Economy, economic policies, material culture

1) Hungarian economy in the 14th-16th centuries

a) Charles Robert’s economic policies (1310-1342)
i) regained royal lands, new barons
ii) economic development → increasing incomes
(1) reforms of Nekcsei Demeter
iii) mining
(1) gold, silver, salt
(2) urbura- mining fee
(a) 1/3rd was given to the landlords → landlords had interest in mining
(3) minting money → royal monopoly
(a) precious metals must have been given to the king and they got money in return
which contained less precious metal → income for the king
(b) Ø debasing currency, therefore it became stable
(c) Ø profit of the chamber
(i) substituted by manor (gate) tax (1336) – every manor paid it (18 denar/year)
(d) thirtieth custom (tricesma) 1/30th of the product had to be paid when you enter the
country
(e) salt monopoly
(f) special tributes (not significant)
b) Sigismund of Luxemburg’s economic policies (1387-1437)
(1) economic development
(a) distribution of royal lands
(2) the number of cities increased
(3) unification of measures
(4) struggle with the Ottomans → cost a lot money
(a) manor army
(b) border castles – buffer states
(5) pawned cities for Poland to get money
c) Mathias Corvinus’ economic policies (1458-1490)
i) increased taxes
(1) population increased
ii) 1467: manor tax was transformed as hearth tax (tax of the treasury)
iii) thirtieth tariff was changed to crown tax
(1) these changes were in order to end indemnity
iv) single plot nobles were also taxed
v) special tributes (rendkívüli hadiadó)
vi) total income: around 750 000 golden forints + aids and personal incomes
d) Jagello Age (1490-1526)
i) Wladislas (Ulászló) II (1490-1516) – had to protect the country on his own cost
ii) Ladiuslaus (Lajos) II
iii) royal power was falling apart
(1) barons had restrictions to the king
(2) reduction of taxes- less income (ca. 200 000 golden forints)
e) Habsburg Age (1526- )
i) Hungarian Chancellary
(1) responsible for economy

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2) The Great Discoveries and its economic consequences
a) 14th century- economic development stopped
b) 15th century- development restarted
i) effect on long-distance trading
c) Reasons: precious metals were needed; Mediterranean Sea’s importance decreased after the
Fall of Constantinople (1453)→shift to the Atlantic Ocean; luxury items were imported
i) search for gold
d) Equipments:
i) ships (new types: caracco, caravel)
ii) navigation: compass, sextant, astrolabe
iii) Henry, the navigator- Navigation school in Portugal
iv) 1474 Toscanelli’s map→ assumed that the Earth is a sphere
(1) Christopher Colombus used this map
e) 1471- Portuguese sailors crossed the Equator
f) 1487- Bartolommeo Diaz (Portuguese) reached the Cape of Good-hope
g) 12th of October 1492- Christopher Colombus reached America (San Salvador)- originally he
wanted to reach India – he thought he was in the West Indies
i) supported by the Spanish royal family
ii) brought back animals, plants, precious metals and people
iii) Colombus went to America 4 times
(1) explored Haiti, Dominica, Venezuela, Panama
iv) Amerigo Vespucci (1501-1504) realised what Colombus considered India wasn’t India
v) Portuguese-Spanish dispute in America
(1) 1494: Agreement of Tordasillas (mediator: pope)
(a) division of America
(i) West- Spain
(ii) East- Portugal
(2) 1529: Treaty of Zaragoza
(a) extension of the Agreement of Tordasillas
h) 1498: Vasco de Gama reached India
i) his route was used until 1869 (Suez Canal was opened)
ii) trading colonies: Goa, Calicut
(1) huge profit (700-800%)
i) 1519-22: Magellan’s attempt o go around the Earth
i) he died in the Philippines in a skirmish but one of his ships finished the journey
j) Consequences:
i) Colonisation
(1) America
(a) precious metals, good climate for plantations, tribes on the level of Ancient Egypt
(i) Hernando Cortes defeated the Aztec Empire in 1519
1. 1535: establishment of Viceroyalty of New-Spain
(ii) Alvarado crushed the Mayas (Yucatan peninsula) in 1523
(iii) Pizzaro conquered the Inca Empire (Andes) in 1532
1. establishment of the Peruvian Viceroyalty
(iv)they were enslaved
(v) African people were brought to America as labour as well
(b) Asia

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 (i) Portuguese were the most dominant- set up trading ports in India, China,
Indonesia, Japan
ii) establishment of World Trade
(1) huge amount of precious metals arrived to Europe
(a) inflation
(b) prices were increasing
(2) new trading centres: Lisbon, Amsterdam, London, la Rochelle, Nantes
(a) Levantine trade lost its importance
(b) Hanseatic trade remained significant in mediating Eastern and Western Europe
(i) European division of labour
iii) from America to Europe: gold, sugar, tobacco
iv) from Europe: ready products
v) from Africa to America: slaves
vi) new plants (potato, tomato, corn)
3) Effects of the Industrial Revolution on the natural and built environment
a) First Industrial Revolution
i) centre: Great Britain
ii) 16th-17th century
iii) capitalism emerged
iv) at first agriculture developed
(1) labourers worked on land
v) developments: fertilisers, crop rotation, machines, purification by breeding, unification of
lands- enclosure
vi) people who lost their job due to mechanisation went to towns and became labourers in
factories
vii) textile industry developed, inventions
(1) John Key – Flying Shuttle
(2) James Hargreaves – Spinning Jenny
viii) water wheel, steam force were used
(1) coal mining
(2) steam engine
ix) transportation
(1) 1807: Fulton – steam boat
(2) 1825: Stephenson – locomotive
(3) first route: Stockton- Darlington
(4) first permanent route: Liverpool- London 1830
x) Generally: agriculture→ light industry →heavy industry
xi) Demographics: demographic boom
(1) less deaths, less births
(2) migration
xii) Urbanisation
(1) slow development
(a) at first bad hygiene and irrigation
(b) by 1850: 50% of the population lived in towns
(2) migration to America
xiii) Environment
(1) Pollution due to the use of coal
(2) destruction of nature- mines, factories

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 (3) Black Areas: Birmingham, Manchester
b) Second Industrial Revolution
i) centre: USA
ii) second half of the 19th century
iii) based on heavy industry and scientific achievements
(1) electricity, chemistry, machines
iv) huge capitals
v) larger factories
vi) steel
vii) Industry
(1) use of crude oil
(a) internal combustion engines (Otto, Daimler, Benz)
(b) transportation developed
(c) cars, planes
(i) 1903 Wright brothers
(2) electricity
(a) light- Edison
(b) energy transportation
(c) electric engines
(d) Bell – phone
(e) Marconi – wireless telegram
(3) mass production
(4) increasing consumption
viii) free competition
ix) monopolies – merging companies which aims to control the market
(1) loose connection to national market
x) banks sponsored – finance capital – bank money and industrial money merged
xi) industrial trust: complete merging of companies
xii) cartel: discussion of prices
xiii) concern: same leaders in different branches of industry
xiv) movement of capitals
xv) Demographics:
(1) number of births decreased
(2) increasing number of workers
(3) demographic boom reached Russia
(4) Central and Eastern Europeans immigrated
(5) middle class increased
xvi) Eastern Europe
(1) the 2 industrial revolution arrived in the same time
(a) quick social changes- jammed society
(i) both traditional and new layers were part of the society (landlords-
entrepreneur, peasants- labourers)
xvii) migration to cities
(1) in developed places more than 50% lived in towns
(2) cinema, light, cars, mass entertainment, giant companies, water supply, electricity,
garbage collection
(3) city centre: trading
(4) around the centre: factories and living districts

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 xviii) Corporations
(1) company which gives out shares of stocks
(a) shareholders
4) World Economy in the 1920s and 1930s
a) 1920-1924: Post-war Slump
i) recessions → revolutions (rise of Mussolini)
ii) unemployment
iii) indebted to the USA
iv) inflation/ hyperinflation
v) Rapallo Treaty (1922)
(1) signed by Germany and the USSR
(2) West didn’t want German-Soviet alliance →Dawes Plan
vi) Ruhr Crisis (1923)
(1) Germany couldn’t pay the reparation, thus France occupied the Ruhr region
vii) Dawes Plan (1924)
(1) loans to Germany → reconstruction of her economy →paid the reparation to France,
UK and Belgium → they could pay their loans to the USA
(2) economic development started
b) 1924-1929: Recovery
i) 1925: Locarno Pact
(1) borders were guaranteed
(2) lower preparations for Germany
ii) investments to Germany
iii) Fulfilment Policy (Germany)
iv) Stresemann- Briand Pact
v) Briand- Kellogg Pact (1928)
(1) war can’t be used to settle conflicts
vi) Germany joined the League of Nations in 1926
vii) generally: reconciliation
c) 1929-1933: Great Depression
i) before it, everything flourished in the US
(1) laissez faire
(2) higher wages
(3) ordinary people had shares
ii) overproduction in the US
(1) export
iii) capital invested in Europe and South America
iv) Black Thursday- Wall Street Crash
(1) everybody wanted to sell, no one wanted to buy
(a) panic
(b) deflation
v) cut social services, cut expenditure
vi) in 1932: 24% unemployment rate in the US
vii) increasing crime ratio
viii) Keynes (British economist): wanted state intervention
ix) New Deal (1932): President Roosevelt
(1) only responsible banks could survive
(a) bank consolidation

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 (2) creating jobs
(a) non-profit making companies
(b) helping unemployed people
(c) end of Prohibition (Szesztilalom)
(d) inflation
(3) improved welfare
x) Hitler’s rise to power
(1) used up the crisis
(2) Germany was too much dependent on foreign capital
d) Hitler’s Dictatorship/Revision/Appeasement
i) League of Nations was weak – the US didn’t join
ii) 1932: Disarmament Conference in Geneva
(1) not successful
(2) economic considerations
(a) it is expensive to maintain a huge army
iii) 1934: German rearmament – was against the Versailles Treaty
(1) League of Nations couldn’t intervene
(2) conscription
(3) Germany left the League of Nations
(4) Italy, the UK, France against German ambitions
(a) British- Herman Naval Act
(i) Mussolini felt betrayed – Berlin-Rome Axis
(ii) alliance with Hitler against the West
1. didn’t object Anschluss (He used to)
(5) by 1939 German economy became weak due to remilitarisation
(a) inflation
iv) 1935: Saar Plebiscite
(1) in favour of Germany
5) Stalin’s economic policies
a) 1918-22: Civil war
i) Lenin: war communism – bankruptcy
(1) supply to win the war
(2) nationalisation
(3) peasants starved
(a) result: NEP (New Economic Policy)
(i) capitalism was limitedly allowed
(ii) peasants could sell their surplus
(iii)
b) 1924: Lenin died
i) Power Struggle until 1928
(1) important opponents: Kamenev, Zinoviev, Bukharin
ii) he kept NEP (New Economic Policy) until 1928
(1) Bukharin supported NEP – Stalin used it up against him
(2) wanted communism in the Soviet Union only
iii) from 1928: Planned economy
(1) Five Year Plans (first between 1928-1933)
(a) planned economy
(2) forced collectivisation

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 (3) forced industrialisation
(4) grain shortage, production fell
(a) peasants didn’t want to give their grain to the state which caused starvation
(b) grain was sold in Europe
(5) from grain export, they financed industrialisation
(6) State controlled the economy, not the market
iv) famine in Ukraine (Holodomor)
v) Industry developed – incomes from light industry was used
(1) Hydro-electric dam on River Dnepr – Dnieproprostoi
(2) Magnitogorsk
(3) Moscow Metro
vi) there were no consumers good
6) Hungarian economy between the Two World Wars
a) before the World War – Dualist Monarchy – no tariffs
b) Károlyi Mihály – Chrysanthemum revolution
i) idea of land distribution – failed
c) Soviet Republic – couldn’t better the situation
d) after the Peace Treaty of Trianon
(1) shrink in territory
(a) supply problems
(2) reduced army
(3) reparation payment
(4) War Guilt Close
ii) Teleki Pál (1920-21)
(1) Nagyatádi- Szabó’s Land reform
(a) not very successful – too small plots for peasants
(2) dismissed because he hadn’t been confident enough against Charles IV
iii) Bethlen István (1921-31)
(1) counter-revolutionary government
(2) era of economic consolidation
(a) conservative
(3) established the Party of Unity – made governing easier with weak opposition
(4) developed industry
(a) substituted import
(b) supported new enterprises – light industry mainly
(5) inflationary policy – printed more money – crown lost its value
(a) replaced with pengő in 1927
(6) 1922: Hungary entered the League of Nations
(7) 1924: Hungary got loans – long term, 7% interest rate
(a) end of isolation
(b) improved production
(c) modernisation of agriculture
(d) tourism
(e) electricity and transportation
(8) 1927: health insurance for industrial workers
(9) by 1929: the economy had been restored but it depended on foreign capital
(10) Great Depression caused the end of development
(11) Bethlen resigned in 1931

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 iv) Károlyi Gyula 1931-1932
(1) tightened the belt – no result
v) Gömbös Gyula 1932-36
(1) National Work Plan: wanted to strengthen the government, social security, economic
development, restriction of capital, reduction of unemployment, extension of suffrage,
corporate, revision, cheaper administration, harmony between production and
consumption, land distribution, secret ballot (95 points at all)
(a) not very well-planned, contradictions
(2) wanted to increase his power – he died in 1936 but he would have been made to resign
vi) Darányi Kálmán 1936-1938: Rearmament Program of Győr (1938) (1 billion pengős)
vii) Imrédy Béla 1938-39

Population, settlement, lifestyle

1) Development of towns in Medieval Hungary

a) in West 11th 12th centuries
b) emerged later than in Western Europe (era of Sigismund)
i) protection against nobility
c) reasons:
i) use of money
ii) surplus grain
iii) population increase
d) before Sigismund – not many towns
i) people did not settle yet – problem for László and Kálmán
ii) lack of money
iii) less guilds
iv) after the Mongol Invasion: Béla IV stared town development
(1) protection
v) some development in the time of Charles Robert
(1) stable currency
vi) only religious and royal centres
e) types: royal towns, market towns
i) royal free towns: belonged to the king, paid tax to the king
ii) market towns: no walls, agrarian tasks, belonged to nobles or church
iii) they could send their representatives to the king
iv) some cities had walls
(1) in order to defend it from external attacks (Ottomans, Pechenegs)
v) unified measures – standard was Buda’s units
vi) right to jurisdiction
vii) no one could be arrested without trial
viii) taxation to the king
ix) traders could move freely
x) dwellers of royal towns can be judged by their own judges
f) Privileges of Fehérvár (confirmed by Béla IV, issued by: István III (1162-72)
i) exemption of tariffs
ii) free election of 1 judge and 12 juries
iii) right to establish municipal court
iv) right to choose priests

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 g) Privileges of Saxonians
i) granted by István V (1271), confirmed by Charles Robert
ii) election of judges and priests
iii) right to exploit mines
iv) fishing and hunting rights
v) tax immunity
(1) in return they had to grant 50 soldiers
h) General features of a town
i) guilds: association of people of the same profession, it was formed to protect their interest
(1) regulated trading
(2) merchant must have been part of it
(3) standardising measures – fair trade
ii) elected magistrates
(1) worked in town halls
iii) full members of guilds had the right to elect
iv) Advantages: protection, guilds, more goods are available, cultural and educational
possibilities, economic development
v) Disadvantages: crowded: illnesses, fire, dirt, garbage, crime, stinking, walls limited the
size of the town
2) Demographic changes in Hungary in the 18th century
a) after Turkish occupation the country was ruined
b) loss of human lives
i) wars, epidemics
ii) worst in 1711
(1) epidemics (plague, dysentery, pox, cholera)
(2) protection: quarantine, disinfection
c) fields diminished
d) after 1711: population increased up to 10 million
i) settled people
(1) organised: Swabs
(a) catholic Germans who settled in Hungary in the 18th century
(b) no tax for them
(c) got devices and shelter
(2) natural: Poles, Ruthinians, Romanians
e) 1711: population 3 million (1.6 million, 53% Hungarian)
f) 1790: population 8 million (3 million, 37.7% Hungarian)
i) Swabs, Ruthinians, Wallachians, Bohemians, Poles, Serbians, Slovaks, Gypsies, Jews
(1) incomplete societies
(a) no nobility
(b) leaders were priests or urban intellectuals
g) Slovaks
i) in Upper Hungary
ii) serfs, craftsmen mainly
iii) few nobles – considered themselves Hungarians
iv) Lutherans, Catholics
h) Ruthinians
i) lived in Ruthinia
ii) serfs, shepherds

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 iii) Greek Orthodox
i) Wallachians
i) majority in Transylvania in the 18th century
ii) Greek Orthodox, Greek Catholic/ United Church
iii) shepherds, merchants
j) Serbians
i) in south – Military Frontier Territory
ii) independent from Hungary
iii) serfs, traders
iv) Greek Orthodox
(1) privileges from Leopold I
(a) they could elect their religious leaders
v) national identity
k) Germans
i) Swabs: settled in the 18th century
(1) peasants, Catholics
(2) urban middleclass
(a) in towns, intellectuals, traders
ii) Saxons:: settled in the Middle Ages
(1) Northern Hungary, Transylvania
(2) Lutherans
l) Jews
i) present since the Árpád-dynasty
(1) 18th century: Jews migrated from Galicia
(2) butchers
m) Gypsies
i) Indian origin
ii) itinerants lifestyle
iii) small minority
iv) didn’t accept the laws
v) didn’t settle
vi) smiths, tub makers
3) Nationalities and ethnic groups in the age of Dualism
a) 1867-1918
i) from the compromise until the end of the First World War
b) 1868: Nationality Law
i) by Eötvös József – minister of religion and education
ii) Hungarians wanted a Hungarian nation state
iii) nationalities didn’t get collective rights
(1) got individual rights
(a) granted the right to use their own language
(b) in places where they had more than 20% representation, they could use their
language in offices, had lower and middle education on their language
(c) school system for nationalities (Hungarian language was compulsory though)
(d) unions could be made, but couldn’t act against the Hungarian political nation
(2) nationalities weren’t satisfied with that
c) 1868: Croatian-Hungarian compromise
i) Croatia was acknowledged as semi-independent

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 (1) autonomy
(2) Croatia had diet and government
(a) leader: ban
(3) authority over education, state administration, judicial power
(4) question of Fiume
(a) part of Hungary
(b) official language: Italian
(c) Croatia wanted it
d) Ratio of Hungarians increased up to 54.5%/
i) demographic boom
(1) in 3 decades increase by 1/3rd
ii) migration to other countries (f. ex: USA)
(1) rather by nationalities
iii) people moved to cities (mainly to Budapest)
(1) assimilation where nationalities were not in one bloc
iv) government had influence only on higher layers and intellectuals
v) gradually Hungarian language became compulsory everywhere and prevented nationalities
to set up their universities
(1) passive resistance
(2) wanted a federative monarchy
(3) intention to
(4) join to their mother countries (Serbia, Romania)
e) 1907: Lex Apponyi
i) after 4 years of elementary education everyone must have been able to communicate in
Hungarian
f) Jewish emancipation 1895
i) they became equal
ii) they assimilated
iii) traders, industry
iv) anti-Semitism
(1) in Europe it was harsher
(2) in lower layers
(3) government was against anti-Semitism
(a) lawsuit of Tiszaeszlár 1882
4) Everyday life in the Kádár-era
5) Demographic changes in the 20th century

Individuals, community, society

1) Medieval universities and monastic orders

a) monasticism
i) hermits- hiding in caves to be alone 3rd-4th centuries
ii) at first at the Near East → later moved to West → established monasteries
iii) first monastic order: Benedictine Order, 529, Monte Casino
(1) motto: Ora et Labora! (Pray and Work!)
iv) regula: list of rules
v) Catholic orders
(1) Franciscan Order

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 (a) by St. Francis of Assisi (1181-1226)
(i) got wounded in a Crusade
(ii) religious experience in 1209
(iii) started rebuilding churches
1. formed a community which was living in poverty (Grey friars)
a. teaching, preaching, healing
(iv)asked for the blessing of the pope (Innocent III)
1. got license and they made their regula
(2) Dominican order
(a) founder: St. Dominic (Spanish)
(b) Blackfriars
(c) wanted to fight against Albigens order
(d) established in 1214
(e) inquisition: dealt with suppressing heresy
(i) after 1232 they were responsible for the inquisition
(3) Cistersians
(a) founder: St. Bernard of Clairwaux
(i) agriculture, education, engineering
(4) Carthusians
(a) founder: St. Bruno of Cologne
(i) monks took an oath to stay silent
(b) never ate meat
(5) Orthodox order
(a) Basilita order
(i) founder Basilios, the Great
(ii) only Orthodox order
(iii) poverty, purity,
(6) Heretic movements
(a) reaction to the power of church
(i) contradiction between teaching and acting
(b) Chatarists
(i) 12th century, Southern France
1. spiritual-good, material-bad
(c) Waldenses
(i) 12th century
(ii) founder: Peter Waldo
1. rich merchant
2. divided his belongings among the poor
3. he said you must be poor to be a good Christian
a. preached about it
b. wanted the church to renounce
4. he was persecuted
(d) Albigenses
(i) from town Albi
(e) Bogumils
(i) originally from Bulgaria, then in Bosnia
1. totally against the church
2. persecuted

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 b) Universities
i) had autonomy
ii) 7 liberal arts
(1) Trivium: Rhetoric, Grammar, Dialectic
(2) Quadrivium: Arithmetic, Geometry, Music, Astronomy
iii) 1088: Bologna
iv) 1150: Paris (Sorbonne)
v) 1167: Oxford
vi) 1224: Naples
(1) they taught law, theology and medicine
vii) Grand Écoles- engineering or economic studies
viii) Latin was used in universities
(1) ecclesiastical authors, Aristotle
(2) rivalry between universities
ix) oldest Hungarian universities in Pécs (1367), Óbuda (1395)
x) clashes with citizens of towns
2) Changes of Hungarian society between “Honfoglalás” and the 14th century
a) 10th century
i) Honfoglalás 896-900
(1) leaders: Álmos (gyula) , Kursan (kündü)
ii) system of succession: seniorate
(1) oldest male member of the tribe was the heir
iii) wanted lasting country
(1) took Christianity
(a) 973: asked for missionaries from Otto I
iv) wealth made differences in the society
b) 11th century
i) István I
(1) Society: king – high nobility (Hungarian chieftain, German/Italian knights) – freemen
(later became serfs or richened) – slaves
(2) tithe: 1/10th of the products had to be paid to the church
ii) László I
(1) made people settle down,
(a) strict laws on it (also on protection of property)
c) 12th century
i) Kálmán, the Booklover
(1) same laws as László I had
ii) Béla III
(1) role of writing increased
(2) chancellery
(3) hospess from west – helped economic development
(a) craftsmen, knights, serfs
iii) Society: King – Nobility – Freemen – Castle Serfs –Servants and Slaves
d) 13th century
i) András II
(1) issued the Golden Bull
(a) reasons: granted countries, decline in royal power, royal lands diminished
(i) servients were discontent

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 1. they were nobles and they lost their title if their land was granted to a
noble – end of tax imunity
(2) Golden Bull (1222)
(a) Barons: granted counties, accumulation of offices, right of resistance
(b) Servients: exemption from taxation, cannot be arrested without trial, no one can
stay on their lands without permission, right to the last will, only the king and the
palatine can judge upon them, it is not compulsory to go to war abroad
(c) Castle Serfs: they can’t be deprived of their freedom
(d) Others: no debasing currency, tithe could be paid in nature
(3) Church got extra rights by the Golden Bull (1231)
(a) jurisdictional right
(b) right of resistance to the archbishop of Esztergom
e) 14th century
i) Árpád dynasty died out
(1) temporarily some landlords became extremely powerful
ii) 2 layers
(1) nobles: tax immunity, obliged to hold arms,
(2) serfs: got land from the landlord, services to church and state in return
iii) Laws of 1351 by Louis I
(1) Entail system
(a) escheat
(2) renewed Golden Bull – granted rights for the nobility
(a) same for all nobles

A magyar
(3) társadalom változásai
(4)
XI. század XIII. század eleje XIII. század vége XIV. század

Előkelők Nemesek Bárók Bárók

Vitézek Serviensek Nemesek Nemesek

Várjobbágyok Várjobbágyok
Kialakuló polgárság
Közrendűek

Jobbágyok Jobbágyok

3) Political career of rulers from the Árpád- dynasty

a) Stephen I (the Saint) 997-1038
i) until 1000: duke
ii) from 1000: king
(1) crown from: Pope Sylvester II
iii) struggles with Koppány (997), Gyula of Transylvania (1003), Ajtony
iv) new system
(1) introduced primogeniture instead of seniorate
(2) church – wanted Hungary to be a Christian country
(a) Archbishopric of Esztergom and Kalocsa
(b) Bishoprics: Veszprém, Pécs, Csanád, Győr, Eger, Gyulafehárvár, Vác, Várad
(c) centre: Esztergom

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 (d) a lot lands were donated to the church
(e) laws supported the church
(i) 10 villages had to built 1 church
(ii) people had to attend church on Sundays
(iii) tithe paid to church
(3) state
(a) System of Chapter (Káptalan)
(i) canons – worked in chapters
1. their leader: provost
(ii) function: notary
1. official documents about property
(b) Counties
(i) functions: administration, military, economy, jurisdiction
1. leader: bailiff/land-steward
2. head of the county system: palatine
(c) source of power: royal landholdings with royal castles in the centre
(d) incomes: tariffs on salt, horse, oxen, silver trade, tolls, income from minting
money,
(4) foreign policies
(a) wife. Gizella (daughter of a Bavarian prince)
(b) good relations with the Holy Roman Empire, Poland, Bulgarian Kingdom and
Venice
(c) one conflict only: 1030 Conrad II attacked Hungary (HRE) – no success
(5) laws:

Protection of Christianity- free practice of Christianity (everybody had to go to

church on Sundays)
Protection of property (both royal and private)
Punishment after crimes (eg.: murder)-very strict
Protection of freedom-free people were divided: nobles (supported István),
valiants (middle class, less wealthy), paupers + hospices (guests coming from
abroad, settled and working on other’s lands) The other group was the
servants
Other laws
(a) With his laws he aimed at the elimination of tribal customs, maintaining
Christianity, and ensuring the circumstances for the development of a strong
feudal state.
b) Peter Orseolo (1038-41, 1044-46)
i) wanted to carry on the work of Stephen I but with foreign people (Germans, Italians)
ii) he became the vassal of Henry III
c) Aba Sámuel (1041-44)
i) he was surrounded by lower ranked Hungarians
ii) opposition of upper class
iii) Battle of Ménfő (1044) Aba Sámuel lost
(1) Peter came back with the help of Henry III
(2) chaos: uprising of Vata –pagan uprising
(a) murder of Bishop Gellért
d) Andrew I (1046-1060)
i) Henry III attacked Hungary
(1) Andrew called his brother Béla for help, in return he got 1/3rd of the country –

15
 dukedom – outer part of the country
(2) they won at the Battle of Vértes (1051) – scourged land tactics
(3) 1052 – battle of Pozsony – legend of Zotmund (Búvár Kund)
e) Béla I (1060-1063)
i) attacked his brother – gained the throne
ii) Solomon escaped (son of Andrew)
iii) in 1063 Solomon attacked with German help
(1) accident at Dömös – the throne canopy collapsed – killed Béla
f) Solomon I (1063-1074)
i) gained the throne with German help
ii) peace of Győr – peace with Géza and László (sons of Béla)
(1) they got the dukedom of their father
iii) defeated Pechenegs in 1068 at Kerlés
iv) rivalry for the throne – László and Géza won
g) Géza I (1074-1077): establishment of the monastery in Garamszentbenedek
h) László I (1077-1095), the Saint
i) he died as king
(1) very religious, strict
(2) in 1083 King Stephen I, Prince Imre and Bishop Gellért were canonised
(3) fights with Solomon – closed in Visegrád in 1081
(a) died in exile in 1083
(4) 1091: occupied Croatia because their ruling family died out in 1087
(a) Álmos became the leader of Croatia – son of Géza
(b) established the bishopric of Zagreb in 1091
(c) became part of the dutchy
(i) def: system in Hungary. King has a duke who is his appointed heir, and he
could practice ruling and defend the country
(5) laws: he had 3 lawbooks
(a) protection of property
(b) stopping migration – striders
(c) ordeals
i) Coloman, the Booklover (1095-1116)
i) could read and write – peculiar thing in his time
ii) among the most intelligent rulers of his time
(1) struggles with Álmos
(a) appointed him as duke
(2) 1105: crowned Stephen II – duke
(a) Álmos revolted again – defeated
(i) he was blinded as well as his son, Béla
(b) cancellation of dukedom
(3) 1096: first crusade
(a) Peter the hermit didn’t get permission to cross Hungary
(i) Coloman defeated him
(b) the 2nd army could cross Hungary
iii) Foreign affairs
(1) interfered to domestic issues in Galicia
(2) occupied Trau, Zára, Spalato
(a) personal union with Croatia
(b) Croatia became part of Hungary (1102-1918)
iv) laws
(1) 5 codices: protection of private property, against striders, banned pagan traditions
j) Stephen II (1116-1131)
i) unlucky with military affairs, lost Dalmatia
ii) campaigns in Dalmatia – he lost
k) Béla II, the Blind (1131-1141)

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 i) his wife (Ilona) summoned an assembly to Arad – Coloman supporters were killed (68)
ii) usurper to the throne: Boris
(1) he was defeated
iii) retook Dalmatia and conquered Dalmatia
l) Géza II (1141- 1162)
i) he also defeated Boris
ii) 6 campaigns to Galicia
m) Stephen III (1162-1172)
i) usurpers: László (1162-63), Stephen IV (1163)
ii) problems with Byzantium
(1) Manuel (1143-1180): last heyday of the Byzantine Empire
(a) interfered Hungarian affairs
iii) lost Szerémség
n) Béla III (1172-1196)
i) captive in Byzantium, later heir to Manuel, but finally he didn’t become emperor
ii) incomes: money exchange, salt, customs, regales
(1) hospess: role in developing economy
(a) people from abroad
iii) foreign policy
(1) 2 periods
(a) 1173-1180
(i) loyal to Manuel, and to the Pope
(ii) fought against the Turks to help Manuel
(b) 1180-1196
(i) power of Byzantium declined
(ii) Béla retook Dalmatia, Szerémség, Nándorfehérvár
(iii) 1187: 3rd Crusade
1. he didn’t join, but took an oath to launch a crusade later
a. it never happened
(c) conquered Galicia: appointed Andrew there, who lost it
iv) increased the role of writing
o) Imre I (1196-1204)
i) son of Béla, Andrew inherited the oath to organise a Crusade
ii) hospesses
(1) German speaking territories (Saxons)
(2) Italians
iii) Andrew fought against Imre
iv) Imre had a son László III (1204-1205) – little kid only
(1) no role
p) László III (1204-1205)
i) kid king – no role in politics
ii) died in 1206 – he was ca. 6 years old
q) Andrew II (1205-1235)
i) many campaigns with no significant result
(1) cost a lot money – royal lands were donated to barons
(a) weakened the royal army
(b) he had to rely on barons banderii
ii) 1211: tried to settle the Teutonic Order in Transylvania
(1) led them out in 1225 because they wanted independence
iii) 1217: crusade
(1) weakened the royal power further
(2) no result
(3) wanted to conquer the Latin Empire
iv) consequences: increased taxes, regales, profit of the chamber (debasing currency)
v) new office: Lord Chief Treasurer (tárnokmester)

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 (1) Apodfia Dénes
(a) dealt with economy
vi) 1222: Golden Bull
(1) Barons
(a) prohibited – granting counties, accumulation of offices, granting land to
foreigners
(b) right of resistance
(2) Servients
(a) exemption from taxation
(b) can’t be arrested without judgement
(c) no one can stay on their land without permission
(d) right of last will
(e) only the king and the palatine can judge upon them
(f) they have to participate only in war of protection
(i) if they go abroad to war, the king pays for it
(3) Castle serfs
(a) can’t be deprived of their freedom
(4) Others
(a) debasing currency was prohibited
(b) tithe can be paid both in nature and money
(5) didn’t observe it
(6) Renewed in 1231: church got jurisdictional right
(a) right of resistance to the Archbishop of Esztergom
(7) 1233: renewed again
r) Béla IV (1235-1270)
i) wanted to restore royal power as it was in the time of Béla III
(1) stopped granting lands
(2) retook lands
(3) opposition
ii) settled Cumans
(1) deepened the tensions between barons and the king
iii) Mongol Invasion 1241-42
(1) battle of Muhi
(a) lost
(b) many leaders of the country were killed, but the king survived
(i) escaped to West (Austria)
1. he was humiliated – he moved to Trau, Dalmatia
(c) rock fortresses resisted
(2) robbed, collected taxes
(3) 1242- Mongols left
(4) results: loss of human lives
(a) immigration
(i) Cumans came back
(ii) Poles, Czechs, Romanians
iv) after the Invasion
(1) new policies
(2) donation of lands, but barons had to built fortresses and maintain soldiers
(3) town development
(4) peace with Galicia and Poland
(5) continuous lands (Csák, Kőszegi, Kán families)
(6) familitarity: Hungarian form of feudalism, looser form in the sense, there are the lord
and the familiar. Familiar doesn’t get land from the lord. If he gets land, it is from the
king.
(a) not hereditory
v) struggles with his son Stephen V

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 (1) 1265: battle of Isaszeg – Béla lost
vi) laws of 1267: servients became nobles
(1) nobles could complain to the king
vii) new system: noble counties
(1) sheriffs: elected by nobles
(2) basic unit of Hungarian administration
s) István V (1270-1272)
i) marriage contract with the Anjou family in 1272
(1) after the Árpád dynasty died out, they had right to the throne
t) László IV, the Cuman (1272-1290)
i) internal fights
(1) Kőszegi-Gutkeled vs Csák
(2) church had an attempt to make stability but failed
ii) 1277: assembly of Rákos
(1) king became adult
iii) 1278: battle of Dürnkrut
(1) victory over Ottokar Přemysl
iv) Cumans rebelled
(1) battle of Lake Hód in 1282
u) Andrew III (1290-1301)
i) weak- barons controlled him
ii) disputed descent
iii) anarchy continued
iv) 1298: codebook gave more right to nobles
v) with his death, the Árpád dynasty died out
4) Characteristics of Hungarian Jews between 1867-1945
a) from the 18th century many Jews moved to Hungary from Galicia and Moravia
i) they couldn’t have lands, couldn’t move to cities, and there were other restrictions as well
ii) Joseph II’s Religious decree gave them a bit more freedom
iii) in the Reform age, they wanted to create single political nations
(1) assimilation
iv) 28th July 1849: Jewish emancipation law was accepted
b) 1867: Austrian-Hungarian compromise
i) Jews became equal
ii) 1895: Jewish religion became equal
iii) Jews supported trade and economy and they assimilated quickly
(1) due to their good situation more Jews moved to Hungary from Galicia
(a) became writers, doctors, lawyers
c) from 1920: Horthy became the regent – Horthy-era
i) anti-communists, anti-liberalism, conservatism, revisionism
ii) anti-Semitic feelings: Jews were associated with communists and liberals
iii) 1920: Numerus Clausus
(1) limited the percent of nationalities and Jews at school
(a) they were arranged according to the percentage in the total population
iv) improving relations with Germany
(1) Germany helped Hungarian revision
(a) in return the First Anti-Semitic Law was issued in 1938
(i) based on religion and the ones who were baptised after 1919
(ii) limited the number of Jews in the press, healthcare, engineering industry
(20%)
(b) Second Anti-Semitic Law in 1939

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 (i) racial differentiation
1. if 1 parent or 2 grandparents were Jewish
2. excluded from state administration and public offices
3. on other fields their number was decreased to 6% from 20%
4. limitation of suffrage
(c) Third Anti-Semitic Law in 1941
(i) banned marriage and any relationship between a Jew and a non-Jew
d) Holocaust
i) not only the deportation and extermination of the Jewish race (Endlösung), but the
humiliation of Jews beforehand
(1) in Hungary it started with Numerus Clausus
(a) verbal pogrom: speeches to anger people against Jews
(b) physical attacks: ghettos, confiscations
(i) that’s why the Hungarian government, police and people supported
deportations of Jews
ii) 19 March 1944: Operation Margareta
(1) Germany occupied Hungary
(a) extermination of Jews
(i) from East to West
1. in Budapest, it was suspended on the 6th of July
a. economic leaders were Jews
b. he was threatened to be sentenced as war criminal
c. protest of the pope and Swedish King
d. Soviet attack
(b) deportation by trains to Auschwitz - Birkenau
(i) organised by Vitéz Endre László, Vitéz Baki László
(2) 16 October 1944: Horthy resigned
(a) Szálasi Ferenc’s reign
(i) Arrow-cross Party
1. ghettos in Budapest
2. transported Jews by foot to Germany
3. mass executions at the Danube
4. some people tried to save Jews: Raoul Wallenberg, Carl Lutz, Angelo
Rotta
(b) he was made to resing in March 1945
(i) executed
(ii) end of Holocaust
(c) Casualties: 550-560 000 Jews were killed

Modern democracies

1) Roots of modern democracies in the 18th century

a) enlightenment
i) tolerance, development, freedom, logic, ratio, encyclopaedias
ii) Montesquieu
(1) division of power: executive, legislative, judicial (The spirit of Laws)
(2) to avoid tyranny
(3) elections with census (education or money)

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 (4) geographic determinism: society depends on geography
(a) large countries: absolutism
(b) small and middle sized countries: don’t need absolutism
iii) Rousseau:
(1) people’s sovereignty
(a) no elected representatives but everybody represents himself
(b) no division of powers
(c) wanted to abolish social and wealth differences
iv) deism: God created the Earth but does not intervene
(1) against church because it mislead people
v) fisiocratism by Quensay and Turgot
(1) free competition (laissez faire)
(2) economy works if nothing controls it
vi) Adam Smith: importance of trading and industry
(1) self interest at work
b) French revolution
i) 5th May 1789: Estates general was summoned
(1) clergy (1st estate), nobility (2nd estate), rest (3rd estate)
(a) (1 vote/estate
(2) the 3rd estate wanted National Assembly
(a) 1 vote/person
(b) Sieyés, Lafayette, Mirebau supported it
th
ii) 20 June 1789: Estate General was closed
(1) Tennis Court Oath
(a) they are not dissolved until they get constitution
(i) formed National Assembly of Constitution (1789-91)
iii) due to the capture of the Bastilles (14th July) and the Great Fear on the 4th of August
feudalism was abolished and the Declaration of the Rights of Man was made (26th
August)
(1) people became equal
(2) freedom of speech, press, religion
(3) equal right to have public office
(4) liberty can be lost only after a trial
(a) not for women
iv) Olympe de Gouges- wrote the Declaration of Rights for Women
(1) National Assembly didn’t accept it
v) 1791: Constitution
(1) limited royal power
(a) no veto, no proclamation of laws
(2) division of powers
vi) Constitutional Monarchy (1791-92)
vii) National Convention (1792-95)
(1) terror
2) The Compromise and its alternatives
a) before: reprisal, Bach-era, Schmerling Provisorium
i) lost Italian provinces
ii) 1860: October Diploma
(1) reinstated the diet

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 (2) system similar before 1848
(a) no right to vote about tax, recruitment
iii) 1861: February Patent
(1) wanted centralised but constitutional state
(a) not accepted
b) acceptable for both Hungarians and Austrians
i) Austria wanted unity
ii) Hungary wanted independence
iii) both were frightened by Russian and German strenghtening
c) necessary for stability
i) made by conservatives
d) 1865: Easter article of Deák
i) Hungary is willing to resign some ’48 privileges if she gets constitution
e) Schmerling was fired – end of Schmerling Provisorium
f) Franz Joseph summoned the diet
i) Deák Party (Deák)
ii) Old Conservatives (Apponyi György)
iii) Left Centre (Tisza Kálmán)
iv) ’48 Party (Madarász József)
g) 1866: Austria lost at Königratz
i) Hungarians didn’t revolt
(1) April Laws were reinstated
(2) count Andrássy Gyula was appointed as Prime Minister (February 1867)
(3) Franz Joseph was crowned on the 8th of June in 1867
ii) Dualism: dual centred constitutional monarchy
(1) common ruler and 3 common ministries
(a) military, foreign ministries and the finances in connection with them
(2) government responsible to the diet
(3) also an economic compromise, revised in 10 years (at start 70-30% ratio for Austria)
(4) common currency
(5) common army
(6) unified measures
iii) 1868: Croatian-Hungarian compromise
(1) Croatian demands
(a) personal union with Hungary
(b) Muraköz, Fiume
(c) independence
(i) rejected by Hungarians
(2) instead
(a) Croatians became a political nation
(b) leader: ban, appointed by the king
(c) independent education, jurisdiction, administration
(d) official language: Croatian
(e) sabor – their assembly
(i) sent 42 representatives to the Hungarian diet
(3) no full satisfaction in Croatia
h) Alternatives:
i) by Kossuth

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 (1) 1851 Constitution of Kytahia
(a) alliance of local governments
(b) support to nationalities
(2) 1862: Danube Confederation
(a) unification of Hungarians, Slavs, Romanians
(i) confederation
ii) Balcescu: Romanian unity
(1) rejected
iii) Czech-Austrian-Hungarian trialism
(1) rejected the compromise between Hungarians and Austrians
(a) wanted trialism
(b) inventer: Palacky
(2) Franz Joseph supported the idea, but Austrian and Hungarian bourgeoise didn’t
support the idea
iv) Polish-Austrian-Hungarian trialism
(1) failed because Russia opposed it
v) Croatian-Austrian-Hungarian trialism
(1) centres: Zagreb, Budapest, Vienna
(2) Illirism: Croatians wanted to unite Southern Slav peoples
(a) rejected
3) Main institutions of the EU, and its decision making mechanisms
a) European parliament
i) members elected in every 5th year
(1) first elected in 1979
ii) President: Jerzy Buzek
iii) parties:
(1) European People’s Party (EPP)
(2) Socialists & Democrats (S&D)
(3) Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe (ALDE)
(4) The Greens – Europe Free Alliance (G-EFA)
(5) European Conservatives and Reformists (ECR)
(6) European United Left- Nordic Green Left (EUL-NGL)
(7) Europe of Freedom and Democracy (EFD)
(8) Non-inscrits
b) European Commission
i) executive of the European Union
ii) one commissioner per state
(1) one of them is the President
(a) initiator of policy, commands large bureaucracy
c) Council of Ministers
i) decision making institution of the EU
ii) one minister per state
iii) topic is important
(1) if agriculture is discussed: agriculture ministers meet
iv) president is rotated in every 6th month
d) European Court of Justice
i) member states decided upon the judges together
ii) ensures equal application of EU laws on the member states

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 e) European Central Bank
i) responsible for the monetary policy covering the countries within the Eurozone
ii) headquarter: Frankfurt
4) Recent Hungarian democracy
a) state: system of institutions that exercise public power
b) Constitutional Principles of 1989
i) Separation of bodies:
(1) legislative body: Parliament, President of the Republic
(2) executive body: Government
(3) judiciary body: Constitutional Court, Courts
ii) Sovereignty of people = people’s will:
(1) stated in the Constitution
(2) direct exercise of power
(3) indirect exercise of power
iii) Rule of fixed, promulgated laws:
(1) in accordance with International Law
(2) legal security
(3) Constitution (by Constituent Assembly – Parliament)
(4) Laws (by Parliament)
(5) Decrees (by Government)
(a) Local decrees = Resolutions (by self-governments /public services, local
education, cultural and medical institutions hold/local municipalities
iv) Equality before law
(1) no discrimination
(2) equal representation
c) Constitution of the Hungarian Republic
i) state form: republic (3rd republic)
ii) all power descend from the people
(1) sovereignty of people exercised directly or indirectly
iii) basic human rights are listed
iv) protection of citizens
v) control over economy
(1) declaration of market economy
(2) equal protection of private and public property
(3) right to enterprise
(4) free economic competition
vi) didn’t alter the communist constitution, but it was modified by amendments
d) Civil Duties
i) paying the taxes
ii) defence of homeland
iii) compulsory education (until the age 18)
iv) respecting and keeping the laws
e) Institutions
i) legislative body: Parliament: making laws, accepting international agreements,
supervising the government (accepting the government programs, decision about the
distrust towards the government), elect the President of the Republic for 5 years (limited
presidential republic), President: call elections and plebiscite, declaring laws, veto against
laws, posting (officially appointing) PM and judges, decisions about military actions;

24
 declaring war and peace and emergence, 386 MPs (representatives): immunity,
irresponsibility, initiating laws, making proposals to Parliament, participating in making
resolutions, local self-governments are also legislative bodies
ii) executive body: Government: main body of the administration / executive branch, Prime
Minister and Ministers elected by them, governmental functions (determining state tasks
and supervising their execution,, supervising the administration (administrative bodies and
self-governments), responsible for the Parliament, Government can be dismissed only
constructive no-confidence provision (voted by more than half of the MPs)
iii) judicial: Constitutional Court: 11 members elected for 9 years to supervise the
constitutionality of laws
(1) Supreme Court (Legfelsőbb Bíróság)
(2) High Courts of Justice (ítélőtáblák)
(3) Court of Budapest and Courts of counties (Fővárosi Bíróság és megyei bíróságok)
(4) local courts and Courts of Labour (helyi és munkaügyi bíróságok)
(5) High Court of Appeal (Fellebbviteli Bíróság)
(6) Ombudsmen (parliamentary commissioners = országgyűlési biztosok): official
persons subordinated to the Parliament; elected by the 2/3 majority of the Parliament
for 6 years; have immunity; initiate measures in the cases of violating constitutional
rights (everyone can appeal to the Ombudsman in these cases), Ombudsman for
human rights; Ombudsman for data protection; Ombudsman for the rights of national
and ethnical minorities
The Hungarian electoral system
- Suffrage:
- universal: every adult citizen (over 18 years) can vote
- equal: every elector has 1 vote and every vote is equivalent
- no suffrage: legal incapability, prohibited from voting by legal judgement, condemned to
prison, being in mental hospital
- active suffrage: who can elect
- passive suffrage: who can be elected (same conditions as for active suffrage + permanent
residence in Hungary)
- self-governmental elections: suffrage for non-citizen immigrants living in Hungary, too
- Ballot:
- direct: electors are voting directly for the representative → people’s sovereignty
- secret: locked ballot-box, polling-booth (szavazófülke)
 universal, equal, direct, secret voting
- Procedure of elections:
- registration of electors (people with valid suffrage)
- notice for people about the registration

Mixed electoral system:

- pre-election note of support collected by political parties – min 750 signatures → individual
candidate in that constituency
→ 176 mandates from individual constituencies: 1st round: if absolute majority (50% of votes
+ 1) if not 2nd round: if relative majority (got the most votes among the candidates)
- a party having candidate in ¼ of the individual constituencies → territorial list of the party
(in individual constituencies /can get 176 of the 386 mandates/ independent candidates can
participate but only parties can stand list)

25
-people have 2 votes: for one of their constituency’s independent candidates and for a
territorial list
- 7 territorial list of a party → national (country-) list of the party
→ 152 mandates from parties’ lists (parties having min 5% of votes) in proportion with the
gained votes
+ 58 mandates from fragmented votes: votes cast for candidates not getting into Parliament →
for parties getting into Parliament

Plebiscite:
if 200 thousands people initiated it → national plebiscite must be held (ordered by the
Parliament) → decisive for the Parliament
if 1/3 of the MPs, the government or 100 thousands people initiated it → facultative plebiscite
→ not necessarily decisive
successful plebiscite: if more than 50% of those who votes or ¼ of people with suffrage gave
the same answer
local plebiscites can be facultative or compulsory (can be decisive or only opinion-
expressing)
Nov. 1898, “4-yes plebiscite” → successful
1990, plebiscite about the method of the election of President → invalid (only14% of people
voted)
Nov. 1997, plebiscite about the NATO-membership → successful
Popular initiation:
- to make the Parliament discussing some matters, questions
- min 50 thousands people signing a popular initiation → Parliament must discuss the raised
question

Self-governments
- compulsory tasks:
- to provide drinkable water
- to provide kindergarten and elementary school education
- basic health care and basic social provision
- public lighting
- to run the local public roads and public cemetery
- to guarantee the rights of national and ethnical minorities
- optional tasks:
- settlement planning / improvement
- environmental protection
- local public transportation
- sewage system and canalisation
Institutions, working
- autonomy of decision making; financial autonomy; organisational autonomy; right of
petition
- body of self-governmental representatives: most important decisions → resolutions
(határozat), decrees (rendelet)
- mayor (polgármester); self-governmental committees (bizottságok); notary (jegyző)
- representatives of self-governments by electors
- territorial division: (village, city, municipality, capital city, districts; counties + minority self-
governments)

26
 Social market-economy
- seeks a middle path between socialism and capitalism (a mixed economy)
- high rate of economic growth, low inflation, low levels of unemployment
- good working conditions, public welfare and public services by using state intervention.
- development of Europe based on balanced economic growth and price stability
- highly competitive social market economy
- aiming at full employment and social progress
- high level of protection and improvement of the quality of environment
- promoting scientific and technological advance

Political institutions, ideas, ideologies

1) Ancient state structures (Athens, Sparta, Rome – principate)
a) Athens
i) only Athenian citizens had political rights
(1) both of their parents were born in Athens
(2) aristocracy
(3) merchants, craftsmen, peasants – had right to vote from the 5th century
(4) other groups:
(a) slaves: owned by master, could be freed
(b) metics (aliens): no political rights, no land, lived in the neighbourhood of Athens
ii) Kingdom – aristocratic republic – Athenian democracy
iii) System of Athenian democracy
(1) Power of Assembly: passed laws, elected officials, debated issues
(2) Power of the Council of 500 (boule): chosen by drawing lots, carried out the decisions
of Assembly, proposed laws, members paid for the office
(3) Power of Jury: judicial power
(4) Power of the 9 Archons: from the Assembly the members are elected
(5) Power of Areopagos: assembly of former archons, its power had been reduced
(6) Power of Strategos: 10/year, elected, best known: Pericles
b) Sparta
(1) citizens: descended from the Dorian invaders
(2) perioeci (neighbour): free, no citizenship
(3) helots: bottom of the society
ii) 2 ceremonial kings - military leader, religious leader
iii) ephors (overseers) (5): elected by the assembly, controlled the government for 1 year,
huge power (f. ex: prohibition of use of silver and gold)
iv) Assembly: elected by citizens, they have to be 30 years old at least
v) Council of Elders (Gerusia) (28): proposed laws
c) Roman Principate
i) stated by Octavianus in 27BC
ii) hidden sole power
(1) power based on the army
(2) had many republican offices – ruled by them
(a) consul: head of the executive power
(b) popular tribune: he became invincible, had veto right
(c) censor: he appointed his supporters senators
(d) pontifex maximus: religious leader

27
 (e) supported the traditions of the old Republic
(f) new office: praetorian guard (body guard)
(i) to avoid the uprisings of military leaders
iii) he became Augustus (son of God) and princeps (first citizen)
2) Establishments of Feudal states and their characteristics in Medieval Europe
a) estate: a group of feudal society formed by individuals of the same privileges, same economic
position and interests who stand up collectively for their interests
(1) they cooperated in local governments and in the estates assembly
ii) France: clergy, nobility, 3rd estate
iii) England: lords (high nobility and high priests), nobles, citizens
iv) 13th century in West, 15th century in East
b) establishment of feudal monarchies where the power of the king decreased because he
shared power with the feudal assembly. This is called feudal dualism.
i) establishment of feudal states
(1) changes: agricultural revolution (breast harness, open field system, iron-shared
heavy plough, harrow) in the 11th-12th century
(2) increasing population
(a) surplus – trade emerged
(b) use of currency
(3) towns evolved
(4) peasants could pay taxes in cash, right to move, hereditary lands, they belong to the
landlord
(5) cities gained more independence – they paid tax to the king
c) feudal system became the state administration
i) royal power was as great as the sum of the power of the vassals
(1) problems: rulers couldn’t rely on only their vassals
(2) feudal connections were international
(a) for example the English king had lands in France
(3) due to the more incomes kings could develop their own administration
(a) role of writing increased
(b) mercenaries
(i) gradually substitutes banderia
(4) local oligarchs opposed the increasing royal power
(a) alliances
(5) THESE CAUSED THE ESTABLISHMENT OF FEUDAL STATE
d) Feudal state
i) division of power between the king and the assembly
(1) the balance was always changing
(2) king is the head of the system
(3) the ratio of power holders increased to 5-7%
ii) king could make alliances with estates to reduce the power of another estate
e) France: one estate had one vote
French Estates General

1st estate 2nd estate 3rd estate

representatives of the clergy representatives of nobility representatives of common

28
 people

i) Carolingians died out

(1) Capetians followed them between 987 and 1328
(2) France was disintegrated
(a) Capetians gradually reunited her
(3) Philip Augustus II (1180-1223)
(a) took away the lands of the English king on France (1202: John, the Lackland)
(b) defeated Albigenses in Southern France
(c) base of power: lower layers, church
(d) bourgeoise governed
(4) Louis IX (1226-1270)
(a) minted money
(i) didn’t allow local minting
(b) royal courts
(c) mercenaries
(5) Philip IV (the Fair) (1285-1314)
(a) turned against the church
(b) 1302: summoned the estates general
(i) supported the king
1. gained Lille in the Flanders
2. pope was defeated
a. Avignon Captivity (1309-1377)
3. Knights Templar was suppressed
f) England
i) 1066: William, the Conqueror defeated the Anglo-Saxons at Hastings
(1) establishment of a feudal state
(2) suppressed the Anglo-Saxons
(3) oath to the king
ii) Henry I (1100-1135) established the Exchequer
(1) financial department
(2) jurisdiction – travelling judges
iii) Henry II (1154-1189)
(1) establishment of a strong army
(2) expanded jurisdiction – over church – Constitution of Clarendon in 1164
(a) he could judge upon secular dignities
(b) Thomas Beckett (Archbishop of Canterbury) turned against him
(i) he was killed
iv) 13th century: knights and city dwellers became more influential – role in politics
v) 1215: Magna Charta Libertatum
(1) Lords forced the king to issue it
(2) right of resistance to the Lords
(3) the king couldn’t raise the taxes only with the consent of the council
(4) knights couldn’t be arrested without trial
vi) 1264: Simon de Monford’s uprising because the magna Charta wasn’t obeyed
(1) he summoned an assembly in 1265
(a) lords, nobility, bourgeoise
(b) 1295: Edward I summoned the Parliament – Model parliament

29
 KING

English parliament

Upper house (from Tudor Era) by Lower House (from Tudor era) by
birth election

Upper Clergy (king Lords (king Representatives of Representatives of

appointed) appointed) the county (2-2) towns (2-2)

g) Hungary
i) feudal state evolved later
ii) second part of the 13th century – local landlords became very powerful
iii) attempts to balance their power
(1) 1277: assembly of Rákos
(a) made László IV restore order
(2) 1298: Andrew III summoned an assembly
(a) nobles gained more power
iv) 14-15th century
(1) use of currency, trade
(2) noble counties became more important than royal counties
(3) development of towns started
(4) 1351: Louis’ Laws – equality within an estate
v) Sigismund of Luxemburg
(1) Western ruler
(a) supported the establishment of feudal estates
(b) supported cities to take part in politics
(i) 1405: assembly where the representatives of the towns were invited as well
vi) 1439: first feudal assembly with 4 estates
(1) Against Albert of Habsburg who didn’t keep his promises
vii) 1439-1458: baron leagues were struggling
viii) Matthias Corvinus
(1) at first he had to be accepted by the assembly but later he started centralising
(2) from 1482: he turns back to the assembly in order to accept John Corvin as heir
ix) Jagelló-age
(1) feudal anarchy
(2) power in the hands of barons
(3) Tripartitum by Werbőczy in 1514
(a) common law
(4) from 1526: feudal dualism within the Habsburg Empire
x) Hungarian diet
(1) bicameral
(a) upper house: upper nobility, barons, upper clergy, main dignities
(i) by invitation
(b) lower house: lower clergy, country representatives, representatives of royal free
towns
(i) representation
3) Humanism and renaissance

30
 a) rich people supported artists –Maecenas
i) showed their power
b) Humanism (14th-15th centuries)
i) people have to enjoy their life
(1) they couldn’t before, because it was said that they have hard lives to have a joyful life
after their death
ii) human centred
iii) turn to ancient Rome and Hellas
iv) in Hungary during the reign of Matthias Corvinus
v) Dante: Divine Comedy, Boccaccio: Decameron
c) Renaissance
i) revision of Antic culture
(1) affected all fields of life
(2) use of coloumns again
(3) do not reject God
ii) oil paintings, anatomy, realistic
iii) palaces
iv) polyhistors - experts of many fields of arts and sciences
v) Leonardo da Vinci: Mona Lisa, Michelangelo: Statue of David, Bramante: St. Peter’s
Basilica
4) Enlightened absolutism and its Hungarian representatives
a) monarchs made reforms to boost economy in West
i) f. ex: Louis XIV appointed Turgot
(1) taxed nobility, loosened the restrictions of trade
(a) due to the pressure of nobility he failed
ii) in East monarch needed reforms to keep their countries’ importance
(1) economic reforms
(a) no internal tariff zones, supported industry and education, taxation of nobility
(b) no political change
(c) usually monarch had no support from the society
(i) they were inspired by enlightened scholars
(ii) ruler is the servant of the country, reduction of church influence
(iii) absolutistic rule
(2) present in: Portugal, some parts of Italia, Denmark, Russia, Prussia, Habsburg Empire
b) Hungarian representatives:
i) Maria Theresa (1740-1780)
(1) became empress due to the Pragmatic Sanction
(a) Austrian War of Succession (1740-48) - Prussia, France, Bavaria vs Austria
(i) lost Silesia – raw materials
(b) Seven Years’ War (1756-63)
(i) tried to gain back Silesia - no success
(ii) Hungary supported – noble insurrection
(2) measures favouring Hungary: awards to Hungarian nobles (St. Stephen Order), the
Holy Right hand was brought back to Hungary, Military Academy
(3) Decrees: permanent army – very expensive, wanted cheaper state, in Bohemia and
Austria nobility was taxed,
(4) 1751: the Hungarian diet refused the taxation of nobility
(5) 1754: System of Dual Tariffs

31
 (a) custom decree
(b) developed agriculture
(6) 1767: Urbura: decree which maximised the services of serfs
(a) 1 day plough corvée
(b) 2 days manual corvée
(7) 1777: Ratio Educationis: educational decree
(a) state control over education to educate loyal citizens
(b) modernisation
(c) syllabus
ii) Joseph II (1780-90)
(1) had many reform requests before his succession
(a) travelled a lot in the Empire
(b) wasn’t crowned as King of Hungary – didn’t respect the rights of the estates
(c) wanted an unified empire with high living standards
(d) 6000 decrees in 10 years
(i) impossible to follow them
(2) 1781: Religious Decree: more religious freedom
(a) except Jews
(b) abandoned Carolina Resolutio
(c) everyone could take state office
(3) 1782: abolished monastic orders, except the ones which dealt with education or
health care
(a) abolished orders: Pauline Order, Carthusians, Camaldusians
(b) remaining orders: Cistercians Benedictines, Franciscans
(c) from the extra money he increased the wages of perish priests
(4) 1784: Language Decree: German became the official language of the Empire
(a) scandal in Hungary
(i) national identity – nationalism
(5) Peasant uprising in Transylvania in 1784 by Horea and Closca → Serf decree in 1785
(a) serfs could move and study an occupation
(6) abolished noble counties – 10 administrative districts (1785)
(a) leaders became royal intendant)
(7) census and registration of lands (1784, 1786)
(a) prepared to tax nobles
(i) scandal
(8) Council of Governor General moved to Buda in 1784
5) Theories of the 19th century
a) Liberalism
i) source: enlightenment
ii) civil liberties are the most important rights
iii) free competition on the market
iv) their ideal form of state is democracy with public representation
v) they don’t want the state to interfere to the life of citizens
vi) tolerance
vii) by the second half of the 19th century they could reach their goals
viii) John Stuart Mill
ix) base: upper bourgeoise, merchants
b) Nationalism

32
 i) ideology about the national feeling – nation is the link between people
ii) protects their language, culture, history, literature, music and traditions
(1) symbols: flag, coat of arms
iii) in the 19th century their goal was to form nation-states
iv) first emerged in the French Revolution
v) revolutions due to nationalism: Spain (1820), Portugal (1821), Italy (1821), Greece
(1821-29), France (1830), Poland (1831), revolutions of 1848
vi) branches
(1) Panslavism (unification of Slavs), Pangermanism (unification of Germans),
Irredentism (unification of all territories where a given people lives)
vii) colonisation
viii) in multinational empires (Austro-Hungarian Monarchy) nationalism caused tensions
c) Conservativism
i) origins: latin conservare
ii) first used by Chateubriand in 1819
iii) emerged after the French Revolution
(1) didn’t accept the loosening morale, anti-religious progresses, terror, quick changes
iv) goals: keeping the order and old values (family, religion) and institutions
v) wants to maintain hierarchy in the society
(1) people are not equal because we can distinguish them by their physical and mental
capabilities
vi) not very tolerant
(1) conserve social hierarchy
vii) Holy Alliance (1815): Alexander I (Russia), Frederick William III (Prussia), Francis I
(Austria)
viii) branches
(1) Anglo-Saxon: reforms
(2) Continental: against revolution, and changes
ix) in Britain: Tory party
(1) traditions, hierarchy, protection of local products
x) Edmund Burke, Clemens Metternich
d) Socialism
i) these movement wanted to soothe the negative effects of the industrial revolution
(1) bad living conditions, wages, working hours
ii) Utopian Socialist
(1) wanted to better the living conditions of the people
(a) restriction of competition, private property
(b) increased the role of state
(2) Saint Simon – closed communities
(a) no selfishness
(i) went bankrupt
(3) Robert Owen
(a) factory in Scotland
(i) profit wasn’t important
(ii) failed
iii) Marxism
(1) greatest influence among the socialist movement
(a) Carl Marx and Friedrich Engels

33
 (2) 1848. Communist Manifesto
(a) described history as the series of class struggles
(i) source of tensions: private property
1. private property made the society divide to classes
2. exploited-exploiter
(ii) Ancient Community – Slavery – Feudalism – Capitalism – Socialism –
Proletariat Dictatorship – Communism (no need for state)
(3) by the end of the century in West
(a) workers’ movements, Workers’ Parties, trade unions
(b) living conditions improved, higher wages
(i) revision of socialism: no revolution but democratic socialism
(4) Internationals: international cooperation of Socialist parties
(a) 1st International in 1864 in London
(b) 2nd International in 1889 in Paris
(i) 1904: congress of Amsterdam: dispute over radical Marxism and revision
1. centrists: between the 2 groups
2. radicals won
(5) in Russia
(a) tsardom : bad living conditions
(b) Russian Social Democratic Labour Party
e) Anarchism
i) wanted to get rid of the state
ii) terror, conspiracies
iii) in France, Russia, Spain
iv) leaders: Bakutin, Propotkin
f) Christian Socialism
i) Papal power diminished
ii) Leo XIII
(1) merged science with the church
(a) Rerum Novarum 1891
(i) start of Christian Socialism
(ii) emphasised the charity task of the church
(2) France, Austria
g) Emancipation
i) after the Industrial Revolution
ii) less children died
(1) more free time for women
(a) started to work in textile factory or as secretaries
iii) mass education (for women also)
iv) urbanisation resulted the diminishing importance of old values
v) Suffragettes: wanted equal rights
(1) 1893: New Zealand gave equal rights first
(2) in Europe they succeeded after WWI
(3) Emily Davison, Mrs. Pankhurst
h) Ideologies
i) Darwinism
(1) natural selection – only the stronger can survive
(2) life is struggle for existence

34
 (3) natural laws can be applied for society – social Darwinism
ii) Positivism
(1) August Conte
(a) the consequence of developing science and technology is improving living
conditions
iii) Irrationalism
(1) Schopenhauer
(a) people are controlled by irrational forces
(b) boredom, needs and pain are the elements of life
(c) solution: suicide but females prevent it
iv) Nietzsche
(1) old values can’t be applied anymore
(a) God died
(b) morality of crowd
(c) Übermensch theory
(i) only the superior an can get out of the morality of Crowd
v) Freud
(1) psychoanalysis – realised that many people suffer from mental problems (childhood
problems, sexual desires)
(a) therapy-talking
(b) bringing old memories to surface –subconscious
(c) Oedipus complex: fear of father – relations with mother
6) Views of Széchenyi and Kossuth, their programs for civil changes
a) between 1812-1825: no diet
b) 1830-1848: Age of reforms
i) how to reform the country?
ii) issues: taxation, tolls, society, Hungarian language
c) Széchenyi István
i) father Széchényi Ferenc (Hungarian National Museum), mother: Festetich Júlianna (her
brother Ferenc established Georgicon –economic school)
ii) Western-Hungarian baron family
iii) military career
iv) travelled a lot in Western Europe with Wesselényi
(1) England had the greatest impact on him
(a) urged civil changes
v) 1827: Casino - Pest
vi) 1830: Hitel
(1) noble privileges are outdated
(a) aviticity
(2) corveé is not efficient
(3) slow development without confrontation with Austria
(a) aristocrats should lead the country
vii) 1831: Világ
(1) economic arguments
(2) voluntary free redemption of serfdom
viii) 1833: Stádium
(1) people without title could buy land
ix) steam boats

35
 x) river regulations
xi) transportation
xii) Lánchíd 1839-49
xiii) Ein Blick 1859
(1) criticised the system
d) Kossuth Lajos
i) mid-noble
ii) Diet Reports
iii) Pesti Hírlap
(1) wrote down his opinion
(2) he was sacked because he was too radical
iv) wanted to abolish feudalism
(1) unification of interests
v) Védegylet 1844
vi) supported maritime trade and civil Hungary
vii) April Laws
viii) Leader of National Commitee of Defense (OHB)
ix) from 1849: emigration
x) 1867: Cassandra letter
(1) disagreed with Deák
xi) lost his citizenship due to Naturalisation Law (Honosítási törvény)

Széchenyi István Kossuth Lajos

calm, deliberate character emotional

books form of arguing articles

diet level of politics public

liberal aristocrats base liberal nobility, intellectuals

greater autonomy, opposing

cooperation, soft autonomy relations with Austria
with Austria

slowly, discussing it with the

speed of reforms quick
Royal Court

compulsory redemption of
voluntary redemption of
serfs serfdom with state
serfdom
compensation

one political nation,

tolerant nationalities
assimilation of nationalities

7) Nazi and Bolshevik ideologies

a) Nazism = national socialist movement
i) Nazi ideology: Mein Campf
ii) against social crisis, radical party

36
 iii) Hitler’s 25 point program: nation-state, improving living conditions, end of class
struggles, anti-capitalistic, anti-communism, self-determination
(1) later it was modified – gave up anti-capitalism
iv) great role of propaganda
v) racial theories, being part of a society, no individuals, anti-Semitism
(1) Nurnberg Laws 1935
(a) Jews were proclaimed inferior
(b) lost their citizenship
(c) prohibited interracial marriages
(2) Final Solution (Endlösung) – extermination of Jews
vi) burnt books which was foreign from Nazi ideology
vii) propaganda – Goebbels
viii) Lebensbrann – Germans need larger living space
ix) gigantic constructions – Albert Speer
(1) mainly in Berlin
b) Bolshevism
i) base: Marxism
(1) 1848: Communist Manifesto
(2) revolution – dictatorship of proletariat – end of state
ii) bad condition of workers
iii) Socialist wanted world revolution which starts in a developed country
(1) class struggles
(2) end of private property, end of the state itself
(3) want a humane society
iv) criticised because contradictory elements
(1) many assumptions
v) communist parties evolved from the radical part of Social Democratic parties
vi) evolved in Russia/USSR
(1) Lenin
(a) didn’t follow Marxism word by word
(b) representative of the working class
(c) wanted state without conflict
(d) promoted world revolution
(e) permanent revolution
(2) Stalin
(a) industrialisation
(b) planned economy – 5 Year Plans
(c) collectivisation (Colhoz, Sovhoz)
(d) personal cult

International conflicts and co-operations

1) Foreign policies of Sigismund of Luxemburg
a) the ruler of the Holy Roman Empire (1433-37), Bohemia (1419-37) and Hungary (1387-
1437)
b) fights against the Ottoman Empire
i) at first he was successful
(1) plundering, he thought it would scare them
(2) occupied Wallachia

37
 (a) Voivode Mircea was appointed
ii) 1396: battle of Nicopolis
(1) international army against the Turks
(a) Ottomans won
(b) Sigismund almost died
(c) end of chivalric military
iii) set up border castles and buffer states (Wallachia, Serbia, Bosnia)
c) Hussite War
i) 1419: Wenceslaus IV died (ruled between 1378-1419)
ii) Sigismund wanted to invade Bohemia
(1) German supporters
(2) Czech were divided
(a) nobles (calixtines) could accept him with conditions
(b) the rest (taborites) couldn’t
(3) 1420: Jan Žižka defeated him
iii) 4 points of Prague
(1) communion in both side
(2) free preaching of Hussite priests
(3) poverty of church
(4) if a member of the church had a major sin, he could be arrested
iv) 1433: church and calixtines made an agreement
(1) Provision of Prague
v) 1434: Battle of Lipony
(1) taborites lost
(2) Sigismund was accepted
(a) after his death nobility strengthened
d) Schism
i) 1378: end of Avignon captivity
(1) a counter-pope was elected in Avignon
ii) council of Pisa: a 3rd pope was elected
iii) synod of Konstanz (1414-1418)
(1) elected Martin V
(a) end of schism
(2) synod above the pope
2) Fights against the ottomans in the 14th-15th centuries
a) Louis, the Great
i) first Hungarian king who fought against them
(1) defeated them
(2) set up the system of Banates (Szörény, Bosnia)
b) Sigismund of Luxemburg
i) at first he was successful
(1) plundering, he thought it would scare them
(2) occupied Wallachia
(a) Voivode Mircea was appointed
ii) 1396: battle of Nicopolis
(1) international army against the Turks
(a) Ottomans won
(b) Sigismund almost died

38
 (c) end of chivalric military
iii) 1428: battle of Galambóc
(1) Turkish victory
(2) narrow escape for Sigismund
iv) set up border castles and buffer states (Wallachia, Serbia, Bosnia)
c) Wladislas of Jagello
i) 1442: battle of Gyulafehérvár
(1) victory, Hunyadi László emerged
ii) 1443: Long Campaign
(1) wanted to reach Edirne
(2) could reach Sofia only
(3) Ottomans were beaten several times
(4) 1444: peace of Edirne
(a) Serbia was taken back
iii) 10 November 1444: battle of Várna
th

(1) Wladislas died, and lost

d) László V
i) 1446-52 Hunyadi János – regent instead of László V
ii) 1448: Battle of Rigómező (Cosovo)
(1) lost battle
iii) 1456: Battle of Nándorfehérvár
(1) Dugovics Titus
(2) almost lost battle, Turkish ruler: Mehmed II
e) Mathias Corvinus
i) 1463: Serbian campaign - occupied Jajca
ii) 1474: Turkish raid to Várad
(1) counter attack in 1476: Szabács was taken
iii) 1479: battle of Kenyérmező
(1) István Báthori
(2) victory
iv) 1483: armistice between Hungary and Ottoman Empire for 5 years
(1) renewed later
3) End of Ottoman occupation in Hungary
a) 1683: siege of Vienna by the Turks
i) unsuccessful due to the new defensive system
ii) Kara Mustafa attacked with 120-150 000 troops
iii) relief troops by Jan Sobieski
b) establishment of the Holy Alliance in order to drive out Ottomans from Hungary in 1684
c) 1683: battle of Párkány
i) Habsburg victory – Esztergom was taken
ii) Innocent XI
(1) financial support
(2) made Louis XIV have truce with Leopold I
iii) 1686: Buda was taken by Charles of Lorraine and Maximilian Emanuel of Bavaria
(1) defended by Ali Abdurahman
(2) development at sieges: better canons, digging frontiers
iv) 1687: battle of Nagyharsány
(1) 2nd battle of Mohács – Habsburg victory

39
 (2) conquered Belgrade (Maximilian Emanuel), Ništ (Louis of Baden)
(a) it seemed that the Ottoman rule ended but Louis XIV attacked the Habsburgs
(i) he was scared that they became too powerful
(ii) best commanders were sent to West
1. Mustafa Köprülü – talented Ottoman grand vizier
a. reorganized the army
b. reoccupied the Balkans and Belgrade in 1690
c. 1691: battle of Szalánkemén
i. Mustafa Köprülü died
ii. very bloody battle
iii. European victory
(iii) battles caused huge harm from Hungary – destruction
(iv)1697: Ottomans on the Hungarian Plainland
1. Savoyai Jenő defeated them
a. battle of Zenta
d) 1699: Peace of Karlowitz (Karlóca)
i) Hungary became independent except Temesköz
ii) Habsburg oppression started
(1) Hungary wasn’t strong enough to gain independence by herself
e) Diploma Leopoldium
i) he didn’t unite Hungary and Transylvania
4) Freedom fight of Rákoczi and its international consequences
a) 1683: siege of Vienna by the Turks
i) unsuccessful
ii) 1684: establishment of the Holy Alliance (Austria, Poland and Venice)
iii) until 1699 (Peace of Karlóca) there were fights in Hungary
(1) destruction
iv) Hungary was liberated by the Habsburgs mainly, therefore Hungary was under Habsburg
control
(1) Leopold I
(a) Hungarians gave up the right of resistance from the Golden Bull and the right
of free king election in 1687 on the diet of Pozsony
v) Antonio Caraffa – massacre of Eperjes
(1) executed 24 nobles
vi) taxes were increased
(1) portio – food for soldiers, forspont- shelter for soldiers
vii) Commission of New Acquisition (Neoacquistico Comissio)
(1) 10% of the land must have been paid as ransom
(2) you needed documents to prove that it was your land
(a) forgery
viii) destruction of border fortresses (1702)
(1) Leopold was afraid that they can be used by Hungarians to resist
ix) because of Leopold’s policies an uprising started at Hegyalja in 1697
(1) Thököly’s officers organised it
(2) it was put down
(3) Bercsényi Miklós convinced Rákoczi Ferenc II to take part in 1700
(a) asked the help of Louis XIV (king of France) but his letter was caught and he
was sent to prison

40
 (i) he escaped and fled to Poland
(ii) an embassy (led by Esze Tamás) was sent to him
1. wanted another uprising
a. he accepted it
b. on the banner “Cum deo pro patria et libertate”
(iii) Spanish war of succession drove away the Habsburgs attention
1. Proclamation of Brezán in 1703
a. nobles and ignobles cooperated
b. Louis XIV sent money to support
(4) uprising started in Northern Hungary
(a) Károlyi Sándor joined the uprising
(i) he used to fight with Austrians
(b) Vetési Pátens in 1703
(i) peasants should work together with nobles and offered tax immunity to
peasants if they joined him
(c) autumn 1703: Eastern Hungary was taken
(i) Kuruc army was mainly cavalry
(d) battle of Höchstadt was won by Habsburgs against the French
(i) turn of the tide
1. Louis XIV gradually reduced the Hungarian support
(ii) Hungarians fought for better terms
(iii) Habsburgs could send more troops to Hungary
1. better technology
2. Hungary had outdated military equipment
(e) in 1704 Rákoczi became the Prince of Transylvania
(f) in 1705 on the diet of Szécsény he became the ruling prince of Hungary
(i) form of state: confederation
1. ruling prince
2. senate (24 members)
3. Chancellors’ Office
a. documentation
4. Economic Council
a. support for army
(g) 1705 Leopold I died – successor: Joseph I
(i) bad commander
(ii) Transylvania was taken and Kuruc could defend the country until 1708
(h) diet of Ónod
(i) equal share of taxation
(i) Habsburgs were deposed
(i) invited a Prussian prince – Frederick of Bandenburg
(j) autumn 1707 – Transylvania was lost
(k) 1708: battle of Trencsény: Habsburg victory
(l) 1710: battle of Romhány
(i) Transdanubian region was lost
(m) Rákoczi – negotiations with Russia – Károlyi Sándor became the supreme army
commander
(n) 1711: peace of Szatmár
(i) amnesty

41
 (ii) loyalty to the emperor
(iii) no independent Hungarian army
(iv)no absolutism
(v) diet
(vi)freedom of religion
(vii) accepted Tripartitum
(viii) cancelled the Commission of New Acquisition
(o) Rákoczi went exile
b) International events
i) 1703: France and Kuruc occupied Vienna
(1) later this alliance faded
ii) Rákoczi wanted international attention
(1) Latin Newspaper: Mercurius Verdicus
(2) negotiations with Swedes, Danes, Russians, Prussians, Turks and the Pope
(a) no material assistance
5) European revolutions of 1848 and the Hungarian freedom fight
a) Spring of Nations
i) through Europe
(1) due to nationalism and liberalism
(2) reason: bad production of foods, industrial crisis
(a) bad living conditions
(3) differences at who led the revolution and what the problems were in different nations
ii) Great Britain
(1) workers’ demonstration
(a) petition of Chartists – demonstration was dissolved
(i) Workers had representation – no revolution
iii) France
(1) industrial revolution – living conditions hadn’t started to improve yet
(2) free competition – bad for the poor ones
(3) Louis Philippe, wealthy aristocrats ↔ mid and small bourgeoise
(a) mid and small bourgeoise wanted the extension of suffrage
(i) it wasn’t accepted and a revolution broke out
1. 22nd of February – the government was defeated and Louis Philippe
fled to England
2. 24th February: Proclamation of the Republic
a. right to vote, right to work
b. national workshops – provided extra workplaces
c. bourgeoise and workers took part in governing
3. Elections
a. peasant superiority in terms of demographics but royalists and
republicans were in the Assembly
b. no workers’ representation
c. closed national workshops
i. uprising in June 1848
(ii) Constitution – great power to the President
1. elected by citizens
a. December 1848 – elected Louis Bonaparte
i. cousin of Napoleon

42
 ii. supported by rural voters and army
iv) Italy
(1) wanted constitution and Italian unity
(a) leader of the unification became the Sardinian-Piedmont Kingdom
(2) to get rid of Habsburg rule
(3) 1820s: Mazzini’s movements – radical
(4) March 1848: uprising against the Habsburgs in Northern Italy
(a) General Radeczky defeated the Kingdom of Piedmont
(i) Battle of Custozza July 1848
(5) February 1849 – chased away the Pope
(a) proclamation of the republic
(b) Piedmont attacked again
(i) she was defeated again - battle of Navarra in March 1849
(6) Revolution of Venice
(a) put down by the Austrians
(7) Revolution of Rome
(a) put down by Louis Bonaparte
v) German revolution
(1) liberal citizens started it
(a) wanted constitution, rights to people – in small and middle sized German
dukedoms
(b) scared of radical movements
(i) citizens got seats in the assemblies
1. they were removed quickly
(2) May 1848: Assembly of Constitution of Frankfurt
(a) only German dukes had power
(b) Habsburgs and Prussians didn’t acknowledged it
(c) dissolved in June 1849
(3) Prussians put down the revolution in Berlin
vi) Revolutions in the Habsburg Empire
(1) 13 March: revolution in Vienna by students, workers, citizens
(a) deposed Chancellor Clemens Metternich
(b) new Austrian government
(i) serf liberation on behalf of the emperor
1. popularity for Ferdinand V
2. radical movements – students refused the constitution and demonstrated
again
a. the Royal Court escaped to Innsbruck
3. Assembly of Constitution
a. representatives of the provinces of the Empire were summoned
i. Hungary didn’t attend
b. Federation
i. Bohemians supported it
ii. more independence for the provinces
c. Confederation
i. Austrians wanted it
ii. strong central government
(c) Hungarians, Italians, Bohemians wanted independence

43
 (i) Austrians cooperated (conservatives – radicals)
(ii) they could handle the crisis
1. victories in Italy
2. put down the uprising in Prague and Vienna by Windischgrätz
3. ordered Jelačić attack Hungary
a. he was defeated
i. Royal Court escaped to Olmütz
ii. revolution in Vienna 6th of October – put down on the 31st of
October
(iii) Ferdinand V was deposed – New Emperor became Franz Joseph I
1. new constitution – Constitution of Olmütz until 1851
vii) Hungarian revolution and freedom fight
(1) Diet of 1847-1848
(a) Kossuth – representative of Pest county
(i) leading figure of the opposition
(ii) criticised the administration
(iii) made an agreement with conservatives
1. it was accepted by the lower house
a. compulsory redemption of serfdom
b. equal share of taxation
c. establishment of a government which is responsible to the diet
d. civil rights
e. popular representation
f. constitution for the Hereditary Provinces
(b) the news about the revolution of Paris arrived on the 3rd of March
(i) on the 4th of March the bill was accepted by the Lower House
1. Upper House hadn’t yet
(ii) 13th of march – Viennese revolution
1. Upper House accepted Kossuth’s Bill – they were scared
(iii) on the 15th of March he went to Vienna to the emperor to have the bill signed
1. he refused to sign it
2. Palatine István mediated between the two sides
a. it was accepted – 17th of March – Batthány Lajos was appointed as
Prime Minister – first responsible government
i. Prime Minister – Batthány Lajos
ii. Minister of Finance – Kossuth Lajos
iii. Minister of Traffic and Public Work – Széchenyi István
iv. Minister of Justice – Deák Ferenc
v. Minister of Home Affairs- Szemere Bertalan
vi. Minister of Industry and Agriculture – Klauzál Gábor
vii. Minister of Education – Eötvös József
viii. Minister of Military – Mészáros Lázár
ix. Minister around the person of the King - Esterházy Pál
(c) revolution of Pest on the 15th of March
(i) by “Young Hungarians”
(ii) Café Pilvax→ Printer of Landerer→ printed the 12 points and the
Nemzeti Dal→ censors were removed→ at the National Museum they
read out these documents→ Council of Pest→ went to Buda→ talked

44
 with the Governor general→ freed Táncsics→ party in the national
Theatre
1. no violence, no chaos
2. set up the Commission of Public Safety
(d) April Laws (11th of April)
(i) abandoned feudal privileges
1. tithe, manorial court, corvée were abolished
(ii) compulsory redemption of serfdom
(iii) peasants owned serf plots
(iv)Hungary became a constitutional kingdom
1. government appointed by the ruler
2. popular representation
3. diet every year
4. census – education or wealth
5. union of Transylvania and Hungary
(e) Croatians raised army against Hungary with the help of Latour – Imperial
Military Minister (summer 1848)
(f) Serbians wanted independence
(i) 13th May – Diet of Karlowitz – declaration of Independence
(ii) 10th of May – Diet of Liptószentmiklós – Slovaks wanted autonomy
(iii) Diet in Balázsfalva – Romanians
(g) in May 10 Hungarian troops were ordered by the government
(i) Kossuth made a contract with the Hungarian National Bank
(2) Freedom Fight
(a) can be called war of protection as well
(i) not Hungary started the war
(b) no collective rights to nationalities
(c) 31st of August
(i) Vienna declared that the Ministry of Finance and Military were closed
(ii) it wasn’t accepted
(d) 9th September
(i) Hungarian messengers went to Austria – they weren’t accepted
(ii) Batthány resigned on the 10th of September
1. National Committee of Defense (OHB)
a. led by Kossuth
b. took the position of the Government
th
(e) 11 September
(i) Croatians crossed the Hungarian border
1. spontaneous popular riots against them
2. 15th Sept – grape tithe was abolished – peasants supported Hungary
(f) 29th September
(i) Battle of Pákozd
1. Móga defeated Jelačić who retreated to Austria
th
(g) 6 October
(i) Viennese uprising
1. wasn’t utilised
th
(h) 30 October
(i) battle of Schwehat: Windischgrätz defeated the Hungarians

45
(i) in December Görgey became the commander in chief instead of Móga
(i) avoided battles in order to train troops
(ii) factories of Buda-Pest were dismantled and moved to Debrecen and
Nagyvárad
(j) 2nd December: Ferdinand V was deposed – Franz Joseph became the new
emperor (until 1916)
(k) 4th January 1849: Windischgrätz entered to Buda-Pest
(i) Görgey went to North – military manoeuvre
1. drove away Windischgrätz from December
2. many officers left the army
3. 5th Jan – Proclamation of Vác – oath to him
a. lawful fight
b. army was getting stronger
4. crossed the Strait of Branyiszkó (5th of February 1849)
a. victory
b. went to Debrecen
5. Görgey was deposed – Dembinski
a. Polish veteran
b. couldn’t speak Hungarian –problems with officers
6. 26-27th February: battle of Kápolna
a. Windischgrätz defeated Dembinski
i. officers were dissatisfied with him
ii. Windischgrätz sent a message to Olmütz that the Hungarians
were broken→ he was very wrong
iii. Görgey became the commander again
7. Spring Campaign – crushed Austria
a. 2nd April: Hatvan
b. 4th April: Tápióbicske
c. 6th April: Isaszeg
d. 8th April: Pest
e. 10th April: Vác
f. 19th April: Nagysalló
g. 22nd April: Komárom
i. all won by Hungary
ii. Windischgrätz was deposed
(l) 2 ideas in Hungarian poliics
(i) Moderates by Batthány
1. April Laws
2. negotiations
(ii) Radicals by Kossuth
1. independence
(iii) 14th April 1849: disenthronement of Habsburgs
1. in the Great Church of Debrecen
2. Kossuth became the regent
a. army took an oath to the regent
b. West didn’t support Hungary
c. nobility supported Kossuth
3. New Government – second responsible government of Hungary

46
 a. Prime Minister, Minister of Home Affairs – Szemere Bertalan
b. Minister of Foreign Affairs – Batthány Kázmér
c. Minister of Justice – Vukovics Sebő
d. Minister of Transportation – Csányi László
e. Minister of Religion and Education- Horváth Mihály
f. Minister of Finance – Duschek Ferenc
g. Minister of Military – Mészáros Lázár
(m) 1st May: Austria asked for Russian intervention
(i) 9th May: Russia launched her army
1. reason: violation of the Pragmatic Sanction
2. Holly Alliance
(n) nationalities realised that they were tools for Austria
(i) June 1849 – Romanians started to negotiate - Balcescu
1. 14th July – Reconciliation of Hungarians and Romanians
a. collective rights were given
2. 16th July – agreement with Serbians
a. Szeged – Nationality Law – 28th July
i. no autonomy for them, but everything else
(o) Transylvania
(i) Imperial army led by Puchner – opposed the Hungarian government
1. attacked Hungarians from South
2. armed Wallachian peasants
(ii) 17th November – reached Kolozsvár
(iii) Sackler uprising defended Debrecen from the attack
(iv)29th November: Józef Bem was appointed as commander in Transylvania
1. military veteran – Polish uprising
(v) by March 1849 led out Austrians and Russians from Transylvania
1. became hinterland
(p) End of the Freedom fight
(i) Paskhievich – Russian general – 200 000 troops
1. crushed Bem in Transylvania
a. 29th July – battle of Segesvár
(ii) Kossuth-Görgey tension
1. Görgey – Komárom Plan – block at Komárom
2. Kossuth – ordered Görgey to Szeged
3. 11th July- Battle of Komárom – Austrian victory
a. new Austrian leader: Haynau
4. 9th August – battle of Temesvár
a. Bem gave up
5. Kossuth resigned and escaped to Turkey
6. 13th August – capitulation of Világos to Russia
(q) Reprisals
(i) executions
(ii) 6th of October – 13 generals at Arad and Batthány in Pest
6) The Second World War and Hungary
a) 1932-36: shift towards Germany and Italy - Gömbös
i) Roman Protocol 1934
(1) Austria, Hungary, Italy

47
 ii) Hungary wanted peaceful revision
b) First Vienna Award in November 1938
i) Ruthinia, Part of upper Hungary were taken back
c) Teleki Pál (15th February 1939 – 3rd April 1941)
i) armed neutrality
ii) Anti-Komintern Pact
iii) Second Anti-Semitic law
iv) banned the Arrow-Cross Party
(1) foresaw the problems of revision
v) gave shelter to Polish officers
(1) against German will
(2) 1940: Romania’s position weakened
(a) Second Vienna Award in August 1940
(i) Sacler Region, Northern Transylvania
(ii) in return Germans demanded the release of Szálasi
(iii) Volksbund – Germany political representation
vi) Hungary and Romania joined the Tripartite Act in 1940
(1) Yugoslavia turned against Hitler
(2) 1940: Hungary signed an Eternal Friendship Treaty with Yugoslavia
(a) Hungary broke it as soon as Croatia declared independence
(i) Voivodina, Bácska, Banate were taken back
(b) Teleki committed suicide
(c) Massacre of Novi Sad in 1942
vii) Bárdossy László became the new Prime Minister (1941-42)
(1) Stalin wanted good relations with Hungary
(2) bombardment of Kassa – we don’t know who bombarded
(a) declared war on the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics on the 26th of June in
1941 – Werth Henrik supported the attack (commander)
(i) Hitler didn’t demand it
(ii) stopped at Moscow in the end of 1941
1. new commander (Szombathelyi Ferenc) became cautious
(iii) Kárpát Units
1. occupational tasks
(iv)Third Anti Semitic Law: deprived Jews of their civil rights
(v) in 1943 an other Hungarian army was sent to the front
1. Hitler demanded his allies participate as the momentum halted
(3) Bárdossy was dismissed – too loyal to Germany
(a) new Prime Minister: Kállay Miklós
(i) swing policy
(b) negotiations with West in Turkey
(i) no result
(4) Hungary declared war on the US and the UK
(5) Opposition in Hungary
(a) Népszava Christmas edition in 1941
(b) Hungarian Historical Committee
(c) mass demonstrations
viii) Occupation of Hungary by Germany – Operation Margareta – March 1944
(1) intensifying anti Semitic measures

48
 (2) no opposition
(3) deportations
(a) Yellow Star
(4) dismissed Kállay
(a) Sztójai Döme became the Prime Minister – former ambassador in Berlin
(b) Horthy remained regent
(i) in June he suspended deportation
(ii) he dismissed Sztóyai – Lakatos Géza was appointed
(c) 26th Sept 1944: Battonya – first settlement occupied by the Soviets
(d) 15th October 1944: Horthy broadcasted the quitting of war to minimise human
losses, Germany had already lost the war, and Germany violated treaties
(i) not successful
(ii) Germans were paying attention
1. Veesemayer – German leader of Hungary
(e) Germans appointed Szálasi as Leader of the Nation/ National Leader
(i) President + Prime Minister
(ii) deporations
ix) Losses
(1) 800-900 000 captives
(2) 150-200 000 died
(3) 200 000 civil losses
x) Peace negotiations with the USSR
(1) armistice
(2) Provisional Government was set up in Debrecen
7) Revolution of 1956 and its international background
8) Cold War
i) strains:
(1) arrangements about the occupation zones
(2) Warsaw Uprising
(a) communist government in Lublin (Stalin’s support)
(3) Potsdam conference
(a) dispute over reparation
(b) issue of lend lease
(4) Churchill’s Fulton Speech in 1946
(5) Stalinisation in the Eastern Block
(a) ended in 1948
ii) Cold War: there were no battles between the belligerent parties
(1) USA vs. USSR
(2) ideological conflict
(3) containment policy
(4) Stalin advanced to West
(a) Percentage Agreement: control over East European countries with the help of the
Allied Control Commission
(5) weak UK
iii) Truman Doctrine: nations must decide upon their own fate
(1) Turkey, Greece, Iran, German issue
iv) Cominform: established by Stalin to counter-balance the Truman Doctrine
v) Marshall Plan (5th June 1947)

49
 (1) economic aid for recovery
(2) Eastern Block didn’t accept it (client states of the Soviet Union)
(3) West recovered quickly → increasing gap between East and West
vi) 1949: Comecon
(1) to counter-balance the Marshall Plan
(a) stand up to the Western development
West East

1947: Truman Doctrine ↔ Cominform

Marshall Plan ↔ Comecon

1949: NATO ↔ 1955: Warsaw Pact

capitalism ↔ Communism

i) German question
(1) 4 occupation zones: UK, US, France, USSR
(2) Bizonia: US, UK
(3) Trizonia: US, UK, France
(4) Berlin Conflict
(a) Stalin closed communication lines in Berlin – wanted concessions
(i) West fed Berlin with the help of airlift
(ii) Stalin had to end the blockade – humiliation
(b) 1949: BDR (West Germany), DDR (East Germany)
(c) 2nd Berlin Crisis→ Berlin Wall erected in 1962
b) Hot Wars in the Third World
i) India
(1) independence movement of Gandhi
(a) British promised independence as well
(b) 1947: Declaration of Independence
(c) Nehru: leader of India
(d) split to three: Pakistan, India, Bangladesh
(i) religious conflicts
1. Gandhi was killed
ii) China
(1) Mao↔ Chang Kai Shek
(2) communist ↔ nationalist
(3) 1949: Mao won – People’s republic of China
(4) Taiwan: Republic of China by Chang Kai Shek
iii) Korea
(1) 2 occupation zones
(a) North Communist
(b) South Capitalists
(2) 1950: North attacked South
(a) counter attack, UN assistance
(b) 1953: armistice
iv) Palestine
(1) British peace was according to mandated territories

50
 (2) Arab-Israeli Conflict
(a) British couldn’t handle it
(i) withdrawal in 1948
(b) state of Israel was proclaimed – Ben Gurion
(i) 1st Arab-Israeli war
1. Iraq, Egypt, Syria ↔ Israel
a. Israel won
b. Soviet support
(c) after 1947 many Jews moved to Palestine
(d) young officials expelled King Faruk in Egypt
(i) leader: Nasser
1. Panarabism, against British, social reforms
(e) 1956: 2nd Arab-Israeli war
(i) nationalised the Suez canal
1. Israel, France, Britain ↔ Egypt
2. USA requested withdrawal
3. Khrushchev threatened to intervene
a. deal: USA wouldn’t intervene and USSR wouldn’t intervene in Egypt
(f) 1967: 3rd Arab-Israeli War
(i) 6 days war Israel was provoked
1. occupied the Sinai Peninsula
2. Nasser resigned but was called back
(g) 1973: Egypt lost again
(i) Peace of Camp David
1. signed by Begin (Israel)- Sadat (Egypt)
(ii) PLO: Palestinian Liberation Organisation
1. terror attacks
2. oil weapon
v) Non-aligned movement
(1) Conference of Bandung 1955
(a) 10 points
(b) national independence
(i) newly independent countries
(c) don’t want to take part in the Cold War
c) Thaw (1953-1958)
i) Stalin died – power struggle – Khrushchev became the new first secretary
(1) dealt with internal issues (1953: Berlin, 1956: Hungary)
(2) better relations with the US
ii) A-bomb USA 1945 USSR 1949
iii) H-bomb: US 1952 USSR 1953
iv) USA President: Eisenhower
v) Vienna State Treaty with Austria/ Belvedere Treaty
(1) 1955 – official end of the World War for Austria
(2) became a neutral country
(3) couldn’t agree on Germany
(a) occupation of Germany ended officially
vi) Geneva Conference on Korea and Indo-China (1954)
(1) exchange of prisoners of war

51
 (2) only armistice
(3) French Vietnam conflict: Dien Bien Phu victory
vii) International Atomic Energy Authority (1957)
(1) disarmament
viii) Destalinisation of the USSR
(1) 1956: Khrushchev’s speech at the 20th party congress
(a) not to follow Stalinism: no purges, torturing, labour camps, personal cult
(b) peaceful coexistence, different roads to socialism
(c) wanted collective leadership: first secretary+ prime minister
(2) Domino Theory: one country leaves the the communist block then others would
follow
(3) Sino-Soviet split: China vs USSR
d) Freeze (1958-1963)
i) worsening relations again
ii) arms race
(1) missiles ICBMs
(2) 2nd Berlin Crisis
iii) Cuba
(1) Fidel Castro seized power in 1959
(a) revolution against the Bautista Regime
(b) anti-American
(c) USSR launched missile pads in Cuba
(d) 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis
(i) danger of a nuclear war
iv) 1964: Khrushchev was fired – replaced by Leonid Brezhnev (1964-1982)
e) Detente (1963-1979)
i) to avoid hot war – Hot Line – telephone connection between the US President and the
First secretary of the USSR
ii) Brezhnev – Johnson
iii) Partial Test ban Treaty (1963)
(1) banned the testing of nuclear weapons – France, China didn’t sign it
iv) Ostpolitik 1969
(1) West Germany improved relations with the Eastern Block
(a) Willy Brandt
(2) Basic Treaty 1972
(a) both Germany jointed the UN
v) Helsinki Conference 1975
(1) Eastern Block accepted the human rights
vi) SALT 1 1972
(1) Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty
(a) SBLM – submarine ballistic missiles
(b) ICBM – intercontinental ballistic missiles
(i) numerical reduction
vii) SALT 2 1979
(1) quality reduction of weapons
viii) Vietnam war
(1) North (Ho Shi Minh) vs South (Thieu)
(2) guerrilla fights

52
 (3) US army couldn’t handle it
(4) Tet offensive - 1969
(a) tie
(b) first broadcasted war – protests
(5) 1972 – US retreated
(6) 1975 - Vietnam was united
f) Little Cold War
i) Soviets developed traditional weapons
(1) gained influence in Ethiopia, Angola
ii) occupied Afghanistan
(1) wanted Socialism there
(2) USA intervened
(a) partisan warfare
(3) close to oil fields
(4) Soviets left in 1988
iii) in Iran Islamic Republic was proclaimed
(1) Ayatollah Khomeini
(2) anti-American
(3) Sah Pahlari didn’t obey Islam traditions
iv) Carter Doctrine: defend of oil fields, even with military help
g) Second Vatican Synod (1962-65)
i) cease tension in the Cold War
(1) Pope John XXIII
h) Technology competition
i) Pershin 2 (USA) – SS20 (USSR)
ii) COCOM list
(1) didn’t solve some weapons in the Eastern Block
(2) shopping tourism
(3) decline of the socialist states
i) 1968: Prague Spring
i) Czechoslovakian reforms – communism with human face
(1) Western movies, no censorship
(2) Alexander Dubček
(3) Brezhnev Doctrine: theory of limited sovereignty – intervention if a communist
country wants to shift to capitalism
ii) Warsaw Pact countries put it down on the 20th August 1968
(1) USSR, Poland, Bulgaria, Hungary, East Germany
(2) Romania didn’t join
j) 1980s – economic decline in the Eastern Block
i) indebted, shortages
ii) Poland – opposition
(1) Solidarity (Lech Walesa) - workers’ trade union
(a) Jaruzesky – military emergency government 1981
iii) Poland and Hungary took loans for arms race and to increase living standards
(1) indebted
(2) the communist system started to fall apart
(3) full employment – inefficient
(a) no market

53
iv) Berlin Wall collapsed
v) Romania
(1) Ceausescu paid back the loans
(2) resisted Soviets
(3) against nationalities
(4) extremely poor living standards
(5) 1989- Ceausescu was executed
vi) Czechoslovakia
(1) Havel, Milar Kundera – opposition – Velvet Revolution – mass rally
vii) President Reagan – Star War
(1) Cold War in the space
(a) USSR couldn’t complete
(b) on the expense of the living standards
(2) Gorbachev era
(3) 1980: Moscow Olympics (US boycott), 1984: LA Olympics (Eastern boycott)
viii) Mikhail Gorbachev
(1) perestroika – reconstruction of communism
(a) more efficiency, catching up with Western Europe
(b) failed
(2) glasnost
(a) opening to West
(3) acknowledged the failure of the system
(4) reforms started in the Eastern Block
(5) 1989: Bush Sr. and Gorbachev agreed on the change of regime in Malta
ix) Yugoslavia
(1) Milosevic
(a) fell apart
(b) Balkan war
(i) ethnic problems
(2) Tito was the only strong leader
x) 1991: USSR fell apart
(1) Commonwealth of Independent States
xi) 1992: Czechoslovakia fell apart
xii) results of the change of regime
(1) unemployment, privatisation, multinational firms
(2) in 1991 the Comecon and the Warsaw Pact were disbanded
(3) Soviet troops left the satellite states

54