(2741)
3237
(3118)
3359
(3293)
3437
(3395)
3532
(3510)
3588
(3574)

29.0
(34.4)
40.4
(44.6)
46.7
(49.8)
50.7
(53.1)
55.6
(57.2)
58.4
(59.6)

28.6
(28.8)
212
(212)
687
(688)
1586
(1586)
5168
(5169)
11,975
(11,976)

1662
(1506)
1601
(1534)
1194
(1156)
339
(315)
3190
(3204)
9966
(9975)

27.1
(32.7)
38.1
(42.3)
43.7
(46.8)
46.4
(48.9)
46.1
(47.7)
39.3
(40.4)

20,971
(24,926)
29,128
(33,121)
33,390
(37,086)
36,030
(39,428)
39,163
(42,071)
40,983
(43,541)

56.3
(66.7)
39.4
(44.6)
30.2
(33.4)
24.5
(26.6)
17.8
(19.0)
13.9
(14.7)

3133
(2901)
3311
(3179)
3411
(3324)
3476
(3413)
3556
(3518)
3604
(3578)

34.1
(39.5)
45.9
(51.3)
52.0
(57.1)
55.9
(60.6)
60.4
(64.5)
63.0
(66.6)

28.8
(28.9)
212
(213)
688
(689)
1587
(1588)
5171
(5174)
11,979
(11,984)

1726
(1596)
1642
(1567)
1222
(1172)
359
(323)
3180
(3204)
9961
(9980)

32.1
(37.5)
43.5
(49.0)
49.0
(54.1)
51.5
(56.2)
50.9
(55.0)
43.9
(47.5)

21,197
(27,783)
29,140
(33,798)
33,115
(36,487)
35,507
(38,081)
38,274
(39,952)
39,844
(41,056)

57.2
(74.9)
40.0
(46.3)
30.5
(33.5)
24.6
(26.3)
17.8
(18.5)
13.9
(14.3)

3053
(2700)
3277
(3118)
3396
(3303)
3470
(3408)
3558
(3524)
3609
(3587)

34.3
(43.1)
45.8
(52.2)
51.6
(56.3)
55.1
(58.7)
59.2
(61.5)
61.4
(63.1)

7.8
(7.8)
56.8
(57.0)
183
(183)
421
(421)
1366
(1367)
3156
(3157)

1702
(1504)
1778
(1689)
1719
(1667)
1522
(1487)
626
(606)
1135
(1148)

32.4
(41.4)
43.7
(50.2)
49.3
(54.0)
52.4
(56.0)
55.0
(57.3)
54.7
(56.4)

20,726
(27,551)

55.8
(74.3)

3005
(2588)

33.6
(42.6)

14.7
(14.9)

1668
31.7
(1434)
(41.0)
(continued on next page)

878

A.A. Hegazy / Energy Conversion & Management 41 (2000) 861881

Table 1 (continued )
G (kg/s m2)
0.010
0.015
0.020
0.030
0.040
a
b

Qu (Wh/day)

DTmax (K)

EPV (Wh/day)

ZPVT (%)

28,652
(34,025)
32,839
(36,933)
35,415
(38,498)
38,409
(40,340)
40,101
(41,451)

39.3
(46.6)
30.3
(33.9)
24.6
(26.7)
17.8
(18.7)
14.0
(14.4)

3225
(3031)
3348
(3236)
3428
(3355)
3525
(3486)
3582
(3557)

45.1
(52.4)
51.2
(56.8)
54.9
(59.2)
59.3
(62.0)
61.8
(63.6)

Pfan (Wh/day)
109
(109)
352
(353)
813
(814)
2649
(2650)
6136
(6138)

Enet (Wh/day)

Zoverall (%)

1697
(1588)
1523
(1459)
1107
(1065)
675
(698)
4130
(4146)

42.9
(50.4)
48.6
(54.3)
51.7
(55.9)
53.4
(56.1)
50.9
(52.7)

Numbers
t between parentheses are for Ep=0.1 and Ec=0.2.
Note: trs Ap I dt 70, 716 Wh/day.

higher mass rates Gr 0.02 kg/s m2, it is seen that the Model III overall performance exceeds
those of Models IV and II, as they rank in the second and third places, respectively. This best
overall performance can be explained by the fact that under similar operational conditions, the
Model III collector demands the least fan power with respect to the other models, while the
collected thermal and PV energies are very comparable to those of Models II and IV.
The numeric values of some selected performance parameters for PV/T Models IIV are
listed in Table 1. Also reported between parentheses are the countervalues for these parameters
when both the absorber and PV cells have selective properties, i.e. Ep=0.1 and Ec=0.2.
Inspection of the non-selective data in Table 1 reveals, that the Model II collector is rather
more eective than Model IV in converting solar energy into thermal (Qu,d) and electrical
(EPV,d) energies; therefore, it has a slightly better combined eciency, ZPV/T,d. Although this
nding appears to contradict the conclusion made by Sopian et al. [1] that Model IV has a
superior performance to that of Model II, it should be pointed out that in Ref. [1], the ow
channel depth-to-length ratio was arbitrarily chosen. It fact, Sopian et al. [1] indirectly studied
the eect of (D/L ) ratio on the performances of Models II and IV by varying the absorber
length L (=1 or 2 m) with respect to a single channel depth D = 10 cm. In the present study,
the channel (D/L) ratio is determined according to the optimization criterion given by Eq. (1)
which, as examined by Hegazy [5,15], eectively maximizes the thermal performance of at
plate solar air collectors. The eect of channel (D/L) ratio on the performance of the Model II
PV/T collector was also demonstrated by Bhargava et al. [3] (D = 5, 10 and 15 cm while
L=L = 2 or 5 m), as well as by Prakash [2], D = 1, 2, and 3 cm for a xed length L=L.
Hence, it can be concluded that the output gains from such PV/T air collectors could be
maximized too by selecting the ratio (D/L) optimally as prescribed by Eq. (1).
Further inspection of Table 1 shows that enhancing the selectivity of the absorber plate
(Ep=0.1) and PV cells (Ec=0.2) improves the collection of useful heat (Qu,d) and, in turn, the
combined eciency (ZPVT,d), but at the expense of the generated PV energy, especially at low
ow rates G < 0.02 kg/s m2. Keeping in mind that the main objective of using PV/T collectors

A.A. Hegazy / Energy Conversion & Management 41 (2000) 861881

879

is to provide the rural farmer with sucient electrical energy to operate his domestic
appliances, it can, thus, be concluded that selective properties are inappropriate for such type
of collectors, particularly when they are used in remote tropical or subtropical regions which
also have harsh climates.
Finally, a brief comment is in order about how to maximize the dierence between the

Table 2
Values of air temperature rise, useful PV energy and fan power two hours after/before sunrise/set for collector IIV
G (kg/s m2)

(T0Ti) (K)
8h

0.005
0.010
0.015
0.020
0.025
0.030
0.035
0.040
0.005
0.010
0.015
0.020
0.025
0.030
0.035
0.040
0.005
0.010
0.015
0.020
0.025
0.030
0.035
0.040
0.005
0.010
0.015
0.020
0.025
0.030
0.035
0.040

Model
18.2
12.8
9.8
8.0
6.7
5.8
5.1
4.5
Model
22.5
15.3
11.6
9.3
7.8
6.7
5.9
5.3
Model
22.7
15.1
11.2
8.9
7.3
6.3
5.5
4.8
Model
22.2
13.1
10.0
8.1
6.8
5.9
5.2
4.6

II

III

IV

Euseful (W)

Pfan (W)

18 h

8h

18 h

8h

18 h

13.0
9.1
6.9
5.6
4.7
4.1
3.6
3.2

95.4
98.8
101
102
103
103
103
104

70.7
72.6
73.5
74.1
74.5
74.8
75.0
75.2

1.94
14.4
46.8
108
207
353
554
819

2.01
15.0
48.6
112
216
367
576
852

16.4
11.1
8.4
6.8
5.7
4.9
4.4
3.9

97.1
99.8
101
102
103
103
104
104

71.6
73.0
73.8
74.3
74.7
74.9
75.1
75.3

1.95
14.5
46.9
108
208
354
555
820

2.01
15.0
48.7
113
216
367
577
852

16.3
10.7
8.0
6.3
5.2
4.4
3.9
3.4

95.8
99.3
101
102
103
103
104
104

70.9
72.8
73.8
74.3
74.7
75.0
75.2
75.4

0.53
3.86
12.5
28.7
54.9
93.4
146
216

0.54
4.0
12.9
29.8
57.1
97.0
152
224

16.0
10.7
8.0
6.4
5.3
4.5
4.0
3.5

95.1
99.4
101
102
103
103
104
104

70.6
72.5
73.5
74.1
74.5
74.8
75.0
75.2

1.0
7.37
24.0
55.4
106
181
284
419

1.03
7.66
24.9
57.6
110
188
295
436

880

A.A. Hegazy / Energy Conversion & Management 41 (2000) 861881

useful electrical energy (Euseful,d) and the fan power (Pfan,d) required for forcing the air through
the collector, primarily to cool the PV modules and secondarily to collect solar energy as a low
temperature heat. From a design point of view, one should employ PV modules with high
conversion eciency Zc and packing factor F to improve the generation rate of PV energy. On
the other hand, signicant savings in the fan power requirements can be achieved by using a
controller (e.g. time clock, light sensitive switch, thermostat etc.) to regulate the operation of
the fan according to a certain policy, since the ambient conditions are widely varying along the
day and over the year. As shown in Table 2, it would be disadvantageous to pump high ow
rates through the collector in the periods of low solar irradiation (I < 400 W/m2), particularly
during the two hours interval after sunrise and before sunset. As a matter of fact, the early
morning and late afternoon periods are both characterized by low ambient temperature and
low levels of incident solar radiation. Hence, power savings during these two periods could
amount to 25% of the daily fan power requirements. Also, a dierent control strategy should
be planned for the operation of the PV/T collector during winter, when climate conditions are
not favourable, and the demand for electrical energy is great.

6. Conclusions
On the basis of the comparisons made, the following conclusions can be drawn:
1. For a particular model, the thermal eciency is enhanced with the increase of air specic
mass ow rate. This is accompanied with a noticeable decrease in air temperature rise along
with a sharp increase in fan power requirement. In contrast, the enhancement in the
generated PV energy is slight so that the net available electrical energy decreases
dramatically with increasing air ow rate.
2. The Model I PV/T collector has the lowest overall performance, while the other models
exhibit very comparable ones up to a specic mass rate G R 0.02 kg/s m2. For higher G
values, Model III has the highest overall performance followed by the Model IV collector.
For each model, however, there exists a critical rate of mass ow beyond which collector
overall performance decreases.
3. The ow channel (D/L) ratio is an important design parameter also inuencing the
performance of PV/T air collectors. For variable mass ow operation, however, the
optimum ratio which eectively maximizes the thermo-electric gains from such collectors is
(D/L)optimum=2.5  103.
4. Owing to the variability of ambient conditions along the day and over the year, a signicant
saving in the net available electrical energy may be realized through the use of a controller
to regulate the operation of the fan according to a certain strategy.
5. The use of selective absorber plate and PV cells is totally inappropriate for such types of
PV/T collectors due to the resultant reduction in the generated PV energy, especially at low
ow rates of air.
6. Performance comparisons indicate that the Model III PV/T collector is the most suitable
candidate design for converting solar energy into low quality heat and high quality electrical

A.A. Hegazy / Energy Conversion & Management 41 (2000) 861881

881

energy. On the other hand, it is simple to be built by local craftsmen in the rural areas of
developing countries.

References
[1] Sopian K, Yigit KS, Liu HT, Kakac S, Veziroglu TN. Performance analysis of photovoltaic thermal air heaters.
Energy Conversion and Management 1996;37(11):165770.
[2] Prakash J. Transient analysis of a photovoltaic-thermal solar collectors for cogeneration of electricity and hot
air/water. Energy Conversion and Management 1994;35(11):96772.
[3] Bhargava AM, Garg HP, Agarwal RK. Study of a hybrid solar system-solar air heater combined with solar
cells. Energy Conversion and Management 1991;31(5):4719.
[4] Cox III CH, Raghuraman P. Design considerations for at-plate photovoltaic/thermal collectors. Solar Energy
1985;35(3):22741.
[5] Hegazy AA. Performance of at plate solar air heaters with optimum channel geometry for constant/variable
ow operation. Bull of Faculty of Engineering, Minia University 1998;17(1):5970.
[6] Sharma VK, Colangelo A, Spagna G. Photovoltaic technology: Basic concepts, sizing of a stand alone photovoltaic system for domestic applications and preliminary economic analysis. Energy Conversion and
Management 1995;36(3):16174.
[7] Bergene T, Lovvik OM. Model calculation on a at-plate solar heat collector with integrated solar cells. Solar
Energy 1995;55(6):45362.
[8] Hollands KGT, Unny TE, Raithby GR, Konicek L. Free convective heat transfer across inclined air layers.
ASME Journal of Heat Transfer 1976;98(2):18993.
[9] Biehl FA. Test results and analysis of a convective loop solar air collector. Proc. 6th National Passive Solar
Conf., Portland, Oregon, 1981: cited in [10].
[10] Altfeld K, Leiner W, Fiebig M. Second law optimization of at-plate solar air heaters. Part 1: The concept of
net exergy ow and the modeling of solar air heaters. Solar Energy 1988;41(2):12732.
[11] Swinbank WC. Long wave radiation from clear skies. Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society
1963;89:339.
[12] Harnett JP, Koh JCY, McComas ST. A comparison of predicted and measured friction factors for turbulent
ow through rectangular ducts. ASME Journal of Heat Transfer 1962;84(1):828.
[13] Daugher RL, Franzini JB, Finnemore EJ. Fluid Mechanics with Engineering Applications. McGraw-Hill, 1989:
p. 239.
[14] Sharples S, Charlesworth PS. Full-scale measurements of wind-induced convective heat transfer from a roofmounted at plate solar collector. Solar Energy 1998;62(2):6977.
[15] Hegazy AA. Optimum channel geometry for solar air heaters of conventional design and constant ow operation. Energy Conversion and Management 1999;40(7):75874.